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open-block";block.previousSibling.className+=" open-block";}</script> <div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="fr" dir="ltr"> <section class="mf-section-0" id="mf-section-0"> <div class="bandeau-container metadata homonymie hatnote"> <div class="bandeau-cell bandeau-icone" style="display:table-cell;padding-right:0.5em"> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Aide:Homonymie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Aide:Homonymie"><img alt="Page d’aide sur l’homonymie" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Logo_disambig.svg/20px-Logo_disambig.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Logo_disambig.svg/30px-Logo_disambig.svg.png 1.5x,https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Logo_disambig.svg/40px-Logo_disambig.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="375"></a></span> </div> <div class="bandeau-cell" style="display:table-cell;padding-right:0.5em"> <p>Pour les articles homonymes, voir <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/SIG?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="SIG">SIG</a> et <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/GIS?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-disambig" title="GIS">GIS</a>.</p> </div> </div> <p>Un <b>système d'information géographique</b> ou <b>SIG</b> (en anglais, <i>geographic information system</i> ou <i>GIS</i>) est un <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_d%27information?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Système d'information">système d'information</a> conçu pour recueillir, stocker, traiter, analyser, gérer et présenter tous les types de <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Donn%C3%A9e_(informatique)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Donnée (informatique)">données</a> spatiales et géographiques. L’acronyme SIG est parfois utilisé pour définir les « sciences de l’information <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/G%C3%A9ographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Géographique">géographique</a> » ou « études sur l’information géospatiale ». Cela se réfère aux carrières ou aux métiers qui impliquent l'usage de systèmes d’information géographique et, dans une plus large mesure, qui concernent les disciplines de la géo-informatique (ou <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/G%C3%A9omatique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Géomatique">géomatique</a>). Ce que l’on peut observer au-delà du simple concept de SIG a trait aux données de l’<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Infrastructure?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Infrastructure">infrastructure</a> spatiale.</p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"> <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Fichier:Dem.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Dem.jpg/220px-Dem.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Dem.jpg/330px-Dem.jpg 1.5x,https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Dem.jpg/440px-Dem.jpg 2x" data-file-width="664" data-file-height="456"></a> <figcaption> <br><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Mod%C3%A9lisation_3D?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Modélisation 3D">Modélisation en fausse 3D</a> avec ombrage (dérivée d'une base de données topographique)<br> (Valestra, près de <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Carpineti?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Carpineti">Carpineti</a>, dans le nord des <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Apennins?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Apennins">Apennins</a>, Italie). </figcaption> </figure> <p>Dans un sens plus général, le terme de SIG décrit un système d’information qui intègre, stocke, analyse et affiche l’<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Information_g%C3%A9ographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Information géographique">information géographique</a>. Les applications liées aux SIG sont des outils qui permettent aux utilisateurs de créer des requêtes interactives, d’analyser l’information spatiale, de modifier et d’éditer des données par l'entremise de cartes et d’y répondre cartographiquement. La science de l’<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Information_g%C3%A9ographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Information géographique">information géographique</a> est la <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Science?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Science">science</a> qui sous-tend les applications, les concepts et les systèmes géographiques.</p> <p>Le SIG est un terme général qui se réfère à un certain nombre de <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Technologie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Technologie">technologies</a>, de processus et de méthodes. Celles-ci sont étroitement liées à l’<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Am%C3%A9nagement_du_territoire?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Aménagement du territoire">aménagement du territoire</a>, la gestion des infrastructures et réseaux, la gestion et protection de l'environnement, le <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Transport?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Transport">transport</a> et la <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Logistique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Logistique">logistique</a>, l’assurance, les <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/T%C3%A9l%C3%A9communications?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Télécommunications">télécommunications</a>, l’<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Ing%C3%A9nierie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Ingénierie">ingénierie</a>, la <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Planification?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Planification">planification</a>, l’<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/%C3%89ducation?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Éducation">éducation</a> et la recherche, etc. C’est pour cette raison que les SIG sont à l’origine de nombreux services de <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/G%C3%A9olocalisation?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Géolocalisation">géolocalisation</a> basés sur l’analyse des <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Donn%C3%A9e_(informatique)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Donnée (informatique)">données</a> et leur visualisation.