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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Proposals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Proposals </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Proposals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bomb_design_concepts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bomb_design_concepts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Bomb design concepts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bomb_design_concepts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Organization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Organization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Organization </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Organization-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Organization subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Organization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Manhattan_District" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Manhattan_District"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Manhattan District </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Manhattan_District-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military_Policy_Committee" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military_Policy_Committee"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Military Policy Committee </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military_Policy_Committee-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Collaboration_with_the_United_Kingdom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Collaboration_with_the_United_Kingdom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Collaboration with the United Kingdom </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Collaboration_with_the_United_Kingdom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Project_sites" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Project_sites"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Project sites </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Project_sites-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Project sites subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Project_sites-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Oak_Ridge" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oak_Ridge"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Oak Ridge </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oak_Ridge-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Los_Alamos" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Los_Alamos"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Los Alamos </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Los_Alamos-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chicago" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chicago"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Chicago </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chicago-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hanford" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hanford"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Hanford </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hanford-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Canadian_sites" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Canadian_sites"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Canadian sites </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Canadian_sites-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-British_Columbia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#British_Columbia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5.1 British Columbia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-British_Columbia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ontario" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ontario"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5.2 Ontario </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ontario-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Northwest_Territories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Northwest_Territories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5.3 Northwest Territories </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Northwest_Territories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Heavy_water_sites" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Heavy_water_sites"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.6 Heavy water sites </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Heavy_water_sites-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Uranium" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Uranium"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Uranium </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Uranium-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Uranium subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Uranium-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ore" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ore"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Ore </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ore-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Isotope_separation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Isotope_separation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Isotope separation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Isotope_separation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Centrifuges" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Centrifuges"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.1 Centrifuges </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Centrifuges-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electromagnetic_separation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electromagnetic_separation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.2 Electromagnetic separation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electromagnetic_separation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gaseous_diffusion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gaseous_diffusion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.3 Gaseous diffusion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gaseous_diffusion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Thermal_diffusion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thermal_diffusion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.4 Thermal diffusion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thermal_diffusion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plutonium" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plutonium"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Plutonium </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Plutonium-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Plutonium subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Plutonium-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-X-10_Graphite_Reactor" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#X-10_Graphite_Reactor"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 X-10 Graphite Reactor </div> </a> <ul id="toc-X-10_Graphite_Reactor-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hanford_reactors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hanford_reactors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Hanford reactors </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hanford_reactors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Separation_process" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Separation_process"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Separation process </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Separation_process-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Weapon_design" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Weapon_design"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Weapon design </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Weapon_design-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trinity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trinity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5 Trinity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trinity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Personnel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personnel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Personnel </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Personnel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Secrecy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Secrecy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Secrecy </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Secrecy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Secrecy subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Secrecy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Censorship" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Censorship"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Censorship </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Censorship-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Soviet_spies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Soviet_spies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Soviet spies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Soviet_spies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Foreign_intelligence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foreign_intelligence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Foreign intelligence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Foreign_intelligence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Preparations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Preparations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Preparations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Preparations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bombings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bombings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2 Bombings </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bombings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-After_the_war" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#After_the_war"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 After the war </div> </a> <ul id="toc-After_the_war-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cost" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cost"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Cost </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cost-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Legacy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 17 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Technical_histories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Technical_histories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 17.1 Technical histories </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Technical_histories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Participant_accounts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Participant_accounts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 17.2 Participant accounts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Participant_accounts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 18 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Manhattan Project</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 79 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-79" aria-hidden="true" > 79 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhattan-projek" title="Manhattan-projek – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Manhattan-projek" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B4%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B9_%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%86" title="مشروع مانهاتن – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مشروع مانهاتن" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proyeutu_Manhattan" title="Proyeutu Manhattan – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Proyeutu Manhattan" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhetten_layih%C9%99si" title="Manhetten layihəsi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Manhetten layihəsi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proy%C3%A9k_Manhattan" title="Proyék Manhattan – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Proyék Manhattan" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Bali</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AA" title="ম্যানহাটন প্রকল্প – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ম্যানহাটন প্রকল্প" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%85%D1%8D%D1%82%D1%8D%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%96_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82" title="Манхэтэнскі праект – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Манхэтэнскі праект" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82_%E2%80%9E%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8A%D0%BD%E2%80%9C" title="Проект „Манхатън“ – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Проект „Манхатън“" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Projekt_%22Manhattan%22" title="Projekt "Manhattan" – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Projekt "Manhattan"" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raktres_Manhattan" title="Raktres Manhattan – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Raktres Manhattan" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Projecte_Manhattan" title="Projecte Manhattan – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Projecte Manhattan" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Projekt_Manhattan" title="Projekt Manhattan – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Projekt Manhattan" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prosiect_Manhattan" title="Prosiect Manhattan – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Prosiect Manhattan" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Manhattan Project" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhattan-Projekt" title="Manhattan-Projekt – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Manhattan-Projekt" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhattani_projekt" title="Manhattani projekt – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Manhattani projekt" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CF%81%CF%8C%CE%B3%CF%81%CE%B1%CE%BC%CE%BC%CE%B1_%CE%9C%CE%B1%CE%BD%CF%87%CE%AC%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%BD" title="Πρόγραμμα Μανχάταν – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Πρόγραμμα Μανχάταν" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proyecto_Manhattan" title="Proyecto Manhattan – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Proyecto Manhattan" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Projekto_Manhattan" title="Projekto Manhattan – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Projekto Manhattan" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhattan_Proiektua" title="Manhattan Proiektua – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Manhattan Proiektua" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%B1%D9%88%DA%98%D9%87_%D9%85%D9%86%D9%87%D8%AA%D9%86" title="پروژه منهتن – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پروژه منهتن" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Projet_Manhattan" title="Projet Manhattan – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Projet Manhattan" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tionscadal_Manhattan" title="Tionscadal Manhattan – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Tionscadal Manhattan" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proxecto_Manhattan" title="Proxecto Manhattan – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Proxecto Manhattan" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A7%A8%ED%95%B4%ED%8A%BC_%EA%B3%84%ED%9A%8D" title="맨해튼 계획 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="맨해튼 계획" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B0%D5%A5%D5%A9%D5%A5%D5%B6%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%AD%D5%A1%D5%A3%D5%AB%D5%AE" title="Մանհեթենյան նախագիծ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Մանհեթենյան նախագիծ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE" title="मैनहट्टन परियोजना – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="मैनहट्टन परियोजना" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Projekt_Manhattan" title="Projekt Manhattan – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Projekt Manhattan" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proyek_Manhattan" title="Proyek Manhattan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Proyek Manhattan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhattan-verkefni%C3%B0" title="Manhattan-verkefnið – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Manhattan-verkefnið" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progetto_Manhattan" title="Progetto Manhattan – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Progetto Manhattan" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%98_%D7%9E%D7%A0%D7%94%D7%98%D7%9F" title="פרויקט מנהטן – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פרויקט מנהטן" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%B0%E1%83%94%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%9E%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%94%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98" title="მანჰეტენის პროექტი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="მანჰეტენის პროექტი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%85%D1%8D%D1%82%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%B6%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8B" title="Манхэттен жобасы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Манхэттен жобасы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inceptum_Manhattense" title="Inceptum Manhattense – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Inceptum Manhattense" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhetenas_projekts" title="Manhetenas projekts – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Manhetenas projekts" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhatano_projektas" title="Manhatano projektas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Manhatano projektas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhattan_terv" title="Manhattan terv – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Manhattan terv" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82_%E2%80%9E%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%85%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BD%E2%80%9C" title="Проект „Менхетн“ – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Проект „Менхетн“" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BE%E0%B5%BB%E0%B4%B9%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%BB_%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%9C%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D" title="മാൻഹട്ടൻ പ്രോജക്റ്റ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="മാൻഹട്ടൻ പ്രോജക്റ്റ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%85%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%85%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA" title="मॅनहॅटन प्रकल्प – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="मॅनहॅटन प्रकल्प" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%B0%E1%83%94%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%A8_%E1%83%9E%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%94%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98" title="მანჰეტენიშ პროექტი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="მანჰეტენიშ პროექტი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%86%D9%87%D8%AA%D9%86_%D9%BE%D8%B1%D9%88%DA%98%D9%87" title="منهتن پروژه – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="منهتن پروژه" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Projek_Manhattan" title="Projek Manhattan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Projek Manhattan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%85%D1%8D%D1%82%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D1%82%D3%A9%D1%81%D3%A9%D0%BB" title="Манхэттены төсөл – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Манхэттены төсөл" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhattanproject" title="Manhattanproject – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Manhattanproject" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%9E%E3%83%B3%E3%83%8F%E3%83%83%E3%82%BF%E3%83%B3%E8%A8%88%E7%94%BB" title="マンハッタン計画 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="マンハッタン計画" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhattanprosjektet" title="Manhattanprosjektet – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Manhattanprosjektet" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhattanprosjektet" title="Manhattanprosjektet – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Manhattanprosjektet" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proj%C3%A8cte_Manhattan" title="Projècte Manhattan – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Projècte Manhattan" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AE%E0%A9%88%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%B9%E0%A9%88%E0%A8%9F%E0%A8%A8_%E0%A8%AA%E0%A9%8D%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%9C%E0%A9%88%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%9F" title="ਮੈਨਹੈਟਨ ਪ੍ਰੋਜੈਕਟ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਮੈਨਹੈਟਨ ਪ੍ਰੋਜੈਕਟ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%81%D9%B9%D9%86_%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AC%DB%8C%DA%A9%D9%B9" title="مینہٹن پراجیکٹ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="مینہٹن پراجیکٹ" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D9%85%D9%86%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%86_%D9%BE%D8%B1%D9%88%DA%98%D9%87" title="د منهاتن پروژه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د منهاتن پروژه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%82%E1%9F%86%E1%9E%9A%E1%9F%84%E1%9E%84%E1%9E%98%E1%9F%89%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%93%E1%9F%8B%E1%9E%A0%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%8F%E1%9F%8B%E1%9E%90%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%93%E1%9F%8B" title="គំរោងម៉ាន់ហាត់ថាន់ – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="គំរោងម៉ាន់ហាត់ថាន់" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target">ភាសាខ្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Projekt_Manhattan" title="Projekt Manhattan – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Projekt Manhattan" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Projeto_Manhattan" title="Projeto Manhattan – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Projeto Manhattan" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proiectul_Manhattan" title="Proiectul Manhattan – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Proiectul Manhattan" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%85%D1%8D%D1%82%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82" title="Манхэттенский проект – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Манхэттенский проект" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%85%D1%8D%D1%82%D1%82%D1%8D%D0%BD_%D0%B1%D1%8B%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%8B%D0%B0%D0%BA" title="Манхэттэн бырайыак – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Манхэттэн бырайыак" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progetu_Manhattan" title="Progetu Manhattan – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Progetu Manhattan" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Projekti_amerikan_i_bomb%C3%ABs_b%C3%ABrthamore" title="Projekti amerikan i bombës bërthamore – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Projekti amerikan i bombës bërthamore" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Manhattan Project" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Projekt_Manhattan" title="Projekt Manhattan – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Projekt Manhattan" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Projekt_Manhattan" title="Projekt Manhattan – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Projekt Manhattan" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%98%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82_%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%85%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BD" title="Пројекат Менхетн – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Пројекат Менхетн" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Projekat_Manhattan" title="Projekat Manhattan – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Projekat Manhattan" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhattan-projekti" title="Manhattan-projekti – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Manhattan-projekti" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhattanprojektet" title="Manhattanprojektet – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Manhattanprojektet" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="மன்காட்டன் திட்டம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மன்காட்டன் திட்டம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%85%D1%8D%D1%82%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD_(%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82)" title="Манхэттен (проект) – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Манхэттен (проект)" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AE%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%8D%E2%80%8C%E0%B0%B9%E0%B0%9F%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%9F%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%8D_%E0%B0%AA%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%9C%E0%B1%86%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%9F%E0%B1%81" title="మాన్‌హట్టన్ ప్రాజెక్టు – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="మాన్‌హట్టన్ ప్రాజెక్టు" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%AE%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%99" title="โครงการแมนแฮตตัน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="โครงการแมนแฮตตัน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhattan_Projesi" title="Manhattan Projesi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Manhattan Projesi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%94%D0%BA%D1%82" title="Мангеттенський проєкт – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Мангеттенський проєкт" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%E1%BB%B1_%C3%A1n_Manhattan" title="Dự án Manhattan – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Dự án Manhattan" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9B%BC%E5%93%88%E9%A1%BF%E8%AE%A1%E5%88%92" title="曼哈顿计划 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="曼哈顿计划" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Manhattan Project" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target">Yorùbá</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a 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Click here for more information."><img alt="Featured article" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/20px-Cscr-featured.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/30px-Cscr-featured.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/40px-Cscr-featured.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="466" data-file-height="443" /></a></div></div> <div id="mw-indicator-pp-default" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#semi" title="This article is semi-protected due to vandalism"><img alt="Page semi-protected" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">World War II Allied nuclear weapons program</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the atomic bomb project. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Manhattan Project (disambiguation)">Manhattan Project (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing:2px;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Manhattan District</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;line-height:1.5em;"><a href="/wiki/File:Trinity_shot_color.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A fiery mushroom cloud lights up the sky." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Trinity_shot_color.jpg/220px-Trinity_shot_color.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="253" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Trinity_shot_color.jpg/330px-Trinity_shot_color.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Trinity_shot_color.jpg/440px-Trinity_shot_color.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2426" data-file-height="2790" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">The <a href="/wiki/Trinity_(nuclear_test)" title="Trinity (nuclear test)">Trinity</a> test of the Manhattan Project on 16 July 1945 was the first detonation of a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">nuclear weapon</a>.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Active</th><td class="infobox-data">1942–1946</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Disbanded</th><td class="infobox-data">15 August 1947</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Country</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>United States</li><li>United Kingdom</li><li>Canada</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Branch</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/U.S._Army_Corps_of_Engineers" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Army Corps of Engineers">U.S. Army Corps of Engineers</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Garrison/HQ</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Oak_Ridge,_Tennessee" title="Oak Ridge, Tennessee">Oak Ridge, Tennessee</a>, U.S.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Anniversaries</th><td class="infobox-data">13 August 1942</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Engagements</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="text-indent:-1em; margin-left:1em;"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Italy" title="Allied invasion of Italy">Allied invasion of Italy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Overlord" title="Operation Overlord">Allied invasion of France</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Allied_invasion_of_Germany" title="Western Allied invasion of Germany">Allied invasion of Germany</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Japan" title="Occupation of Japan">Allied occupation of Japan</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Commanders</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Notable commanders</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_C._Marshall" title="James C. Marshall">James C. Marshall</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Nichols" title="Kenneth Nichols">Kenneth Nichols</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Insignia</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Manhattan District <a href="/wiki/Shoulder_sleeve_insignia" title="Shoulder sleeve insignia">shoulder sleeve insignia</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Manhattan_District.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Oval shaped shoulder patch with a deep blue background. At the top is a red circle and blue star, the patch of the Army Service Forces. It is surrounded by a white oval, representing a mushroom cloud. Below it is a white lightning bolt cracking a yellow circle, representing an atom." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Manhattan_District.svg/110px-Manhattan_District.svg.png" decoding="async" width="110" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Manhattan_District.svg/165px-Manhattan_District.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Manhattan_District.svg/220px-Manhattan_District.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="652" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></td></tr></tbody></table><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Military unit</div> The Manhattan Project was a research and development program undertaken during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> to produce the first <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">nuclear weapons</a>. It was led by the United States in collaboration with the United Kingdom and Canada. From 1942 to 1946, the project was directed by Major General <a href="/wiki/Leslie_Groves" title="Leslie Groves">Leslie Groves</a> of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Corps_of_Engineers" title="United States Army Corps of Engineers">U.S. Army Corps of Engineers</a>. Nuclear physicist <a href="/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer" title="J. Robert Oppenheimer">J. Robert Oppenheimer</a> was the director of the <a href="/wiki/Los_Alamos_Laboratory" class="mw-redirect" title="Los Alamos Laboratory">Los Alamos Laboratory</a> that designed the bombs. The Army program was designated the Manhattan District, as its first headquarters were in <a href="/wiki/Manhattan" title="Manhattan">Manhattan</a>; the name gradually superseded the official codename, Development of Substitute Materials, for the entire project. The project absorbed its earlier British counterpart, <a href="/wiki/Tube_Alloys" title="Tube Alloys">Tube Alloys</a>, and subsumed the program from the American civilian <a href="/wiki/Office_of_Scientific_Research_and_Development" title="Office of Scientific Research and Development">Office of Scientific Research and Development</a>. The Manhattan Project employed nearly 130,000 people at its peak and cost nearly US$2 billion (equivalent to about $27 billion in 2023),<a href="#cite_note-inflation-USGDP-1">[1]</a> over 80 percent of which was for building and operating the plants that produced the <a href="/wiki/Fissile_material" title="Fissile material">fissile material</a>. Research and production took place at more than 30 sites across the US, the UK, and Canada. The project resulted in two types of atomic bombs, developed concurrently during the war: a relatively simple <a href="/wiki/Gun-type_fission_weapon" title="Gun-type fission weapon">gun-type fission weapon</a> and a more complex <a href="/wiki/Implosion-type_nuclear_weapon" class="mw-redirect" title="Implosion-type nuclear weapon">implosion-type nuclear weapon</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Thin_Man_(nuclear_bomb)" title="Thin Man (nuclear bomb)">Thin Man</a> gun-type design proved impractical to use with <a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">plutonium</a>, so a simpler gun-type design called <a href="/wiki/Little_Boy" title="Little Boy">Little Boy</a> was developed that used <a href="/wiki/Uranium-235" title="Uranium-235">uranium-235</a>. Three methods were employed for <a href="/wiki/Uranium_enrichment" class="mw-redirect" title="Uranium enrichment">uranium enrichment</a>: <a href="/wiki/Calutron" title="Calutron">electromagnetic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gaseous_diffusion" title="Gaseous diffusion">gaseous</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Thermophoresis" title="Thermophoresis">thermal</a>. In parallel with the work on uranium was an effort to produce plutonium. After the feasibility of the world's first artificial nuclear reactor, the <a href="/wiki/Chicago_Pile-1" title="Chicago Pile-1">Chicago Pile-1</a>, was demonstrated in 1942 at the <a href="/wiki/Metallurgical_Laboratory" title="Metallurgical Laboratory">Metallurgical Laboratory</a> in the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a>, the project designed the <a href="/wiki/X-10_Graphite_Reactor" title="X-10 Graphite Reactor">X-10 Graphite Reactor</a> and the production reactors at the <a href="/wiki/Hanford_Site" title="Hanford Site">Hanford Site</a>, in which uranium was irradiated and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_transmutation" title="Nuclear transmutation">transmuted</a> into plutonium. The <a href="/wiki/Fat_Man" title="Fat Man">Fat Man</a> plutonium implosion-type weapon was developed in a concerted design and development effort by the Los Alamos Laboratory. The project was also charged with gathering intelligence on the <a href="/wiki/German_nuclear_weapon_project" class="mw-redirect" title="German nuclear weapon project">German nuclear weapon project</a>. Through <a href="/wiki/Operation_Alsos" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Alsos">Operation Alsos</a>, Manhattan Project personnel served in Europe, sometimes behind enemy lines, where they gathered nuclear materials and documents, and rounded up German scientists. Despite the Manhattan Project's emphasis on security, Soviet <a href="/wiki/Atomic_spies" title="Atomic spies">atomic spies</a> penetrated the program. The first nuclear device ever detonated was an implosion-type bomb during the <a href="/wiki/Trinity_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Trinity test">Trinity test</a>, conducted at <a href="/wiki/White_Sands_Missile_Range" title="White Sands Missile Range">White Sands Proving Ground</a> in New Mexico on 16 July 1945. Little Boy and Fat Man bombs were used a month later in the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a>, respectively. In the immediate postwar years, the Manhattan Project conducted weapons testing at <a href="/wiki/Bikini_Atoll" title="Bikini Atoll">Bikini Atoll</a> as part of <a href="/wiki/Operation_Crossroads" title="Operation Crossroads">Operation Crossroads</a>, developed new weapons, promoted the development of the network of <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Energy_National_Laboratories" title="United States Department of Energy National Laboratories">national laboratories</a>, supported medical research into <a href="/wiki/Radiology" title="Radiology">radiology</a> and laid the foundations for the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_navy" title="Nuclear navy">nuclear navy</a>. It maintained control over American atomic weapons research and production until the formation of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission" title="United States Atomic Energy Commission">United States Atomic Energy Commission</a> (AEC) in January 1947. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origins">Origins</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For a chronological guide, see <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Manhattan_Project" title="Timeline of the Manhattan Project">Timeline of the Manhattan Project</a>.</div> The <a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_nuclear_fission" title="Discovery of nuclear fission">discovery of nuclear fission</a> by <a href="/wiki/Otto_Hahn" title="Otto Hahn">Otto Hahn</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Strassmann" title="Fritz Strassmann">Fritz Strassmann</a> in 1938, and its theoretical explanation by <a href="/wiki/Lise_Meitner" title="Lise Meitner">Lise Meitner</a> and <a href="/wiki/Otto_Frisch" class="mw-redirect" title="Otto Frisch">Otto Frisch</a>, made an <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic bomb">atomic bomb</a> theoretically possible. There were fears that a <a href="/wiki/German_atomic_bomb_project" class="mw-redirect" title="German atomic bomb project">German atomic bomb project</a> would develop one first, especially among scientists who were refugees from <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Fascist" class="mw-redirect" title="Fascist">fascist</a> countries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones198512-2">[2]</a> In August 1939, Hungarian-born physicists <a href="/wiki/Leo_Szilard" title="Leo Szilard">Leo Szilard</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eugene_Wigner" title="Eugene Wigner">Eugene Wigner</a> drafted the <a href="/wiki/Einstein%E2%80%93Szilard_letter" title="Einstein–Szilard letter">Einstein–Szilard letter</a>, which warned of the potential development of "extremely powerful bombs of a new type". It urged the United States to acquire stockpiles of <a href="/wiki/Uranium_ore" title="Uranium ore">uranium ore</a> and accelerate the research of <a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Enrico Fermi</a> and others into <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_chain_reaction" title="Nuclear chain reaction">nuclear chain reactions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson196216–20-3">[3]</a> They had it signed by <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> and delivered to President <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a>. Roosevelt called on <a href="/wiki/Lyman_Briggs" class="mw-redirect" title="Lyman Briggs">Lyman Briggs</a> of the <a href="/wiki/National_Bureau_of_Standards" class="mw-redirect" title="National Bureau of Standards">National Bureau of Standards</a> to head an <a href="/wiki/Advisory_Committee_on_Uranium" class="mw-redirect" title="Advisory Committee on Uranium">Advisory Committee on Uranium</a>; Briggs met with Szilard, Wigner and <a href="/wiki/Edward_Teller" title="Edward Teller">Edward Teller</a> in October 1939.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson196216–20-3">[3]</a> The committee reported back to Roosevelt in November that uranium "would provide a possible source of bombs with a destructiveness vastly greater than anything now known."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson196220-4">[4]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_R_Dunning_with_Cyclotron_in_Pupin_Hall_at_Columbia_University.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b0/John_R_Dunning_with_Cyclotron_in_Pupin_Hall_at_Columbia_University.jpg/220px-John_R_Dunning_with_Cyclotron_in_Pupin_Hall_at_Columbia_University.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="262" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/b0/John_R_Dunning_with_Cyclotron_in_Pupin_Hall_at_Columbia_University.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="289" data-file-height="344" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Enrico Fermi</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_R._Dunning" title="John R. Dunning">John R. Dunning</a>, and Dana P. Mitchell in front of the cyclotron in the basement of <a href="/wiki/Pupin_Hall" title="Pupin Hall">Pupin Hall</a> at <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a>, 1940</figcaption></figure> In February 1940, the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Navy" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Navy">U.S. Navy</a> awarded <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a> $6,000,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson196221-5">[5]</a> most of which Fermi and Szilard spent on <a href="/wiki/Graphite" title="Graphite">graphite</a>. A team of Columbia professors including Fermi, Szilard, <a href="/wiki/Eugene_T._Booth" title="Eugene T. Booth">Eugene T. Booth</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_R._Dunning" title="John R. Dunning">John Dunning</a> created the first nuclear fission reaction in the Americas, verifying the work of Hahn and Strassmann. The same team subsequently built a series of prototype <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">nuclear reactors</a> (or "piles" as Fermi called them) in <a href="/wiki/Pupin_Hall" title="Pupin Hall">Pupin Hall</a> at Columbia but were not yet able to achieve a chain reaction.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> The Advisory Committee on Uranium became the <a href="/wiki/National_Defense_Research_Committee" title="National Defense Research Committee">National Defense Research Committee</a> (NDRC) on Uranium when that organization was formed on 27 June 1940.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> On 28 June 1941, Roosevelt signed Executive Order 8807, which created the <a href="/wiki/Office_of_Scientific_Research_and_Development" title="Office of Scientific Research and Development">Office of Scientific Research and Development</a> (OSRD),<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> under director <a href="/wiki/Vannevar_Bush" title="Vannevar Bush">Vannevar Bush</a>. The office was empowered to engage in research and large engineering projects.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson196240–41-9">[9]</a> The NDRC Committee on Uranium became the S-1 Section of the OSRD; the word "uranium" was dropped for security reasons.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> In July 1941, Briggs proposed spending $167,000 on researching uranium, particularly the <a href="/wiki/Uranium-235" title="Uranium-235">uranium-235</a> isotope, and <a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">plutonium</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson196240–41-9">[9]</a> which had been isolated for the first time at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_California" title="University of California">University of California</a> in February 1941.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson196233–35,_183-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[a]</a> In Britain, Frisch and <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Peierls" title="Rudolf Peierls">Rudolf Peierls</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Birmingham" title="University of Birmingham">University of Birmingham</a> had made a breakthrough investigating the <a href="/wiki/Critical_mass" title="Critical mass">critical mass</a> of uranium-235 in June 1939.<a href="#cite_note-14">[13]</a> Their calculations indicated that it was within an <a href="/wiki/Order_of_magnitude" title="Order of magnitude">order of magnitude</a> of 10 kilograms (22 lb), small enough to be carried by contemporary bombers.