</p> <p>Les SIG permettent également une mise en relation de <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Donn%C3%A9e_(informatique)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Donnée (informatique)">données</a> qui peuvent, sur le papier, sembler très éloignées. Quelle que soit la façon d’identifier et de représenter les objets et événements qui illustrent notre environnement (<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Coordonn%C3%A9e?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Coordonnée">coordonnées</a>, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Latitude?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Latitude">latitude</a> & <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Longitude?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Longitude">longitude</a>, adresse, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Altitude?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Altitude">altitude</a>, temps, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/M%C3%A9dias_sociaux?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Médias sociaux">médias sociaux</a>, etc.), les SIG permettent de réunir toutes ces dimensions autour d’un même <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/R%C3%A9f%C3%A9rentiel_(base_de_donn%C3%A9es)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Référentiel (base de données)">référentiel</a>, véritable colonne vertébrale du système d’information.</p> <p>Cette caractéristique clé du SIG permet d’imaginer de nouvelles applications et de nouveaux débouchés en matière de recherche scientifique.</p> <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"> <input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"> <div class="toctitle" lang="fr" dir="ltr"> <h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Sommaire</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span> </div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Historique"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Historique</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Quelques_concepts"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Quelques concepts</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Les_composants_du_SIG"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Les composants du SIG</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-4"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Les_logiciels"><span class="tocnumber">2.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Les logiciels</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-5"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Les_donn%C3%A9es"><span class="tocnumber">2.1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Les données</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-6"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Les_mat%C3%A9riels_informatiques"><span class="tocnumber">2.1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Les matériels informatiques</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-7"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Les_savoir-faire"><span class="tocnumber">2.1.4</span> <span class="toctext">Les savoir-faire</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-8"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Les_utilisateurs"><span class="tocnumber">2.1.5</span> <span class="toctext">Les utilisateurs</span></a></li> </ul></li> </ul></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Logiciels"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Logiciels</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Exemples_de_bases_de_donn%C3%A9es_/_r%C3%A9f%C3%A9rentiels"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Exemples de bases de données / référentiels</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Utilisations"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Utilisations</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Perspectives"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Perspectives</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Notes_et_r%C3%A9f%C3%A9rences"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Notes et références</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Sources"><span class="tocnumber">7.1</span> <span class="toctext">Sources</span></a></li> </ul></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-15"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Voir_aussi"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Voir aussi</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Bibliographie"><span class="tocnumber">8.1</span> <span class="toctext">Bibliographie</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Articles_connexes"><span class="tocnumber">8.2</span> <span class="toctext">Articles connexes</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Liens_externes"><span class="tocnumber">8.3</span> <span class="toctext">Liens externes</span></a></li> </ul></li> </ul> </div> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"> <span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span> <h2 id="Historique">Historique</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique&action=edit&section=1&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Modifier la section : Historique" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>modifier</span> </a> </span> </div> <section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"> <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Fichier:Snow-cholera-map.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description"> <noscript> <img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Snow-cholera-map.jpg/220px-Snow-cholera-map.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="215" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="889" data-file-height="869"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 215px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Snow-cholera-map.jpg/220px-Snow-cholera-map.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="215" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Snow-cholera-map.jpg/330px-Snow-cholera-map.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Snow-cholera-map.jpg/440px-Snow-cholera-map.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a> <figcaption> Exemple d'information géographique d'intérêt <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Sant%C3%A9_publique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Santé publique">sanitaire</a> et <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/%C3%89pid%C3%A9miologique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Épidémiologique">épidémiologique</a> <br> Version d'<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/E._W._Gilbert?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="E. W. Gilbert">E. W. Gilbert</a>'s (1958) de la carte faite par <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/John_Snow?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="John Snow">John Snow</a> en <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/1855?