<a href="#cite_note-Hewlett,_p._42-15">[14]</a> Their March 1940 <a href="/wiki/Frisch%E2%80%93Peierls_memorandum" title="Frisch–Peierls memorandum">Frisch–Peierls memorandum</a> initiated the British atomic bomb project and its <a href="/wiki/MAUD_Committee" title="MAUD Committee">MAUD Committee</a>,<a href="#cite_note-16">[15]</a> which unanimously recommended pursuing the development of an atomic bomb.<a href="#cite_note-Hewlett,_p._42-15">[14]</a> In July 1940, Britain had offered to give the United States access to its research,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhelps2010126–128-17">[16]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Tizard_Mission" title="Tizard Mission">Tizard Mission</a>'s <a href="/wiki/John_Cockcroft" title="John Cockcroft">John Cockcroft</a> briefed American scientists on British developments. He discovered that the American project was smaller than the British, and not as advanced.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhelps2010282–283-18">[17]</a> As part of the scientific exchange, the MAUD Committee's findings were conveyed to the United States. One of its members, the Australian physicist <a href="/wiki/Mark_Oliphant" title="Mark Oliphant">Mark Oliphant</a>, flew to the US in late August 1941 and discovered that data provided by the MAUD Committee had not reached key American physicists. Oliphant set out to find out why the committee's findings were apparently being ignored. He met with the Uranium Committee and visited <a href="/wiki/Berkeley,_California" title="Berkeley, California">Berkeley, California</a>, where he spoke persuasively to <a href="/wiki/Ernest_O._Lawrence" class="mw-redirect" title="Ernest O. Lawrence">Ernest O. Lawrence</a>. Lawrence was sufficiently impressed to commence his own research into uranium. He in turn spoke to <a href="/wiki/James_B._Conant" title="James B. Conant">James B. Conant</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arthur_H._Compton" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthur H. Compton">Arthur H. Compton</a> and <a href="/wiki/George_B._Pegram" title="George B. Pegram">George B. Pegram</a>. Oliphant's mission was therefore a success; key American physicists were now aware of the potential power of an atomic bomb.<a href="#cite_note-19">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[19]</a> On 9 October 1941, President Roosevelt approved the atomic program after he convened a meeting with Vannevar Bush and Vice President <a href="/wiki/Henry_A._Wallace" title="Henry A. Wallace">Henry A. Wallace</a>. He created a Top Policy Group consisting of himself—although he never attended a meeting—Wallace, Bush, Conant, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_War" title="United States Secretary of War">Secretary of War</a> <a href="/wiki/Henry_L._Stimson" title="Henry L. Stimson">Henry L. Stimson</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Chief_of_Staff_of_the_United_States_Army" title="Chief of Staff of the United States Army">Chief of Staff of the Army</a>, <a href="/wiki/General_(United_States)" title="General (United States)">General</a> <a href="/wiki/George_C._Marshall" title="George C. Marshall">George C. Marshall</a>. Roosevelt chose the Army to run the project rather than the Navy, because the Army had more experience with managing large-scale construction. He agreed to coordinate the effort with the British and on 11 October sent a message to Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a>, suggesting that they correspond on atomic matters.<a href="#cite_note-Jones,_pp._30-32-21">[20]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Feasibility">Feasibility</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Proposals">Proposals</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lawrence_Compton_Bush_Conant_Compton_Loomis_83d40m_March_1940_meeting_UCB.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Six men in suits sitting on chairs, smiling and laughing" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/7/71/Lawrence_Compton_Bush_Conant_Compton_Loomis_83d40m_March_1940_meeting_UCB.JPG/220px-Lawrence_Compton_Bush_Conant_Compton_Loomis_83d40m_March_1940_meeting_UCB.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/7/71/Lawrence_Compton_Bush_Conant_Compton_Loomis_83d40m_March_1940_meeting_UCB.JPG/330px-Lawrence_Compton_Bush_Conant_Compton_Loomis_83d40m_March_1940_meeting_UCB.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/7/71/Lawrence_Compton_Bush_Conant_Compton_Loomis_83d40m_March_1940_meeting_UCB.JPG/440px-Lawrence_Compton_Bush_Conant_Compton_Loomis_83d40m_March_1940_meeting_UCB.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3300" data-file-height="2344" /></a><figcaption>March 1940 meeting at Berkeley, California: <a href="/wiki/Ernest_O._Lawrence" class="mw-redirect" title="Ernest O. Lawrence">Ernest O. Lawrence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arthur_H._Compton" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthur H. Compton">Arthur H. Compton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vannevar_Bush" title="Vannevar Bush">Vannevar Bush</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_B._Conant" title="James B. Conant">James B. Conant</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karl_T._Compton" class="mw-redirect" title="Karl T. Compton">Karl T. Compton</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Lee_Loomis" title="Alfred Lee Loomis">Alfred L. Loomis</a></figcaption></figure> The S-1 Committee meeting on 18 December 1941 was "pervaded by an atmosphere of enthusiasm and urgency"<a href="#cite_note-22">[21]</a> in the wake of the <a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">attack on Pearl Harbor</a> and the <a href="/wiki/United_States_declaration_of_war_on_Japan" title="United States declaration of war on Japan">United States declaration of war on Japan</a> and <a href="/wiki/United_States_declaration_of_war_on_Germany_(1941)" title="United States declaration of war on Germany (1941)">on Germany</a>.<a href="#cite_note-23">[22]</a> Work was proceeding on three techniques for <a href="/wiki/Isotope_separation" title="Isotope separation">isotope separation</a>: Lawrence and his team at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_California" title="University of California">University of California</a> investigated <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_separation" class="mw-redirect" title="Electromagnetic separation">electromagnetic separation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eger_Murphree" class="mw-redirect" title="Eger Murphree">Eger Murphree</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jesse_Wakefield_Beams" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesse Wakefield Beams">Jesse Wakefield Beams</a>'s team looked into <a href="/wiki/Gaseous_diffusion" title="Gaseous diffusion">gaseous diffusion</a> at <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Philip_Abelson" title="Philip Abelson">Philip Abelson</a> directed research into <a href="/wiki/Thermophoresis" title="Thermophoresis">thermal diffusion</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Carnegie_Institution_of_Washington" class="mw-redirect" title="Carnegie Institution of Washington">Carnegie Institution of Washington</a> and later the <a href="/wiki/Naval_Research_Laboratory" class="mw-redirect" title="Naval Research Laboratory">Naval Research Laboratory</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Jones,_pp._37-39-24">[23]</a> Murphree also headed an unsuccessful separation project using <a href="/wiki/Gas_centrifuge" title="Gas centrifuge">gas centrifuges</a>.<a href="#cite_note-25">[24]</a> Meanwhile, there were two lines of investigation into <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear reactor technology">nuclear reactor technology</a>: <a href="/wiki/Harold_Urey" title="Harold Urey">Harold Urey</a> researched <a href="/wiki/Heavy_water" title="Heavy water">heavy water</a> at Columbia, while Arthur Compton organized the <a href="/wiki/Metallurgical_Laboratory" title="Metallurgical Laboratory">Metallurgical Laboratory</a> in early 1942 to study plutonium and reactors using <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_graphite" title="Nuclear graphite">graphite</a> as a <a href="/wiki/Neutron_moderator" title="Neutron moderator">neutron moderator</a>.<a href="#cite_note-26">[25]</a> The S-1 Committee recommended pursuing all five technologies. This was approved by Bush, Conant, and <a href="/wiki/Brigadier_General_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Brigadier General (United States)">Brigadier General</a> <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_D._Styer" title="Wilhelm D. Styer">Wilhelm D. Styer</a>, who had been designated the Army's representative on nuclear matters.<a href="#cite_note-Jones,_pp._37-39-24">[23]</a> Bush and Conant then took the recommendation to the Top Policy Group with a budget proposal for $54 million for construction by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Corps_of_Engineers" title="United States Army Corps of Engineers">United States Army Corps of Engineers</a>, $31 million for research and development by OSRD and $5 million for contingencies in fiscal year 1943. They sent it on 17 June 1942, to the President, who approved it by writing "OK FDR" on the document.<a href="#cite_note-Jones,_pp._37-39-24">[23]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bomb_design_concepts">Bomb design concepts</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Los_Alamos_Primer_assembly_methods.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A series of doodles" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Los_Alamos_Primer_assembly_methods.png/170px-Los_Alamos_Primer_assembly_methods.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="348" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Los_Alamos_Primer_assembly_methods.png/255px-Los_Alamos_Primer_assembly_methods.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Los_Alamos_Primer_assembly_methods.png/340px-Los_Alamos_Primer_assembly_methods.png 2x" data-file-width="440" data-file-height="900" /></a><figcaption>Different fission bomb assembly methods explored during the July 1942 conference</figcaption></figure> Compton asked theoretical physicist <a href="/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer" title="J. Robert Oppenheimer">J. Robert Oppenheimer</a> of the University of California to take over research into <a href="/wiki/Fast_neutron_calculations" class="mw-redirect" title="Fast neutron calculations">fast neutron calculations</a>—key to calculations of critical mass and weapon detonation—from <a href="/wiki/Gregory_Breit" title="Gregory Breit">Gregory Breit</a>, who had quit on 18 May 1942 because of concerns over lax operational security.<a href="#cite_note-27">[26]</a> <a href="/wiki/John_H._Manley" class="mw-redirect" title="John H. Manley">John H. Manley</a>, a physicist at the Metallurgical Laboratory, was assigned to assist Oppenheimer by coordinating experimental physics groups scattered across the country.<a href="#cite_note-28">[27]</a> Oppenheimer and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Serber" title="Robert Serber">Robert Serber</a> of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Illinois_at_Urbana%E2%80%93Champaign" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign">University of Illinois</a> examined the problems of <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutron</a> diffusion—how neutrons moved in a nuclear chain reaction—and <a href="/wiki/Hydrodynamics" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrodynamics">hydrodynamics</a>—how the explosion produced by a chain reaction might behave.<a href="#cite_note-auto-29">[28]</a> To review this work and the general theory of fission reactions, Oppenheimer and Fermi convened meetings at the University of Chicago in June and at the University of California in July 1942 with theoretical physicists <a href="/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe">Hans Bethe</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Van_Vleck" class="mw-redirect" title="John Van Vleck">John Van Vleck</a>, Edward Teller, <a href="/wiki/Emil_Konopinski" title="Emil Konopinski">Emil Konopinski</a>, Robert Serber, <a href="/wiki/Stan_Frankel" title="Stan Frankel">Stan Frankel</a>, and Eldred C. (Carlyle) Nelson, and <a href="/wiki/Experimental_physicist" class="mw-redirect" title="Experimental physicist">experimental physicists</a> <a href="/wiki/Emilio_Segr%C3%A8" title="Emilio Segrè">Emilio Segrè</a>, <a href="/wiki/Felix_Bloch" title="Felix Bloch">Felix Bloch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Franco_Rasetti" title="Franco Rasetti">Franco Rasetti</a>, Manley, and <a href="/wiki/Edwin_McMillan" title="Edwin McMillan">Edwin McMillan</a>. They tentatively confirmed that a fission bomb was theoretically possible.<a href="#cite_note-auto-29">[28]</a> The properties of pure uranium-235 were relatively unknown, as were those of plutonium, which had only been isolated by <a href="/wiki/Glenn_Seaborg" class="mw-redirect" title="Glenn Seaborg">Glenn Seaborg</a> and his team in February 1941. The scientists at the July 1942 conference envisioned creating plutonium in nuclear reactors where uranium-238 atoms absorbed neutrons that had been emitted from fissioning uranium-235. At this point no reactor had been built, and only tiny quantities of plutonium were available from <a href="/wiki/Cyclotron" title="Cyclotron">cyclotrons</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson196233–35,_183-11">[11]</a> Even by December 1943, only two milligrams had been produced.<a href="#cite_note-30">[29]</a> There were many ways of arranging the fissile material into a critical mass. The simplest was shooting a "cylindrical plug" into a sphere of "active material" with a "tamper"—dense material to focus neutrons inward and keep the reacting mass together to increase its efficiency.<a href="#cite_note-31">[30]</a> They also explored designs involving <a href="/wiki/Spheroid" title="Spheroid">spheroids</a>, a primitive form of "<a href="/wiki/Implosion_nuclear_weapon" class="mw-redirect" title="Implosion nuclear weapon">implosion</a>" suggested by <a href="/wiki/Richard_C._Tolman" title="Richard C. Tolman">Richard C. Tolman</a>, and the possibility of <a href="/wiki/Autocatalysis" title="Autocatalysis">autocatalytic methods</a> to increase the efficiency of the bomb as it exploded.<a href="#cite_note-32">[31]</a> As the idea of the fission bomb was theoretically settled—at least until more experimental data was available—Edward Teller pushed for discussion of a more powerful bomb: the "super", now usually referred to as a "<a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen bomb">hydrogen bomb</a>", which would use the force of a detonating fission bomb to ignite a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">nuclear fusion</a> reaction in <a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">deuterium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium">tritium</a>.<a href="#cite_note-33">[32]</a> Teller proposed scheme after scheme, but Bethe refused each one. The fusion idea was put aside to concentrate on producing fission bombs.<a href="#cite_note-34">[33]</a> Teller raised the speculative possibility that an atomic bomb might "ignite" the atmosphere because of a hypothetical fusion reaction of nitrogen nuclei.<a href="#cite_note-36">[b]</a> Bethe calculated that it was "extremely unlikely".<a href="#cite_note-37">[35]</a> A postwar report co-authored by Teller concluded that "whatever the temperature to which a section of the atmosphere may be heated, no self-propagating chain of nuclear reactions is likely to be started."<a href="#cite_note-38">[36]</a> In Serber's account, Oppenheimer mentioned the possibility of this scenario to <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Compton" title="Arthur Compton">Arthur Compton</a>, who "didn't have enough sense to shut up about it. It somehow got into a document that went to Washington" and was "never laid to rest".<a href="#cite_note-40">[c]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Organization">Organization</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Manhattan_District">Manhattan District</h3></div> The <a href="/wiki/Chief_of_Engineers" class="mw-redirect" title="Chief of Engineers">Chief of Engineers</a>, Major General <a href="/wiki/Eugene_Reybold" title="Eugene Reybold">Eugene Reybold</a>, selected Colonel <a href="/wiki/James_C._Marshall" title="James C. Marshall">James C. Marshall</a> to head the Army's part of the project in June 1942. Marshall created a liaison office in Washington, D.C., but established his temporary headquarters at <a href="/wiki/Tower_270" title="Tower 270">270 Broadway</a> in New York, where he could draw on administrative support from the Corps of Engineers' <a href="/wiki/North_Atlantic_Division" title="North Atlantic Division">North Atlantic Division</a>. It was close to the Manhattan office of <a href="/wiki/Stone_%26_Webster" title="Stone & Webster">Stone & Webster</a>, the principal project contractor, and to Columbia University. He had permission to draw on his former command, the Syracuse District, for staff, and he started with <a href="/wiki/Lieutenant_Colonel_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lieutenant Colonel (United States)">Lieutenant Colonel</a> <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Nichols" title="Kenneth Nichols">Kenneth Nichols</a>, who became his deputy.<a href="#cite_note-NYT-41">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jones,_pp._41-44-42">[39]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Manhttan_Project_Organization_Chart.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Organization chart of the project, showing project headquarters divisions at the top, Manhattan District in the middle, and field offices at the bottom" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Manhttan_Project_Organization_Chart.gif/220px-Manhttan_Project_Organization_Chart.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Manhttan_Project_Organization_Chart.gif/330px-Manhttan_Project_Organization_Chart.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Manhttan_Project_Organization_Chart.gif/440px-Manhttan_Project_Organization_Chart.gif 2x" data-file-width="1442" data-file-height="1011" /></a><figcaption>The Manhattan Project Organizational Chart, 1 May 1946</figcaption></figure> Because most of his task involved construction, Marshall worked in cooperation with the head of the Corps of Engineers Construction Division, Major General <a href="/w/index.php?title=Thomas_M._Robbins&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Thomas M. Robbins (page does not exist)">Thomas M. Robbins</a>, and his deputy, Colonel <a href="/wiki/Leslie_Groves" title="Leslie Groves">Leslie Groves</a>. Reybold, Somervell, and Styer decided to call the project "Development of Substitute Materials", but Groves felt that this would draw attention. Since engineer districts normally carried the name of the city where they were located, Marshall and Groves agreed to name the Army's component the Manhattan District; Reybold officially created this district on 13 August. Informally, it was known as the Manhattan Engineer District, or MED. Unlike other districts, it had no geographic boundaries, and Marshall had the authority of a division engineer. Development of Substitute Materials remained as the official codename of the project as a whole but was supplanted over time by "Manhattan".<a href="#cite_note-Jones,_pp._41-44-42">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESullivan201686–87-43">[40]</a> Marshall later conceded that, "I had never heard of atomic fission but I did know that you could not build much of a plant, much less four of them for $90 million."<a href="#cite_note-44">[41]</a> A single <a href="/wiki/Trinitrotoluene" class="mw-redirect" title="Trinitrotoluene">TNT</a> plant that Nichols had recently built in Pennsylvania had cost $128 million.<a href="#cite_note-45">[42]</a> Nor were they impressed with estimates to the nearest order of magnitude, which Groves compared with telling a caterer to prepare for between ten and a thousand guests.<a href="#cite_note-46">[43]</a> A <a href="/wiki/Surveying" title="Surveying">survey team</a> from Stone & Webster had already scouted a site for the production plants. The <a href="/wiki/War_Production_Board" title="War Production Board">War Production Board</a> recommended sites around <a href="/wiki/Knoxville,_Tennessee" title="Knoxville, Tennessee">Knoxville, Tennessee</a>, an isolated area where the <a href="/wiki/Tennessee_Valley_Authority" title="Tennessee Valley Authority">Tennessee Valley Authority</a> could supply ample electric power and the rivers could provide cooling water for the reactors. After examining several sites, the survey team selected one near <a href="/wiki/Elza,_Tennessee" title="Elza, Tennessee">Elza, Tennessee</a>. Conant advised that it be acquired at once and Styer agreed but Marshall temporized, awaiting the results of Conant's reactor experiments.<a href="#cite_note-47">[44]</a> Of the prospective processes, only Lawrence's electromagnetic separation appeared sufficiently advanced for construction to commence.<a href="#cite_note-48">[45]</a> Marshall and Nichols began assembling the necessary resources. The first step was to obtain a high priority rating for the project. The top ratings were AA-1 through AA-4 in descending order, although there was a special AAA rating reserved for emergencies. Ratings AA-1 and AA-2 were for essential weapons and equipment, so Colonel <a href="/wiki/Lucius_D._Clay" title="Lucius D. Clay">Lucius D. Clay</a>, the deputy chief of staff at Services and Supply for requirements and resources, felt that the highest rating he could assign was AA-3, although he was willing to provide a AAA rating on request for critical materials if the need arose.<a href="#cite_note-49">[46]</a> Nichols and Marshall were disappointed; AA-3 was the same priority as Nichols' TNT plant in Pennsylvania.<a href="#cite_note-Fine_1972_657-50">[47]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Military_Policy_Committee">Military Policy Committee</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Trinity_Test_-_Oppenheimer_and_Groves_at_Ground_Zero_002.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A man smiling in a suit in suit and one in a uniform chat around a pile of twisted metal." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Trinity_Test_-_Oppenheimer_and_Groves_at_Ground_Zero_002.jpg/170px-Trinity_Test_-_Oppenheimer_and_Groves_at_Ground_Zero_002.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Trinity_Test_-_Oppenheimer_and_Groves_at_Ground_Zero_002.jpg/255px-Trinity_Test_-_Oppenheimer_and_Groves_at_Ground_Zero_002.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Trinity_Test_-_Oppenheimer_and_Groves_at_Ground_Zero_002.jpg/340px-Trinity_Test_-_Oppenheimer_and_Groves_at_Ground_Zero_002.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1544" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer" title="J. Robert Oppenheimer">Oppenheimer</a> and Groves at the remains of the <a href="/wiki/Trinity_(nuclear_test)" title="Trinity (nuclear test)">Trinity test</a> in September 1945, two months after the test blast and just after the end of World War II. The white overshoes prevented fallout from sticking to the soles of their shoes.<a href="#cite_note-51">[48]</a></figcaption></figure> Vannevar Bush became dissatisfied with Colonel Marshall's failure to get the project moving forward expeditiously<a href="#cite_note-52">[49]</a> and felt that more aggressive leadership was required. He spoke to <a href="/wiki/Harvey_Bundy" class="mw-redirect" title="Harvey Bundy">Harvey Bundy</a> and Generals Marshall, Somervell, and Styer about his concerns, advocating that the project be placed under a senior policy committee, with a prestigious officer, preferably Styer, as director.<a href="#cite_note-Fine_1972_657-50">[47]</a> Somervell and Styer selected Groves for the post; General Marshall ordered that he be promoted to brigadier general,<a href="#cite_note-Jones,_pp._74-77-53">[50]</a> as it was felt that the title "general" would hold more sway with the academic scientists working on the project.<a href="#cite_note-Groves,_pp._4-5-54">[51]</a> Groves' orders placed him directly under Somervell rather than Reybold, with Colonel Marshall now answerable to Groves.<a href="#cite_note-55">[52]</a> Groves established his headquarters in Washington, D.C., in the <a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman_Building" class="mw-redirect" title="Harry S. Truman Building">New War Department Building</a>, where Colonel Marshall had his liaison office.<a href="#cite_note-56">[53]</a> He assumed command of the Manhattan Project on 23 September 1942. Later that day, he attended a meeting called by Stimson, which established a Military Policy Committee, responsible to the Top Policy Group, consisting of Bush (with Conant as an alternate), Styer and <a href="/wiki/Rear_Admiral_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rear Admiral (United States)">Rear Admiral</a> <a href="/wiki/William_R._Purnell" title="William R. Purnell">William R. Purnell</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Jones,_pp._74-77-53">[50]</a> Tolman and Conant were later appointed as Groves' scientific advisers.<a href="#cite_note-57">[54]</a> On 19 September, Groves went to <a href="/wiki/Donald_M._Nelson" class="mw-redirect" title="Donald M. Nelson">Donald Nelson</a>, the chairman of the War Production Board, and asked for broad authority to issue a AAA rating whenever it was required. Nelson initially balked but quickly caved in when Groves threatened to go to the President.<a href="#cite_note-58">[55]</a> Groves promised not to use the AAA rating unless it was necessary. It soon transpired that for the routine requirements of the project the AAA rating was too high but the AA-3 rating was too low. After a long campaign, Groves finally received AA-1 authority on 1 July 1944.<a href="#cite_note-59">[56]</a> According to Groves, "In Washington you became aware of the importance of top priority. Most everything proposed in the Roosevelt administration would have top priority. That would last for about a week or two and then something else would get top priority".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEErmenc1989238-60">[57]</a> One of Groves' early problems was to find a director for <a href="/wiki/Project_Y" title="Project Y">Project Y</a>, the group that would design and build the bomb. The obvious choice was one of the three laboratory heads, Urey, Lawrence, or Compton, but they could not be spared. Compton recommended Oppenheimer, who was already intimately familiar with the bomb design concepts. However, Oppenheimer had little administrative experience, and, unlike Urey, Lawrence, and Compton, had not won a Nobel Prize, which many scientists felt that the head of such an important laboratory should have. There were also concerns about Oppenheimer's security status, as many of his associates were <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">communists</a>, including his wife, <a href="/wiki/Katherine_Oppenheimer" title="Katherine Oppenheimer">Kitty</a>; his girlfriend, <a href="/wiki/Jean_Tatlock" title="Jean Tatlock">Jean Tatlock</a>; and his brother, <a href="/wiki/Frank_Oppenheimer" title="Frank Oppenheimer">Frank</a>. A long conversation in October 1942 convinced Groves and Nichols that Oppenheimer thoroughly understood the issues involved in setting up a laboratory in a remote area and should be appointed as its director. Groves personally waived the security requirements and issued Oppenheimer's clearance on 20 July 1943.<a href="#cite_note-61">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-62">[59]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Collaboration_with_the_United_Kingdom">Collaboration with the United Kingdom</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/British_contribution_to_the_Manhattan_Project" title="British contribution to the Manhattan Project">British contribution to the Manhattan Project</a></div> The British and Americans exchanged nuclear information but did not initially combine their efforts; during 1940-41 the British project (<a href="/wiki/Tube_Alloys" title="Tube Alloys">Tube Alloys</a>) was larger and more advanced.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhelps2010282–283-18">[17]</a> Britain rebuffed attempts by Bush and Conant in August 1941 to strengthen cooperation because it was reluctant to share its technological lead and help the United States develop its own atomic bomb. But the British, who had made significant advances in research early in the war, did not have the resources to carry through such a research program into development while a large portion of their economy was engaged in fighting the war; Tube Alloys soon fell behind its American counterpart.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBernstein1976206–208-63">[60]</a> The roles of the two countries were reversed,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVilla1981144–145-64">[61]</a> and in January 1943 Conant notified the British that they would no longer receive atomic information except in certain areas.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStacey1970517-65">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBernstein1976211-66">[63]</a> The British investigated the possibility of an independent nuclear program but determined that it could not be ready in time to impact the <a href="/wiki/European_Theatre_of_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="European Theatre of World War II">war in Europe</a>.<a href="#cite_note-fakley1983-67">[64]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Groves_and_Chadwick_830308.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A large man in uniform and a bespectacled thin man in a suit and tie sit at a desk." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Groves_and_Chadwick_830308.jpg/220px-Groves_and_Chadwick_830308.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Groves_and_Chadwick_830308.jpg/330px-Groves_and_Chadwick_830308.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Groves_and_Chadwick_830308.jpg/440px-Groves_and_Chadwick_830308.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2269" /></a><figcaption>Groves confers with <a href="/wiki/James_Chadwick" title="James Chadwick">James Chadwick</a>, the head of the British Mission.</figcaption></figure> By March 1943 Conant decided that <a href="/wiki/James_Chadwick" title="James Chadwick">James Chadwick</a> and one or two other British scientists were important enough that the bomb design team at Los Alamos needed them, despite the risk of revealing weapon design secrets.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBernstein1976213-68">[65]</a> In August 1943 Churchill and Roosevelt negotiated the <a href="/wiki/Quebec_Agreement" title="Quebec Agreement">Quebec Agreement</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGowing1964168–173-69">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBernstein1976216–217-70">[67]</a> which established the <a href="/wiki/Combined_Policy_Committee" class="mw-redirect" title="Combined Policy Committee">Combined Policy Committee</a> to coordinate the efforts of the US and UK; Canada was not a signatory, but the Agreement provided for a Canadian representative on the Combined Policy Committee in view of Canada's contribution to the effort.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1985296-71">[68]</a> An agreement between Roosevelt and Churchill known as the <a href="/wiki/Hyde_Park_Aide-M%C3%A9moire" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyde Park Aide-Mémoire">Hyde Park Aide-Mémoire</a>, signed in late September 1944, extended the Quebec Agreement to the postwar period and suggested that "when a 'bomb' is finally available, it might perhaps, after mature consideration, be used against the Japanese, who should be warned that this bombardment will be repeated until they surrender".<a href="#cite_note-72">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGowing1964340–342-73">[70]</a> When cooperation resumed after the Quebec Agreement, the Americans' progress and expenditures amazed the British. Chadwick pressed for British involvement in the Manhattan Project to the fullest extent and abandoned hopes of an independent British project during the war.<a href="#cite_note-fakley1983-67">[64]</a> With Churchill's backing, he attempted to ensure that every request from Groves for assistance was honored.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGowing1964242–244-74">[71]</a> The British Mission that arrived in the United States in December 1943 included <a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a>, Otto Frisch, <a href="/wiki/Klaus_Fuchs" title="Klaus Fuchs">Klaus Fuchs</a>, Rudolf Peierls, and <a href="/wiki/Ernest_William_Titterton" class="mw-redirect" title="Ernest William Titterton">Ernest Titterton</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHunner200426-75">[72]</a> More scientists arrived in early 1944. While those assigned to gaseous diffusion left by the fall of 1944, the thirty-five working under Oliphant with Lawrence at Berkeley were assigned to existing laboratory groups and most stayed until the end of the war. The nineteen sent to Los Alamos also joined existing groups, primarily related to implosion and bomb assembly, but not the plutonium-related ones.<a href="#cite_note-fakley1983-67">[64]</a> The Quebec Agreement specified that nuclear weapons would not be used against another country without the mutual consent of the US and UK. In June 1945, Wilson agreed that the nuclear bombing of Japan would be recorded as a decision of the Combined Policy Committee.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGowing1964372-76">[73]</a> The Combined Policy Committee created the <a href="/wiki/Combined_Development_Trust" class="mw-redirect" title="Combined Development Trust">Combined Development Trust</a> in June 1944, with Groves as its chairman, to procure uranium and <a href="/wiki/Thorium#Occurrence" title="Thorium">thorium ores</a> on international markets. The <a href="/wiki/Belgian_Congo" title="Belgian Congo">Belgian Congo</a> and Canada held much of the world's uranium outside Eastern Europe, and the <a href="/wiki/Belgian_Government_in_Exile" class="mw-redirect" title="Belgian Government in Exile">Belgian Government in Exile</a> was in London. Britain agreed to give the United States most of the Belgian ore, as it could not use most of the supply without restricted American research.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBernstein1976223–224-77">[74]</a> In 1944, the Trust purchased 3,440,000 pounds (1,560,000 kg) of uranium oxide ore from companies operating mines in the Belgian Congo. To avoid briefing US Secretary of the Treasury <a href="/wiki/Henry_Morgenthau_Jr." title="Henry Morgenthau Jr.">Henry Morgenthau Jr.</a>, a special account not subject to the usual auditing and controls was used to hold Trust monies. Between 1944 and his resignation from the Trust in 1947, Groves deposited a total of $37.5 million.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones198590,_299–306-78">[75]</a> Groves appreciated the early British atomic research and the British scientists' contributions to the Manhattan Project but stated that the United States would have succeeded without them, although not in time for the August 1945 bombing of Hiroshima.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGroves1962408-79">[76]</a> The British wartime participation was crucial to the success of the United Kingdom's <a href="/wiki/High_Explosive_Research" title="High Explosive Research">independent nuclear weapons program</a> after the war when the <a href="/wiki/McMahon_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="McMahon Act">McMahon Act</a> of 1946 temporarily ended American nuclear cooperation.<a href="#cite_note-fakley1983-67">[64]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Project_sites">Project sites</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center noresize" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><img alt="Map of the United States and southern Canada with major project sites marked" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Manhattan_Project_US_Canada_Map_2.svg/700px-Manhattan_Project_US_Canada_Map_2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="700" height="445" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Manhattan_Project_US_Canada_Map_2.svg/1050px-Manhattan_Project_US_Canada_Map_2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Manhattan_Project_US_Canada_Map_2.svg/1400px-Manhattan_Project_US_Canada_Map_2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1212" data-file-height="770" usemap="#ImageMap_2fdedde2758019d9" resource="/wiki/File:Manhattan_Project_US_Canada_Map_2.svg" /><map name="ImageMap_2fdedde2758019d9"><area href="/wiki/Calutron" shape="circle" coords="29,162,12" alt="Berkeley, California" title="Berkeley, California" /><area href="/wiki/Project_Camel" shape="circle" coords="81,231,12" alt="Inyokern, California" title="Inyokern, California" /><area href="/wiki/Hanford_Site" shape="circle" coords="98,58,12" alt="Richland, Washington" title="Richland, Washington" /><area href="/wiki/Trail,_British_Columbia" shape="circle" coords="127,12,12" alt="Trail, British Columbia" title="Trail, British Columbia" /><area href="/wiki/Wendover_Air_Force_Base" shape="circle" coords="133,156,12" alt="Wendover, Utah" title="Wendover, Utah" /><area href="/wiki/Monticello,_Utah" shape="circle" coords="168,208,12" alt="Monticello, Utah" title="Monticello, Utah" /><area href="/wiki/Uravan,_Colorado" shape="circle" coords="185,208,12" alt="Uravan, Colorado" title="Uravan, Colorado" /><area href="/wiki/Los_Alamos_Laboratory" shape="circle" coords="196,254,12" alt="Los Alamos, New Mexico" title="Los Alamos, New Mexico" /><area href="/wiki/Trinity_test" shape="circle" coords="196,289,12" alt="Alamogordo, New Mexico" title="Alamogordo, New Mexico" /><area href="/wiki/Ames_Project" shape="circle" coords="352,168,12" alt="Ames, Iowa" title="Ames, Iowa" /><area href="/wiki/Mallinckrodt_Incorporated" shape="circle" coords="381,231,12" alt="St Louis, Missouri" title="St Louis, Missouri" /><area href="/wiki/Argonne_National_Laboratory" shape="circle" coords="410,179,12" alt="Chicago, Illinois" title="Chicago, Illinois" /><area href="/wiki/Newport_Chemical_Depot" shape="circle" coords="422,214,12" alt="Dana, Indiana" title="Dana, Indiana" /><area href="/wiki/Dayton_Project" shape="circle" coords="462,202,12" alt="Dayton, Ohio" title="Dayton, Ohio" /><area href="/wiki/Alabama_Army_Ammunition_Plant" shape="circle" coords="439,312,12" alt="Sylacauga, Alabama" title="Sylacauga, Alabama" /><area href="/wiki/P-9_Project" shape="circle" coords="514,225,12" alt="Morgantown, West Virginia" title="Morgantown, West Virginia" /><area href="/wiki/Clinton_Engineer_Works" shape="circle" coords="462,266,12" alt="Oak Ridge, Tennessee" title="Oak Ridge, Tennessee" /><area href="/wiki/Montreal_Laboratory" shape="circle" coords="526,92,12" alt="Chalk River Laboratories" title="Chalk River Laboratories" /><area href="/wiki/Rochester,_New_York" shape="circle" coords="531,150,12" alt="Rochester, New York" title="Rochester, New York" /><area href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." shape="circle" coords="549,208,12" alt="Washington, D.C." title="Washington, D.C." /></map><figcaption>A selection of US and Canadian sites important to the Manhattan Project. Research and production took place at more than thirty sites across the US, the UK, and Canada. Click on the location for more information.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Oak_Ridge">Oak Ridge</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Clinton_Engineer_Works" title="Clinton Engineer Works">Clinton Engineer Works</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Y-12_Shift_Change.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Workers, mostly women, pour out of a cluster of buildings. A billboard exhorts them to "Make C.E.W. COUNT continue to protect project information!"" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Y-12_Shift_Change.jpg/220px-Y-12_Shift_Change.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Y-12_Shift_Change.jpg/330px-Y-12_Shift_Change.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Y-12_Shift_Change.jpg/440px-Y-12_Shift_Change.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1300" /></a><figcaption>Shift change at the Y-12 uranium enrichment facility at the <a href="/wiki/Clinton_Engineer_Works" title="Clinton Engineer Works">Clinton Engineer Works</a> in <a href="/wiki/Oak_Ridge,_Tennessee" title="Oak Ridge, Tennessee">Oak Ridge, Tennessee</a>, on 11 August 1945. By May 1945, 82,000 people were employed at the Clinton Engineer Works.<a href="#cite_note-Johnson_&_Jackson_pp._168–169-80">[77]</a> Photograph by the Manhattan District photographer <a href="/wiki/Ed_Westcott" title="Ed Westcott">Ed Westcott</a>.</figcaption></figure> The day after he took over the project, Groves went to Tennessee with Colonel Marshall to inspect the proposed site there, and Groves was impressed.<a href="#cite_note-81">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-82">[79]</a> On 29 September 1942, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Under_Secretary_of_War" title="United States Under Secretary of War">United States Under Secretary of War</a> <a href="/wiki/Robert_P._Patterson" title="Robert P. Patterson">Robert P. Patterson</a> authorized the Corps of Engineers to acquire 56,000 acres (23,000 ha) of land by <a href="/wiki/Eminent_domain" title="Eminent domain">eminent domain</a> at a cost of $3.5 million. An additional 3,000 acres (1,200 ha) was subsequently acquired. About 1,000 families were affected by the order, which came into effect on 7 October.<a href="#cite_note-83">[80]</a> Protests, legal appeals, and a 1943 Congressional inquiry were to no avail.<a href="#cite_note-Johnson_&_Jackson,_pp._39-43-84">[81]</a> By mid-November <a href="/wiki/United_States_Marshals_Service" title="United States Marshals Service">U.S. Marshals</a> were posting notices to vacate on farmhouse doors, and construction contractors were moving in.<a href="#cite_note-Fine&Remington,_pp._663-664-85">[82]</a> Some families were given two weeks' notice to vacate farms that had been their homes for generations.<a href="#cite_note-86">[83]</a> The ultimate cost of the land acquisition, which was not completed until March 1945, was only about $2.6 million—around $47 an acre.<a href="#cite_note-87">[84]</a> When presented with a proclamation declaring Oak Ridge a total exclusion area that no one could enter without military permission, the <a href="/wiki/Governor_of_Tennessee" title="Governor of Tennessee">Governor of Tennessee</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prentice_Cooper" title="Prentice Cooper">Prentice Cooper</a>, angrily tore it up.<a href="#cite_note-88">[85]</a> Initially known as the Kingston Demolition Range, the site was officially renamed the <a href="/wiki/Clinton_Engineer_Works" title="Clinton Engineer Works">Clinton Engineer Works</a> (CEW) in early 1943.<a href="#cite_note-89">[86]</a> While Stone & Webster concentrated on the production facilities, the architectural and engineering firm <a href="/wiki/Skidmore,_Owings_%26_Merrill" class="mw-redirect" title="Skidmore, Owings & Merrill">Skidmore, Owings & Merrill</a> developed a residential community for 13,000. The community was located on the slopes of Black Oak Ridge, from which the new town of <a href="/wiki/Oak_Ridge,_Tennessee" title="Oak Ridge, Tennessee">Oak Ridge</a> got its name.<a href="#cite_note-90">[87]</a> The Army presence at Oak Ridge increased in August 1943 when Nichols replaced Marshall as head of the Manhattan Engineer District. One of his first tasks was to move the district headquarters to Oak Ridge, although the name of the district did not change.<a href="#cite_note-91">[88]</a> In September 1943 the administration of community facilities was outsourced to <a href="/wiki/Turner_Construction_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Turner Construction Company">Turner Construction Company</a> through a subsidiary, the Roane-Anderson Company.<a href="#cite_note-Roane-Anderson-92">[89]</a> Chemical engineers were part of "frantic efforts" to make 10% to 12% enriched uranium 235, with tight security and fast approvals for supplies and materials.<a href="#cite_note-93">[90]</a> The population of Oak Ridge soon expanded well beyond the initial plans, and peaked at 75,000 in May 1945, by which time 82,000 people were employed at the Clinton Engineer Works,<a href="#cite_note-Johnson_&_Jackson_pp._168–169-80">[77]</a> and 10,000 by Roane-Anderson.<a href="#cite_note-Roane-Anderson-92">[89]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Los_Alamos">Los Alamos</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Project_Y" title="Project Y">Project Y</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Los_Alamos_map.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Los_Alamos_map.gif/290px-Los_Alamos_map.gif" decoding="async" width="290" height="372" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Los_Alamos_map.gif/435px-Los_Alamos_map.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Los_Alamos_map.gif/580px-Los_Alamos_map.gif 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1283" /></a><figcaption>Map of Los Alamos site, New Mexico, 1943–1945</figcaption></figure> The idea of locating Project Y at Oak Ridge was considered, but it was decided that it should be in a remote location. On Oppenheimer's recommendation, the search for a suitable site was narrowed to the vicinity of <a href="/wiki/Albuquerque,_New_Mexico" title="Albuquerque, New Mexico">Albuquerque, New Mexico</a>, where Oppenheimer owned a ranch.<a href="#cite_note-94">[91]</a> On 16 November 1942, Oppenheimer, Groves, Dudley and others toured the vicinity of the <a href="/wiki/Los_Alamos_Ranch_School" title="Los Alamos Ranch School">Los Alamos Ranch School</a>. Oppenheimer expressed a strong preference for the site, citing its natural beauty, which, it was hoped, would inspire those working on the project.