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="1855">1855</a> pour décrire l'<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/%C3%89pid%C3%A9mie_de_chol%C3%A9ra?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Épidémie de choléra">épidémie de choléra</a> de <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/1854?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="1854">1854</a> à Soho (<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Londres?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Londres">Londres</a>). </figcaption> </figure> <p>La première utilisation du terme « Système d’Information Géographique » a émergé grâce à <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Roger_Tomlinson?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Roger Tomlinson">Roger Tomlinson</a> en 1968 dans son essai : « Un système d’information géographique pour l’aménagement du territoire »<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-1"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>1<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. Roger Tomlinson est connu comme le père du Système d’Information Géographique<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-2"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>2<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>.</p> <p>Auparavant, l’une des premières applications connues de l’analyse spatiale concernait le domaine de l’<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/%C3%89pid%C3%A9miologie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Épidémiologie">épidémiologie</a>, en 1832, avec la publication du « Rapport sur la marche et les effets du choléra dans Paris et le département de la <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Seine_(d%C3%A9partement)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Seine (département)">Seine</a> », rédigé par le géographe français Charles Picquet<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-3"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>3<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. Ce dernier a représenté les 48 districts de la ville de <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Paris?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Paris">Paris</a>. Il a utilisé un système de coloris dégradé en fonction du pourcentage de décès par le <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Chol%C3%A9ra?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Choléra">choléra</a> pour 1 000 habitants. Par la suite, en 1854, John Snow a dépeint une <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/%C3%89pid%C3%A9mie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Épidémie">épidémie</a> de <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Chol%C3%A9ra?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Choléra">choléra</a> à <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Londres?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Londres">Londres</a> en utilisant des points pour représenter les emplacements de certains cas individuels. Cela était l’une des premières réussites de l’utilisation d’un système d’<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Information_g%C3%A9ographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Information géographique">information géographique</a>. Bien que les éléments basiques de <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Topographie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Topographie">topographie</a> aient existé avant la <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Cartographie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Cartographie">cartographie</a>, la carte dépeinte par John Snow était unique, utilisant des méthodes novatrices de cartographie, non seulement pour décrire une situation, mais surtout pour analyser des groupes de phénomènes géolocalisés et inter-dépendants.</p> <p>Le début du <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/XXe_si%C3%A8cle?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="XXe siècle"><abbr class="abbr" title="20ᵉ siècle"><span class="romain">XX</span><sup style="font-size:72%">e</sup></abbr> siècle</a> voit le développement de la « Photo<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Zincographie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Zincographie">zincographie</a> », qui permet la séparation de certaines cartes en couches (par exemple : une couche pour la <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/V%C3%A9g%C3%A9tation?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Végétation">végétation</a> et une pour l’<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Eau?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Eau">eau</a>). Cette technique a été particulièrement utilisée pour les contours des dessins. C’était un dur labeur pour les dessinateurs de l’époque, mais le fait d’avoir des couches indépendantes permettait de travailler de manière plus efficace.</p> <p>Ce travail a d’abord été réalisé sur des plaques de verre, puis plus tard, un film <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Mati%C3%A8re_plastique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Matière plastique">plastique</a> a été introduit dans le processus avec l’avantage d’être plus léger, d'utiliser moins d’espace de stockage et d’être moins fragile. Lorsque toutes les couches étaient terminées, elles étaient combinées en une seule image. Au fil du temps, quand l’impression couleur est apparue, l’idée de créer et de travailler chacune des plaques de couleur séparément s'est avérée pertinente.</p> <p>Bien que l’utilisation des couches soit devenue par la suite l’une des caractéristiques fortes du SIG contemporain, le procédé photographique qui vient d’être décrit n’est pas à considérer comme un SIG à proprement parler, car les cartes étaient juste des images superposées sans aucune <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Donn%C3%A9e_(informatique)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Donnée (informatique)">donnée</a> commune qui permettait de les lier.</p> <p>À partir du milieu du <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/XXe_si%C3%A8cle?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="XXe siècle"><abbr class="abbr" title="20ᵉ siècle"><span class="romain">XX</span><sup style="font-size:72%">e</sup></abbr> siècle</a>, le développement du matériel <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Informatique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Informatique">informatique</a>, stimulé par la recherche de l’<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Arme_nucl%C3%A9aire?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Arme nucléaire">arme nucléaire</a>, a conduit à développer des applications cartographiques sur ordinateur<sup id="cite_ref-map_printing_methods_4-0" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-map_printing_methods-4"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>4<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>.