<a href="#cite_note-95">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-96">[93]</a> The engineers were concerned about the poor access road, and whether the water supply would be adequate, but otherwise felt that it was ideal.<a href="#cite_note-97">[94]</a> Patterson approved the acquisition of the site on 25 November 1942, authorizing $440,000 for the purchase of pre-calculated 54,000 acres (22,000 ha), all but 8,900 acres (3,600 ha) of which were already owned by the Federal Government.<a href="#cite_note-Jones,_pp._328-331-98">[95]</a> <a href="/wiki/Secretary_of_Agriculture" class="mw-redirect" title="Secretary of Agriculture">Secretary of Agriculture</a> <a href="/wiki/Claude_R._Wickard" title="Claude R. Wickard">Claude R. Wickard</a> granted about 45,000 acres (18,000 ha) of <a href="/wiki/United_States_Forest_Service" title="United States Forest Service">United States Forest Service</a> land to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_War" title="United States Department of War">War Department</a> "for so long as the military necessity continues".<a href="#cite_note-99">[96]</a> Wartime land purchases eventually came to 49,383 acres (19,985 ha), but only $414,971 was spent.<a href="#cite_note-AHF-100">[97]</a> Work commenced in December 1942. Groves initially allocated $300,000 for construction, three times Oppenheimer's estimate, but by the time Sundt finished on 30 November 1943, over $7 million had been spent.<a href="#cite_note-101">[98]</a> During the war, Los Alamos was referred to as "Site Y" or "the Hill".<a href="#cite_note-102">[99]</a> Initially it was to have been a military laboratory with Oppenheimer and other researchers commissioned into the Army, but <a href="/wiki/Robert_Bacher" title="Robert Bacher">Robert Bacher</a> and <a href="/wiki/Isidor_Rabi" class="mw-redirect" title="Isidor Rabi">Isidor Rabi</a> balked at the idea and convinced Oppenheimer that other scientists would object. Conant, Groves, and Oppenheimer then devised a compromise whereby the laboratory was operated by the University of California under contract to the War Department.<a href="#cite_note-103">[100]</a> <a href="/wiki/Dorothy_McKibbin" title="Dorothy McKibbin">Dorothy McKibbin</a> ran the branch office in Santa Fe, where she met new arrivals and issue them with passes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConant200558–61-104">[101]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chicago">Chicago</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Metallurgical_Laboratory" title="Metallurgical Laboratory">Metallurgical Laboratory</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ChicagoPileTeam.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/ChicagoPileTeam.png/220px-ChicagoPileTeam.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/ChicagoPileTeam.png/330px-ChicagoPileTeam.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/ChicagoPileTeam.png/440px-ChicagoPileTeam.png 2x" data-file-width="1546" data-file-height="1148" /></a><figcaption>Some of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a> team that worked on the <a href="/wiki/Chicago_Pile-1" title="Chicago Pile-1">Chicago Pile-1</a>, the first nuclear reactor, including <a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Enrico Fermi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Walter_Zinn" title="Walter Zinn">Walter Zinn</a> in the front row and <a href="/wiki/Harold_Agnew" title="Harold Agnew">Harold Agnew</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leona_Woods" title="Leona Woods">Leona Woods</a> and <a href="/wiki/Le%C3%B3_Szil%C3%A1rd" class="mw-redirect" title="Leó Szilárd">Leó Szilárd</a> in the second.</figcaption></figure> An Army-OSRD council on 25 June 1942 decided to build a <a href="/wiki/Pilot_plant" title="Pilot plant">pilot plant</a> for plutonium production in the <a href="/wiki/Palos_Forest_Preserves" title="Palos Forest Preserves">Argonne Forest preserve</a>, southwest of Chicago. In July, Nichols arranged for a lease of 1,025 acres (415 ha) from the <a href="/wiki/Cook_County_Forest_Preserve_District" class="mw-redirect" title="Cook County Forest Preserve District">Cook County Forest Preserve District</a>, and Captain James F. Grafton was appointed Chicago area engineer. It soon became apparent that the scale of operations was too great for the area, and it was decided to build the pilot plant at Oak Ridge and keep a research and testing facility in Chicago.<a href="#cite_note-105">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-Red_Gate_Woods-106">[103]</a> Delays in establishing the plant at Argonne led <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Compton" title="Arthur Compton">Arthur Compton</a> to authorize the Metallurgical Laboratory to construct the first nuclear reactor beneath the <a href="/wiki/Bleacher" title="Bleacher">bleachers</a> of <a href="/wiki/Stagg_Field" title="Stagg Field">Stagg Field</a> at the University of Chicago. The reactor required an enormous amount of highly purified <a href="/wiki/Graphite" title="Graphite">graphite</a> blocks and uranium in both metallic and powdered oxide forms. At the time, there was a limited source of pure <a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">uranium</a> metal; <a href="/wiki/Frank_Spedding" title="Frank Spedding">Frank Spedding</a> of <a href="/wiki/Iowa_State_University" title="Iowa State University">Iowa State University</a> was able to produce only two <a href="/wiki/Short_ton" title="Short ton">short tons</a>. Three short tons was supplied by <a href="/wiki/Westinghouse_Lamp_Plant" title="Westinghouse Lamp Plant">Westinghouse Lamp Plant</a>, produced in a rush with makeshift process. A large square balloon was constructed by <a href="/wiki/Goodyear_Tire_and_Rubber_Company" title="Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company">Goodyear Tire</a> to encase the reactor.<a href="#cite_note-107">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-108">[105]</a> On 2 December 1942, a team led by Enrico Fermi initiated the first artificial<a href="#cite_note-110">[d]</a> self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction in an experimental reactor known as <a href="/wiki/Chicago_Pile-1" title="Chicago Pile-1">Chicago Pile-1</a>.<a href="#cite_note-111">[107]</a> The point at which a reaction becomes self-sustaining became known as "going critical". Compton reported the success to Conant in Washington, D.C., by a coded phone call, saying, "The Italian navigator [Fermi] has just landed in the new world."<a href="#cite_note-112">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[e]</a> In January 1943, Grafton's successor, Major <a href="/wiki/Arthur_V._Peterson" title="Arthur V. Peterson">Arthur V. Peterson</a>, ordered Chicago Pile-1 dismantled and reassembled at the Argonne Forest site, as he regarded the operation of a reactor as too hazardous for a densely populated area.<a href="#cite_note-114">[109]</a> The new site, still operated by the Metallurgical Laboratory, became known as '<a href="/wiki/Site_A" title="Site A">Site A</a>'. <a href="/wiki/Chicago_Pile-3" title="Chicago Pile-3">Chicago Pile-3</a>, the first heavy water reactor, also went critical at this site, on 15 May 1944.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHollHewlettHarris1997428-115">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-fermi-116">[111]</a> After the war, operations at Site A were moved about 6 miles (9.7 km) to <a href="/wiki/DuPage_County,_Illinois" title="DuPage County, Illinois">DuPage County</a>, the current location of the <a href="/wiki/Argonne_National_Laboratory" title="Argonne National Laboratory">Argonne National Laboratory</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Red_Gate_Woods-106">[103]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hanford">Hanford</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hanford_Engineer_Works" title="Hanford Engineer Works">Hanford Engineer Works</a></div> By December 1942 there were concerns that even Oak Ridge was too close to a major population center (Knoxville) in the unlikely event of a major nuclear accident. Groves recruited <a href="/wiki/DuPont" title="DuPont">DuPont</a> in November 1942 to be the prime contractor for the construction of the plutonium production complex. The President of the company, <a href="/wiki/Walter_S._Carpenter_Jr." title="Walter S. Carpenter Jr.">Walter S. Carpenter Jr.</a>, wanted no profit of any kind; for legal reasons a nominal fee of one dollar was agreed upon.<a href="#cite_note-117">[112]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hanford_workers.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A large crowd of sullen looking workmen at a counter where two women are writing. Some of the workmen are wearing identify photographs of themselves on their hats." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Hanford_workers.jpg/220px-Hanford_workers.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Hanford_workers.jpg/330px-Hanford_workers.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Hanford_workers.jpg/440px-Hanford_workers.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1411" data-file-height="1115" /></a><figcaption>Hanford workers collect their paychecks at the Western Union office.</figcaption></figure> DuPont recommended that the site be located far from the existing uranium production facility at Oak Ridge.<a href="#cite_note-118">[113]</a> In December 1942, Groves dispatched Colonel <a href="/wiki/Franklin_Matthias" title="Franklin Matthias">Franklin Matthias</a> and DuPont engineers to scout potential sites. Matthias reported that <a href="/wiki/Hanford_Site" title="Hanford Site">Hanford Site</a> near <a href="/wiki/Richland,_Washington" title="Richland, Washington">Richland, Washington</a>, was "ideal in virtually all respects". It was isolated and near the <a href="/wiki/Columbia_River" title="Columbia River">Columbia River</a>, which could supply sufficient water to cool the reactors. Groves visited the site in January and established the Hanford Engineer Works (HEW), codenamed "Site W".<a href="#cite_note-Jones_1987_108–111-119">[114]</a> Under Secretary Patterson gave his approval on 9 February, allocating $5 million for the acquisition of 430,000 acres (170,000 ha). The federal government relocated some 1,500 residents of nearby settlements, as well as the <a href="/wiki/Wanapum" title="Wanapum">Wanapum</a> and other tribes using the area. A dispute arose with farmers over compensation for crops, which had already been planted. Where schedules allowed, the Army allowed the crops to be harvested, but this was not always possible.<a href="#cite_note-Jones_1987_108–111-119">[114]</a> The land acquisition process dragged on and was not completed before the end of the Manhattan Project in December 1946.<a href="#cite_note-120">[115]</a> The dispute did not delay work. Although progress on the reactor design at Metallurgical Laboratory and DuPont was not sufficiently advanced to accurately predict the scope of the project, a start was made in April 1943 on facilities for an estimated 25,000 workers, half of whom were expected to live on-site. By July 1944, some 1,200 buildings had been erected and nearly 51,000 people were living in the construction camp. As area engineer, Matthias exercised overall control of the site.<a href="#cite_note-121">[116]</a> At its peak, the construction camp was the third most populous town in Washington state.<a href="#cite_note-122">[117]</a> Hanford operated a fleet of over 900 buses, more than the city of Chicago.<a href="#cite_note-123">[118]</a> Like Los Alamos and Oak Ridge, Richland was a gated community with restricted access, but it looked more like a typical wartime American boomtown: the military profile was lower, and physical security elements like high fences and guard dogs were less evident.<a href="#cite_note-124">[119]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Canadian_sites">Canadian sites</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Montreal_Laboratory" title="Montreal Laboratory">Montreal Laboratory</a></div> Canada provided research, extraction and production of uranium and plutonium, and Canadian scientists worked at Los Alamos.<a href="#cite_note-125">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-126">[121]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="British_Columbia">British Columbia</h4></div> <a href="/wiki/Cominco" class="mw-redirect" title="Cominco">Cominco</a> had produced electrolytic hydrogen at <a href="/wiki/Trail,_British_Columbia" title="Trail, British Columbia">Trail, British Columbia</a>, since 1930. Urey suggested in 1941 that it could produce heavy water. To the existing $10 million plant consisting of 3,215 cells consuming 75 MW of hydroelectric power, secondary electrolysis cells were added to increase the deuterium concentration in the water from 2.3% to 99.8%. For this process, <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Stott_Taylor" title="Hugh Stott Taylor">Hugh Taylor</a> of Princeton developed a platinum-on-carbon <a href="/wiki/Catalyst" class="mw-redirect" title="Catalyst">catalyst</a> for the first three stages while Urey developed a nickel-<a href="/wiki/Chromium(III)_oxide" title="Chromium(III) oxide">chromia</a> one for the fourth stage tower. The final cost was $2.8 million. The Canadian Government did not officially learn of the project until August 1942. Trail's heavy water production started in January 1944 and continued until 1956. Heavy water from Trail was used for <a href="/wiki/Chicago_Pile_3" class="mw-redirect" title="Chicago Pile 3">Chicago Pile 3</a>, the first reactor using heavy water and natural uranium, which went critical on 15 May 1944.<a href="#cite_note-Waltham,_pp._8-9-127">[122]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ontario">Ontario</h4></div> The <a href="/wiki/Chalk_River_Laboratories" title="Chalk River Laboratories">Chalk River, Ontario</a>, site was established to rehouse the Allied effort at the <a href="/wiki/Montreal_Laboratory" title="Montreal Laboratory">Montreal Laboratory</a> away from an urban area. A new community was built at <a href="/wiki/Deep_River,_Ontario" title="Deep River, Ontario">Deep River, Ontario</a>, to provide residences and facilities for the team members. The site was chosen for its proximity to the industrial manufacturing area of Ontario and Quebec, and proximity to a rail head adjacent to a large military base, <a href="/wiki/Camp_Petawawa" class="mw-redirect" title="Camp Petawawa">Camp Petawawa</a>. Located on the Ottawa River, it had access to abundant water. The first director of the new laboratory was <a href="/wiki/Hans_von_Halban" title="Hans von Halban">Hans von Halban</a>. He was replaced by John Cockcroft in May 1944, who was succeeded by <a href="/wiki/Bennett_Lewis" title="Bennett Lewis">Bennett Lewis</a> in September 1946. A pilot reactor known as <a href="/wiki/ZEEP" title="ZEEP">ZEEP</a> (zero-energy experimental pile) became the first Canadian reactor, and the first to be completed outside the United States, when it went critical in September 1945; ZEEP remained in use by researchers until 1970.<a href="#cite_note-128">[123]</a> A larger 10 MW <a href="/wiki/NRX" title="NRX">NRX</a> reactor, which was designed during the war, was completed and went critical in July 1947.<a href="#cite_note-Waltham,_pp._8-9-127">[122]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Northwest_Territories">Northwest Territories</h4></div> The <a href="/wiki/Eldorado_Mine_(Northwest_Territories)" title="Eldorado Mine (Northwest Territories)">Eldorado Mine</a> at <a href="/wiki/Port_Radium" title="Port Radium">Port Radium</a> was a source of uranium ore.<a href="#cite_note-129">[124]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Heavy_water_sites">Heavy water sites</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/P-9_Project" title="P-9 Project">P-9 Project</a></div> Although DuPont's preferred designs for the nuclear reactors were helium cooled and used graphite as a moderator, DuPont still expressed an interest in using heavy water as a backup. The <a href="/wiki/P-9_Project" title="P-9 Project">P-9 Project</a> was the government's codename for the heavy water production program. It was estimated that 3 short tons (2.7 t) of heavy water would be required per month. The plant at Trail, then under construction, could produce 0.5 short tons (0.45 t) per month. Groves therefore authorized DuPont to establish heavy water facilities at the Morgantown Ordnance Works, near <a href="/wiki/Morgantown,_West_Virginia" title="Morgantown, West Virginia">Morgantown, West Virginia</a>; at the <a href="/wiki/Newport_Chemical_Depot" title="Newport Chemical Depot">Wabash River Ordnance Works</a>, near <a href="/wiki/Dana,_Indiana" title="Dana, Indiana">Dana</a> and <a href="/wiki/Newport,_Indiana" title="Newport, Indiana">Newport, Indiana</a>; and at the <a href="/wiki/Alabama_Army_Ammunition_Plant" title="Alabama Army Ammunition Plant">Alabama Ordnance Works</a>, near <a href="/wiki/Childersburg,_Alabama" title="Childersburg, Alabama">Childersburg</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sylacauga,_Alabama" title="Sylacauga, Alabama">Sylacauga, Alabama</a>. Although known as Ordnance Works and paid for under <a href="/wiki/Ordnance_Department" class="mw-redirect" title="Ordnance Department">Ordnance Department</a> contracts, they were built and operated by the Army Corps of Engineers. The American plants used a process different from Trail's; heavy water was extracted by distillation, taking advantage of the slightly higher boiling point of heavy water.<a href="#cite_note-130">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-131">[126]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Uranium">Uranium</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ore">Ore</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Torbernite-220577.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Torbernite-220577.jpg/220px-Torbernite-220577.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Torbernite-220577.jpg/330px-Torbernite-220577.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Torbernite-220577.jpg/440px-Torbernite-220577.jpg 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="656" /></a><figcaption>A sample of a high-quality uranium-bearing ore (<a href="/wiki/Tobernite" class="mw-redirect" title="Tobernite">Tobernite</a>) from the <a href="/wiki/Shinkolobwe" title="Shinkolobwe">Shinkolobwe</a> mine in <a href="/wiki/Belgian_Congo" title="Belgian Congo">Belgian Congo</a>.</figcaption></figure> The key raw material for the project was uranium, which was used as fuel for the reactors, as feed that was transformed into plutonium, and, in its enriched form, in the atomic bomb itself. There were four known major deposits of uranium in 1940: in Colorado, in northern Canada, in <a href="/wiki/J%C3%A1chymov" title="Jáchymov">Joachimsthal</a> in Czechoslovakia, and in the <a href="/wiki/Belgian_Congo" title="Belgian Congo">Belgian Congo</a>.<a href="#cite_note-132">[127]</a> All but Joachimstal were in Allied hands. A 1942 survey determined that sufficient quantities of uranium were available to satisfy the project's requirements.<a href="#cite_note-133">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-135">[f]</a> Nichols arranged with the <a href="/wiki/State_Department" class="mw-redirect" title="State Department">State Department</a> for export controls to be placed on <a href="/wiki/Uranium_oxide" title="Uranium oxide">uranium oxide</a> and negotiated for the purchase of 1,200 short tons (1,100 t) of uranium ore from the Belgian Congo that was being stored in a warehouse on <a href="/wiki/Staten_Island" title="Staten Island">Staten Island</a> and the remaining stocks of mined ore stored in the Congo. He negotiated with <a href="/wiki/Eldorado_Mining_and_Refining" class="mw-redirect" title="Eldorado Mining and Refining">Eldorado Gold Mines</a> for the purchase of ore from its refinery in Port Hope, Ontario. The Canadian government subsequently bought up the company's stock until it acquired a controlling interest.<a href="#cite_note-136">[130]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ames_Process_uranium_biscuit.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Ames_Process_uranium_biscuit.jpg/220px-Ames_Process_uranium_biscuit.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="325" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Ames_Process_uranium_biscuit.jpg/330px-Ames_Process_uranium_biscuit.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Ames_Process_uranium_biscuit.jpg/440px-Ames_Process_uranium_biscuit.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1352" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>A uranium metal "biscuit" created from the <a href="/wiki/Redox" title="Redox">reduction</a> reaction of the <a href="/wiki/Ames_process" title="Ames process">Ames process</a>.</figcaption></figure> Of these ores, those from the Belgian Congo contained the most uranium per mass of rock by far.<a href="#cite_note-137">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-140">[g]</a> Beyond their wartime needs, American and British leaders concluded that it was in their countries' interest to control as much of the world's uranium deposits as possible. The <a href="/wiki/Shinkolobwe" title="Shinkolobwe">Shinkolobwe</a> mine was flooded and closed, and Nichols unsuccessfully attempted to negotiate its reopening and the sale of the entire future output to the United States with <a href="/wiki/Edgar_Sengier" title="Edgar Sengier">Edgar Sengier</a>, the director of the company that owned the mine, the <a href="/wiki/Union_Mini%C3%A8re_du_Haut-Katanga" title="Union Minière du Haut-Katanga">Union Minière du Haut-Katanga</a>.<a href="#cite_note-141">[134]</a> The matter was then taken up by the Combined Policy Committee. As 30 percent of Union Minière's stock was controlled by British interests, the British took the lead in negotiations. Sir John Anderson and Ambassador <a href="/wiki/John_Winant" class="mw-redirect" title="John Winant">John Winant</a> hammered out a deal with Sengier and the Belgian government in May 1944 for the mine to be reopened and 1,720 short tons (1,560 t) of ore to be purchased at $1.45 a pound.<a href="#cite_note-142">[135]</a> To avoid dependence on the British and Canadians for ore, Groves also arranged for the purchase of US Vanadium Corporation's stockpile in <a href="/wiki/Uravan,_Colorado" title="Uravan, Colorado">Uravan, Colorado</a>.<a href="#cite_note-143">[136]</a> The raw ore was dissolved in <a href="/wiki/Nitric_acid" title="Nitric acid">nitric acid</a> to produce <a href="/wiki/Uranyl_nitrate" title="Uranyl nitrate">uranyl nitrate</a>, which was processed into <a href="/wiki/Uranium_trioxide" title="Uranium trioxide">uranium trioxide</a>, which was reduced to highly pure <a href="/wiki/Uranium_dioxide" title="Uranium dioxide">uranium dioxide</a>.<a href="#cite_note-144">[137]</a> By July 1942, Mallinckrodt was producing a ton of highly pure oxide a day, but turning this into uranium metal initially proved more difficult.<a href="#cite_note-145">[138]</a> Production was too slow and quality was unacceptably low. A branch of the Metallurgical Laboratory was established at <a href="/wiki/Iowa_State_College" class="mw-redirect" title="Iowa State College">Iowa State College</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ames,_Iowa" title="Ames, Iowa">Ames, Iowa</a>, under Frank Spedding to investigate alternatives. This became known as the <a href="/wiki/Ames_Project" title="Ames Project">Ames Project</a>, and its <a href="/wiki/Ames_process" title="Ames process">Ames process</a> became available in 1943.<a href="#cite_note-146">[139]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Isotope_separation">Isotope separation</h3></div> Natural uranium consists of 99.3% uranium-238 and 0.7% uranium-235, but as only the latter is <a href="/wiki/Fissile" class="mw-redirect" title="Fissile">fissile</a> it must be physically separated from the more plentiful isotope. Various methods were considered for <a href="/wiki/Uranium_enrichment" class="mw-redirect" title="Uranium enrichment">uranium enrichment</a>, most of which was carried out at Oak Ridge.<a href="#cite_note-147">[140]</a> The most obvious technology, the centrifuge, failed, but electromagnetic separation, gaseous diffusion, and thermal diffusion technologies were all successful and contributed to the project. In February 1943, Groves came up with the idea of using the output of some plants as the input for others.<a href="#cite_note-148">[141]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Clinton_Engineer_Works.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Contour map of the Oak Ridge area. There is a river to the south, while the township is in the north." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Clinton_Engineer_Works.png/700px-Clinton_Engineer_Works.png" decoding="async" width="700" height="544" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Clinton_Engineer_Works.png/1050px-Clinton_Engineer_Works.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Clinton_Engineer_Works.png/1400px-Clinton_Engineer_Works.png 2x" data-file-width="2113" data-file-height="1642" /></a><figcaption>Oak Ridge hosted several uranium separation technologies. The Y-12 electromagnetic separation plant is in the upper right. The K-25 and K-27 gaseous diffusion plants are in the lower left, near the S-50 thermal diffusion plant. The X-10 was for plutonium production.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Centrifuges">Centrifuges</h4></div> The centrifuge process was regarded as the only promising separation method in April 1942.<a href="#cite_note-149">[142]</a> <a href="/wiki/Jesse_Beams" title="Jesse Beams">Jesse Beams</a> had developed such a process in the 1930s, but had encountered technical difficulties. In 1941 he began working with <a href="/wiki/Uranium_hexafluoride" title="Uranium hexafluoride">uranium hexafluoride</a>, the only known gaseous compound of uranium, and was able to separate uranium-235. At Columbia, <a href="/wiki/Karl_P._Cohen" title="Karl P. Cohen">Karl P. Cohen</a> produced a body of mathematical theory making it possible to design a centrifugal separation unit, which Westinghouse undertook to construct.<a href="#cite_note-150">[143]</a> Scaling this up to a production plant presented a formidable technical challenge. Urey and Cohen estimated that producing a kilogram (2.2 lb) of uranium-235 per day would require up to 50,000 centrifuges with 1-meter (3 ft 3 in) rotors, or 10,000 centrifuges with 4-meter (13 ft) rotors, assuming that 4-meter rotors could be built. The prospect of keeping so many rotors operating continuously at high speed appeared daunting,<a href="#cite_note-151">[144]</a> and when Beams ran his experimental apparatus, he obtained only 60% of the predicted yield, indicating that more centrifuges were required. Beams, Urey and Cohen then began work on a series of improvements which promised to increase efficiency. However, frequent failures of motors, shafts and bearings at high speeds delayed work on the pilot plant.<a href="#cite_note-152">[145]</a> In November 1942 the centrifuge process was abandoned by the Military Policy Committee.<a href="#cite_note-153">[146]</a> Successful gas centrifuges of the <a href="/wiki/Zippe-type_centrifuge" title="Zippe-type centrifuge">Zippe-type</a> design were instead developed in the Soviet Union after the war. It eventually became the preferred method of uranium isotope separation, being far more economical.<a href="#cite_note-154">[147]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Electromagnetic_separation">Electromagnetic separation</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Y-12_Project" class="mw-redirect" title="Y-12 Project">Y-12 Project</a></div> Electromagnetic isotope separation was developed at the University of California Radiation Laboratory. This method employed devices known as <a href="/wiki/Calutron" title="Calutron">calutrons</a>. The name was derived from the words California, university and cyclotron.<a href="#cite_note-Jones,_pp._117-119-155">[148]</a> In the electromagnetic process, a magnetic field deflected charged particles according to mass.<a href="#cite_note-156">[149]</a> The process was neither scientifically elegant nor industrially efficient.<a href="#cite_note-Fine_&_Remington,_p._684-157">[150]</a> Compared with a gaseous diffusion plant or a nuclear reactor, an electromagnetic separation plant would consume more scarce materials, require more manpower to operate, and cost more to build. Nonetheless, the process was approved because it was based on proven technology and therefore represented less risk. Moreover, it could be built in stages, and rapidly reach industrial capacity.<a href="#cite_note-Jones,_pp._117-119-155">[148]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alpha_1_racetrack,_Uranium_235_electromagnetic_separation_plant,_Manhattan_Project,_Y-12_Oak_Ridge.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A large oval-shaped structure" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Alpha_1_racetrack%2C_Uranium_235_electromagnetic_separation_plant%2C_Manhattan_Project%2C_Y-12_Oak_Ridge.jpg/220px-Alpha_1_racetrack%2C_Uranium_235_electromagnetic_separation_plant%2C_Manhattan_Project%2C_Y-12_Oak_Ridge.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Alpha_1_racetrack%2C_Uranium_235_electromagnetic_separation_plant%2C_Manhattan_Project%2C_Y-12_Oak_Ridge.jpg/330px-Alpha_1_racetrack%2C_Uranium_235_electromagnetic_separation_plant%2C_Manhattan_Project%2C_Y-12_Oak_Ridge.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Alpha_1_racetrack%2C_Uranium_235_electromagnetic_separation_plant%2C_Manhattan_Project%2C_Y-12_Oak_Ridge.jpg/440px-Alpha_1_racetrack%2C_Uranium_235_electromagnetic_separation_plant%2C_Manhattan_Project%2C_Y-12_Oak_Ridge.jpg 2x" data-file-width="930" data-file-height="731" /></a><figcaption>Alpha I racetrack at Y-12</figcaption></figure> Marshall and Nichols discovered that the electromagnetic isotope separation process would require 5,000 short tons (4,500 tonnes) of copper, which was in desperately short supply. However, silver could be substituted, in an 11:10 copper to silver ratio. On 3 August 1942, Nichols met with <a href="/wiki/United_States_Deputy_Secretary_of_the_Treasury" title="United States Deputy Secretary of the Treasury">Under Secretary of the Treasury</a> <a href="/wiki/Daniel_W._Bell" title="Daniel W. Bell">Daniel W. Bell</a> and asked for the transfer of 6,000 tons of silver bullion from the <a href="/wiki/West_Point_Bullion_Depository" class="mw-redirect" title="West Point Bullion Depository">West Point Bullion Depository</a>.<a href="#cite_note-158">[151]</a> Ultimately 14,700 short tons (13,300 tonnes; 430,000,000 troy ounces) were used.<a href="#cite_note-Jones,_p._133-159">[152]</a> The 1,000-troy-ounce (31 kg) silver bars were cast into cylindrical billets, extruded into strips, and wound onto magnetic coils.<a href="#cite_note-Jones,_p._133-159">[152]</a><a href="#cite_note-160">[153]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Y12_Calutron_Operators.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A long corridor with many consoles with dials and switches, attended by women seated on high stools" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Y12_Calutron_Operators.jpg/220px-Y12_Calutron_Operators.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Y12_Calutron_Operators.jpg/330px-Y12_Calutron_Operators.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Y12_Calutron_Operators.jpg/440px-Y12_Calutron_Operators.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1725" data-file-height="1368" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Calutron_Girls" title="Calutron Girls">Calutron Girls</a> were young women who monitored calutron control panels at Y-12. Gladys Owens, seated in the foreground, was unaware of what she had been involved in.<a href="#cite_note-161">[154]</a></figcaption></figure> Responsibility for the design and construction of the electromagnetic separation plant, which came to be called <a href="/wiki/Y-12_National_Security_Complex" title="Y-12 National Security Complex">Y-12</a>, was assigned to Stone & Webster in June 1942. The design called for five first-stage processing units, known as Alpha racetracks, and two units for final processing, known as Beta racetracks. In September 1943 Groves authorized construction of four more racetracks, known as Alpha II. Construction began in February 1943.<a href="#cite_note-162">[155]</a> The second Alpha I was operational at the end of January 1944, the first Beta and first and third Alpha I's came online in March, and the fourth Alpha I was operational in April. The four Alpha II racetracks were completed between July and October 1944.<a href="#cite_note-163">[156]</a> <a href="/wiki/Tennessee_Eastman" class="mw-redirect" title="Tennessee Eastman">Tennessee Eastman</a> was contracted to manage Y-12.<a href="#cite_note-164">[157]</a> The calutrons were turned over to trained Tennessee Eastman operators known as the <a href="/wiki/Calutron_Girls" title="Calutron Girls">Calutron Girls</a>.<a href="#cite_note-165">[158]</a> The calutrons initially enriched the uranium-235 content to between 13% and 15%, and shipped the first few hundred grams of this to Los Alamos in March 1944. Only 1 part in 5,825 of the uranium feed emerged as product. Much of the rest was splattered over equipment in the process. Strenuous recovery efforts helped raise production to 10% of the uranium-235 feed by January 1945. In February the Alpha racetracks began receiving slightly enriched (1.4%) feed from the new S-50 thermal diffusion plant, and the next month they received enhanced (5%) feed from the K-25 gaseous diffusion plant. By August, K-25 was producing uranium sufficiently enriched to feed directly into the Beta tracks.<a href="#cite_note-166">[159]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Gaseous_diffusion">Gaseous diffusion</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/K-25" title="K-25">K-25</a></div> The most promising but also the most challenging method of isotope separation was gaseous diffusion. <a href="/wiki/Graham%27s_law" title="Graham's law">Graham's law</a> states that the rate of <a href="/wiki/Effusion" title="Effusion">effusion</a> of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of its <a href="/wiki/Molecular_mass" title="Molecular mass">molecular mass</a>, so in a box containing a semi-permeable membrane and a mixture of two gases, the lighter molecules will pass out of the container more rapidly than the heavier molecules. The idea was that such boxes could be formed into a cascade of pumps and membranes, with each successive stage containing a slightly more enriched mixture. Research into the process was carried out at Columbia University by a group that included Harold Urey, <a href="/wiki/Karl_P._Cohen" title="Karl P. Cohen">Karl P. Cohen</a>, and <a href="/wiki/John_R._Dunning" title="John R. Dunning">John R. Dunning</a>.<a href="#cite_note-167">[160]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:K-25_aerial_view.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Oblique aerial view of an enormous U-shaped building" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/K-25_aerial_view.jpg/220px-K-25_aerial_view.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/K-25_aerial_view.jpg/330px-K-25_aerial_view.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/K-25_aerial_view.jpg/440px-K-25_aerial_view.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="956" /></a><figcaption>Oak Ridge K-25 plant</figcaption></figure> In November 1942 the Military Policy Committee approved the construction of a 600-stage gaseous diffusion plant.<a href="#cite_note-168">[161]</a> On 14 December, <a href="/wiki/M._W._Kellogg" class="mw-redirect" title="M. W. Kellogg">M. W. Kellogg</a> accepted an offer to construct the plant, which was codenamed K-25. A separate corporate entity called Kellex was created for the project.<a href="#cite_note-169">[162]</a> The process faced formidable technical difficulties. The highly corrosive gas uranium hexafluoride had to be used as no substitute could be found, and the motors and pumps had to be vacuum tight and enclosed in inert gas. The biggest problem was the design of the barrier, which had to be strong, porous and resistant to corrosion. Edward Adler and Edward Norris created a mesh barrier from electroplated nickel. A six-stage pilot plant was built at Columbia to test the process, but the prototype proved to be too brittle. A rival barrier was developed from powdered nickel by Kellex, the <a href="/wiki/Bell_Telephone_Laboratories" class="mw-redirect" title="Bell Telephone Laboratories">Bell Telephone Laboratories</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Bakelite" title="Bakelite">Bakelite</a> Corporation. In January 1944, Groves ordered the Kellex barrier into production.<a href="#cite_note-170">[163]</a><a href="#cite_note-171">[164]</a> Kellex's design for K-25 called for a four-story 0.5-mile (0.80 km) long U-shaped structure containing 54 contiguous buildings. These were divided into nine sections containing cells of six stages. A survey party began construction by marking out the 500-acre (2.0 km2) site in May 1943. Work on the main building began in October 1943, and the six-stage pilot plant was ready for operation on 17 April 1944. In 1945 Groves canceled the upper stages, directing Kellex to instead design and build a 540-stage side feed unit, which became known as K-27. Kellex transferred the last unit to the operating contractor, <a href="/wiki/Union_Carbide" title="Union Carbide">Union Carbide</a> and Carbon, on 11 September 1945. The total cost, including the K-27 plant completed after the war, came to $480 million.<a href="#cite_note-172">[165]</a> The production plant commenced operation in February 1945, and as cascade after cascade came online, the quality of the product increased. By April 1945, K-25 had attained a 1.1% enrichment, and the output of the S-50 thermal diffusion plant began being used as feed. Some product produced the next month reached nearly 7% enrichment. In August, the last of the 2,892 stages commenced operation. K-25 and K-27 achieved their full potential in the early postwar period, when they eclipsed the other production plants and became the prototypes for a new generation of plants.<a href="#cite_note-173">[166]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Thermal_diffusion">Thermal diffusion</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/S-50_Project" class="mw-redirect" title="S-50 Project">S-50 Project</a></div> The thermal diffusion process was based on <a href="/wiki/Sydney_Chapman_(mathematician)" title="Sydney Chapman (mathematician)">Sydney Chapman</a> and <a href="/wiki/David_Enskog" title="David Enskog">David Enskog</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Chapman%E2%80%93Enskog_theory" title="Chapman–Enskog theory">theory</a>, which explained that when a mixed gas passes through a temperature gradient, the heavier one tends to concentrate at the cold end and the lighter one at the warm end.<a href="#cite_note-174">[167]</a> It was developed by US Navy scientists, but was not one of the enrichment technologies initially selected for use in the Manhattan Project. This was primarily due to doubts about its technical feasibility, but the inter-service rivalry between the Army and Navy also played a part.<a href="#cite_note-175">[168]</a> The Naval Research Laboratory continued the research under Philip Abelson's direction, but there was little contact with the Manhattan Project until April 1944, when <a href="/wiki/Captain_(United_States_O-6)" title="Captain (United States O-6)">Captain</a> <a href="/wiki/William_S._Parsons" class="mw-redirect" title="William S. Parsons">William S. Parsons</a>, the naval officer in charge of ordnance development at Los Alamos, brought Oppenheimer news of encouraging progress on thermal diffusion. Oppenheimer informed Groves, who approved construction of a thermal plant on 24 June 1944.<a href="#cite_note-176">[169]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:S50plant.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A factory with three smoking chimneys on a river bend, viewed from above" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/S50plant.jpg/220px-S50plant.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/S50plant.jpg/330px-S50plant.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/S50plant.jpg/440px-S50plant.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="595" /></a><figcaption>The S-50 plant is the dark building to the upper left behind the Oak Ridge powerhouse (with smokestacks).</figcaption></figure> Groves contracted with the H. K. Ferguson Company of <a href="/wiki/Cleveland" title="Cleveland">Cleveland</a>, Ohio, to build the thermal diffusion plant, which was designated S-50.<a href="#cite_note-177">[170]</a> Plans called for the installation of 2,142 48-foot-tall (15 m) diffusion columns arranged in 21 racks. Inside each column were three concentric tubes. Steam, obtained from the nearby K-25 powerhouse<a href="#cite_note-178">[h]</a> at a pressure of 100 pounds per square inch (690 kPa) and temperature of 545 °F (285 °C), flowed downward through the innermost 1.25-inch (32 mm) nickel pipe, while water at 155 °F (68 °C) flowed upward through the outermost iron pipe. The uranium hexafluoride flowed in the middle copper pipe, and isotope separation of the uranium occurred between the nickel and copper pipes.<a href="#cite_note-179">[171]</a> Work commenced on 9 July 1944, and S-50 began partial operation in September. Leaks limited production and forced shutdowns over the next few months, but in June 1945 the S-50 plant produced 12,730 pounds (5,770 kg) of slightly enriched product.<a href="#cite_note-180">[172]</a> By March 1945, all 21 production racks were operating. Initially the output of S-50 was fed into Y-12, but starting in March 1945 all three enrichment processes were run in series. S-50 became the first stage, enriching the uranium from 0.71% to 0.89% uranium-235. This was then fed into the gaseous diffusion process in the K-25 plant, which produced a product enriched to about 23%. In turn, this was fed into Y-12,<a href="#cite_note-181">[173]</a> which boosted it to about 89%, sufficient for use in nuclear weapons. About 50 kilograms (110 lb) of uranium enriched to 89% was delivered to Los Alamos by July 1945. The entire 50 kg, along with some 50%-enriched, averaging out to about 85% enriched, were used in the first <a href="/wiki/Little_Boy" title="Little Boy">Little Boy</a> bomb.<a href="#cite_note-Hansen,_p._112-182">[174]</a> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Plutonium">Plutonium</h2></div> The second line of development pursued by the Manhattan Project used plutonium. Although small amounts of plutonium exist in nature, the best way to obtain large quantities is via a reactor. Natural uranium is bombarded by neutrons and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_transmutation" title="Nuclear transmutation">transmuted</a> into <a href="/wiki/Uranium-239" class="mw-redirect" title="Uranium-239">uranium-239</a>, which rapidly decays, first into <a href="/wiki/Neptunium-239" class="mw-redirect" title="Neptunium-239">neptunium-239</a> and then into <a href="/wiki/Plutonium-239" title="Plutonium-239">plutonium-239</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Smyth,_pp._130-132-183">[175]</a> As only a small amount will be transformed, the plutonium must be chemically separated from the remaining uranium, from any initial impurities, and from <a href="/wiki/Fission_products" class="mw-redirect" title="Fission products">fission products</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Smyth,_pp._130-132-183">[175]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="X-10_Graphite_Reactor">X-10 Graphite Reactor</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/X-10_Graphite_Reactor" title="X-10 Graphite Reactor">X-10 Graphite Reactor</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:X10_Reactor_Face.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Two workmen on a movable platform similar to that used by window washers, stick a rod into one of many small holes in the wall in front of them." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/X10_Reactor_Face.jpg/220px-X10_Reactor_Face.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="232" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/X10_Reactor_Face.jpg/330px-X10_Reactor_Face.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/X10_Reactor_Face.jpg/440px-X10_Reactor_Face.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="2528" /></a><figcaption>Workers load uranium slugs into the X-10 Graphite Reactor.</figcaption></figure> In March 1943, DuPont began construction of a plutonium plant on a 112-acre (0.5 km2) site at Oak Ridge. Intended as a pilot plant for the larger production facilities at Hanford, it included the air-cooled <a href="/wiki/X-10_Graphite_Reactor" title="X-10 Graphite Reactor">X-10 Graphite Reactor</a>, a chemical separation plant, and support facilities. Because of the subsequent decision to construct water-cooled reactors at Hanford, only the chemical separation plant operated as a true pilot.<a href="#cite_note-Jones,_pp._204-206-184">[176]</a> The X-10 Graphite Reactor consisted of a huge block of graphite, 24 feet (7.3 m) per side, weighing around 1,500 short tons (1,400 t), surrounded by 7 feet (2.1 m) of high-density concrete as a radiation shield.<a href="#cite_note-Jones,_pp._204-206-184">[176]</a> The greatest difficulty was encountered with the uranium slugs produced by Mallinckrodt and Metal Hydrides. These had to be coated in aluminum to avoid corrosion and the escape of fission products into the cooling system. The Grasselli Chemical Company attempted to develop a <a href="/wiki/Tinning#Hot-dipping" title="Tinning">hot dipping process</a> without success. <a href="/wiki/Alcoa" title="Alcoa">Alcoa</a> tried canning, developing a new process for flux-less welding; 97% of the cans passed a standard vacuum test, but high temperature tests indicated a failure rate of more than 50%. Nonetheless, production began in June 1943. The Metallurgical Laboratory eventually developed an improved welding technique with the help of <a href="/wiki/General_Electric" title="General Electric">General Electric</a>, which was incorporated into the production process in October 1943.<a href="#cite_note-185">[177]</a> The X-10 Graphite Reactor went critical on 4 November 1943 with about 30 short tons (27 t) of uranium. A week later the load was increased to 36 short tons (33 t), raising its power generation to 500 kW, and by the end of the month the first 500 mg of plutonium was created.<a href="#cite_note-186">[178]</a> Gradual modifications raised the power to 4,000 kW in July 1944. X-10 operated as a production plant until January 1945, when it was turned over to research.<a href="#cite_note-Jones_1985_209-187">[179]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hanford_reactors">Hanford reactors</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hanford_Engineer_Works" title="Hanford Engineer Works">Hanford Engineer Works</a></div> Although an air-cooled design was chosen for the reactor at Oak Ridge to facilitate rapid construction, this was impractical for the much larger production reactors. Initial designs by the Metallurgical Laboratory and DuPont used helium for cooling, before they determined that a water-cooled reactor was simpler, cheaper and quicker to build.<a href="#cite_note-188">[180]</a> The design did not become available until 4 October 1943; in the meantime, Matthias concentrated on improving the Hanford Site by erecting accommodations, improving the roads, building a railway switch line, and upgrading the electricity, water and telephone lines.<a href="#cite_note-189">[181]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hanford_B-Reactor_Area_1944.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="An aerial view of the Hanford B-Reactor site from June 1944. At center is the reactor building. Small trucks dot the landscape and give a sense of scale. Two large water towers loom above the plant." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Hanford_B-Reactor_Area_1944.jpg/220px-Hanford_B-Reactor_Area_1944.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Hanford_B-Reactor_Area_1944.jpg/330px-Hanford_B-Reactor_Area_1944.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Hanford_B-Reactor_Area_1944.jpg/440px-Hanford_B-Reactor_Area_1944.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1320" data-file-height="993" /></a><figcaption>Aerial view of Hanford <a href="/wiki/B-Reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="B-Reactor">B-Reactor</a> site, June 1944</figcaption></figure> As at Oak Ridge, the most difficulty was encountered while canning the uranium slugs, which commenced at Hanford in March 1944. They were <a href="/wiki/Pickling_(metal)" title="Pickling (metal)">pickled</a> to remove dirt and impurities, dipped in molten bronze, tin, and <a href="/wiki/Silumin" class="mw-redirect" title="Silumin">aluminum-silicon alloy</a>, canned using hydraulic presses, and then capped using <a href="/wiki/Arc_welding" title="Arc welding">arc welding</a> under an argon atmosphere. Finally, they were tested to detect holes or faulty welds. Disappointingly, most canned slugs initially failed the tests, resulting in an output of only a handful per day. But steady progress was made and by June 1944 production increased to the point where it appeared that enough canned slugs was available to start <a href="/wiki/B-Reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="B-Reactor">Reactor B</a> on schedule in August 1944.<a href="#cite_note-190">[182]</a> Work began on Reactor B, the first of six planned 250 MW reactors, on 10 October 1943.<a href="#cite_note-191">[183]</a> The reactor complexes were given letter designations A through F, with B, D and F sites developed first, as this maximized the distance between the reactors. They were the only ones constructed during the Manhattan Project.<a href="#cite_note-192">[184]</a> Some 390 short tons (350 t) of steel, 17,400 cubic yards (13,300 m3) of concrete, 50,000 concrete blocks and 71,000 concrete bricks were used to construct the 120-foot (37 m) high building. Construction of the reactor itself commenced in February 1944.<a href="#cite_note-193">[185]</a> Watched by Compton, Matthias, DuPont's <a href="/wiki/Crawford_Greenewalt" title="Crawford Greenewalt">Crawford Greenewalt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leona_Woods" title="Leona Woods">Leona Woods</a> and Fermi, who inserted the first slug, the reactor was powered up beginning on 13 September 1944. Over the next few days, 838 tubes were loaded and the reactor went critical. Shortly after midnight on 27 September, the operators began to withdraw the <a href="/wiki/Control_rod" title="Control rod">control rods</a> to initiate production. At first all appeared well but around 03:00 the power level started to drop and by 06:30 the reactor had shut down completely. The cooling water was investigated to see if there was a leak or contamination. The next day the reactor started up again, only to shut down once more.<a href="#cite_note-194">[186]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jones,_pp._220-223-195">[187]</a> Fermi contacted <a href="/wiki/Chien-Shiung_Wu" title="Chien-Shiung Wu">Chien-Shiung Wu</a>, who identified the cause of the problem as <a href="/wiki/Neutron_poison" title="Neutron poison">neutron poisoning</a> from <a href="/wiki/Xenon-135" title="Xenon-135">xenon-135</a>, which has a <a href="/wiki/Half-life" title="Half-life">half-life</a> of 9.2 hours.<a href="#cite_note-196">[188]</a> Fermi, Woods, <a href="/wiki/Donald_J._Hughes" title="Donald J. Hughes">Donald J. Hughes</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Archibald_Wheeler" title="John Archibald Wheeler">John Archibald Wheeler</a> then calculated the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_cross_section" title="Nuclear cross section">nuclear cross section</a> of xenon-135, which turned out to be 30,000 times that of uranium.<a href="#cite_note-197">[189]</a> DuPont engineer George Graves had deviated from the Metallurgical Laboratory's original design in which the reactor had 1,500 tubes arranged in a circle, and had added an additional 504 tubes to fill in the corners. The scientists had originally considered this overengineering a waste of time and money, but Fermi realized that by loading all 2,004 tubes, the reactor could reach the required power level and efficiently produce plutonium.<a href="#cite_note-198">[190]</a> Reactor D was started on 17 December 1944 and Reactor F on 25 February 1945.<a href="#cite_note-Thayer_1996_141-199">[191]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Separation_process">Separation process</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hanford_Engineer_Works.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A contour map showing the fork of the Columbia and Yakima rivers and the boundary of the land, with seven small red squares marked on it" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Hanford_Engineer_Works.png/350px-Hanford_Engineer_Works.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="391" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Hanford_Engineer_Works.png/525px-Hanford_Engineer_Works.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Hanford_Engineer_Works.png/700px-Hanford_Engineer_Works.png 2x" data-file-width="1837" data-file-height="2052" /></a><figcaption>Map of the Hanford Site. Railroads flank the plants to the north and south. Reactors are the three northernmost red squares, along the Columbia River. The separation plants are the lower two red squares from the grouping south of the reactors. The bottom red square is the 300 area.</figcaption></figure> Meanwhile, the chemists considered how plutonium could be separated from uranium when its chemical properties were not known. Working with the minute quantities of plutonium available at the Metallurgical Laboratory in 1942, a team under Charles M. Cooper developed a <a href="/wiki/Fluoride_selective_electrode" title="Fluoride selective electrode">lanthanum fluoride process</a> which was chosen for the pilot separation plant. A second separation process, the <a href="/wiki/Bismuth_phosphate_process" title="Bismuth phosphate process">bismuth phosphate process</a>, was subsequently developed by Seaborg and Stanly G. Thomson.<a href="#cite_note-200">[192]</a> Greenewalt favored the bismuth phosphate process due to the corrosive nature of lanthanum fluoride, and it was selected for the Hanford separation plants.<a href="#cite_note-201">[193]</a> Once X-10 began producing plutonium, the pilot separation plant was put to the test. The first batch was processed at 40% efficiency but over the next few months this was raised to 90%.<a href="#cite_note-Jones_1985_209-187">[179]</a> At Hanford, top priority was initially given to the installations in the 300 area: buildings for testing materials, preparing uranium, and assembling and calibrating instrumentation. One of the buildings housed the canning equipment for the uranium slugs, while another contained a small test reactor. Notwithstanding its priority, work on the 300 area fell behind schedule due to the unique and complex nature of the facilities, and wartime shortages of labor and materials.<a href="#cite_note-202">[194]</a> Early plans called for the construction of two separation plants in each of the areas known as 200-West and 200-East. This was subsequently reduced to two, the T and U plants, in 200-West and one, the B plant, at 200-East.<a href="#cite_note-203">[195]</a> Each separation plant consisted of four buildings: a process cell building or "canyon" (known as 221), a concentration building (224), a purification building (231) and a magazine store (213). The canyons were each 800 feet (240 m) long and 65 feet (20 m) wide. Each consisted of forty 17.7-by-13-by-20-foot (5.4 by 4.0 by 6.1 m) cells.<a href="#cite_note-204">[196]</a> Work began on 221-T and 221-U in January 1944, with the former completed in September and the latter in December. The 221-B building followed in March 1945. Because of the high levels of radioactivity involved, work in the separation plants had to be conducted by remote control using closed-circuit television, something unheard of in 1943. Maintenance was carried out with the aid of an overhead crane and specially designed tools. The 224 buildings were smaller because they had less material to process, and it was less radioactive. The 224-T and 224-U buildings were completed on 8 October 1944, and 224-B followed on 10 February 1945. The purification methods that were eventually used in 231-W were still unknown when construction commenced on 8 April 1944, but the plant was complete and the methods were selected by the end of the year.<a href="#cite_note-205">[197]</a> On 5 February 1945, Matthias hand-delivered the first shipment of 80 g of 95%-pure plutonium nitrate to a Los Alamos courier in Los Angeles.<a href="#cite_note-Thayer_1996_141-199">[191]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Weapon_design">Weapon design</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Project_Y" title="Project Y">Project Y</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thin_Man_plutonium_gun_bomb_casings.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Long, tube-like casings. In the background are several ovoid casings and a tow truck." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Thin_Man_plutonium_gun_bomb_casings.jpg/220px-Thin_Man_plutonium_gun_bomb_casings.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Thin_Man_plutonium_gun_bomb_casings.jpg/330px-Thin_Man_plutonium_gun_bomb_casings.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Thin_Man_plutonium_gun_bomb_casings.jpg/440px-Thin_Man_plutonium_gun_bomb_casings.jpg 2x" data-file-width="898" data-file-height="520" /></a><figcaption>A row of Thin Man casings. Fat Man casings are visible in the background.</figcaption></figure> In 1943, development efforts were directed to a <a href="/wiki/Gun-type_fission_weapon" title="Gun-type fission weapon">gun-type fission weapon</a> with plutonium called <a href="/wiki/Thin_Man_(nuclear_bomb)" title="Thin Man (nuclear bomb)">Thin Man</a>. Initial research on the properties of plutonium was done using cyclotron-generated plutonium-239, which was extremely pure but could only be created in very small amounts. Los Alamos received the first sample of plutonium from the Clinton X-10 reactor in April 1944 and within days Emilio Segrè discovered a problem: the reactor-bred plutonium had a higher concentration of plutonium-240, resulting in up to five times the spontaneous fission rate of cyclotron plutonium.<a href="#cite_note-206">[198]</a> This rendered it unsuitable for use in a gun-type weapon, for the plutonium-240 would start the chain reaction too soon, causing a <a href="/wiki/Predetonation" class="mw-redirect" title="Predetonation">predetonation</a> that would disperse the critical mass after a minimal amount of plutonium had fissioned (a <a href="/wiki/Fizzle_(nuclear_test)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fizzle (nuclear test)">fizzle</a>). A higher-velocity gun was suggested but found to be impractical. The possibility of separating the isotopes was also considered and rejected, as plutonium-240 is even harder to separate from plutonium-239 than uranium-235 from uranium-238, and attempting it "would postpone the weapon indefinitely".<a href="#cite_note-207">[199]</a> Work on an alternative method of bomb design, known as implosion, had begun earlier under the direction of the physicist <a href="/wiki/Seth_Neddermeyer" title="Seth Neddermeyer">Seth Neddermeyer</a>. Implosion used explosives to crush a subcritical sphere of fissile material into a smaller and denser form. The critical mass is assembled in much less time than with the gun method. When the fissile atoms are packed closer together, the rate of neutron capture increases,<a href="#cite_note-208">[200]</a> so it also makes more efficient use of fissionable material.<a href="#cite_note-209">[201]</a> Neddermeyer's 1943 and early 1944 investigations showed promise, but also made it clear that an implosion weapon was more complex than the gun-type design from both a theoretical and an engineering perspective.<a href="#cite_note-210">[202]</a> In September 1943, <a href="/wiki/John_von_Neumann" title="John von Neumann">John von Neumann</a>, who had experience with <a href="/wiki/Shaped_charge" title="Shaped charge">shaped charges</a>, proposed using a spherical configuration instead of the cylindrical one that Neddermeyer was working on.<a href="#cite_note-211">[203]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fat_Man_design_model.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Diagram showing fast explosive, slow explosive, uranium tamper, plutonium core and neutron initiator" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Fat_Man_design_model.png/220px-Fat_Man_design_model.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Fat_Man_design_model.png/330px-Fat_Man_design_model.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Fat_Man_design_model.png/440px-Fat_Man_design_model.png 2x" data-file-width="1883" data-file-height="1493" /></a><figcaption>An implosion-type nuclear bomb</figcaption></figure> An accelerated effort on the implosion design, codenamed <a href="/wiki/Fat_Man" title="Fat Man">Fat Man</a>, began in August 1944 when Oppenheimer implemented a sweeping reorganization of the Los Alamos laboratory to focus on implosion.<a href="#cite_note-212">[204]</a> Two new groups were created at Los Alamos to develop the implosion weapon, X (for explosives) Division headed by explosives expert <a href="/wiki/George_Kistiakowsky" title="George Kistiakowsky">George Kistiakowsky</a> and G (for gadget) Division under Robert Bacher.<a href="#cite_note-213">[205]</a><a href="#cite_note-214">[206]</a> The new design featured <a href="/wiki/Explosive_lens" title="Explosive lens">explosive lenses</a> that focused the implosion into a spherical shape.<a href="#cite_note-Hoddeson_et_al,_pp._294-296-215">[207]</a> The design of lenses turned out to be slow, difficult and frustrating.<a href="#cite_note-Hoddeson_et_al,_pp._294-296-215">[207]</a> Various explosives were tested before settling on <a href="/wiki/Composition_B" title="Composition B">composition B</a> and <a href="/wiki/Baratol" title="Baratol">baratol</a>.<a href="#cite_note-216">[208]</a> The final design resembled a soccer ball, with 20 hexagonal and 12 pentagonal lenses, each weighing about 80 pounds (36 kg). Getting the detonation just right required fast, reliable and safe electrical <a href="/wiki/Detonator" title="Detonator">detonators</a>, of which there were two for each lens for reliability.<a href="#cite_note-Hansen._p._V-123-217">[209]</a> They used <a href="/wiki/Exploding-bridgewire_detonator" title="Exploding-bridgewire detonator">exploding-bridgewire detonators</a>, a new invention developed at Los Alamos by a group led by <a href="/wiki/Luis_Walter_Alvarez" title="Luis Walter Alvarez">Luis Alvarez</a>.<a href="#cite_note-218">[210]</a> To study the behavior of converging <a href="/wiki/Shock_wave" title="Shock wave">shock waves</a>, Robert Serber devised the <a href="/wiki/RaLa_Experiment" title="RaLa Experiment">RaLa Experiment</a>, which used the short-lived <a href="/wiki/Radioisotope" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioisotope">radioisotope</a> <a href="/wiki/Lanthanum-140" class="mw-redirect" title="Lanthanum-140">lanthanum-140</a>, a potent source of <a href="/wiki/Gamma_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma radiation">gamma radiation</a>. The gamma ray source was placed in the center of a metal sphere surrounded by the explosive lenses, which in turn were inside in an <a href="/wiki/Ionization_chamber" title="Ionization chamber">ionization chamber</a>. This allowed the taking of an X-ray movie of the implosion. The lenses were designed primarily using this series of tests.<a href="#cite_note-219">[211]</a> In his history of the Los Alamos project, <a href="/wiki/David_Hawkins_(philosopher)" title="David Hawkins (philosopher)">David Hawkins</a> wrote: "RaLa became the most important single experiment affecting the final bomb design".<a href="#cite_note-220">[212]</a> Within the explosives was an aluminum pusher, which provided a smooth transition from the relatively low-density explosive to the next layer, the <a href="/wiki/Tamper_(nuclear_weapons)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tamper (nuclear weapons)">tamper</a> of natural uranium. Its main job was to hold the critical mass together as long as possible, but it would also reflect neutrons into the core and some of its uranium would fission. To prevent predetonation by an external neutron, the tamper was coated in a thin layer of neutron-absorbing boron.<a href="#cite_note-Hansen._p._V-123-217">[209]</a> A polonium-beryllium <a href="/wiki/Modulated_neutron_initiator" title="Modulated neutron initiator">modulated neutron initiator</a>, known as an "urchin",<a href="#cite_note-221">[213]</a> was developed to start the chain reaction at precisely the right moment.<a href="#cite_note-222">[214]</a> This work on the chemistry and metallurgy of radioactive polonium was directed by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Allen_Thomas" title="Charles Allen Thomas">Charles Allen Thomas</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Monsanto_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Monsanto Company">Monsanto Company</a> and became known as the <a href="/wiki/Dayton_Project" title="Dayton Project">Dayton Project</a>.<a href="#cite_note-223">[215]</a> Testing required up to 500 <a href="/wiki/Curie_(unit)" title="Curie (unit)">curies</a> per month of polonium, which Monsanto was able to deliver.<a href="#cite_note-224">[216]</a> The whole assembly was encased in a <a href="/wiki/Duralumin" title="Duralumin">duralumin</a> bomb casing to protect it from bullets and flak.<a href="#cite_note-Hansen._p._V-123-217">[209]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Remote_handling_of_a_kilocurie_source_of_radiolanthanum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A shack surrounded by pine trees. There is snow on the ground. A man and a woman in white lab coats are pulling on a rope, which is attached to a small trolley on a wooden platform. On top of the trolley is a large cylindrical object." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Remote_handling_of_a_kilocurie_source_of_radiolanthanum.jpg/220px-Remote_handling_of_a_kilocurie_source_of_radiolanthanum.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Remote_handling_of_a_kilocurie_source_of_radiolanthanum.jpg/330px-Remote_handling_of_a_kilocurie_source_of_radiolanthanum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Remote_handling_of_a_kilocurie_source_of_radiolanthanum.jpg/440px-Remote_handling_of_a_kilocurie_source_of_radiolanthanum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2702" data-file-height="2064" /></a><figcaption>Remote handling of a kilocurie source of radiolanthanum for a <a href="/wiki/RaLa_Experiment" title="RaLa Experiment">RaLa Experiment</a> at Los Alamos</figcaption></figure> The ultimate task of the metallurgists was to determine how to cast plutonium into a sphere. The difficulties became apparent when attempts to measure the density of plutonium gave inconsistent results. At first contamination was suspected, but it was soon determined that there were multiple <a href="/wiki/Allotropes_of_plutonium" title="Allotropes of plutonium">allotropes of plutonium</a>.<a href="#cite_note-225">[217]</a> The brittle α phase that exists at room temperature changes to the plastic β phase at higher temperatures. Attention then shifted to the even more malleable δ phase that normally exists in the 300 °C to 450 °C range. It was found that this was stable at room temperature when alloyed with aluminum, but aluminum emits neutrons when bombarded with <a href="/wiki/Alpha_particles" class="mw-redirect" title="Alpha particles">alpha particles</a>, which would exacerbate the pre-ignition problem. The metallurgists then hit upon using a <a href="/wiki/Plutonium-gallium_alloy" class="mw-redirect" title="Plutonium-gallium alloy">plutonium-gallium alloy</a>, which stabilized the δ phase and could be <a href="/wiki/Hot_pressing" title="Hot pressing">hot pressed</a> into the desired spherical shape. As plutonium was found to corrode readily, the sphere was coated with nickel.<a href="#cite_note-226">[218]</a> The work proved dangerous. By the end of the war, half the chemists and metallurgists had to be removed from work with plutonium when unacceptably high levels of the element was detected in their urine.<a href="#cite_note-227">[219]</a> A minor fire at Los Alamos in January 1945 led to a fear that a fire in the plutonium laboratory might contaminate the whole town, and Groves authorized the construction of a new facility for plutonium chemistry and metallurgy, which became known as the DP-site.<a href="#cite_note-228">[220]</a> The hemispheres for the first plutonium <a href="/wiki/Pit_(nuclear_weapon)" title="Pit (nuclear weapon)">pit</a> (or core) were produced and delivered on 2 July 1945. Three more hemispheres followed on 23 July and were delivered three days later.<a href="#cite_note-229">[221]</a> In contrast to the plutonium Fat Man, the uranium gun-type Little Boy weapon was straightforward if not trivial to design. Overall responsibility for it was assigned to Parsons's Ordnance (O) Division, with the design, development, and technical work at Los Alamos consolidated under <a href="/wiki/Lieutenant_Commander_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lieutenant Commander (United States)">Lieutenant Commander</a> <a href="/wiki/Francis_Birch_(geophysicist)" title="Francis Birch (geophysicist)">Francis Birch</a>'s group. The gun-type design now had to work with enriched uranium only, and this allowed the design to be greatly simplified. A high-velocity gun was no longer required, and a simpler weapon was substituted.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoddesonHenriksenMeadeWestfall1993245–249-230">[222]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERhodes1986541-231">[223]</a> Research into the Super was also pursued, although it was considered secondary to the development of a fission bomb. The effort was directed by Teller, who was its most enthusiastic proponent.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHawkinsTruslowSmith196195–98-232">[224]</a> The F-1 (Super) Group calculated that burning 1 cubic meter (35 cu ft) of liquid <a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">deuterium</a> would release the energy of 10 megatonnes of TNT (42 PJ), enough to devastate 1,000 square miles (2,600 km2).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHawkinsTruslowSmith1961214–216-233">[225]</a> In a final report on the Super in June 1946, Teller remained upbeat about the prospect of it being successfully developed, although that opinion was not universal.<a href="#cite_note-PBS-234">[226]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trinity">Trinity</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Trinity_(nuclear_test)" title="Trinity (nuclear test)">Trinity (nuclear test)</a></div> Because of the complexity of an implosion-style weapon, it was decided that, despite the waste of fissile material, a full-scale <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear test">nuclear test</a> was required. Oppenheimer codenamed it "Trinity".<a href="#cite_note-235">[227]</a> In March 1944, planning for the test was assigned to <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Bainbridge" title="Kenneth Bainbridge">Kenneth Bainbridge</a>, who selected the <a href="/wiki/Alamogordo_Bombing_Range" class="mw-redirect" title="Alamogordo Bombing Range">Alamogordo Bombing Range</a> for the test site.<a href="#cite_note-236">[228]</a> A base camp was constructed with barracks, warehouses, workshops, an explosive magazine and a commissary.<a href="#cite_note-237">[229]</a> A pre-test explosion was conducted on 7 May 1945 to calibrate the instruments. A wooden test platform was erected 800 yards (730 m) from future Trinity Ground Zero and piled with about 100 short tons (91 t) of high explosives<a href="#cite_note-240">[i]</a> spiked with <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission_product" title="Nuclear fission product">nuclear fission products</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Jones,_p._512-241">[232]</a><a href="#cite_note-242">[233]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Trinity_device_readied.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Men stand around a large oil-rig type structure. A large round object is being hoisted up." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Trinity_device_readied.jpg/220px-Trinity_device_readied.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Trinity_device_readied.jpg/330px-Trinity_device_readied.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Trinity_device_readied.jpg/440px-Trinity_device_readied.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5520" data-file-height="4371" /></a><figcaption>The explosives of "the gadget" were raised to the top of the tower for the final assembly.</figcaption></figure> Groves did not relish the prospect of explaining to a Senate committee the loss of a billion dollars worth of plutonium, so a cylindrical containment vessel codenamed "Jumbo" was constructed to recover the active material in the event of a failure. It was fabricated at great expense from 214 short tons (194 t) of iron and steel.<a href="#cite_note-243">[234]</a> By the time it arrived, however, confidence in the implosion method was high enough, and the availability of plutonium was sufficient, that Oppenheimer decided not to use it. Instead, it was placed atop a steel tower 800 yards (730 m) from the weapon as a rough measure of the explosion's power. Jumbo survived, although its tower did not, adding credence to the belief that Jumbo would have successfully contained a <a href="/wiki/Fizzle_(nuclear_explosion)" title="Fizzle (nuclear explosion)">fizzled explosion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-244">[235]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jones,_p._512-241">[232]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Trinity_Detonation_T%26B.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Trinity_Detonation_T%26B.jpg/220px-Trinity_Detonation_T%26B.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Trinity_Detonation_T%26B.jpg/330px-Trinity_Detonation_T%26B.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Trinity_Detonation_T%26B.jpg/440px-Trinity_Detonation_T%26B.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1624" data-file-height="956" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Trinity_(nuclear_test)" title="Trinity (nuclear test)">Trinity test</a> of the Manhattan Project was the first detonation of a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">nuclear weapon</a>.</figcaption></figure> For the actual test, the weapon, nicknamed "the gadget", was hoisted to the top of a 100-foot (30 m) steel tower, as detonation at that height would give a better indication of how the weapon would behave when dropped from a bomber. Detonation in the air maximized the energy applied directly to the target and generated less <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fallout" title="Nuclear fallout">nuclear fallout</a>. The gadget was assembled under the supervision of <a href="/wiki/Norris_Bradbury" title="Norris Bradbury">Norris Bradbury</a> at the nearby <a href="/wiki/McDonald_Ranch_House" title="McDonald Ranch House">McDonald Ranch House</a> on 13 July, and precariously winched up the tower the following day.<a href="#cite_note-245">[236]</a> At 05:30 on 16 July 1945 the gadget exploded with an <a href="/wiki/TNT_equivalent" title="TNT equivalent">energy equivalent</a> of around 20 kilotons of TNT, leaving a crater of <a href="/wiki/Trinitite" title="Trinitite">trinitite</a> (radioactive glass) in the desert 250 feet (76 m) wide. The shock wave was felt over 100 miles (160 km) away, and the <a href="/wiki/Mushroom_cloud" title="Mushroom cloud">mushroom cloud</a> reached 7.5 miles (12.1 km) in height. It was heard as far away as <a href="/wiki/El_Paso,_Texas" title="El Paso, Texas">El Paso, Texas</a>, so Groves issued a cover story about an ammunition magazine explosion at Alamogordo Field involving gas shells.<a href="#cite_note-246">[237]</a><a href="#cite_note-247">[238]</a> Oppenheimer later claimed that, while witnessing the explosion, he thought of a verse from the <a href="/wiki/Hindu" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu">Hindu</a> holy book, the <a href="/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita" title="Bhagavad Gita">Bhagavad Gita</a> (XI,12): <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1157697682">.mw-parser-output .verse_translation .translated{padding-left:2em!important}@media only screen and (max-width:43.75em){.mw-parser-output .verse_translation.wrap_when_small td{display:block;padding-left:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .verse_translation.wrap_when_small .translated{padding-left:0.5em!important}}</style> <table role="presentation" class="verse_translation" style="margin-left:1em !important"> <tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"> <td><div style="font-style:roman;text-align:left" lang="sa" class="poem"> कालोऽस्मि लोकक्षयकृत्प्रवृद्धो लोकान्समाहर्तुमिह प्रवृत्तः। ऋतेऽपि त्वां न भविष्यन्ति सर्वे येऽवस्थिताः प्रत्यनीकेषु योधाः॥११- ३२॥ </div> </td> <td class="translated"><div style="font-style:roman;text-align:left" lang="" class="poem"> If the radiance of a thousand suns were to burst at once into the sky, that would be like the splendor of the mighty one ...<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJungk1958201-248">[239]</a><a href="#cite_note-249">[240]</a> </div> </td></tr></tbody></table> together with verse (XI,32), which he translated as "Now I am become Death, destroyer of worlds".<a href="#cite_note-Time_Inc_p._133-250">[241]</a><a href="#cite_note-TIME.com_1948_k845-251">[242]</a><a href="#cite_note-253">[j]</a> The test was significantly more successful than had been anticipated; this was immediately cabled to Stimson, who was then at the <a href="/wiki/Potsdam_Conference" title="Potsdam Conference">Potsdam Conference</a>, and Groves hastily prepared a lengthier report sent via courier. Truman was powerfully and positively affected by the news. Stimson noted in his diary that when he shared it with Churchill, Churchill remarked: "Now I know what happened to Truman yesterday. I couldn't understand it. When he got to the meeting after having read this report, he was a changed man. He told the Russians just where they got on and off and generally bossed the whole meeting."<a href="#cite_note-254">[244]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Personnel">Personnel</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Manhattan_Project_employment_graph_1942-1946.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Manhattan_Project_employment_graph_1942-1946.png/220px-Manhattan_Project_employment_graph_1942-1946.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Manhattan_Project_employment_graph_1942-1946.png/330px-Manhattan_Project_employment_graph_1942-1946.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Manhattan_Project_employment_graph_1942-1946.png/440px-Manhattan_Project_employment_graph_1942-1946.png 2x" data-file-width="6447" data-file-height="3858" /></a><figcaption>Manhattan Project contractors' employment, August 1942-December 1946.</figcaption></figure> At its peak in June 1944, the Manhattan Project employed about 129,000 workers, of whom 84,500 were construction workers, 40,500 were plant operators and 1,800 were military personnel. As construction activity declined, the workforce fell to 100,000 a year later, but the number of military personnel increased to 5,600. Procuring the required numbers of workers, especially highly skilled workers, in competition with other vital wartime programs proved very difficult.<a href="#cite_note-255">[245]</a> Due to high turnover, over 500,000 people worked on the project.<a href="#cite_note-256">[246]</a> Most African Americans were employed in low-level jobs, but there were a few <a href="/wiki/African-American_scientists_and_technicians_on_the_Manhattan_Project" title="African-American scientists and technicians on the Manhattan Project">African-American scientists and technicians</a>.<a href="#cite_note-257">[247]</a> The unique labor and security requirements also resulted in the Manhattan Project having a higher percentage of women in technical roles than later government projects.<a href="#cite_note-258">[248]</a> In 1943, Groves obtained a special temporary priority for labor from the <a href="/wiki/War_Manpower_Commission" title="War Manpower Commission">War Manpower Commission</a>. In March 1944, both the War Production Board and the War Manpower Commission gave the project their highest priority.<a href="#cite_note-259">[249]</a> The Kansas commission director stated that from April to July 1944 every qualified applicant in the state who visited a <a href="/wiki/United_States_Employment_Service" title="United States Employment Service">United States Employment Service</a> office was urged to work at the Hanford Site. No other job was offered until the applicant definitively rejected the offer.<a href="#cite_note-appasco19450808-260">[250]</a> Tolman and Conant, in their role as the project's scientific advisers, drew up a list of candidate scientists and had them rated by scientists already working on the project. Groves then sent a personal letter to the head of their university or company asking for them to be released for essential war work.<a href="#cite_note-261">[251]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Leslie_Groves_at_Oak_Ridge.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A large crowd of men and women in uniform listens to a fat man in uniform speaking at a microphone. They are wearing the Army Service Forces sleeve patch. The women are at the front and the men at the back. Beside him is the flag of the Army Corps of Engineers. Behind them are wooden two-storey buildings." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Leslie_Groves_at_Oak_Ridge.jpg/220px-Leslie_Groves_at_Oak_Ridge.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Leslie_Groves_at_Oak_Ridge.jpg/330px-Leslie_Groves_at_Oak_Ridge.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Leslie_Groves_at_Oak_Ridge.jpg/440px-Leslie_Groves_at_Oak_Ridge.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2832" data-file-height="2280" /></a><figcaption>Major General Leslie R. Groves Jr., speaks to service personnel Oak Ridge Tennessee in August 1945.</figcaption></figure> One source of skilled personnel was the Army itself, particularly the <a href="/wiki/Army_Specialized_Training_Program" title="Army Specialized Training Program">Army Specialized Training Program</a>. In 1943, the MED created the <a href="/wiki/Special_Engineer_Detachment" title="Special Engineer Detachment">Special Engineer Detachment</a> (SED), with an authorized strength of 675. Technicians and skilled workers drafted into the Army were assigned to the SED. Another source was the Women's Army Corps (WAC). Initially intended for clerical tasks handling classified material, the WACs were soon tapped for technical and scientific tasks as well.<a href="#cite_note-262">[252]</a> On 1 February 1945, all military personnel assigned to the MED, including all SED detachments, were assigned to the 9812th Technical Service Unit, except at Los Alamos, where military personnel other than SED, including the WACs and Military Police, were assigned to the 4817th Service Command Unit.<a href="#cite_note-263">[253]</a> An associate professor of <a href="/wiki/Radiology" title="Radiology">Radiology</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Rochester_School_of_Medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Rochester School of Medicine">University of Rochester School of Medicine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stafford_L._Warren" title="Stafford L. Warren">Stafford L. Warren</a>, was commissioned as a colonel in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Medical_Corps" title="United States Army Medical Corps">United States Army Medical Corps</a>, and appointed as chief of the MED's Medical Section and Groves' medical advisor. Warren's initial task was to staff hospitals at Oak Ridge, Richland and Los Alamos.<a href="#cite_note-264">[254]</a> The Medical Section was responsible for medical research, but also for the MED's health and safety programs. This presented an enormous challenge, because workers were handling a variety of toxic chemicals, using hazardous liquids and gases under high pressures, working with high voltages, and performing experiments involving explosives, not to mention the largely unknown dangers presented by radioactivity and handling fissile materials.<a href="#cite_note-265">[255]</a> Yet in December 1945, the <a href="/wiki/National_Safety_Council" title="National Safety Council">National Safety Council</a> presented the Manhattan Project with the Award of Honor for Distinguished Service to Safety in recognition of its safety record. Between January 1943 and June 1945, there were 62 fatalities and 3,879 disabling injuries—about 62 percent below the rate of private industry.<a href="#cite_note-266">[256]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Secrecy">Secrecy</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oak_Ridge_Wise_Monkeys.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Uncle Sam has removed his hat and is rolling up his sleeves. On the wall in front of him are three monkeys and the slogan: What you see here/ What you do here/ What you hear here/ When you leave here/ Let it stay here." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Oak_Ridge_Wise_Monkeys.jpg/220px-Oak_Ridge_Wise_Monkeys.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Oak_Ridge_Wise_Monkeys.jpg/330px-Oak_Ridge_Wise_Monkeys.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Oak_Ridge_Wise_Monkeys.jpg/440px-Oak_Ridge_Wise_Monkeys.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1179" data-file-height="900" /></a><figcaption>A billboard encouraging secrecy among Oak Ridge workers</figcaption></figure> The Manhattan Project operated under a mandate of "absolute secrecy" from Roosevelt, meaning that the very existence of the project itself was to be kept secret. This proved a daunting task given the amount of knowledge and speculation about nuclear fission that existed prior to the Manhattan Project, the huge numbers of people involved, and the scale of the facilities.<a href="#cite_note-wellerstein_med_secrecy-267">[257]</a> Groves adopted an extreme version of <a href="/wiki/Compartmentalization_(information_security)" title="Compartmentalization (information security)">compartmentalization</a> (the <a href="/wiki/Need-to-know" class="mw-redirect" title="Need-to-know">need-to-know</a> policy): <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">Compartmentalization of knowledge, to me, was the very heart of security. My rule was simple and not capable of misinterpretation—each man should know everything he needed to know to do his job and nothing else. Adherence to this rule not only provided an adequate measure of security, but it greatly improved over-all efficiency by making our people stick to their knitting. And it made quite clear to all concerned that the project existed to produce a specific end product—not to enable individuals to satisfy their curiosity and to increase their scientific knowledge.<a href="#cite_note-268">[258]</a></blockquote> This clashed with the norms of many of the scientists involved, who claimed that science could not operate successfully under such requirements. The Manhattan Project officials also had difficulty with journalists, Congressmen, federal officials who were not "in the know", residents near local sites, judges adjudicating land claims, and other sources of speculation, prying, and leaks, along with concerns about <a href="/wiki/Espionage" title="Espionage">espionage</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sabotage" title="Sabotage">sabotage</a>. Groves relied on the <a href="/wiki/FBI" class="mw-redirect" title="FBI">FBI</a> and his own autonomous <a href="/wiki/G-2_(intelligence)" title="G-2 (intelligence)">G-2 intelligence unit</a> to investigate potential security violations. Ultimately over 1,500 "loose talk" cases were investigated during the war. Even <a href="/wiki/Harry_Truman" class="mw-redirect" title="Harry Truman">Harry Truman</a> was not informed about the project while he was vice president, and only learned about it after Roosevelt's death.<a href="#cite_note-wellerstein_med_secrecy-267">[257]</a> Because of its relative success at keeping the story out of newspapers, <a href="/wiki/Byron_Price" title="Byron Price">Byron Price</a>, head of the <a href="/wiki/Office_of_Censorship" title="Office of Censorship">Office of Censorship</a>, ultimately designated the Manhattan Project "the best-kept secret of the war".<a href="#cite_note-ap19450808-269">[259]</a> In 1945 <a href="/wiki/Life_(magazine)" title="Life (magazine)">Life</a> estimated that before the Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombings "probably no more than a few dozen men in the entire country knew the full meaning of the Manhattan Project, and perhaps only a thousand others even were aware that work on atoms was involved." The magazine wrote that the more than 100,000 others employed with the project "worked like moles in the dark". Warned that disclosing the project's secrets was punishable by 10 years in prison or a fine of US$10,000 (equivalent to $169,000 in 2023), they monitored "dials and switches while behind thick concrete walls mysterious reactions took place" without knowing the purpose of their jobs.<a href="#cite_note-life1945082091-270">[260]</a><a href="#cite_note-owens-271">[261]</a><a href="#cite_note-wellerstein20120416-272">[262]</a> In December 1945 the US Army published a secret report assessing the security apparatus surrounding the Manhattan Project. The report states that the project was "more drastically guarded than any other highly secret war development." The surrounding security infrastructure was so vast and thorough that in the early days of the project in 1943, investigators vetted 400,000 potential employees and 600 companies for potential security risks.<a href="#cite_note-273">[263]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Censorship">Censorship</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Are_your_drawers_closed%3F_Manhattan_Project_security_poster.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Are_your_drawers_closed%3F_Manhattan_Project_security_poster.png/220px-Are_your_drawers_closed%3F_Manhattan_Project_security_poster.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="236" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Are_your_drawers_closed%3F_Manhattan_Project_security_poster.png/330px-Are_your_drawers_closed%3F_Manhattan_Project_security_poster.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Are_your_drawers_closed%3F_Manhattan_Project_security_poster.png/440px-Are_your_drawers_closed%3F_Manhattan_Project_security_poster.png 2x" data-file-width="873" data-file-height="938" /></a><figcaption>Security poster, warning office workers to close drawers and put documents in safes when not being used</figcaption></figure> Voluntary censorship of atomic information began before the Manhattan Project. After the start of the European war in 1939 American scientists began avoiding publishing military-related research, and in 1940 scientific journals began asking the <a href="/wiki/National_Academy_of_Sciences" title="National Academy of Sciences">National Academy of Sciences</a> to clear articles. <a href="/wiki/William_L._Laurence" title="William L. Laurence">William L. Laurence</a> of <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>, who wrote an article on atomic fission in <a href="/wiki/The_Saturday_Evening_Post" title="The Saturday Evening Post">The Saturday Evening Post</a> of 7 September 1940, later learned that government officials asked librarians nationwide in 1943 to withdraw the issue.<a href="#cite_note-274">[264]</a> The Soviets noticed the silence, however. In April 1942 nuclear physicist <a href="/wiki/Georgy_Flyorov" title="Georgy Flyorov">Georgy Flyorov</a> wrote to <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a> on the absence of articles on nuclear fission in American journals; this resulted in the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> establishing its own atomic bomb project.<a href="#cite_note-275">[265]</a> The Manhattan Project operated under tight security lest its discovery induce Axis powers, especially Germany, to accelerate their own nuclear projects or undertake covert operations against the project.<a href="#cite_note-276">[266]</a> The Office of Censorship relied on the press to comply with a voluntary code of conduct it published, and the project at first avoided notifying the office. By early 1943 newspapers began publishing reports of large construction in Tennessee and Washington, and the office began discussing with the project how to maintain secrecy. In June it asked newspapers and broadcasters to avoid discussing "atom smashing, atomic energy, atomic fission, atomic splitting, or any of their equivalents. The use for military purposes of radium or radioactive materials, heavy water, high voltage discharge equipment, cyclotrons."<a href="#cite_note-277">[267]</a><a href="#cite_note-ap19450808-269">[259]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Soviet_spies">Soviet spies</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Atomic_spies" title="Atomic spies">Atomic spies</a></div> The prospect of sabotage was always present, and sometimes suspected when there were equipment failures. While there were some problems believed to be the result of careless or disgruntled employees, there were no confirmed instances of Axis-instigated sabotage.<a href="#cite_note-278">[268]</a> However, on 10 March 1945, a Japanese <a href="/wiki/Fire_balloon" class="mw-redirect" title="Fire balloon">fire balloon</a> struck a power line, and the resulting power surge caused the three reactors at Hanford to be temporarily shut down.<a href="#cite_note-279">[269]</a> With so many people involved, security was difficult. A special <a href="/wiki/Counter_Intelligence_Corps" class="mw-redirect" title="Counter Intelligence Corps">Counter Intelligence Corps</a> detachment was formed to handle the project's security issues.<a href="#cite_note-280">[270]</a> By 1943, it was clear that the Soviet Union was attempting to penetrate the project. Lieutenant Colonel <a href="/wiki/Boris_T._Pash" class="mw-redirect" title="Boris T. Pash">Boris T. Pash</a>, the head of the Counter Intelligence Branch of the <a href="/wiki/Western_Defense_Command" title="Western Defense Command">Western Defense Command</a>, investigated suspected Soviet espionage at the Radiation Laboratory in Berkeley. Oppenheimer informed Pash that he had been approached by a fellow professor at Berkeley, <a href="/wiki/Haakon_Chevalier" title="Haakon Chevalier">Haakon Chevalier</a>, about passing information to the Soviet Union.<a href="#cite_note-281">[271]</a> The most successful Soviet spy was <a href="/wiki/Klaus_Fuchs" title="Klaus Fuchs">Klaus Fuchs</a>, a physicist and member of the British Mission who was intimately involved in work at Los Alamos on the design of the implosion bomb.<a href="#cite_note-282">[272]</a> His espionage activities were not identified until 1950, as a result of <a href="/wiki/Venona_project" title="Venona project">Venona project</a>. The revelation of his espionage activities damaged the United States' nuclear cooperation with Britain and Canada,<a href="#cite_note-283">[273]</a> and other instances of espionage were subsequently uncovered, leading to the arrest of <a href="/wiki/Harry_Gold" title="Harry Gold">Harry Gold</a>, <a href="/wiki/David_Greenglass" title="David Greenglass">David Greenglass</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Julius_and_Ethel_Rosenberg" title="Julius and Ethel Rosenberg">Julius and Ethel Rosenberg</a>.<a href="#cite_note-284">[274]</a> Other spies like <a href="/wiki/George_Koval" title="George Koval">George Koval</a> and <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Hall" title="Theodore Hall">Theodore Hall</a> remained unknown for decades.<a href="#cite_note-285">[275]</a> The value of the espionage is difficult to quantify, as the principal constraint on the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_atomic_bomb_project" title="Soviet atomic bomb project">Soviet atomic bomb project</a> was their short supply of uranium ore. It may have saved the Soviets at least one or two years in the development of their own bomb,<a href="#cite_note-286">[276]</a> although some historians have argued the Soviets spent as much time vetting and reduplicating the information as they would have saved had they trusted it.<a href="#cite_note-287">[277]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Foreign_intelligence">Foreign intelligence</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Alsos_Mission" title="Alsos Mission">Alsos Mission</a></div> In addition to developing the atomic bomb, the Manhattan Project was charged with gathering intelligence on the <a href="/wiki/German_nuclear_energy_project" class="mw-redirect" title="German nuclear energy project">German nuclear energy project</a>. It was believed that the <a href="/wiki/Japanese_nuclear_weapons_program" title="Japanese nuclear weapons program">Japanese nuclear weapons program</a> was not far advanced because Japan had little access to uranium ore, but it was initially feared that Germany was very close to developing its own weapons. At the instigation of the Manhattan Project, a <a href="/wiki/Norwegian_heavy_water_sabotage" title="Norwegian heavy water sabotage">bombing and sabotage campaign</a> was carried out against heavy water plants in German-occupied Norway.<a href="#cite_note-288">[278]</a> A small mission was created, jointly staffed by the <a href="/wiki/Office_of_Naval_Intelligence" title="Office of Naval Intelligence">Office of Naval Intelligence</a>, OSRD, the Manhattan Project, and Army Intelligence (G-2), to investigate enemy scientific developments. It was not restricted to those involving nuclear weapons.<a href="#cite_note-289">[279]</a> The Chief of Army Intelligence, Major General <a href="/wiki/George_V._Strong" class="mw-redirect" title="George V. Strong">George V. Strong</a>, appointed <a href="/wiki/Boris_Pash" title="Boris Pash">Boris Pash</a> to command the unit,<a href="#cite_note-290">[280]</a> which was codenamed "Alsos" (Greek for "grove").<a href="#cite_note-291">[281]</a> <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Goudsmit" title="Samuel Goudsmit">Samuel Goudsmit</a> was the scientific director of the Alsos mission.<a href="#cite_note-292">[282]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:German_Experimental_Pile_-_Haigerloch_-_April_1945.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Soldiers and workmen, some wearing steel helmet, clamber over what looks like a giant manhole." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/German_Experimental_Pile_-_Haigerloch_-_April_1945.jpg/220px-German_Experimental_Pile_-_Haigerloch_-_April_1945.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/German_Experimental_Pile_-_Haigerloch_-_April_1945.jpg/330px-German_Experimental_Pile_-_Haigerloch_-_April_1945.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/German_Experimental_Pile_-_Haigerloch_-_April_1945.jpg/440px-German_Experimental_Pile_-_Haigerloch_-_April_1945.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3189" data-file-height="2430" /></a><figcaption>Allied soldiers dismantle the German experimental <a href="/wiki/Haigerloch_research_reactor" title="Haigerloch research reactor">nuclear reactor at Haigerloch</a>.</figcaption></figure> The Alsos Mission to Italy questioned physics laboratory staff at the <a href="/wiki/Sapienza_University_of_Rome" title="Sapienza University of Rome">University of Rome</a> following the capture of the city in June 1944.<a href="#cite_note-293">[283]</a> Meanwhile, Pash formed a combined British and American Alsos mission in London under the command of Captain Horace K. Calvert to participate in <a href="/wiki/Operation_Overlord" title="Operation Overlord">Operation Overlord</a>.<a href="#cite_note-294">[284]</a> Groves considered the risk that the Germans might attempt to disrupt the <a href="/wiki/Normandy_landings" title="Normandy landings">Normandy landings</a> with radioactive poisons was sufficient to warn General <a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a> and send an officer to brief his chief of staff, Lieutenant General <a href="/wiki/Walter_Bedell_Smith" title="Walter Bedell Smith">Walter Bedell Smith</a>.<a href="#cite_note-295">[285]</a> Under the codename <a href="/wiki/Operation_Peppermint" title="Operation Peppermint">Operation Peppermint</a>, special equipment was prepared and <a href="/wiki/Chemical_Warfare_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical Warfare Service">Chemical Warfare Service</a> teams were trained in its use.<a href="#cite_note-296">[286]</a> Following in the wake of the advancing Allied armies, the Alsos team interrogated scientists and searched facilities in liberated areas of France and Germany to learn about the German work. Goudsmit concluded in November 1944 that the German nuclear program had never made it beyond the laboratory stage. As he put it later: "The evidence at hand proved definitely that Germany had no atom bomb and was not likely to have one in any reasonable time."<a href="#cite_note-297">[287]</a> Interrogation of German prisoners indicated that uranium and thorium were being processed in <a href="/wiki/Oranienburg" title="Oranienburg">Oranienburg</a>, so Groves <a href="/wiki/Auergesellschaft#Russian_Alsos" title="Auergesellschaft">arranged for it to be bombed</a> on 15 March 1945 to deny its capture by the Soviet Union.<a href="#cite_note-298">[288]</a> An Alsos team went to <a href="/wiki/Stassfurt" class="mw-redirect" title="Stassfurt">Stassfurt</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Occupation_Zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Occupation Zone">Soviet Occupation Zone</a> and retrieved 11 tons of ore from <a href="/wiki/WIFO_(Nazi_company)" title="WIFO (Nazi company)">WIFO</a>.<a href="#cite_note-299">[289]</a> In April 1945, Pash, in command of a composite force known as T-Force, conducted <a href="/wiki/Operation_Harborage" title="Operation Harborage">Operation Harborage</a>, a sweep behind enemy lines of <a href="/wiki/Hechingen" title="Hechingen">Hechingen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bisingen" title="Bisingen">Bisingen</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Haigerloch" title="Haigerloch">Haigerloch</a>—the heart of the German nuclear effort. T-Force captured nuclear laboratories, documents, equipment and supplies, including heavy water and 1.5 tons of metallic uranium.<a href="#cite_note-300">[290]</a><a href="#cite_note-301">[291]</a> Alsos teams rounded up German scientists including <a href="/wiki/Kurt_Diebner" title="Kurt Diebner">Kurt Diebner</a>, <a href="/wiki/Otto_Hahn" title="Otto Hahn">Otto Hahn</a>, <a href="/wiki/Walther_Gerlach" title="Walther Gerlach">Walther Gerlach</a>, <a href="/wiki/Werner_Heisenberg" title="Werner Heisenberg">Werner Heisenberg</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_von_Weizs%C3%A4cker" title="Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker">Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker</a>. They were taken to England and interned at <a href="/wiki/Farm_Hall" class="mw-redirect" title="Farm Hall">Farm Hall</a>, where they were surreptitiously surveilled.<a href="#cite_note-302">[292]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki">Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Preparations">Preparations</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CGP-JPAP-112.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A shiny metal four-engined aircraft stands on a runway. The crew pose in front of it." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/CGP-JPAP-112.jpg/220px-CGP-JPAP-112.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/CGP-JPAP-112.jpg/330px-CGP-JPAP-112.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/CGP-JPAP-112.jpg/440px-CGP-JPAP-112.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="652" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Silverplate" title="Silverplate">Silverplate</a> B-29 <a href="/wiki/Straight_Flush_(B-29)" class="mw-redirect" title="Straight Flush (B-29)">Straight Flush</a>. The tail code of the <a href="/wiki/444th_Bombardment_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="444th Bombardment Group">444th Bombardment Group</a> is painted on for security reasons.</figcaption></figure> The only Allied aircraft capable of carrying the 17-foot (5.2 m) long Thin Man or the 59-inch (150 cm) wide Fat Man was the British <a href="/wiki/Avro_Lancaster" title="Avro Lancaster">Avro Lancaster</a>, but using a British aircraft would have caused difficulties with maintenance. Groves hoped that the American <a href="/wiki/Boeing_B-29_Superfortress" title="Boeing B-29 Superfortress">Boeing B-29 Superfortress</a> could be modified to carry a Thin Man by joining its two <a href="/wiki/Bomb_bay" title="Bomb bay">bomb bays</a> together.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoddesonHenriksenMeadeWestfall1993379–380-303">[293]</a> This became unnecessary after Thin Man was abandoned, as a Little Boy was short enough to fit into a B-29 bomb bay,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERhodes1986541-231">[223]</a> but modifications were still required. The <a href="/wiki/Air_Force_Materiel_Command" title="Air Force Materiel Command">Army Air Forces Materiel Command</a> at <a href="/wiki/Wright_Field" class="mw-redirect" title="Wright Field">Wright Field</a>, Ohio, began <a href="/wiki/Silverplate" title="Silverplate">Silverplate</a>, the codename for the modification of the B-29, in November 1943. Test drops were carried out at <a href="/wiki/Muroc_Army_Air_Field" class="mw-redirect" title="Muroc Army Air Field">Muroc Army Air Field</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Naval_Ordnance_Test_Station" class="mw-redirect" title="Naval Ordnance Test Station">Naval Ordnance Test Station</a> in California with Thin Man and Fat Man <a href="/wiki/Pumpkin_bomb" title="Pumpkin bomb">pumpkin bombs</a> to test their ballistic, fuzing and stability characteristics.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoddesonHenriksenMeadeWestfall1993380–381-304">[294]</a> The <a href="/wiki/509th_Composite_Group" title="509th Composite Group">509th Composite Group</a> was activated on 17 December 1944 at <a href="/wiki/Wendover_Army_Air_Field" class="mw-redirect" title="Wendover Army Air Field">Wendover Army Air Field</a>, Utah, under the command of Colonel <a href="/wiki/Paul_W._Tibbets" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul W. Tibbets">Paul W. Tibbets</a>. Its <a href="/wiki/393rd_Bombardment_Squadron" class="mw-redirect" title="393rd Bombardment Squadron">393rd Bombardment Squadron</a>, equipped with Silverplate B-29s, practiced long-distance flights over water and dropped pumpkin bombs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGroves1962259–262-305">[295]</a> A special unit known as <a href="/wiki/Project_Alberta" title="Project Alberta">Project Alberta</a> was formed at Los Alamos under Parsons's command to assist in preparing and delivering the bombs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGroves1962259–262-305">[295]</a> The 509th Composite Group deployed to <a href="/wiki/North_Field_(Tinian)" title="North Field (Tinian)">North Field</a> on <a href="/wiki/Tinian" class="mw-redirect" title="Tinian">Tinian</a> in July 1945.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoddesonHenriksenMeadeWestfall1993386–388-306">[296]</a> Most of the components for the Little Boy left San Francisco on the <a href="/wiki/Cruiser" title="Cruiser">cruiser</a> <a href="/wiki/USS_Indianapolis_(CA-35)" title="USS Indianapolis (CA-35)">USS Indianapolis</a> on 16 July and arrived on Tinian on 26 July. The remaining components, which included six highly enriched uranium rings, were delivered by three <a href="/wiki/Douglas_C-54_Skymaster" title="Douglas C-54 Skymaster">Douglas C-54 Skymasters</a> of the 509th Group's 320th Troop Carrier Squadron.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbell200539–40-307">[297]</a> Two Fat Man assemblies traveled to Tinian in specially modified 509th Composite Group B-29s, and the first <a href="/wiki/Plutonium_core" class="mw-redirect" title="Plutonium core">plutonium core</a> went in a special C-54.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGroves1962341-308">[298]</a> At the end of December 1944, worried by the heavy losses occurring in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Bulge" title="Battle of the Bulge">Battle of the Bulge</a>, Roosevelt instructed Groves and Stimson that if the atomic bombs were ready before the war with Germany ended, they should be ready to drop them on Germany, but Japan was regarded as more likely.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGroves1962184-309">[299]</a> In late April 1945, a targeting committee was established to determine which cities should be targets, and it recommended <a href="/wiki/Kokura" title="Kokura">Kokura</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hiroshima" title="Hiroshima">Hiroshima</a>, <a href="/wiki/Niigata_(city)" title="Niigata (city)">Niigata</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kyoto" title="Kyoto">Kyoto</a>. Stimson intervened, announcing that he would be making the targeting decision, and that he would not authorize the bombing of Kyoto on the grounds of its historical and religious significance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGroves1962268–276-310">[300]</a> <a href="/wiki/Nagasaki" title="Nagasaki">Nagasaki</a> was ultimately substituted.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGroves1962308-311">[301]</a> In May 1945, the <a href="/wiki/Interim_Committee" title="Interim Committee">Interim Committee</a> was created to advise on wartime and postwar use of nuclear energy. The Interim Committee in turn established a scientific panel consisting of Arthur Compton, Fermi, Lawrence, and Oppenheimer; the scientific panel offered its opinion not just on the likely physical effects of an atomic bomb, but on its probable military and political impact. In a meeting on 1 June, the Interim Committee resolved that "the bomb should be used against Japan as soon as possible; that it be used on a war plant surrounded by workers' homes; and that it be used without prior warning".<a href="#cite_note-312">[302]</a><a href="#cite_note-313">[303]</a> At the <a href="/wiki/Potsdam_Conference" title="Potsdam Conference">Potsdam Conference</a> in Germany, President <a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Harry S. Truman</a> told Stalin that the US had "a new weapon of unusual destructive force", without giving any details. As he showed "no special interest," Truman erroneously assumed that Stalin did not understand. In reality, Soviet spies had kept Stalin informed of the work and the planned test.<a href="#cite_note-314">[304]</a><a href="#cite_note-315">[305]</a><a href="#cite_note-316">[306]</a> A strike order from General <a href="/wiki/Thomas_T._Handy" title="Thomas T. Handy">Thomas T. Handy</a> to General <a href="/wiki/Carl_Spaatz" title="Carl Spaatz">Carl Spaatz</a> was approved by Marshall and Stimson on 25 July which specified that the "first special bomb" be used "after about 3 August 1945," and that "additional bombs" would be used "as soon as made ready by the project staff".<a href="#cite_note-317">[307]</a> The operational plan was to drop the first bomb on 2 August, the second bomb on 10 August, and a third bomb around 24 August. However, due to weather conditions over Japan and the desire for visual bombing, the date of the first bombing mission was pushed back to 6 August, and the second was moved forward to 9 August.<a href="#cite_note-318">[308]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bombings">Bombings</h3></div> On 6 August 1945, the <a href="/wiki/Enola_Gay" title="Enola Gay">Enola Gay</a>, a Boeing B-29 Superfortress of the 393d Bombardment Squadron, piloted by Tibbets, lifted off from North Field with a Little Boy in its bomb bay. Hiroshima, the headquarters of the <a href="/wiki/2nd_General_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="2nd General Army">2nd General Army</a> and <a href="/wiki/5th_Division_(Imperial_Japanese_Army)" title="5th Division (Imperial Japanese Army)">Fifth Division</a> and a port of embarkation, was the primary target, with Kokura and Nagasaki as alternatives. Parsons, the weaponeer in charge of the mission, completed the bomb assembly in the air to minimize the risks of a nuclear explosion in the event of a crash during takeoff.<a href="#cite_note-319">[309]</a> The bomb detonated at an altitude of 1,750 feet (530 m) with a blast that was later estimated to be the equivalent of 13 kilotons of TNT.<a href="#cite_note-320">[310]</a> An area of approximately 4.7 square miles (12 km2) was destroyed. Japanese officials determined that 69% of Hiroshima's buildings were destroyed and another 6–7% damaged. Early estimates were that 66,000 people were killed and 69,000 injured; later re-estimations that included people ignored by previous methods, like Korean slave laborers and additional soldiers, concluded there might have been 140,000 dead from the attack by December 1945.<a href="#cite_note-casualties-321">[311]</a><a href="#cite_note-USSBS-322">[312]</a><a href="#cite_note-323">[313]</a><a href="#cite_note-324">[314]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Atomic_bombing_of_Japan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Two mushroom clouds rise vertically." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Atomic_bombing_of_Japan.jpg/220px-Atomic_bombing_of_Japan.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Atomic_bombing_of_Japan.jpg/330px-Atomic_bombing_of_Japan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Atomic_bombing_of_Japan.jpg/440px-Atomic_bombing_of_Japan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4918" data-file-height="2918" /></a><figcaption>Little Boy explodes over <a href="/wiki/Hiroshima" title="Hiroshima">Hiroshima</a>, Japan, 6 August 1945 (left); Fat Man explodes over <a href="/wiki/Nagasaki" title="Nagasaki">Nagasaki</a>, Japan, 9 August 1945 (right).</figcaption></figure> On the morning of 9 August 1945, the <a href="/wiki/Bockscar" title="Bockscar">Bockscar</a>, a second B-29 piloted by the 393d Bombardment Squadron's commander, Major <a href="/wiki/Charles_W._Sweeney" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles W. Sweeney">Charles W. Sweeney</a>, lifted off with a Fat Man on board. This time, Ashworth served as weaponeer and Kokura was the primary target. When they reached Kokura, they found cloud cover had obscured the city, prohibiting the visual attack required by orders. After three runs and with fuel running low, they headed for the secondary target, Nagasaki. Ashworth decided that a radar approach would be used if the target was obscured, but a last-minute break in the clouds over Nagasaki allowed a visual approach as ordered. The Fat Man was dropped over the city's industrial valley midway between the Mitsubishi Steel and Arms Works in the south and the Mitsubishi-Urakami Ordnance Works in the north. The resulting explosion had a blast yield equivalent to 21 kilotons of TNT, roughly the same as the Trinity blast, but was confined to the <a href="/wiki/Urakami" title="Urakami">Urakami</a> Valley, and a major portion of the city, including the city center, was protected by the intervening hills. About 44% of the city was destroyed, and estimates of casualties range from 40,000 to 80,000 people killed and at least 60,000 injured.<a href="#cite_note-325">[315]</a> Overall, an estimated 35,000–40,000 people were killed and 60,000 injured.<a href="#cite_note-326">[316]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hoddeson_et_al.,_pp._396-397-327">[317]</a><a href="#cite_note-casualties-321">[311]</a> Groves expected to have another atomic bomb ready for use on 19 August, with three more in September and a further three in October.<a href="#cite_note-Briefing_book-HullSeeman-328">[318]</a> Two more Fat Man assemblies were readied, and scheduled to leave <a href="/wiki/Kirtland_Air_Force_Base" title="Kirtland Air Force Base">Kirtland Field</a> for Tinian on 11 and 14 August.<a href="#cite_note-Hoddeson_et_al.,_pp._396-397-327">[317]</a> At Los Alamos, technicians worked 24 hours straight to cast <a href="/wiki/Demon_core" title="Demon core">another plutonium core</a>.<a href="#cite_note-329">[319]</a> Although cast, it still needed to be pressed and coated, which would take until 16 August.<a href="#cite_note-330">[320]</a> It could therefore have been ready for use on 19 August. On 10 August, Truman was informed that another bomb was being prepared. He ordered that no additional atomic bombs could be used without his express authority. According to <a href="/wiki/Henry_A._Wallace" title="Henry A. Wallace">Henry A. Wallace</a>, Truman told his cabinet that "the thought of wiping out another 100,000 people was too horrible. He didn't like the idea of killing, as he said, 'all those kids.'"<a href="#cite_note-331">[321]</a> Groves suspended the third core's shipment on 13 August.<a href="#cite_note-Eclipsed_by_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki-332">[322]</a> On 11 August, Groves phoned Warren with orders to organize a survey team to report on the damage and radioactivity at Hiroshima and Nagasaki as soon as the war ended. A party equipped with portable Geiger counters arrived in Hiroshima on 8 September headed by Farrell and Warren, with Japanese Rear Admiral Masao Tsuzuki, who acted as a translator. They remained in Hiroshima until 14 September and then surveyed Nagasaki from 19 September to 8 October.<a href="#cite_note-333">[323]</a> This and other scientific missions to Japan provided valuable data on the effects of the atomic bomb, and led to the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_Bomb_Casualty_Commission" title="Atomic Bomb Casualty Commission">Atomic Bomb Casualty Commission</a>.<a href="#cite_note-334">[324]</a> In anticipation of the bombings, Groves had commissioned physicist <a href="/wiki/Henry_DeWolf_Smyth" title="Henry DeWolf Smyth">Henry DeWolf Smyth</a> to prepare a sanitized technical history of the project for public consumption. The idea of releasing such information freely was controversial; the decision to do so was made by Truman personally. The "<a href="/wiki/Smyth_Report" title="Smyth Report">Smyth Report</a>" was released to the public on 12 August 1945.<a href="#cite_note-335">[325]</a> <a href="/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan" title="Surrender of Japan">Japan announced its surrender</a> on 15 August.<a href="#cite_note-336">[326]</a> The necessity of the bombings became a <a href="/wiki/Debate_over_the_atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Debate over the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">subject of controversy among historians</a>. Some questioned whether "atomic diplomacy" would have attained the same goals, and the relative weight that the bombs and the <a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_War_(1945)" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet–Japanese War (1945)">Soviet declaration of war</a> had on the Japanese willingness to surrender.<a href="#cite_note-Briefing_book-337">[327]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Franck_Report" title="Franck Report">Franck Report</a> was the most notable effort pushing for a demonstration but was turned down by the Interim Committee's scientific panel.<a href="#cite_note-338">[328]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Szil%C3%A1rd_petition" title="Szilárd petition">Szilárd petition</a>, drafted in July 1945 and signed by dozens of scientists working on the Manhattan Project, was a late attempt at warning Truman about his responsibility in using such weapons.<a href="#cite_note-339">[329]</a><a href="#cite_note-340">[330]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="After_the_war">After the war</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Army-Navy_E_Award_Ceremony_68997.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Men in suits and uniforms stand on a dais decorated with bunting and salute." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Army-Navy_E_Award_Ceremony_68997.jpg/220px-Army-Navy_E_Award_Ceremony_68997.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Army-Navy_E_Award_Ceremony_68997.jpg/330px-Army-Navy_E_Award_Ceremony_68997.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Army-Navy_E_Award_Ceremony_68997.jpg/440px-Army-Navy_E_Award_Ceremony_68997.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1233" /></a><figcaption>Presentation of the <a href="/wiki/Army%E2%80%93Navy_%22E%22_Award" class="mw-redirect" title="Army–Navy "E" Award">Army–Navy "E" Award</a> at Los Alamos on 16 October 1945. Standing, left to right: <a href="/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer" title="J. Robert Oppenheimer">J. Robert Oppenheimer</a>, unidentified, unidentified, <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Nichols" title="Kenneth Nichols">Kenneth Nichols</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leslie_Groves" title="Leslie Groves">Leslie Groves</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Gordon_Sproul" title="Robert Gordon Sproul">Robert Gordon Sproul</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Sterling_Parsons" title="William Sterling Parsons">William Sterling Parsons</a>.</figcaption></figure> The Manhattan Project became instantly famous after the bombing of Hiroshima and the partial lifting of its secrecy. It was widely credited with ending the war, and Groves worked to credit its contractors, whose work had hitherto been secret. Groves and Nichols presented them with <a href="/wiki/Army%E2%80%93Navy_%22E%22_Award" class="mw-redirect" title="Army–Navy "E" Award">Army–Navy "E" Awards</a>, and over 20 <a href="/wiki/Presidential_Medal_for_Merit" class="mw-redirect" title="Presidential Medal for Merit">Presidential Medals for Merit</a> were awarded to key contractors and scientists, including Bush and Oppenheimer. Military personnel received the <a href="/wiki/Legion_of_Merit" title="Legion of Merit">Legion of Merit</a>.<a href="#cite_note-341">[331]</a> The Manhattan Project persisted until 31 December 1946, and the Manhattan District to 15 August 1947.<a href="#cite_note-342">[332]</a> During this time, it suffered from numerous difficulties caused by technical problems, the effects of rapid demobilization, and a lack of clarity on its long-term mission. At Hanford, plutonium production declined as Reactors B, D and F wore out, poisoned by fission products and swelling of the graphite moderator known as the <a href="/wiki/Wigner_effect" title="Wigner effect">Wigner effect</a>. The swelling damaged the charging tubes where the uranium was irradiated to produce plutonium, rendering them unusable. Production was curtailed and the oldest unit, B pile, was closed down so at least one reactor would remain available. Research continued, with DuPont and the Metallurgical Laboratory developing a <a href="/wiki/Redox" title="Redox">redox</a> solvent extraction process as an alternative <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reprocessing" title="Nuclear reprocessing">plutonium extraction</a> technique to the bismuth phosphate process, which left unspent uranium in a state from which it could not easily be recovered.<a href="#cite_note-Jones,_pp._592-593-343">[333]</a> Bomb engineering was carried out by the Z Division,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESandia196711-344">[334]</a> initially located at Wendover Field but moved to <a href="/wiki/Oxnard_Field" title="Oxnard Field">Oxnard Field</a>, New Mexico, in September 1945 to be closer to Los Alamos. This marked the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Sandia_Base" title="Sandia Base">Sandia Base</a>. Nearby Kirtland Field was used as a B-29 base for aircraft compatibility and drop tests.<a href="#cite_note-345">[335]</a> As reservist officers were demobilized, they were replaced by about fifty hand-picked regular officers.<a href="#cite_note-346">[336]</a> Nichols recommended that S-50 and the Alpha tracks at Y-12 be closed down. This was done in September.<a href="#cite_note-347">[337]</a> Although performing better than ever,<a href="#cite_note-348">[338]</a> the Alpha tracks could not compete with K-25 and the new K-27, which had commenced operation in January 1946. In December, the Y-12 plant was closed, cutting the Tennessee Eastman payroll from 8,600 to 1,500 and saving $2 million a month.<a href="#cite_note-349">[339]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Atomic_Energy_Act_of_1946_signing.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A man in a suit is seated at a desk, signing a document. Seven men in suits gather around him." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Atomic_Energy_Act_of_1946_signing.jpg/220px-Atomic_Energy_Act_of_1946_signing.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Atomic_Energy_Act_of_1946_signing.jpg/330px-Atomic_Energy_Act_of_1946_signing.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Atomic_Energy_Act_of_1946_signing.jpg/440px-Atomic_Energy_Act_of_1946_signing.jpg 2x" data-file-width="830" data-file-height="640" /></a><figcaption>President <a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Harry S. Truman</a> signs the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_Energy_Act_of_1946" title="Atomic Energy Act of 1946">Atomic Energy Act of 1946</a>, establishing the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission" title="United States Atomic Energy Commission">United States Atomic Energy Commission</a>.</figcaption></figure> Nowhere was demobilization more of a problem than at Los Alamos, where there was an exodus of talent. Much remained to be done. The bombs used on Hiroshima and Nagasaki needed work to make them simpler, safer and more reliable. Implosion methods needed to be developed for uranium in place of the wasteful gun method, and composite uranium-plutonium cores were needed now that plutonium was in short supply. However, uncertainty about the future of the laboratory made it hard to induce people to stay. Oppenheimer returned to his job at the University of California and Groves appointed Norris Bradbury as an interim replacement; Bradbury remained in the post for the next 25 years.<a href="#cite_note-Hewlett_1962_625-350">[340]</a> Groves attempted to combat the dissatisfaction caused by the lack of amenities with a construction program that included an improved water supply, three hundred houses, and recreation facilities.<a href="#cite_note-Jones,_pp._592-593-343">[333]</a> Manhattan Project personnel participated in the first postwar nuclear tests, <a href="/wiki/Operation_Crossroads" title="Operation Crossroads">Operation Crossroads</a>, conducted at <a href="/wiki/Bikini_Atoll" title="Bikini Atoll">Bikini Atoll</a> in July 1946. Two Fat Man-type bombs were detonated — one as an airburst, one as an underwater burst — to investigate the effect of nuclear weapons on warships.<a href="#cite_note-351">[341]</a><a href="#cite_note-352">[342]</a> Press and international observers were allowed to attend, making the tests an international spectacle.<a href="#cite_note-353">[343]</a> Following a domestic debate over the peacetime management of the nuclear program, the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_Energy_Act_of_1946" title="Atomic Energy Act of 1946">Atomic Energy Act of 1946</a> created the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission" title="United States Atomic Energy Commission">United States Atomic Energy Commission</a> to take over the project's functions and assets. It established civilian control over atomic development. Military aspects were taken over by the <a href="/wiki/Armed_Forces_Special_Weapons_Project" title="Armed Forces Special Weapons Project">Armed Forces Special Weapons Project</a> (AFSWP).<a href="#cite_note-354">[344]</a> After the bombings at Hiroshima and Nagasaki, a number of Manhattan Project physicists founded the <a href="/wiki/Bulletin_of_the_Atomic_Scientists" title="Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists">Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists</a> (1945) and <a href="/wiki/Emergency_Committee_of_Atomic_Scientists" title="Emergency Committee of Atomic Scientists">Emergency Committee of Atomic Scientists</a> (1946), which began as an emergency action undertaken by scientists who saw urgent need for an educational program about atomic weapons.<a href="#cite_note-355">[345]</a> In the face of the destructiveness of the bombs and in anticipation of the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_arms_race" title="Nuclear arms race">nuclear arms race</a> several project members including Bohr, Bush and Conant expressed the view that it was necessary to reach agreement on <a href="/wiki/International_control_of_atomic_energy" class="mw-redirect" title="International control of atomic energy">international control of nuclear research and atomic weapons</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Baruch_Plan" title="Baruch Plan">Baruch Plan</a>, unveiled in a speech to the newly formed <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Atomic_Energy_Commission" title="United Nations Atomic Energy Commission">United Nations Atomic Energy Commission</a> (UNAEC) in June 1946, proposed the establishment of an international atomic development authority, but was not adopted.<a href="#cite_note-356">[346]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cost">Cost</h2></div> <table class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-top:0; margin-left:1em; font-size:9pt; line-height:10pt; width:30%;"> <caption style="margin-bottom: 5px;">Manhattan Project costs through 31 December 1945<a href="#cite_note-Schwartz-357">[347]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Site </th> <th>Cost (1945 USD, millions) </th> <th>Cost (2023 USD, millions) </th> <th>% of total </th></tr> <tr> <td>Oak Ridge </td> <td style="text-align:right;">$1,188 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">$15,949 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">62.9% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Hanford </td> <td style="text-align:right;">$390 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">$5,236 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">20.6% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Special operating materials </td> <td style="text-align:right;">$103 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">$1,387 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">5.5% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Los Alamos </td> <td style="text-align:right;">$74 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">$994 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">3.9% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Research and development </td> <td style="text-align:right;">$70 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">$935 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">3.7% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Government overhead </td> <td style="text-align:right;">$37 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">$500 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">2.0% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Heavy water plants </td> <td style="text-align:right;">$27 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">$359 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">1.4% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Total </td> <td style="text-align:right;">$1,890 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">$25,361 </td></tr></tbody></table> The project expenditure through 1 October 1945 was $1.845 billion, equivalent to less than nine days of wartime spending, and was $2.191 billion when the AEC assumed control on 1 January 1947. The total allocation was $2.4 billion. 84% of the costs through the end of 1945 were spent on the plants at Oak Ridge and Hanford, producing the enriched uranium and plutonium needed to fuel the bombs. At both sites, the majority of the costs were for construction (74% at Oak Ridge, 87% at Hanford), with the rest being for operations.<a href="#cite_note-358">[348]</a><a href="#cite_note-ej19450807-359">[349]</a><a href="#cite_note-360">[350]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Manhattan_Project_monthly_expenditures_1943-1946.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Manhattan_Project_monthly_expenditures_1943-1946.png/220px-Manhattan_Project_monthly_expenditures_1943-1946.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Manhattan_Project_monthly_expenditures_1943-1946.png/330px-Manhattan_Project_monthly_expenditures_1943-1946.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Manhattan_Project_monthly_expenditures_1943-1946.png/440px-Manhattan_Project_monthly_expenditures_1943-1946.png 2x" data-file-width="3050" data-file-height="2058" /></a><figcaption>Manhattan Project monthly expenditures from January 1943 through the end of December 1946. In its peak month, August 1944, US$111.4 million was spent on the project.</figcaption></figure> Initial funding for the project was through the general budget of the <a href="/wiki/Office_of_Scientific_Research_and_Development" title="Office of Scientific Research and Development">Office of Scientific Research and Development</a>. As plans were made to turn the work over to the Army Corps of Engineers, Bush wrote to Roosevelt in late 1942 that "it would be ruinous to the essential secrecy to have to defend before an appropriations committee any request for funds for this project." Instead, initial funding was done through <a href="/wiki/Black_budget" title="Black budget">discretionary funds</a> to which Roosevelt had access.<a href="#cite_note-wellerstein20110512-361">[351]</a> As it grew in size and cost, Congress was deliberately kept ignorant of the project, because of concerns that Congressmen were prone to leaking information, and because it was feared that the project would appear to be a <a href="/wiki/Boondoggle" title="Boondoggle">boondoggle</a>. Appropriations requests were quietly slipped into other bills, but the project's mounting costs and large facilities (which appeared to many to produce nothing) attracted scrutiny from several Congressional auditors. The <a href="/wiki/Truman_Committee" title="Truman Committee">Truman Committee</a> that investigated wartime waste and fraud attempted to audit the project several times, but each time their inquiries were rejected.<a href="#cite_note-wellerstein_rd_congress-362">[352]</a> These Congressional inquiries, along with the need for smooth budgetary approval, led to Bush, Groves, and Stimson agreeing in the spring of 1944 that a few high-ranking Congressmen should be told of the project's purpose. By March 1945, exactly seven Congressmen were officially informed.<a href="#cite_note-wellerstein_rd_congress-362">[352]</a> The funds were hidden into appropriation requests with the inconspicuous headings, frequently "Engineer Service Army" and "Expediting Production." In late May 1945, to further expedite budget issues and assure the cooperation of <a href="/wiki/Albert_J._Engel" title="Albert J. Engel">Albert J. Engel</a>, who had threatened to reveal the existence of the project if he was not told more about it, five additional Congressmen were permitted to visit the Oak Ridge site to assure themselves of "the reasonableness of the various living accommodations which had been provided, [and] that they actually observe the size and scope of the installations and that some of the complexities of the project be demonstrated to them."<a href="#cite_note-364">[k]</a> During the war, the Manhattan Project ultimately produced the three bombs used (the Trinity gadget, Little Boy, and Fat Man), as well as an additional unused Fat Man bomb, making the average wartime cost per bomb around $500 million in 1945 dollars. By comparison, the project's total cost by the end of 1945 was about 90% of the total spent on the production of US small arms (not including ammunition) and 34% of the total spent on US tanks during the same period.<a href="#cite_note-Schwartz-357">[347]</a> It was the second most expensive weapons project undertaken by the United States during the war, behind only the <a href="/wiki/Boeing_B-29_Superfortress" title="Boeing B-29 Superfortress">Boeing B-29 Superfortress</a>.<a href="#cite_note-365">[354]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_in_popular_culture" title="Nuclear weapons in popular culture">Nuclear weapons in popular culture</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aerial_view_of_Niagara_Falls_Storage_Site,_Lewiston,_New_York_(2002).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Aerial_view_of_Niagara_Falls_Storage_Site%2C_Lewiston%2C_New_York_%282002%29.jpg/220px-Aerial_view_of_Niagara_Falls_Storage_Site%2C_Lewiston%2C_New_York_%282002%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Aerial_view_of_Niagara_Falls_Storage_Site%2C_Lewiston%2C_New_York_%282002%29.jpg/330px-Aerial_view_of_Niagara_Falls_Storage_Site%2C_Lewiston%2C_New_York_%282002%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Aerial_view_of_Niagara_Falls_Storage_Site%2C_Lewiston%2C_New_York_%282002%29.jpg/440px-Aerial_view_of_Niagara_Falls_Storage_Site%2C_Lewiston%2C_New_York_%282002%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="462" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Lake_Ontario_Ordnance_Works" title="Lake Ontario Ordnance Works">Lake Ontario Ordnance Works</a> (LOOW) near <a href="/wiki/Niagara_Falls,_New_York" title="Niagara Falls, New York">Niagara Falls</a> became a principal repository for Manhattan Project waste for the Eastern United States.<a href="#cite_note-366">[355]</a> All of the radioactive materials stored at the LOOW site—including <a href="/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium">thorium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">uranium</a>, and the world's largest concentration of <a href="/wiki/Radium" title="Radium">radium</a>-226—were buried in an "Interim Waste Containment Structure" (in the foreground) in 1991.<a href="#cite_note-COE2-367">[356]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jenks-368">[357]</a><a href="#cite_note-DePalma-369">[358]</a></figcaption></figure> The political and cultural impacts of the development of nuclear weapons were profound. <a href="/wiki/William_Laurence" class="mw-redirect" title="William Laurence">William Laurence</a> of <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>, the first to use the phrase "<a href="/wiki/Atomic_Age" title="Atomic Age">Atomic Age</a>",<a href="#cite_note-laurence19450926-370">[359]</a> became the official correspondent for the Manhattan Project in spring 1945. He witnessed both the Trinity test<a href="#cite_note-371">[360]</a> and the bombing of Nagasaki and wrote the official press releases on them. He went on to write a series of articles extolling the virtues of the new weapon. His reporting helped to spur public awareness of the potential of nuclear technology and motivated its development in the United States and Soviet Union.<a href="#cite_note-372">[361]</a> The Manhattan Project left a legacy of a network of <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Energy_national_laboratories" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Department of Energy national laboratories">national laboratories</a>: the <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Berkeley_National_Laboratory" title="Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory">Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Los_Alamos_National_Laboratory" title="Los Alamos National Laboratory">Los Alamos National Laboratory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oak_Ridge_National_Laboratory" title="Oak Ridge National Laboratory">Oak Ridge National Laboratory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Argonne_National_Laboratory" title="Argonne National Laboratory">Argonne National Laboratory</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ames_Laboratory" class="mw-redirect" title="Ames Laboratory">Ames Laboratory</a>. Two more were established by Groves soon after the war, the <a href="/wiki/Brookhaven_National_Laboratory" title="Brookhaven National Laboratory">Brookhaven National Laboratory</a> at <a href="/wiki/Upton,_New_York" title="Upton, New York">Upton, New York</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Sandia_National_Laboratories" title="Sandia National Laboratories">Sandia National Laboratories</a> at Albuquerque, New Mexico. Groves allocated $72 million to them for research activities in fiscal year 1946–1947.<a href="#cite_note-373">[362]</a> They would be in the vanguard of the kind of large-scale research that <a href="/wiki/Alvin_Weinberg" class="mw-redirect" title="Alvin Weinberg">Alvin Weinberg</a>, the director of the Oak Ridge National Laboratory, would call <a href="/wiki/Big_Science" class="mw-redirect" title="Big Science">Big Science</a>.<a href="#cite_note-374">[363]</a> The Naval Research Laboratory had long been interested in the prospect of using nuclear power for warship propulsion, and sought to create its own nuclear project. In May 1946, Nimitz, now <a href="/wiki/Chief_of_Naval_Operations" title="Chief of Naval Operations">Chief of Naval Operations</a>, decided that the Navy should instead work with the Manhattan Project. A group of naval officers were assigned to Oak Ridge, the most senior of whom was Captain <a href="/wiki/Hyman_G._Rickover" title="Hyman G. Rickover">Hyman G. Rickover</a>, who became assistant director there. They immersed themselves in the study of nuclear energy, laying the foundations for a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_navy" title="Nuclear navy">nuclear-powered navy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-375">[364]</a> A similar group of Air Force personnel arrived at Oak Ridge in September 1946 with the aim of developing <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_aircraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear aircraft">nuclear aircraft</a>.<a href="#cite_note-376">[365]</a> Their <a href="/wiki/Aircraft_Nuclear_Propulsion" title="Aircraft Nuclear Propulsion">Nuclear Energy for the Propulsion of Aircraft</a> project ran into formidable technical difficulties and was ultimately canceled.<a href="#cite_note-377">[366]</a> The ability of the new reactors to create radioactive isotopes in previously unheard-of quantities sparked a revolution in <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_medicine" title="Nuclear medicine">nuclear medicine</a>. Starting in mid-1946, Oak Ridge began distributing radioisotopes to hospitals and universities, primarily <a href="/wiki/Iodine-131" title="Iodine-131">iodine-131</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phosphorus-32" title="Phosphorus-32">phosphorus-32</a> for cancer diagnosis and treatment. Isotopes were also used in biological, industrial and agricultural research.<a href="#cite_note-378">[367]</a> Its production sites, operating with new technologies, exotic substances, and under conditions of secrecy and haste, also left a vast legacy of waste and environmental damage. At Hanford, for example, corrosive and radioactive wastes were stored in "hastily fabricated, single-shell, steel-lined, underground storage tanks" that were intended to be temporary, awaiting a more permanent solution.<a href="#cite_note-379">[368]</a> Instead, they were neglected and eventually leaked. Issues of this kind resulted in Hanford becoming "one of the most contaminated nuclear waste sites in North America", and the subject of significant cleanup efforts after it was deactivated in the late Cold War.<a href="#cite_note-380">[369]</a> On handing over control to the Atomic Energy Commission, Groves bid farewell to the people who had worked on the Manhattan Project: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Five years ago, the idea of Atomic Power was only a dream. You have made that dream a reality. You have seized upon the most nebulous of ideas and translated them into actualities. You have built cities where none were known before. You have constructed industrial plants of a magnitude and to a precision heretofore deemed impossible. You built the weapon which ended the War and thereby saved countless American lives. With regard to peacetime applications, you have raised the curtain on vistas of a new world.<a href="#cite_note-381">[370]</a></blockquote> The <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project_National_Historical_Park" title="Manhattan Project National Historical Park">Manhattan Project National Historical Park</a> was established on 10 November 2015.<a href="#cite_note-382">[371]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Bomb_(film)" title="The Bomb (film)">The Bomb (film)</a> – 2015 American documentary film</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oppenheimer_(TV_series)" title="Oppenheimer (TV series)">Oppenheimer (TV series)</a> - 1980 TV miniseries</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fat_Man_and_Little_Boy_(film)" title="Fat Man and Little Boy (film)">Fat Man and Little Boy (film)</a> - 1989 film starring <a href="/wiki/Paul_Newman" title="Paul Newman">Paul Newman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oppenheimer_(film)" title="Oppenheimer (film)">Oppenheimer (film)</a> - 2023 film by <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Nolan" title="Christopher Nolan">Christopher Nolan</a> starring <a href="/wiki/Cillian_Murphy" title="Cillian Murphy">Cillian Murphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_nuclear_weapons_development" title="Timeline of nuclear weapons development">Timeline of nuclear weapons development</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> Specifically at its Berkeley campus; however, as of 1940, the University of California had not yet established a formal distinction between the university as a whole and its <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley" title="University of California, Berkeley">flagship campus</a> at <a href="/wiki/Berkeley,_California" title="Berkeley, California">Berkeley</a>. The process of transforming the University into a multi-campus university system began in March 1951 and was not complete until 1960.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> The reaction Teller was most concerned with was: 14 7N + 14 7N → 24 12Mg + 4 2He (alpha particle) + 17.7 MeV.<a href="#cite_note-35">[34]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> In Bethe's account, the possibility of this ultimate catastrophe came up again in 1975 when it appeared in a magazine article by H.C. Dudley, who got the idea from a report by <a href="/wiki/Pearl_Buck" class="mw-redirect" title="Pearl Buck">Pearl Buck</a> of an interview she had with <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Compton" title="Arthur Compton">Arthur Compton</a> in 1959. The worry was not entirely extinguished in some people's minds until the <a href="/wiki/Trinity_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Trinity test">Trinity test</a>.<a href="#cite_note-39">[37]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Natural_nuclear_fission_reactor" title="Natural nuclear fission reactor">Natural self-sustaining nuclear reactions</a> have occurred in the very distant past.<a href="#cite_note-109">[106]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> The allusion here is to the Italian navigator <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a>, who reached the Caribbean in 1492. </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> The original project goal in 1942 was to acquire approximately 1,700 short tons (1,500 t) of uranium ore. By the time of the dissolution of the Manhattan District, it had acquired about 10,000 short tons (9,100 t) tons of uranium oxides, 72% of which came from the Congolese ores, 14% from the Colorado plateau, and 9% from Canadian ores.<a href="#cite_note-134">[129]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a> Much of the mined ore from the <a href="/wiki/Shinkolobwe" title="Shinkolobwe">Shinkolobwe</a> mine had a uranium oxide content as high as 65% to 75%, which was many times higher than any other global sources.<a href="#cite_note-138">[132]</a> By comparison, the Canadian ores could be as high as 30%, and American sources, many of them byproducts of the mining of other minerals (especially <a href="/wiki/Vanadium" title="Vanadium">vanadium</a>), contained less than 1% uranium.<a href="#cite_note-139">[133]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a> It is necessary to distinguish between the K-25 gaseous diffusion plant and the K-25 power plant. The latter provided energy to both the K-25 gaseous diffusion plant and the S-50 thermal diffusion plant. </li> <li id="cite_note-240"><a href="#cite_ref-240">^</a> The charge consisted of 89.75 short tons (81.42 t) tons of <a href="/wiki/TNT" title="TNT">TNT</a> and 14.91 short tons (13.53 t) tons of <a href="/wiki/Composition_B" title="Composition B">Composition B</a> (with the total explosive power of approximately 108 tons of TNT), actually a few tons more than the stated "100-tons".<a href="#cite_note-238">[230]</a><a href="#cite_note-239">[231]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-253"><a href="#cite_ref-253">^</a> The first instance in print of Oppenheimer's Gita story is apparently from 1948. Oppenheimer at times translated it to "shatterer of worlds" as well. The quote with "destroyer of worlds" comes from a taped interview of Oppenheimer did with NBC in 1965. Oppenheimer's translation is not considered a standard or literal one, and was likely influenced by the style of his <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> teacher, <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Ryder" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthur Ryder">Arthur Ryder</a>, who translated the line as: "Death am I, and my present task / Destruction." A more common translation has the identification not as "Death," but as "Time." In the passage, the Hindu god <a href="/wiki/Krishna" title="Krishna">Krishna</a> is revealing himself and his true form to Prince Arjuna, imploring Arjuna to fulfill his duty and take part in a war, and assuring him that the fate of those killed is really up to Krishna, not mortal men.<a href="#cite_note-252">[243]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-364"><a href="#cite_ref-364">^</a> The seven Congressmen officially informed were: <a href="/wiki/Alben_W._Barkley" title="Alben W. Barkley">Alben W. Barkley</a> (Senate Majority Leader), <a href="/wiki/Styles_Bridges" title="Styles Bridges">Styles Bridges</a> (Ranking minority member of the Sub-Committee on Military Appropriations), <a href="/wiki/Joseph_W._Martin_Jr." title="Joseph W. Martin Jr.">Joseph W. Martin Jr.</a> (House Minority Leader), <a href="/wiki/John_W._McCormack" title="John W. McCormack">John W. McCormack</a> (House Majority Leader), <a href="/wiki/Sam_Rayburn" title="Sam Rayburn">Sam Rayburn</a> (Speaker of the House), <a href="/wiki/Elmer_Thomas" title="Elmer Thomas">Elmer Thomas</a> (Chair of the Sub-Committee on Military Appropriations), and <a href="/wiki/Wallace_H._White" title="Wallace H. White">Wallace H. White</a> (Senate Minority Leader). The five allowed to tour Oak Ridge were: <a href="/wiki/Clarence_Cannon" title="Clarence Cannon">Clarence Cannon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Albert_J._Engel" title="Albert J. Engel">Albert J. Engel</a>, <a href="/wiki/George_H._Mahon" title="George H. Mahon">George H. Mahon</a>, <a href="/wiki/J._Buell_Snyder" title="J. Buell Snyder">J. 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Retrieved 12 April 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=African+Americans+and+the+Manhattan+Project&rft.pub=Nuclear+Museum&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fahf.nuclearmuseum.org%2Fahf%2Fhistory%2Fafrican-americans-and-manhattan-project%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AManhattan+Project" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-258"><a href="#cite_ref-258">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHowesHerzenberg1999">Howes & Herzenberg 1999</a>, pp. 14–15: "On the basis of numbers alone, women were important at all the project sites. They accounted for 9 percent of the 51,000 employees at Hanford in 1944, when the site's staff was at its largest. At Los Alamos, when tight security made it difficult to hire people who did not already live on the site, opportunities for women may have been even greater. In September 1943, some sixty women worked in the Technical Area at Los Alamos. 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New York: Basic Book Publishing. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/15058256">15058256</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Atomic+Age%3A+Scientists+in+National+and+World+Affairs&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Basic+Book+Publishing&rft.date=1963&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F15058256&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AManhattan+Project" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHewlettAnderson1962" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_G._Hewlett" title="Richard G. Hewlett">Hewlett, Richard G.</a>; Anderson, Oscar E. (1962). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.governmentattic.org/5docs/TheNewWorld1939-1946.pdf">The New World, 1939–1946</a> (PDF). University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-07186-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-07186-7"><bdi>0-520-07186-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/637004643">637004643</a>. Retrieved 26 March 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+World%2C+1939%E2%80%931946&rft.place=University+Park&rft.pub=Pennsylvania+State+University+Press&rft.date=1962&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F637004643&rft.isbn=0-520-07186-7&rft.aulast=Hewlett&rft.aufirst=Richard+G.&rft.au=Anderson%2C+Oscar+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.governmentattic.org%2F5docs%2FTheNewWorld1939-1946.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AManhattan+Project" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHewlettDuncan1969" class="citation book cs1">Hewlett, Richard G.; Duncan, Francis (1969). Atomic Shield, 1947–1952. A History of the United States Atomic Energy Commission, no. 2. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-07187-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-07187-5"><bdi>0-520-07187-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/3717478">3717478</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Atomic+Shield%2C+1947%E2%80%931952&rft.place=University+Park&rft.series=A+History+of+the+United+States+Atomic+Energy+Commission%2C+no.+2&rft.pub=Pennsylvania+State+University+Press&rft.date=1969&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F3717478&rft.isbn=0-520-07187-5&rft.aulast=Hewlett&rft.aufirst=Richard+G.&rft.au=Duncan%2C+Francis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AManhattan+Project" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHollHewlettHarris1997" class="citation book cs1">Holl, Jack M.; <a href="/wiki/Richard_G._Hewlett" title="Richard G. Hewlett">Hewlett, Richard G.</a>; Harris, Ruth R. (1997). Argonne National Laboratory, 1946–96. University of Illinois Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-252-02341-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-252-02341-5"><bdi>978-0-252-02341-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Argonne+National+Laboratory%2C+1946%E2%80%9396&rft.pub=University+of+Illinois+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-252-02341-5&rft.aulast=Holl&rft.aufirst=Jack+M.&rft.au=Hewlett%2C+Richard+G.&rft.au=Harris%2C+Ruth+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AManhattan+Project" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolloway1994" class="citation book cs1">Holloway, David (1994). Stalin and the Bomb: The Soviet Union and Atomic Energy, 1939–1956. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-06056-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-06056-4"><bdi>0-300-06056-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/29911222">29911222</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stalin+and+the+Bomb%3A+The+Soviet+Union+and+Atomic+Energy%2C+1939%E2%80%931956&rft.place=New+Haven%2C+Connecticut&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F29911222&rft.isbn=0-300-06056-4&rft.aulast=Holloway&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AManhattan+Project" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHowesHerzenberg1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ruth_Howes" title="Ruth Howes">Howes, Ruth H.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Caroline_Herzenberg" title="Caroline Herzenberg">Herzenberg, Caroline L.</a> (1999). Their Day in the Sun: Women of the Manhattan Project. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56639-719-7" title="Special:BookSources/1-56639-719-7"><bdi>1-56639-719-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/49569088">49569088</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Their+Day+in+the+Sun%3A+Women+of+the+Manhattan+Project&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pub=Temple+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F49569088&rft.isbn=1-56639-719-7&rft.aulast=Howes&rft.aufirst=Ruth+H.&rft.au=Herzenberg%2C+Caroline+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AManhattan+Project" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHunner2004" class="citation book cs1">Hunner, Jon (2004). Inventing Los Alamos: The Growth of an Atomic Community. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-3891-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-3891-6"><bdi>978-0-8061-3891-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/154690200">154690200</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Inventing+Los+Alamos%3A+The+Growth+of+an+Atomic+Community&rft.place=Norman&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F154690200&rft.isbn=978-0-8061-3891-6&rft.aulast=Hunner&rft.aufirst=Jon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AManhattan+Project" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnsonJackson1981" class="citation book cs1">Johnson, Charles; Jackson, Charles (1981). City Behind a Fence: Oak Ridge, Tennessee, 1942–1946. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87049-303-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-87049-303-5"><bdi>0-87049-303-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/6331350">6331350</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=City+Behind+a+Fence%3A+Oak+Ridge%2C+Tennessee%2C+1942%E2%80%931946&rft.place=Knoxville&rft.pub=University+of+Tennessee+Press&rft.date=1981&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F6331350&rft.isbn=0-87049-303-5&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft.au=Jackson%2C+Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AManhattan+Project" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones1985" class="citation book cs1">Jones, Vincent (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130928054748/http://www.history.army.mil/html/books/011/11-10/CMH_Pub_11-10.pdf">Manhattan: The Army and the Atomic Bomb</a> (PDF). Washington, D.C.: United States Army Center of Military History. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/10913875">10913875</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://history.army.mil/html/books/011/11-10/CMH_Pub_11-10.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 28 September 2013. Retrieved 25 August 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Manhattan%3A+The+Army+and+the+Atomic+Bomb&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pub=United+States+Army+Center+of+Military+History&rft.date=1985&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F10913875&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Vincent&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhistory.army.mil%2Fhtml%2Fbooks%2F011%2F11-10%2FCMH_Pub_11-10.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AManhattan+Project" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJungk1958" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Jungk" title="Robert Jungk">Jungk, Robert</a> (1958). <a href="/wiki/Brighter_than_a_Thousand_Suns:_A_Personal_History_of_the_Atomic_Scientists" class="mw-redirect" title="Brighter than a Thousand Suns: A Personal History of the Atomic Scientists">Brighter than a Thousand Suns: A Personal History of the Atomic Scientists</a>. New York: Harcourt Brace. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-15-614150-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-15-614150-7"><bdi>0-15-614150-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/181321">181321</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Brighter+than+a+Thousand+Suns%3A+A+Personal+History+of+the+Atomic+Scientists&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Harcourt+Brace&rft.date=1958&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F181321&rft.isbn=0-15-614150-7&rft.aulast=Jungk&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AManhattan+Project" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Brien2015" class="citation book cs1">O'Brien, Phillips Payson (2015). How the War Was Won. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-01475-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-01475-6"><bdi>978-1-107-01475-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/907550561">907550561</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+the+War+Was+Won&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F907550561&rft.isbn=978-1-107-01475-6&rft.aulast=O%27Brien&rft.aufirst=Phillips+Payson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AManhattan+Project" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhelps2010" class="citation book cs1">Phelps, Stephen (2010). The Tizard Mission: the Top-Secret Operation that Changed the Course of World War II. Yardley, PA: Westholme. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59416-116-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59416-116-2"><bdi>978-1-59416-116-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/642846903">642846903</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Tizard+Mission%3A+the+Top-Secret+Operation+that+Changed+the+Course+of+World+War+II&rft.place=Yardley%2C+PA&rft.pub=Westholme&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F642846903&rft.isbn=978-1-59416-116-2&rft.aulast=Phelps&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AManhattan+Project" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRhodes1986" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Rhodes" title="Richard Rhodes">Rhodes, Richard</a> (1986). <a href="/wiki/The_Making_of_the_Atomic_Bomb" title="The Making of the Atomic Bomb">The Making of the Atomic Bomb</a>. New York: Simon & Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-671-44133-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-671-44133-7"><bdi>0-671-44133-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/13793436">13793436</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Making+of+the+Atomic+Bomb&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=1986&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F13793436&rft.isbn=0-671-44133-7&rft.aulast=Rhodes&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AManhattan+Project" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSklar1984" class="citation book cs1">Sklar, Morty, ed. (1984). Nuke-Rebuke: Writers & Artists Against Nuclear Energy & Weapons. The Contemporary anthology series. Iowa City: The Spirit That Moves Us Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-930370-16-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-930370-16-9"><bdi>978-0-930370-16-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/973585699">973585699</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nuke-Rebuke%3A+Writers+%26+Artists+Against+Nuclear+Energy+%26+Weapons&rft.place=Iowa+City&rft.series=The+Contemporary+anthology+series&rft.pub=The+Spirit+That+Moves+Us+Press&rft.date=1984&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F973585699&rft.isbn=978-0-930370-16-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AManhattan+Project" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStacey1970" class="citation book cs1">Stacey, C. P. (1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190620111320/http://www.cmp-cpm.forces.gc.ca/dhh-dhp/his/docs/AMG_e.pdf">Arms, Men and Government: The War Policies of Canada, 1939–1945</a> (PDF). The Queen's Printer by authority of the Minister of National Defence. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/610317261">610317261</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cmp-cpm.forces.gc.ca/dhh-dhp/his/docs/AMG_e.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 20 June 2019. Retrieved 6 September 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arms%2C+Men+and+Government%3A+The+War+Policies+of+Canada%2C+1939%E2%80%931945&rft.pub=The+Queen%27s+Printer+by+authority+of+the+Minister+of+National+Defence&rft.date=1970&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F610317261&rft.aulast=Stacey&rft.aufirst=C.+P.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cmp-cpm.forces.gc.ca%2Fdhh-dhp%2Fhis%2Fdocs%2FAMG_e.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AManhattan+Project" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSullivan2016" class="citation book cs1">Sullivan, Neil J. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Md4nDwAAQBAJ">The Prometheus Bomb: The Manhattan Project and Government in the Dark</a>. Lincoln: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Nebraska_Press" title="University of Nebraska Press">University of Nebraska Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61234-815-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61234-815-5"><bdi>978-1-61234-815-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Prometheus+Bomb%3A+The+Manhattan+Project+and+Government+in+the+Dark&rft.place=Lincoln&rft.pub=University+of+Nebraska+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-61234-815-5&rft.aulast=Sullivan&rft.aufirst=Neil+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMd4nDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AManhattan+Project" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSweeney2001" class="citation book cs1">Sweeney, Michael S. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/secretsofvictory00swee">Secrets of Victory: The Office of Censorship and the American Press and Radio in World War II</a>. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8078-2598-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-8078-2598-0"><bdi>0-8078-2598-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Secrets+of+Victory%3A+The+Office+of+Censorship+and+the+American+Press+and+Radio+in+World+War+II&rft.place=Chapel+Hill&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-8078-2598-0&rft.aulast=Sweeney&rft.aufirst=Michael+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsecretsofvictory00swee&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AManhattan+Project" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVilla1981" class="citation book cs1">Villa, Brian L. (1981). "Chapter 11: Alliance Politics and Atomic Collaboration, 1941–1943". In <a href="/wiki/Sidney_Aster" title="Sidney Aster">Sidney, Aster</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/UN/Canada/Natl_Exp/index.html">The Second World War as a National Experience: Canada</a>. The Canadian Committee for the History of the Second World War, Department of National Defence. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/11646807">11646807</a>. Retrieved 8 December 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+11%3A+Alliance+Politics+and+Atomic+Collaboration%2C+1941%E2%80%931943&rft.btitle=The+Second+World+War+as+a+National+Experience%3A+Canada&rft.pub=The+Canadian+Committee+for+the+History+of+the+Second+World+War%2C+Department+of+National+Defence&rft.date=1981&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F11646807&rft.aulast=Villa&rft.aufirst=Brian+L.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ibiblio.org%2Fhyperwar%2FUN%2FCanada%2FNatl_Exp%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AManhattan+Project" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalker2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/J._Samuel_Walker" title="J. Samuel Walker">Walker, J. Samuel</a> (2009). The Road to Yucca Mountain: The Development of Radioactive Waste Policy in the United States. Berkeley: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-26045-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-26045-0"><bdi>978-0-520-26045-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/276274684">276274684</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Road+to+Yucca+Mountain%3A+The+Development+of+Radioactive+Waste+Policy+in+the+United+States&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F276274684&rft.isbn=978-0-520-26045-0&rft.aulast=Walker&rft.aufirst=J.+Samuel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AManhattan+Project" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWellerstein2021" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alex_Wellerstein" title="Alex Wellerstein">Wellerstein, Alex</a> (2021). Restricted Data: The History of Nuclear Secrecy in the United States. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-02038-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-02038-9"><bdi>978-0-226-02038-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1178870332">1178870332</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Restricted+Data%3A+The+History+of+Nuclear+Secrecy+in+the+United+States&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1178870332&rft.isbn=978-0-226-02038-9&rft.aulast=Wellerstein&rft.aufirst=Alex&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AManhattan+Project" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams1960" class="citation book cs1">Williams, Mary H. (1960). Chronology 1941–1945. Washington, DC: Office of the Chief of Military History, Department of the Army. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1358166">1358166</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chronology+1941%E2%80%931945&rft.place=Washington%2C+DC&rft.pub=Office+of+the+Chief+of+Military+History%2C+Department+of+the+Army&rft.date=1960&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1358166&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Mary+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AManhattan+Project" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Technical_histories">Technical histories</h3></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAhnfeldt1966" class="citation book cs1">Ahnfeldt, Arnold Lorentz, ed. (1966). Radiology in World War II. Washington, DC: Office of the Surgeon General, Department of the Army. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/630225">630225</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Radiology+in+World+War+II&rft.place=Washington%2C+DC&rft.pub=Office+of+the+Surgeon+General%2C+Department+of+the+Army&rft.date=1966&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F630225&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AManhattan+Project" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBakerHeckerHarbur1983" class="citation journal cs1">Baker, Richard D.; Hecker, Siegfried S.; Harbur, Delbert R. (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://library.lanl.gov/cgi-bin/getfile?07-16.pdf">"Plutonium: A Wartime Nightmare but a Metallurgist's Dream"</a> (PDF). Los Alamos Science (Winter/Spring): 142–151. Retrieved 22 November 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Los+Alamos+Science&rft.atitle=Plutonium%3A+A+Wartime+Nightmare+but+a+Metallurgist%27s+Dream&rft.issue=Winter%2FSpring&rft.pages=142-151&rft.date=1983&rft.aulast=Baker&rft.aufirst=Richard+D.&rft.au=Hecker%2C+Siegfried+S.&rft.au=Harbur%2C+Delbert+R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flibrary.lanl.gov%2Fcgi-bin%2Fgetfile%3F07-16.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AManhattan+Project" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFErmenc1989" class="citation book cs1">Ermenc, Joseph J., ed. (1989). Atomic Bomb Scientists: Memoirs, 1939–1945. Westport, Connecticut & London: Meckler. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88736-267-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88736-267-5"><bdi>978-0-88736-267-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Atomic+Bomb+Scientists%3A+Memoirs%2C+1939%E2%80%931945&rft.place=Westport%2C+Connecticut+%26+London&rft.pub=Meckler&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-88736-267-5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AManhattan+Project" class="Z3988"> (1967 interview with Groves)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHanford_Cultural_and_Historic_Resources_Program2002" class="citation book cs1">Hanford Cultural and Historic Resources Program (2002). History of the Plutonium Production Facilities, 1943–1990. Richland, WA: Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/52282810">52282810</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Plutonium+Production+Facilities%2C+1943%E2%80%931990&rft.place=Richland%2C+WA&rft.pub=Pacific+Northwest+National+Laboratory&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F52282810&rft.au=Hanford+Cultural+and+Historic+Resources+Program&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AManhattan+Project" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHansen1995a" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Chuck_Hansen" title="Chuck Hansen">Hansen, Chuck</a> (1995a). Volume I: The Development of US Nuclear Weapons. Swords of Armageddon: US Nuclear Weapons Development since 1945. Sunnyvale, CA: Chukelea Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9791915-1-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9791915-1-0"><bdi>978-0-9791915-1-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/231585284">231585284</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Volume+I%3A+The+Development+of+US+Nuclear+Weapons&rft.place=Sunnyvale%2C+CA&rft.series=Swords+of+Armageddon%3A+US+Nuclear+Weapons+Development+since+1945&rft.pub=Chukelea+Publications&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F231585284&rft.isbn=978-0-9791915-1-0&rft.aulast=Hansen&rft.aufirst=Chuck&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AManhattan+Project" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHansen1995b" class="citation book cs1">Hansen, Chuck (1995b). Volume V: US Nuclear Weapons Histories. Swords of Armageddon: US Nuclear Weapons Development since 1945. Sunnyvale, CA: Chukelea Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9791915-0-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9791915-0-3"><bdi>978-0-9791915-0-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/231585284">231585284</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Volume+V%3A+US+Nuclear+Weapons+Histories&rft.place=Sunnyvale%2C+CA&rft.series=Swords+of+Armageddon%3A+US+Nuclear+Weapons+Development+since+1945&rft.pub=Chukelea+Publications&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F231585284&rft.isbn=978-0-9791915-0-3&rft.aulast=Hansen&rft.aufirst=Chuck&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AManhattan+Project" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHawkinsTruslowSmith1961" class="citation book cs1">Hawkins, David; Truslow, Edith C.; Smith, Ralph Carlisle (1961). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/projectylosalamo0002unse">Manhattan District history, Project Y, the Los Alamos story, Vol. 2</a>. Los Angeles: Tomash Publishers. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2172%2F1087645">10.2172/1087645</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-938228-08-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-938228-08-0"><bdi>978-0-938228-08-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OSTI_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OSTI (identifier)">OSTI</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.osti.gov/biblio/1087645">1087645</a>. <q>Originally published as Los Alamos Report LAMS-2532</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Manhattan+District+history%2C+Project+Y%2C+the+Los+Alamos+story%2C+Vol.+2&rft.place=Los+Angeles&rft.pub=Tomash+Publishers&rft.date=1961&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2172%2F1087645&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.osti.gov%2Fbiblio%2F1087645%23id-name%3DOSTI&rft.isbn=978-0-938228-08-0&rft.aulast=Hawkins&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Truslow%2C+Edith+C.&rft.au=Smith%2C+Ralph+Carlisle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fprojectylosalamo0002unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AManhattan+Project" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoddesonHenriksenMeadeWestfall1993" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lillian_Hoddeson" title="Lillian Hoddeson">Hoddeson, Lillian</a>; Henriksen, Paul W.; Meade, Roger A.; <a href="/wiki/Catherine_Westfall" title="Catherine Westfall">Westfall, Catherine L.</a> (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/criticalassembly0000unse">Critical Assembly: A Technical History of Los Alamos During the Oppenheimer Years, 1943–1945</a>. New York: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-44132-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-44132-2"><bdi>978-0-521-44132-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/26764320">26764320</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Critical+Assembly%3A+A+Technical+History+of+Los+Alamos+During+the+Oppenheimer+Years%2C+1943%E2%80%931945&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F26764320&rft.isbn=978-0-521-44132-2&rft.aulast=Hoddeson&rft.aufirst=Lillian&rft.au=Henriksen%2C+Paul+W.&rft.au=Meade%2C+Roger+A.&rft.au=Westfall%2C+Catherine+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcriticalassembly0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AManhattan+Project" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHomeLow1993" class="citation journal cs1">Home, R. W.; Low, Morris F. (September 1993). "Postwar Scientific Intelligence Missions to Japan". Isis. 84 (3): 527–537. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F356550">10.1086/356550</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/235645">235645</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Isis&rft.atitle=Postwar+Scientific+Intelligence+Missions+to+Japan&rft.volume=84&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=527-537&rft.date=1993-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F356550&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F235645%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Home&rft.aufirst=R.+W.&rft.au=Low%2C+Morris+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AManhattan+Project" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKemp2012" class="citation journal cs1">Kemp, R. Scott (April 2012). "The End of Manhattan: How the Gas Centrifuge Changed the Quest for Nuclear Weapons". Technology and Culture. 53 (2): 272–305. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Ftech.2012.0046">10.1353/tech.2012.0046</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0040-165X">0040-165X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Technology+and+Culture&rft.atitle=The+End+of+Manhattan%3A+How+the+Gas+Centrifuge+Changed+the+Quest+for+Nuclear+Weapons&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=272-305&rft.date=2012-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Ftech.2012.0046&rft.issn=0040-165X&rft.aulast=Kemp&rft.aufirst=R.+Scott&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AManhattan+Project" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRuhoffFain1962" class="citation journal cs1">Ruhoff, John; Fain, Pat (June 1962). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150330001357/http://www.mphpa.org/classic/CP/Mallinckrodt/Pages/MALK_Gallery_01.htm">"The First Fifty Critical days"</a>. Mallinckrodt Uranium Division News. 7 (3 and 4). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mphpa.org/classic/CP/Mallinckrodt/Pages/MALK_Gallery_01.htm">the original</a> on 30 March 2015. Retrieved 30 October 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mallinckrodt+Uranium+Division+News&rft.atitle=The+First+Fifty+Critical+days&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=3+and+4&rft.date=1962-06&rft.aulast=Ruhoff&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Fain%2C+Pat&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mphpa.org%2Fclassic%2FCP%2FMallinckrodt%2FPages%2FMALK_Gallery_01.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AManhattan+Project" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSandia1967" class="citation book cs1">Sandia (1967). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://osf.io/962rw/download">The History of the Mk4 Bomb</a>. Sandia National Laboratory. Retrieved 11 November 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+the+Mk4+Bomb&rft.pub=Sandia+National+Laboratory&rft.date=1967&rft.au=Sandia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fosf.io%2F962rw%2Fdownload&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AManhattan+Project" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSerberRhodes1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Serber" title="Robert Serber">Serber, Robert</a>; <a href="/wiki/Richard_Rhodes" title="Richard Rhodes">Rhodes, Richard</a> (1992). The Los Alamos Primer: The First Lectures on How to Build an Atomic Bomb. Berkeley: <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-07576-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-07576-4"><bdi>978-0-520-07576-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/23693470">23693470</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Los+Alamos+Primer%3A+The+First+Lectures+on+How+to+Build+an+Atomic+Bomb&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F23693470&rft.isbn=978-0-520-07576-4&rft.aulast=Serber&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft.au=Rhodes%2C+Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AManhattan+Project" class="Z3988"> (Available on <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Los_Alamos_Primer.pdf" class="extiw" title="commons:File:Los Alamos Primer.pdf">Wikimedia Commons</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmyth1945" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Henry_DeWolf_Smyth" title="Henry DeWolf Smyth">Smyth, Henry DeWolf</a> (1945). <a href="/wiki/Smyth_Report" title="Smyth Report">Atomic Energy for Military Purposes: the Official Report on the Development of the Atomic Bomb under the Auspices of the United States Government, 1940–1945</a>. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/770285">770285</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Atomic+Energy+for+Military+Purposes%3A+the+Official+Report+on+the+Development+of+the+Atomic+Bomb+under+the+Auspices+of+the+United+States+Government%2C+1940%E2%80%931945&rft.place=Princeton%2C+NJ&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1945&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F770285&rft.aulast=Smyth&rft.aufirst=Henry+DeWolf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AManhattan+Project" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThayer1996" class="citation book cs1">Thayer, Harry (1996). Management of the Hanford Engineer Works In World War II: How the Corps, DuPont and the Metallurgical Laboratory Fast Tracked the Original Plutonium Works. New York: American Society of Civil Engineers Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7844-0160-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7844-0160-6"><bdi>978-0-7844-0160-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/34323402">34323402</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Management+of+the+Hanford+Engineer+Works+In+World+War+II%3A+How+the+Corps%2C+DuPont+and+the+Metallurgical+Laboratory+Fast+Tracked+the+Original+Plutonium+Works&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=American+Society+of+Civil+Engineers+Press&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F34323402&rft.isbn=978-0-7844-0160-6&rft.aulast=Thayer&rft.aufirst=Harry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AManhattan+Project" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaltham2002" class="citation book cs1">Waltham, Chris (20 June 2002). An Early History of Heavy Water. Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of British Columbia. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0206076">physics/0206076</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002physics...6076W">2002physics...6076W</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Early+History+of+Heavy+Water&rft.pub=Department+of+Physics+and+Astronomy%2C+University+of+British+Columbia&rft.date=2002-06-20&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fphysics%2F0206076&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2002physics...6076W&rft.aulast=Waltham&rft.aufirst=Chris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AManhattan+Project" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeinberg1961" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alvin_M._Weinberg" title="Alvin M. Weinberg">Weinberg, Alvin M.</a> (21 July 1961). "Impact of Large-Scale Science on the United States". Science. New Series. 134 (3473): 161–164. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1961Sci...134..161W">1961Sci...134..161W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.134.3473.161">10.1126/science.134.3473.161</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1708292">1708292</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17818712">17818712</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Impact+of+Large-Scale+Science+on+the+United+States&rft.volume=134&rft.issue=3473&rft.pages=161-164&rft.date=1961-07-21&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.134.3473.161&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17818712&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1708292%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1961Sci...134..161W&rft.aulast=Weinberg&rft.aufirst=Alvin+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AManhattan+Project" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Participant_accounts">Participant accounts</h3></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBethe1991" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe">Bethe, Hans A.</a> (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/roadfromlosalamo00beth">The Road from Los Alamos</a>. New York: Simon and Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-671-74012-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-671-74012-1"><bdi>0-671-74012-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/22661282">22661282</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Road+from+Los+Alamos&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F22661282&rft.isbn=0-671-74012-1&rft.aulast=Bethe&rft.aufirst=Hans+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Froadfromlosalamo00beth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AManhattan+Project" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCompton1956" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Compton" title="Arthur Compton">Compton, Arthur</a> (1956). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/atomicquestperso0000comp">Atomic Quest</a>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/173307">173307</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Atomic+Quest&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1956&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F173307&rft.aulast=Compton&rft.aufirst=Arthur&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fatomicquestperso0000comp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AManhattan+Project" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoudsmit1947" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Abraham_Goudsmit" class="mw-redirect" title="Samuel Abraham Goudsmit">Goudsmit, Samuel A.</a> (1947). Alsos. New York: Henry Schuman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-938228-09-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-938228-09-9"><bdi>0-938228-09-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/8805725">8805725</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alsos&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Henry+Schuman&rft.date=1947&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F8805725&rft.isbn=0-938228-09-9&rft.aulast=Goudsmit&rft.aufirst=Samuel+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AManhattan+Project" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGroves1962" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Leslie_Groves" title="Leslie Groves">Groves, Leslie</a> (1962). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/nowitcanbetolds00grov">Now it Can be Told: The Story of the Manhattan Project</a>. New York: Harper & Row. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-306-70738-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-306-70738-1"><bdi>0-306-70738-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/537684">537684</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Now+it+Can+be+Told%3A+The+Story+of+the+Manhattan+Project&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Harper+%26+Row&rft.date=1962&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F537684&rft.isbn=0-306-70738-1&rft.aulast=Groves&rft.aufirst=Leslie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnowitcanbetolds00grov&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AManhattan+Project" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLibby1979" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Leona_Woods" title="Leona Woods">Libby, Leona Marshall</a> (1979). Uranium People. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-684-16242-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-684-16242-3"><bdi>0-684-16242-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/4665032">4665032</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Uranium+People&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Charles+Scribner%27s+Sons&rft.date=1979&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F4665032&rft.isbn=0-684-16242-3&rft.aulast=Libby&rft.aufirst=Leona+Marshall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AManhattan+Project" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNichols1987" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Nichols" title="Kenneth Nichols">Nichols, Kenneth David</a> (1987). The Road to Trinity: A Personal Account of How America's Nuclear Policies Were Made. New York: William Morrow and Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-688-06910-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-688-06910-X"><bdi>0-688-06910-X</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/15223648">15223648</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Road+to+Trinity%3A+A+Personal+Account+of+How+America%27s+Nuclear+Policies+Were+Made&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=William+Morrow+and+Co.&rft.date=1987&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F15223648&rft.isbn=0-688-06910-X&rft.aulast=Nichols&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AManhattan+Project" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWallace1973" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Henry_A._Wallace" title="Henry A. Wallace">Wallace, Henry</a> (1973). The Price of Vision: The Diary of Henry A. Wallace, 1942–1946. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-395-17121-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-395-17121-9"><bdi>978-0-395-17121-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/627817">627817</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Price+of+Vision%3A+The+Diary+of+Henry+A.+Wallace%2C+1942%E2%80%931946&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin+Company&rft.date=1973&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F627817&rft.isbn=978-0-395-17121-9&rft.aulast=Wallace&rft.aufirst=Henry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AManhattan+Project" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original text related to this article: <div style="margin-left: 10px;"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Los_Alamos_Ranch_School_Seizure_Letter" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Los Alamos Ranch School Seizure Letter">Los Alamos Ranch School Seizure Letter</a></div></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about Manhattan Project <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Manhattan+Project">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Manhattan+Project&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB162/index.htm">"The Atomic Bomb and the End of World War II, A Collection of Primary Sources"</a>. <a href="/wiki/George_Washington_University" title="George Washington University">George Washington University</a>. Retrieved 27 July 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Atomic+Bomb+and+the+End+of+World+War+II%2C+A+Collection+of+Primary+Sources&rft.pub=George+Washington+University&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gwu.edu%2F~nsarchiv%2FNSAEBB%2FNSAEBB162%2Findex.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AManhattan+Project" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.atomicheritage.org/">"Atomic Heritage Foundation"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Atomic_Heritage_Foundation" title="Atomic Heritage Foundation">Atomic Heritage Foundation</a>. Retrieved 27 July 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Atomic+Heritage+Foundation&rft.pub=Atomic+Heritage+Foundation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.atomicheritage.org%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AManhattan+Project" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.manhattanprojectvoices.org">"Voices of the Manhattan Project"</a>. Atomic Heritage Foundation. Retrieved 10 February 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Voices+of+the+Manhattan+Project&rft.pub=Atomic+Heritage+Foundation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.manhattanprojectvoices.org&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AManhattan+Project" class="Z3988"> Features hundreds of audio/visual interviews with Manhattan Project veterans.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lanl.gov/history">"History Center: Los Alamos National Laboratory"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Los_Alamos_National_Laboratory" title="Los Alamos National Laboratory">Los Alamos National Laboratory</a>. Retrieved 27 July 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=History+Center%3A+Los+Alamos+National+Laboratory&rft.pub=Los+Alamos+National+Laboratory&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lanl.gov%2Fhistory&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AManhattan+Project" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160602003526/http://web.ornl.gov/info/ornlreview/rev25-34/features.shtml">"ORNL: The first 50 Years: History of ORNL"</a>. <a href="/wiki/ORNL" class="mw-redirect" title="ORNL">ORNL</a> Review. 25 (3). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.ornl.gov/info/ornlreview/rev25-34/features.shtml">the original</a> on 2 June 2016. Retrieved 13 October 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ORNL+Review&rft.atitle=ORNL%3A+The+first+50+Years%3A+History+of+ORNL&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=3&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweb.ornl.gov%2Finfo%2Fornlreview%2Frev25-34%2Ffeatures.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AManhattan+Project" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lib.uchicago.edu/scrc/finding-aids/?topic=Manhattan%20Project%20and%20Allied%20Scientists&view=topics">Manhattan Project and Allied Scientists Collections</a> at the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lib.uchicago.edu/scrc/">University of Chicago Special Collections Research Center</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">Chadwick, Mark B. (3 December 2021). "Nuclear Science for the Manhattan Project and Comparison to Today's ENDF Data". Nuclear Technology. 207 (sup1): S24–S61. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2103.05727">2103.05727</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00295450.2021.1901002">10.1080/00295450.2021.1901002</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nuclear+Technology&rft.atitle=Nuclear+Science+for+the+Manhattan+Project+and+Comparison+to+Today%27s+ENDF+Data&rft.volume=207&rft.issue=sup1&rft.pages=S24-S61&rft.date=2021-12-03&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F2103.05727&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00295450.2021.1901002&rft.aulast=Chadwick&rft.aufirst=Mark+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AManhattan+Project" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style 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href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Manhattan_Project" title="Timeline of the Manhattan Project">Timeline</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ames_Project" title="Ames Project">Ames</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calutron" title="Calutron">Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metallurgical_Laboratory" title="Metallurgical Laboratory">Chicago</a> (<a href="/wiki/Site_A" title="Site A">Site A</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dayton_Project" title="Dayton Project">Dayton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanford_Engineer_Works" title="Hanford Engineer Works">Hanford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Camel" title="Project Camel">Inyokern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Y" title="Project Y">Los Alamos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montreal_Laboratory" title="Montreal Laboratory">Montreal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K-25" title="K-25">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinton_Engineer_Works" title="Clinton Engineer Works">Oak Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_Wells_Pilot_Plant" title="Salt Wells Pilot Plant">Salt Wells Pilot Plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinity_(nuclear_test)" title="Trinity (nuclear test)">Trinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wendover_Air_Force_Base" title="Wendover Air Force Base">Wendover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P-9_Project" title="P-9 Project">Heavy water sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Administrators</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vannevar_Bush" title="Vannevar Bush">Vannevar Bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Compton" title="Arthur Compton">Arthur Compton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_B._Conant" title="James B. Conant">James B. Conant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscilla_Duffield" title="Priscilla Duffield">Priscilla Duffield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Farrell_(United_States_Army_officer)" title="Thomas Farrell (United States Army officer)">Thomas Farrell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leslie_Groves" title="Leslie Groves">Leslie Groves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lansdale_Jr." title="John Lansdale Jr.">John Lansdale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence">Ernest Lawrence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_C._Marshall" title="James C. Marshall">James Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_Matthias" title="Franklin Matthias">Franklin Matthias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_McKibbin" title="Dorothy McKibbin">Dorothy McKibbin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Nichols" title="Kenneth Nichols">Kenneth Nichols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer" title="J. Robert Oppenheimer">Robert Oppenheimer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Sterling_Parsons" title="William Sterling Parsons">Deak Parsons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boris_Pash" title="Boris Pash">Boris Pash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_R._Purnell" title="William R. Purnell">William Purnell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Spedding" title="Frank Spedding">Frank Spedding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Allen_Thomas" title="Charles Allen Thomas">Charles Thomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tibbets" title="Paul Tibbets">Paul Tibbets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_L._Uanna" title="William L. Uanna">Bud Uanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Urey" title="Harold Urey">Harold Urey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stafford_L._Warren" title="Stafford L. Warren">Stafford Warren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ed_Westcott" title="Ed Westcott">Ed Westcott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roscoe_Charles_Wilson" title="Roscoe Charles Wilson">Roscoe Wilson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scientists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Luis_Walter_Alvarez" title="Luis Walter Alvarez">Luis Alvarez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bacher" title="Robert Bacher">Robert Bacher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe">Hans Bethe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aage_Bohr" title="Aage Bohr">Aage Bohr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norris_Bradbury" title="Norris Bradbury">Norris Bradbury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Chadwick" title="James Chadwick">James Chadwick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Cockcroft" title="John Cockcroft">John Cockcroft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Critchfield" title="Charles Critchfield">Charles Critchfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Daghlian" title="Harry Daghlian">Harry Daghlian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_R._Dunning" title="John R. Dunning">John R. Dunning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Enrico Fermi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman">Richard Feynman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Val_Logsdon_Fitch" title="Val Logsdon Fitch">Val Fitch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck">James Franck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klaus_Fuchs" title="Klaus Fuchs">Klaus Fuchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Goeppert_Mayer" title="Maria Goeppert Mayer">Maria Goeppert Mayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Kistiakowsky" title="George Kistiakowsky">George Kistiakowsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Koval" title="George Koval">George Koval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Libby" title="Willard Libby">Willard Libby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_McMillan" title="Edwin McMillan">Edwin McMillan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Oliphant" title="Mark Oliphant">Mark Oliphant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_B._Pegram" title="George B. Pegram">George B. Pegram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Ramsey_Jr." title="Norman Ramsey Jr.">Norman Ramsey Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi">Isidor Isaac Rabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Rainwater" title="James Rainwater">James Rainwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruno_Rossi" title="Bruno Rossi">Bruno Rossi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glenn_T._Seaborg" title="Glenn T. Seaborg">Glenn Seaborg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emilio_Segr%C3%A8" title="Emilio Segrè">Emilio Segrè</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Slotin" title="Louis Slotin">Louis Slotin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_DeWolf_Smyth" title="Henry DeWolf Smyth">Henry DeWolf Smyth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Szilard" title="Leo Szilard">Leo Szilard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Teller" title="Edward Teller">Edward Teller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Ulam" title="Stanisław Ulam">Stanisław Ulam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_von_Neumann" title="John von Neumann">John von Neumann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Archibald_Wheeler" title="John Archibald Wheeler">John Wheeler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Wigner" title="Eugene Wigner">Eugene Wigner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_R._Wilson" title="Robert R. Wilson">Robert Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leona_Woods" title="Leona Woods">Leona Woods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chien-Shiung_Wu" title="Chien-Shiung Wu">Chien-Shiung Wu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Operations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alsos_Mission" title="Alsos Mission">Alsos Mission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Crossroads" title="Operation Crossroads">Operation Crossroads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Peppermint" title="Operation Peppermint">Operation Peppermint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Alberta" title="Project Alberta">Project Alberta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silverplate" title="Silverplate">Silverplate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/509th_Composite_Group" title="509th Composite Group">509th Composite Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enola_Gay" title="Enola Gay">Enola Gay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bockscar" title="Bockscar">Bockscar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Great_Artiste" title="The Great Artiste">The Great Artiste</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Weapons</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fat_Man" title="Fat Man">Fat Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Boy" title="Little Boy">Little Boy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pumpkin_bomb" title="Pumpkin bomb">Pumpkin bomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thin_Man_(nuclear_bomb)" title="Thin Man (nuclear bomb)">Thin Man</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_scientists_and_technicians_on_the_Manhattan_Project" title="African-American scientists and technicians on the Manhattan Project">African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_Energy_Act_of_1946" title="Atomic Energy Act of 1946">Atomic Energy Act of 1946</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bismuth_phosphate_process" title="Bismuth phosphate process">Bismuth phosphate process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_contribution_to_the_Manhattan_Project" title="British contribution to the Manhattan Project">British contribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calutron_Girls" title="Calutron Girls">Calutron Girls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Pile-1" title="Chicago Pile-1">Chicago Pile-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demon_core" title="Demon core">Demon core</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Einstein%E2%80%93Szilard_letter" title="Einstein–Szilard letter">Einstein–Szilard letter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franck_Report" title="Franck Report">Franck Report</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interim_Committee" title="Interim Committee">Interim Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K-25" title="K-25">K-25 Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Los_Alamos_Primer" title="Los Alamos Primer">Los Alamos Primer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates_who_worked_on_the_Manhattan_Project" title="List of Nobel laureates who worked on the Manhattan Project">Nobel Prize laureates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oppenheimer_security_hearing" class="mw-redirect" title="Oppenheimer security hearing">Oppenheimer security hearing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">Plutonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quebec_Agreement" title="Quebec Agreement">Quebec Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RaLa_Experiment" title="RaLa Experiment">RaLa Experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S-1_Executive_Committee" title="S-1 Executive Committee">S-1 Executive Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S-50_(Manhattan_Project)" title="S-50 (Manhattan Project)">S-50 Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smyth_Report" title="Smyth Report">Smyth Report</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">Uranium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-10_Graphite_Reactor" title="X-10 Graphite Reactor">X-10 Graphite Reactor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calutron" title="Calutron">Y-12 Project</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Manhattan_Project" title="Category:Manhattan Project">Category</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="World_War_II" style=";wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:World_War_II" title="Template:World War II"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:World_War_II" title="Template talk:World War II"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:World_War_II" title="Special:EditPage/Template:World War II"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="World_War_II" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_World_War_II" title="Outline of World War II">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_War_II_battles" title="List of World War II battles">Battles</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_War_II_military_operations" title="List of World War II military operations">Operations</a></li></ul></li> <li>Leaders <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allied_leaders_of_World_War_II" title="Allied leaders of World War II">Allied</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axis_leaders_of_World_War_II" title="Axis leaders of World War II">Axis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commanders_of_World_War_II" title="Commanders of World War II">Commanders</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_casualties" title="World War II casualties">Casualties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Allied_World_War_II_conferences" title="List of Allied World War II conferences">Conferences</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_World_War_II_topics" title="Lists of World War II topics">Topics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_warfare_of_World_War_II" title="Air warfare of World War II">Air warfare of World War II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_air_operations_during_the_Battle_of_Europe" title="List of air operations during the Battle of Europe">In Europe</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blitzkrieg" title="Blitzkrieg">Blitzkrieg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_officer_ranks_of_World_War_II" title="Comparative officer ranks of World War II">Comparative military ranks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_cryptography" title="World War II cryptography">Cryptography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declarations_of_war_during_World_War_II" title="Declarations of war during World War II">Declarations of war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_history_of_World_War_II" title="Diplomatic history of World War II">Diplomacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_governments_in_exile_during_World_War_II" title="List of governments in exile during World War II">Governments in exile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_front_during_World_War_II" title="Home front during World War II">Home front</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="Australian home front during World War II">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="United Kingdom home front during World War II">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="United States home front during World War II">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lend-Lease" title="Lend-Lease">Lend-Lease</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Manhattan Project</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_contribution_to_the_Manhattan_Project" title="British contribution to the Manhattan Project">British contribution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_awards_and_decorations_of_World_War_II" title="List of military awards and decorations of World War II">Military awards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_World_War_II_military_equipment" title="Lists of World War II military equipment">Military equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_production_during_World_War_II" title="Military production during World War II">Military production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_history_of_World_War_II" title="Naval history of World War II">Naval history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_plunder" title="Nazi plunder">Nazi plunder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_World_War_II" title="Opposition to World War II">Opposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_during_World_War_II" title="Technology during World War II">Technology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allied_technological_cooperation_during_World_War_II" title="Allied technological cooperation during World War II">Allied cooperation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mulberry_harbour" class="mw-redirect" title="Mulberry harbour">Mulberry harbour</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Total_war#World_War_II" title="Total war">Total war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_bombing_during_World_War_II" title="Strategic bombing during World War II">Strategic bombing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_War_II_puppet_states" title="List of World War II puppet states">Puppet states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_World_War_II" title="Women in World War II">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_and_World_War_II" title="Art and World War II">Art and World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_in_World_War_II" title="Music in World War II">Music in World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weather_events_during_wars#World_War_II" title="Weather events during wars">Weather events during World War II</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_theaters_and_campaigns_of_World_War_II" title="List of theaters and campaigns of World War II">Theaters</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asiatic-Pacific_theater" title="Asiatic-Pacific theater">Asia and Pacific</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South-East_Asian_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="South-East Asian theatre of World War II">South-East Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_War" title="Pacific War">Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean_theater_of_World_War_II" title="Pacific Ocean theater of World War II">North and Central Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_West_Pacific_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="South West Pacific theatre of World War II">South-West Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_in_World_War_II" title="Indian Ocean in World War II">Indian Ocean</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="European theatre of World War II">Europe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Western Front (World War II)">Western Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Eastern Front (World War II)">Eastern Front</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_and_Middle_East_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="Mediterranean and Middle East theatre of World War II">Mediterranean and Middle East</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_African_campaign" title="North African campaign">North Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)" title="East African campaign (World War II)">East Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_campaign_(World_War_II)" title="Italian campaign (World War II)">Italy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_West_Africa_in_World_War_II" title="French West Africa in World War II">West Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Atlantic" title="Battle of the Atlantic">Atlantic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Battle_of_the_Atlantic" title="Timeline of the Battle of the Atlantic">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Theater_(World_War_II)" class="mw-redirect" title="American Theater (World War II)">Americas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_World_War_II" title="Aftermath of World War II">Aftermath</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decolonization" title="Decolonization">Decolonization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Division_of_Korea" title="Division of Korea">Division of Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Indochina_War" title="First Indochina War">First Indochina War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flight_and_expulsion_of_Germans_(1944%E2%80%931950)" title="Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–1950)">Expulsion of Germans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Civil_War" title="Greek Civil War">Greek Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_National_Revolution" title="Indonesian National Revolution">Indonesian National Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Keelhaul" title="Operation Keelhaul">Keelhaul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Plan" title="Marshall Plan">Marshall Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied-occupied_Germany" title="Allied-occupied Germany">Occupation of Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Japan" title="Occupation of Japan">Occupation of Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Osoaviakhim" title="Operation Osoaviakhim">Osoaviakhim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Paperclip" title="Operation Paperclip">Paperclip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_occupations_by_the_Soviet_Union" title="Military occupations by the Soviet Union">Soviet occupations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Baltic_states" title="Occupation of the Baltic states">Baltic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungary%E2%80%93Soviet_Union_relations" title="Hungary–Soviet Union relations">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_People%27s_Republic" title="Polish People's Republic">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_occupation_of_Romania" title="Soviet occupation of Romania">Romania</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oder%E2%80%93Neisse_line" title="Oder–Neisse line">Territorial changes of Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Final_Settlement_with_Respect_to_Germany" title="Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany">Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_World_War_II" title="War crimes in World War II">War crimes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allied_war_crimes_during_World_War_II" title="Allied war crimes during World War II">Allied war crimes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_war_crimes#World_War_II" title="Soviet war crimes">Soviet war crimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_war_crimes#World_War_II" title="British war crimes">British war crimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_war_crimes#World_War_II" title="United States war crimes">United States war crimes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_war_crimes#World_War_II" title="German war crimes">German war crimes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forced_labour_under_German_rule_during_World_War_II" title="Forced labour under German rule during World War II">forced labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_of_the_Wehrmacht" title="War crimes of the Wehrmacht">Wehrmacht war crimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">The Holocaust</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_the_Holocaust" title="Aftermath of the Holocaust">Aftermath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_response_to_the_Holocaust" title="International response to the Holocaust">Response</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_trials" title="Nuremberg trials">Nuremberg trials</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_war_crimes" title="Italian war crimes">Italian war crimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_war_crimes" title="Japanese war crimes">Japanese war crimes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nanjing_Massacre" title="Nanjing Massacre">Nanjing Massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unit_731" title="Unit 731">Unit 731</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Military_Tribunal_for_the_Far_East" title="International Military Tribunal for the Far East">Prosecution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usta%C5%A1e" title="Ustaše">Croatian war crimes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_of_Serbs_in_the_Independent_State_of_Croatia" title="Genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia">Genocide of Serbs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_the_Independent_State_of_Croatia" title="The Holocaust in the Independent State of Croatia">Persecution of Jews</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Romania#The_Holocaust" title="History of the Jews in Romania">Romanian war crimes</a></li> <li>Sexual violence <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_military_brothels_in_World_War_II" title="German military brothels in World War II">German military brothels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_camp_brothels_in_World_War_II" title="German camp brothels in World War II">Camp brothels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rape_during_the_occupation_of_Germany" title="Rape during the occupation of Germany">Rape during the occupation of Germany</a>  / <a href="/wiki/Rape_during_the_occupation_of_Japan" title="Rape during the occupation of Japan">Japan</a>  / <a href="/wiki/Rape_during_the_Soviet_occupation_of_Poland" title="Rape during the Soviet occupation of Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rape_during_the_liberation_of_France" title="Rape during the liberation of France">Rape during the liberation of France</a>  / <a href="/wiki/Rape_during_the_liberation_of_Serbia" title="Rape during the liberation of Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sook_Ching" title="Sook Ching">Sook Ching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comfort_women" title="Comfort women">Comfort women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manila_massacre#Mass_rapes" title="Manila massacre">Rape of Manila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marocchinate" title="Marocchinate">Marocchinate</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_by_country" title="World War II by country">Participants</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algeria_in_World_War_II" title="Algeria in World War II">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Australia_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Australia during World War II">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgium_in_World_War_II" title="Belgium in World War II">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brazil_in_World_War_II" title="Brazil in World War II">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgaria_during_World_War_II" title="Bulgaria during World War II">Bulgaria</a> (<a href="/wiki/1944_Bulgarian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1944 Bulgarian coup d'état">from September 1944</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canada_in_World_War_II" title="Canada in World War II">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuba_during_World_War_II" title="Cuba during World War II">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Czechoslovakia_(1938%E2%80%931945)" title="Occupation of Czechoslovakia (1938–1945)">Czechoslovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denmark_in_World_War_II" title="Denmark in World War II">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Italo-Ethiopian_War" title="Second Italo-Ethiopian War">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eswatini_in_World_War_II" title="Eswatini in World War II">Eswatini</a> (formerly Swaziland)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finland_in_World_War_II" title="Finland in World War II">Finland</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lapland_War" title="Lapland War">from September 1944</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/France_during_World_War_II" title="France during World War II">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_France" title="Free France">Free France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Greece_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Greece during World War II">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/India_in_World_War_II" title="India in World War II">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Co-belligerent_Army" title="Italian Co-belligerent Army">Italy</a> (<a href="/wiki/Italian_Civil_War" title="Italian Civil War">from September 1943</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luxembourg_in_World_War_II" title="Luxembourg in World War II">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexico_during_World_War_II" title="Mexico during World War II">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Netherlands_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the Netherlands during World War II">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Newfoundland_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Newfoundland during World War II">Newfoundland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_New_Zealand_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of New Zealand during World War II">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_campaign" title="Norwegian campaign">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Philippines_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the Philippines during World War II">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_(1939%E2%80%931945)" title="History of Poland (1939–1945)">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romania_in_World_War_II" title="Romania in World War II">Romania</a> (<a href="/wiki/1944_Romanian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1944 Romanian coup d'état">from August 1944</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_in_World_War_II" title="Sierra Leone in World War II">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_South_Africa_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of South Africa during World War II">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Rhodesia_in_World_War_II" title="Southern Rhodesia in World War II">Southern Rhodesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union_in_World_War_II" title="Soviet Union in World War II">Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuva_in_World_War_II" title="Tuva in World War II">Tuva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United Kingdom during World War II">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire_in_World_War_II" title="British Empire in World War II">British Empire</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United States during World War II">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Puerto_Ricans_in_World_War_II" title="Puerto Ricans in World War II">Puerto Rico</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_in_Yugoslavia" title="World War II in Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Axis_powers" title="Axis powers">Axis</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_protectorate_of_Albania_(1939%E2%80%931943)" title="Italian protectorate of Albania (1939–1943)">Albania protectorate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgaria_during_World_War_II" title="Bulgaria during World War II">Bulgaria</a> (until September 1944)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Jingwei_regime" title="Wang Jingwei regime">Wang Jingwei regime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_State_of_Croatia" title="Independent State of Croatia">Independent State of Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finland_in_World_War_II" title="Finland in World War II">Finland</a> (until September 1944)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">German Reich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungary_in_World_War_II" title="Hungary in World War II">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azad_Hind" title="Azad Hind">Azad Hind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Indochina_in_World_War_II" title="French Indochina in World War II">French Indochina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Iraqi_War" title="Anglo-Iraqi War">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Italy_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Italy during World War II">Italy</a> (until September 1943) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Social_Republic" title="Italian Social Republic">Italian Social Republic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Empire of Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Philippine_Republic" title="Second Philippine Republic">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romania_in_World_War_II" title="Romania in World War II">Romania</a> (until August 1944)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovak_Republic_(1939%E2%80%931945)" title="Slovak Republic (1939–1945)">Slovak Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thailand_in_World_War_II" title="Thailand in World War II">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vichy_France" title="Vichy France">Vichy France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Collaboration_with_Axis_Powers" title="Template:Collaboration with Axis Powers">Collaboration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Neutral_powers_during_World_War_II" title="Neutral powers during World War II">Neutral</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Afghanistan" title="Kingdom of Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Andorra#20th_and_21st_centuries" title="History of Andorra">Andorra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhutan" title="Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_neutrality_during_World_War_II" title="Irish neutrality during World War II">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liechtenstein_in_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Liechtenstein in World War II">Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portugal_during_World_War_II" title="Portugal during World War II">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spain_during_World_War_II" title="Spain during World War II">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sweden_during_World_War_II" title="Sweden during World War II">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Switzerland_during_the_World_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Switzerland during the World Wars">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibet_(1912%E2%80%931951)" title="Tibet (1912–1951)">Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vatican_City_during_World_War_II" title="Vatican City during World War II">Vatican City</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Resistance_during_World_War_II" title="Resistance during World War II">Resistance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_in_Albania" title="World War II in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_resistance" title="Austrian resistance">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_Resistance" title="Belgian Resistance">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_resistance_movement_during_World_War_II" title="Bulgarian resistance movement during World War II">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistance_in_the_Protectorate_of_Bohemia_and_Moravia" title="Resistance in the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia">Czech lands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_resistance_movement" title="Danish resistance movement">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_the_Dutch_East_Indies#Underground_resistance" title="Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies">Dutch East Indies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estonian_anti-German_resistance_movement_1941%E2%80%931944" title="Estonian anti-German resistance movement 1941–1944">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arbegnoch" title="Arbegnoch">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Resistance" title="French Resistance">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_resistance_to_Nazism" title="German resistance to Nazism">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_resistance" title="Greek resistance">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Hong_Kong#Anti-Japanese_resistance" title="Japanese occupation of Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_resistance_movement" title="Italian resistance movement">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_dissidence_in_the_Empire_of_Japan#Dissidence_during_World_War_II" title="Political dissidence in the Empire of Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_resistance_in_German-occupied_Europe" title="Jewish resistance in German-occupied Europe">Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korea" title="Korea">Korea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Liberation_Army" title="Korean Liberation Army">Korean Liberation Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Volunteer_Army" title="Korean Volunteer Army">Korean Volunteer Army</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latvian_anti-Nazi_resistance_movement_1941%E2%80%931945" title="Latvian anti-Nazi resistance movement 1941–1945">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistance_in_Lithuania_during_World_War_II" title="Resistance in Lithuania during World War II">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luxembourg_Resistance" title="Luxembourg Resistance">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayan_Peoples%27_Anti-Japanese_Army" title="Malayan Peoples' Anti-Japanese Army">Malaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_resistance" title="Dutch resistance">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_Anti-Japanese_United_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army">Northeast China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_resistance_movement" title="Norwegian resistance movement">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_resistance_against_Japan" title="Philippine resistance against Japan">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_resistance_movement_in_World_War_II" title="Polish resistance movement in World War II">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_anti-communist_resistance_movement" title="Romanian anti-communist resistance movement">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Thai_Movement" title="Free Thai Movement">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_partisans" title="Soviet partisans">Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovak_National_Uprising" title="Slovak National Uprising">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Insurgent_Army" title="Ukrainian Insurgent Army">Western Ukraine</a></li> <li>Vietnam <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vi%E1%BB%87t_Nam_Qu%E1%BB%91c_D%C3%A2n_%C4%90%E1%BA%A3ng" title="Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng">Quốc dân Đảng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viet_Minh" title="Viet Minh">Viet Minh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_Partisans" title="Yugoslav Partisans">Yugoslavia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Prisoner_of_war" title="Prisoner of war">POWs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_prisoners_of_war_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Finnish prisoners of war in the Soviet Union">Finnish prisoners in the Soviet Union</a></li> <li>German prisoners <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_prisoners_of_war_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="German prisoners of war in the Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_prisoners_of_war_in_Azerbaijan" title="German prisoners of war in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_prisoners_of_war_in_the_United_States" title="German prisoners of war in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_prisoners_of_war_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="German prisoners of war in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_prisoners_of_war_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Italian prisoners of war in the Soviet Union">Italian prisoners in the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_prisoners_of_war_in_World_War_II" title="Japanese prisoners of war in World War II">Japanese prisoners</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_prisoners_of_war_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Japanese prisoners of war in the Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_atrocities_committed_against_Polish_prisoners_of_war" title="German atrocities committed against Polish prisoners of war">German atrocities against Polish POWs</a></li> <li>Soviet prisoners <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_prisoners_of_war_in_Finland" title="Soviet prisoners of war in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_atrocities_committed_against_Soviet_prisoners_of_war" title="German atrocities committed against Soviet prisoners of war">atrocities by Germans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_prisoners-of-war_in_the_Soviet_Union_after_1939" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish prisoners-of-war in the Soviet Union after 1939">Polish prisoners in the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_prisoners_of_war_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Romanian prisoners of war in the Soviet Union">Romanian prisoners in the Soviet Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_timelines_of_World_War_II" title="List of timelines of World War II">Timeline</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th id="Prelude" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_World_War_II" title="Causes of World War II">Prelude</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abyssinia_Crisis" title="Abyssinia Crisis">Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Italo-Ethiopian_War" title="Second Italo-Ethiopian War">Second Italo-Ethiopian War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Events_preceding_World_War_II_in_Asia" title="Events preceding World War II in Asia">Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Second Sino-Japanese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battles_of_Khalkhin_Gol" title="Battles of Khalkhin Gol">Battles of Khalkhin Gol</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Events_preceding_World_War_II_in_Europe" title="Events preceding World War II in Europe">Europe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anschluss" title="Anschluss">Anschluss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Munich_Agreement" title="Munich Agreement">Munich Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Czechoslovakia_(1938%E2%80%931945)" title="Occupation of Czechoslovakia (1938–1945)">Occupation of Czechoslovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Himmler" title="Operation Himmler">Operation Himmler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_invasion_of_Albania" title="Italian invasion of Albania">Italian invasion of Albania</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1939)" title="Timeline of World War II (1939)">1939</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Poland" title="Invasion of Poland">Invasion of Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Atlantic" title="Battle of the Atlantic">Battle of the Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoney_War" title="Phoney War">Phoney War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Changsha_(1939)" title="Battle of Changsha (1939)">First Battle of Changsha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_South_Guangxi" title="Battle of South Guangxi">Battle of South Guangxi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winter_War" title="Winter War">Winter War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1939%E2%80%931940_Winter_Offensive" title="1939–1940 Winter Offensive">1939–1940 Winter Offensive</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1940)" title="Timeline of World War II (1940)">1940</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_campaign" title="Norwegian campaign">Norwegian campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_Denmark_(1940)" title="German invasion of Denmark (1940)">German invasion of Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Zaoyang%E2%80%93Yichang" title="Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang">Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_Luxembourg" title="German invasion of Luxembourg">German invasion of Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_the_Netherlands" title="German invasion of the Netherlands">German invasion of the Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_Belgium_(1940)" title="German invasion of Belgium (1940)">German invasion of Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_France" title="Battle of France">Battle of France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dunkirk_evacuation" title="Dunkirk evacuation">Dunkirk evacuation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Britain" title="Battle of Britain">Battle of Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Mediterranean" title="Battle of the Mediterranean">Battle of the Mediterranean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Desert_campaign" title="Western Desert campaign">North Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_West_Africa_in_World_War_II" title="French West Africa in World War II">West Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_invasion_of_British_Somaliland" title="Italian invasion of British Somaliland">British Somaliland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Regiments_Offensive" title="Hundred Regiments Offensive">Hundred Regiments Offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Baltic_states" title="Occupation of the Baltic states">Baltic states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_occupation_of_Bessarabia_and_Northern_Bukovina" title="Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina">Eastern Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_French_Indochina" title="Japanese invasion of French Indochina">Japanese invasion of French Indochina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Italian_War" title="Greco-Italian War">Italian invasion of Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Compass" title="Operation Compass">Compass</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1941)" title="Timeline of World War II (1941)">1941</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_South_Henan" title="Battle of South Henan">Battle of South Henan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shanggao" title="Battle of Shanggao">Battle of Shanggao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Yugoslavia" title="Invasion of Yugoslavia">Invasion of Yugoslavia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_Greece" title="German invasion of Greece">German invasion of Greece</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Crete" title="Battle of Crete">Battle of Crete</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Iraqi_War" title="Anglo-Iraqi War">Anglo-Iraqi War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_South_Shanxi" title="Battle of South Shanxi">Battle of South Shanxi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syria%E2%80%93Lebanon_campaign" title="Syria–Lebanon campaign">Syria–Lebanon campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)" title="East African campaign (World War II)">East African campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">Invasion of the Soviet Union</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Summer_War" title="Summer War">Summer War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuation_War" title="Continuation War">Finland</a> (<a href="/wiki/Operation_Silver_Fox" title="Operation Silver Fox">Silver Fox</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/June_Uprising_in_Lithuania" title="June Uprising in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kiev_(1941)" title="Battle of Kiev (1941)">Battle of Kiev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Soviet_invasion_of_Iran" title="Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran">Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Changsha_(1941)" title="Battle of Changsha (1941)">Second Battle of Changsha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Leningrad" title="Siege of Leningrad">Siege of Leningrad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Moscow" title="Battle of Moscow">Battle of Moscow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Gorky_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Gorky in World War II">Bombing of Gorky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Sevastopol_(1941%E2%80%931942)" title="Siege of Sevastopol (1941–1942)">Siege of Sevastopol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">Attack on Pearl Harbor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Thailand" title="Japanese invasion of Thailand">Japanese invasion of Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hong_Kong" title="Battle of Hong Kong">Fall of Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippines_campaign_(1941%E2%80%931942)" title="Philippines campaign (1941–1942)">Fall of the Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Guam_(1941)" title="Battle of Guam (1941)">Battle of Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wake_Island" title="Battle of Wake Island">Battle of Wake Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayan_campaign" title="Malayan campaign">Malayan campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Borneo_(1941%E2%80%931942)" title="Battle of Borneo (1941–1942)">Battle of Borneo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Burma" title="Japanese invasion of Burma">Japanese invasion of Burma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Changsha_(1941%E2%80%931942)" title="Battle of Changsha (1941–1942)">Third Battle of Changsha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_(Greece)" title="Great Famine (Greece)">Greek famine of 1941–1944</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1942)" title="Timeline of World War II (1942)">1942</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Singapore" title="Fall of Singapore">Fall of Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Java_Sea" title="Battle of the Java Sea">Battle of the Java Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St_Nazaire_Raid" title="St Nazaire Raid">St Nazaire Raid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Christmas_Island" title="Battle of Christmas Island">Battle of Christmas Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Coral_Sea" title="Battle of the Coral Sea">Battle of the Coral Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Madagascar" title="Battle of Madagascar">Battle of Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhejiang-Jiangxi_campaign" title="Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign">Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gazala" title="Battle of Gazala">Battle of Gazala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dutch_Harbor" title="Battle of Dutch Harbor">Battle of Dutch Harbor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Midway" title="Battle of Midway">Battle of Midway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleutian_Islands_campaign" title="Aleutian Islands campaign">Aleutian Islands campaign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Kiska" title="Japanese occupation of Kiska">Kiska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Attu" title="Japanese occupation of Attu"> Attu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case_Blue" title="Case Blue">Blue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_El_Alamein" title="First Battle of El Alamein">First Battle of El Alamein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stalingrad" title="Battle of Stalingrad">Battle of Stalingrad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokoda_Track_campaign" title="Kokoda Track campaign">Kokoda Track campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rzhev,_summer_1942" title="Battle of Rzhev, summer 1942">Rzhev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dieppe_Raid" title="Dieppe Raid">Jubilee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_El_Alamein" title="Second Battle of El Alamein">Second Battle of El Alamein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guadalcanal_campaign" title="Guadalcanal campaign">Guadalcanal campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Torch" title="Operation Torch">Torch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_famine_of_1942%E2%80%931943" title="Chinese famine of 1942–1943">Chinese famine of 1942–1943</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1943)" title="Timeline of World War II (1943)">1943</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_May_(1943)" title="Black May (1943)">Black May</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_campaign" title="Tunisian campaign">Tunisian campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_West_Hubei" title="Battle of West Hubei">Battle of West Hubei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Attu" title="Battle of Attu">Battle of Attu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Gorky_in_World_War_II#June_1943" title="Bombing of Gorky in World War II">Bombing of Gorky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kursk" title="Battle of Kursk">Battle of Kursk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Sicily" title="Allied invasion of Sicily">Allied invasion of Sicily</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smolensk_operation" title="Smolensk operation">Smolensk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solomon_Islands_campaign" title="Solomon Islands campaign">Solomon Islands campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Cottage" title="Operation Cottage">Cottage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Dnieper" title="Battle of the Dnieper">Battle of the Dnieper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Italy" title="Allied invasion of Italy">Allied invasion of Italy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_Cassibile" title="Armistice of Cassibile">Armistice of Cassibile</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burma_campaign" title="Burma campaign">Burma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Northern_Burma_and_Western_Yunnan" title="Battle of Northern Burma and Western Yunnan">Northern Burma and Western Yunnan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Changde" title="Battle of Changde">Changde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kiev_(1943)" title="Battle of Kiev (1943)">Second Battle of Kiev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_and_Marshall_Islands_campaign" title="Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign">Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tarawa" title="Battle of Tarawa">Tarawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Makin" title="Battle of Makin">Makin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengal_famine_of_1943" title="Bengal famine of 1943">Bengal famine of 1943</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1944)" title="Timeline of World War II (1944)">1944</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Tempest" title="Operation Tempest">Tempest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Monte_Cassino" title="Battle of Monte Cassino">Monte Cassino</a> / <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Anzio" title="Battle of Anzio">Anzio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Korsun%E2%80%93Cherkassy" title="Battle of Korsun–Cherkassy">Korsun–Cherkassy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Narva_(1944)" title="Battle of Narva (1944)">Narva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Ichi-Go" title="Operation Ichi-Go">Ichi-Go</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Overlord" title="Operation Overlord">Overlord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normandy_landings" title="Normandy landings">Neptune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mariana_and_Palau_Islands_campaign" title="Mariana and Palau Islands campaign">Mariana and Palau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Bagration" title="Operation Bagration">Bagration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lvov%E2%80%93Sandomierz_offensive" class="mw-redirect" title="Lvov–Sandomierz offensive">Western Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Guam_(1944)" title="Battle of Guam (1944)">Second Battle of Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tannenberg_Line" title="Battle of Tannenberg Line">Tannenberg Line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Uprising" title="Warsaw Uprising">Warsaw Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Jassy%E2%80%93Kishinev_offensive" title="Second Jassy–Kishinev offensive">Eastern Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberation_of_Paris" title="Liberation of Paris">Liberation of Paris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Dragoon" title="Operation Dragoon">Dragoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_Line" title="Gothic Line">Gothic Line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgrade_offensive" title="Belgrade offensive">Belgrade offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lapland_War" title="Lapland War">Lapland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Market_Garden" title="Operation Market Garden">Market Garden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tallinn_offensive" title="Tallinn offensive">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Crossbow" title="Operation Crossbow">Crossbow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combined_Bomber_Offensive" title="Combined Bomber Offensive">Pointblank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_famine_of_1944%E2%80%931945" title="Vietnamese famine of 1944–1945">Vietnamese famine of 1944–1945</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippines_campaign_(1944%E2%80%931945)" title="Philippines campaign (1944–1945)">Philippines (1944–1945)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Leyte_Gulf" title="Battle of Leyte Gulf">Leyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrmian_Front" title="Syrmian Front">Syrmian Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Budapest_offensive" title="Budapest offensive">Hungary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Budapest" title="Siege of Budapest">Budapest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burma_campaign_(1944%E2%80%931945)" title="Burma campaign (1944–1945)">Burma (1944–1945)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Bulge" title="Battle of the Bulge">Ardennes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Bodenplatte" title="Operation Bodenplatte">Bodenplatte</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_famine_of_1944%E2%80%931945" title="Dutch famine of 1944–1945">Dutch famine of 1944–1945</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1945%E2%80%931991)" title="Timeline of World War II (1945–1991)">1945</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vistula%E2%80%93Oder_offensive" title="Vistula–Oder offensive">Vistula–Oder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Manila_(1945)" title="Battle of Manila (1945)">Battle of Manila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Iwo_Jima" title="Battle of Iwo Jima">Battle of Iwo Jima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_in_French_Indochina" title="Japanese coup d'état in French Indochina">Indochina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_offensive" title="Vienna offensive">Vienna offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Hula" title="Project Hula">Project Hula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Allied_invasion_of_Germany" title="Western Allied invasion of Germany">Western invasion of Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bratislava%E2%80%93Brno_offensive" title="Bratislava–Brno offensive">Bratislava–Brno offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Okinawa" title="Battle of Okinawa">Battle of Okinawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Guangxi_campaign" title="Second Guangxi campaign">Second Guangxi campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_West_Hunan" title="Battle of West Hunan">West Hunan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spring_1945_offensive_in_Italy" title="Spring 1945 offensive in Italy">Italy (Spring 1945)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Berlin" title="Battle of Berlin">Battle of Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prague_offensive" title="Prague offensive">Prague offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/End_of_World_War_II_in_Europe" title="End of World War II in Europe">Surrender of Germany</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_Instrument_of_Surrender" title="German Instrument of Surrender">document</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borneo_campaign" title="Borneo campaign">Borneo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raid_on_Taipei" title="Raid on Taipei">Taipei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied_naval_bombardments_of_Japan_during_World_War_II" title="Allied naval bombardments of Japan during World War II">Naval bombardment of Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Soviet invasion of Manchuria">Manchuria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Atomic bombings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Debate_over_the_atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Debate over the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Debate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_South_Sakhalin" title="Soviet invasion of South Sakhalin">South Sakhalin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_the_Kuril_Islands" title="Invasion of the Kuril Islands">Kuril Islands</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shumshu" title="Battle of Shumshu">Shumshu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan" title="Surrender of Japan">Surrender of Japan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Potsdam_Declaration" title="Potsdam Declaration">Potsdam Declaration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Instrument_of_Surrender" title="Japanese Instrument of Surrender">document</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/End_of_World_War_II_in_Asia" title="End of World War II in Asia">End of World War II in Asia</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/16px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/24px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/32px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="3002" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:World" title="Portal:World">World portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_World_War_II" title="Bibliography of World War II">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:World_War_II" title="Category:World War II">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="New_Mexico_during_World_War_II" style=";wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:New_Mexico_during_World_War_II" title="Template:New Mexico during World War II"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:New_Mexico_during_World_War_II" title="Template talk:New Mexico during World War II"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:New_Mexico_during_World_War_II" title="Special:EditPage/Template:New Mexico during World War II"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="New_Mexico_during_World_War_II" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/New_Mexico_during_World_War_II" title="New Mexico during World War II">New Mexico during World War II</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Aeby" title="Jack Aeby">Jack Aeby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerry_C._Begay" title="Jerry C. Begay">Jerry C. Begay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_J._Dempsey" title="John J. Dempsey">John J. Dempsey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Farrell_(general)" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Farrell (general)">Thomas Farrell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Enrico Fermi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leslie_Groves" title="Leslie Groves">Leslie Groves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_E._Miles" title="John E. Miles">John E. Miles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chester_Nez" title="Chester Nez">Chester Nez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lloyd_Oliver" title="Lloyd Oliver">Lloyd Oliver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Varnell_Oliver" title="Willard Varnell Oliver">Willard Varnell Oliver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer" title="J. Robert Oppenheimer">J. Robert Oppenheimer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merril_Sandoval" title="Merril Sandoval">Merril Sandoval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emilio_G._Segr%C3%A8" class="mw-redirect" title="Emilio G. Segrè">Emilio G. Segrè</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Tsosie_Thompson" title="Frank Tsosie Thompson">Frank Tsosie Thompson</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Trinity_-_Explosion_15s.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Trinity_-_Explosion_15s.jpg/150px-Trinity_-_Explosion_15s.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Trinity_-_Explosion_15s.jpg/225px-Trinity_-_Explosion_15s.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Trinity_-_Explosion_15s.jpg/300px-Trinity_-_Explosion_15s.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="635" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Military installations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holloman_Air_Force_Base#World_War_II" title="Holloman Air Force Base">Alamogordo Army Airfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lordsburg,_New_Mexico#World_War_II" title="Lordsburg, New Mexico">Camp Lordsburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannon_Air_Force_Base#World_War_II" title="Cannon Air Force Base">Clovis Army Airfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cavern_City_Air_Terminal#History" title="Cavern City Air Terminal">Carlsbad Army Airfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deming_Municipal_Airport#World_War_II" title="Deming Municipal Airport">Deming Army Airfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Stanton" title="Fort Stanton">Fort Stanton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Sumner_Municipal_Airport#History" title="Fort Sumner Municipal Airport">Fort Sumner Army Aifield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hobbs_Army_Airfield" title="Hobbs Army Airfield">Hobbs Army Airfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirtland_Air_Force_Base#World_War_II" title="Kirtland Air Force Base">Kirtland Field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Los_Alamos_National_Laboratory" title="Los Alamos National Laboratory">Los Alamos National Laboratory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walker_Air_Force_Base#World_War_II" title="Walker Air Force Base">Roswell Army Airfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Sands_Missile_Range" title="White Sands Missile Range">White Sands Proving Ground</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/200th_Coast_Artillery_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="200th Coast Artillery (United States)">200th Coast Artillery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Theater_(World_War_II)" class="mw-redirect" title="American Theater (World War II)">American Theater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arizona_during_World_War_II" title="Arizona during World War II">Arizona during World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bat_bomb" title="Bat bomb">Bat bomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_talker" title="Code talker">Code talker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Escape_from_Fort_Stanton" title="Escape from Fort Stanton">Escape from Fort Stanton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lordsburg_killings" title="Lordsburg killings">Lordsburg Killings</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Manhattan Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United States during World War II">Military history of the United States during World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nevada_during_World_War_II" title="Nevada during World War II">Nevada during World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Mexico_World_War_II_Army_Airfields" title="New Mexico World War II Army Airfields">New Mexico World War II Army Airfields</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Fe_Riot" class="mw-redirect" title="Santa Fe Riot">Santa Fe Riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinity_(nuclear_test)" title="Trinity (nuclear test)">Trinity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 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title="Portal:Nuclear technology">Nuclear technology</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Papapishu-Lab-icon-6.svg/19px-Papapishu-Lab-icon-6.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Papapishu-Lab-icon-6.svg/29px-Papapishu-Lab-icon-6.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Papapishu-Lab-icon-6.svg/38px-Papapishu-Lab-icon-6.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Chemistry" title="Portal:Chemistry">Chemistry</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><a href="/wiki/File:Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/17px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png" decoding="async" width="17" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/26px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/34px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="530" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Physics" title="Portal:Physics">Physics</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="image" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg/17px-Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg" decoding="async" width="17" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg/26px-Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg/34px-Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1140" data-file-height="1276" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:History_of_science" title="Portal:History of science">History of science</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><a href="/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/19px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/29px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/38px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics</a></li></ul></div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236088147">.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline;font-size:88%;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em 0 0;padding:0 2em}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;padding:0.2em 0;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px;line-height:22px}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;align-items:baseline;padding:0.2em 0;column-gap:1em;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{display:flex;align-items:baseline;margin:0.15em 0;min-height:24px;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-logo{width:22px;line-height:22px;margin:0 0.2em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-link{margin:0 0.2em;text-align:left}@media screen and (max-width:960px){.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{flex-flow:column wrap;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{flex:0 1}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{flex:1;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{flex:0 0 20em;min-width:20em}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.portal-bar{margin-top:-1px}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="noprint metadata sister-bar" role="navigation" aria-label="sister-projects"><div class="sister-bar-header">Manhattan Project at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a>:</div><ul class="sister-bar-content"><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/14px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/21px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/28px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Manhattan_Project" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Manhattan Project">Media</a> from Commons</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/16px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/24px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/32px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Manhattan_Project" class="extiw" title="q:Manhattan Project">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/19px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/29px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/38px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/US_History/World_War_II_and_Rise_of_Atomic_Age" class="extiw" title="b:US History/World War II and Rise of Atomic Age">Textbooks</a> from Wikibooks</li></ul></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q127050#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q127050#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q127050#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000122427230">ISNI</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/124438256">VIAF</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4278070-6">Germany</a><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/1086353854">2</a></li></ul></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n88074979">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an35354474">Australia</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=kn20070212001&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007264791005171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manhattan_Project&oldid=1258077599">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manhattan_Project&oldid=1258077599</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Manhattan_Project" title="Category:Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1942_establishments_in_the_United_States" title="Category:1942 establishments in the United States">1942 establishments in the United States</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1946_disestablishments_in_the_United_States" title="Category:1946 disestablishments in the United States">1946 disestablishments in the United States</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:American_secret_government_programs" title="Category:American secret government programs">American secret government programs</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Category:Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Explosives_engineering" title="Category:Explosives engineering">Explosives engineering</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_the_Manhattan_Project" title="Category:History of the Manhattan Project">History of the Manhattan Project</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Military_history_of_Canada_during_World_War_II" title="Category:Military history of Canada during World War II">Military history of Canada during World War II</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II" title="Category:Military history of the United Kingdom during World War II">Military history of the United Kingdom during World War II</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Military_history_of_the_United_States_during_World_War_II" title="Category:Military history of the United States during World War II">Military history of the United States during World War II</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Nuclear_history_of_the_United_States" title="Category:Nuclear history of the United States">Nuclear history of the United States</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Nuclear_weapons_program_of_the_United_States" title="Category:Nuclear weapons program of the United States">Nuclear weapons program of the United States</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Projects_established_in_1942" title="Category:Projects established in 1942">Projects established in 1942</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Secret_military_programs" title="Category:Secret military programs">Secret military programs</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1:_long_volume_value" title="Category:CS1: long volume value">CS1: long volume value</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is 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alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-57488d5c7d-mpzbg","wgBackendResponseTime":184,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"2.889","walltime":"3.378","ppvisitednodes":{"value":30984,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":511217,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":23877,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":26,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":32,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":558611,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 2773.156 1 -total"," 24.93% 691.249 2 Template:Reflist"," 10.00% 277.299 54 Template:Cite_book"," 8.54% 236.913 260 Template:Harvnb"," 8.51% 235.955 42 Template:Cite_web"," 7.64% 211.734 47 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