</p> <p>L’année <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/1960?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="1960">1960</a> a vu l’émergence du premier véritable SIG opérationnel dans le monde, à <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Ottawa?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Ottawa">Ottawa</a>, au <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Canada?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Canada">Canada</a><sup class="need_ref_tag" style="padding-left:2px;"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Aide:R%C3%A9f%C3%A9rence_n%C3%A9cessaire?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Aide:Référence nécessaire"><span title="Ce passage nécessite une référence ; voir l'aide.">[réf. nécessaire]</span></a></sup>. Ce SIG a été réalisé par le Ministère des Forêts et du Développement rural. Développé par le <abbr class="abbr" title="Docteur">D<sup>r</sup></abbr> Roger Tomlinson, il a été appelé le Système d’Information Géographique du Canada (SIGC) et a permis de stocker, analyser et manipuler les <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Donn%C3%A9e_(informatique)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Donnée (informatique)">données</a> recueillies pour l’inventaire des terres du <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Canada?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Canada">Canada</a> afin d'obtenir des informations sur les <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Sol_(p%C3%A9dologie)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Sol (pédologie)">sols</a>, l’<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Agriculture?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a>, la <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Faune_(biologie)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Faune (biologie)">faune</a>, la <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Flore?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Flore">flore</a>, et la <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Sylviculture?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Sylviculture">sylviculture</a>. Un facteur de <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Classification?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Classification">classification</a> a également été ajouté à ce premier SIG pour permettre une analyse plus approfondie.</p> <p>Le SIG canadien était une avancée réelle par rapport à la simple <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Cartographie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Cartographie">cartographie</a> par <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Ordinateur?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Ordinateur">ordinateur</a> proposée auparavant. Le SIG canadien apportait des améliorations quant aux moyens fournis comme la <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Superposition?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-disambig" title="Superposition">superposition</a>, ou les mesures <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Num%C3%A9rique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Numérique">numériques</a>. Ce qui a permis de lancer un réel système de coordonnées géographiques national avec un système de <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Topographie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Topographie">topographie</a> intégré, un stockage de l’information de localisation dans des fichiers séparés. À la suite de cela, Roger Tomlison est devenu le véritable « père du SIG », en particulier pour son utilisation dans la promotion de l’analyse spatiale et des <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Donn%C3%A9e_(informatique)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Donnée (informatique)">données</a> croisées <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/G%C3%A9ographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Géographique">géographiques</a><sup id="cite_ref-Tomlinson_5-0" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Tomlinson-5"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>5<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>.</p> <p>Le SIG canadien a été une base de travail fondamentale jusque dans les années <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/1990?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="1990">1990</a>, et a été à l’origine de la réalisation d’une très large base de données <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/G%C3%A9ographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Géographique">géographique</a> du <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Canada?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Canada">Canada</a>. Il a été développé comme un <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Système">système</a> accessible à toutes les entités administratives du pays pour la <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Planification?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Planification">planification</a> et la gestion des ressources <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/F%C3%A9d%C3%A9ralisme_canadien?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Fédéralisme canadien">fédérales</a> et <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Provinces_et_territoires_du_Canada?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Provinces et territoires du Canada">provinciales</a>. Sa grande force a été l’analyse de données géographiques et topologiques complexes, propre au relief canadien. Le SIG canadien n’a jamais été disponible pour le grand public.</p> <p>En 1964, Howard T. Fisher, formé au LCGSA (Laboratory for Computer Graphics and Spatial Analysis – <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Harvard?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Harvard">Harvard</a> – <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/USA?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="USA">USA</a>) a théorisé un grand nombre de concepts sur la manipulation de données géolocalisées, concepts ensuite appliqués dans les années 1970. Ses travaux ont permis de faire émerger les systèmes tels que SYMAP, GRID, et ODYSSEY, qui ont été utilisés par la suite dans le développement commercial des universités, des centres de recherche et des entreprises à travers le monde<sup id="cite_ref-Fisher_6-0" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Fisher-6"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>6<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>.</p> <p>En France, dans les années 1975, la ville de Marseille a été la première collectivité a se doter d'un système d'information géographique, conçu par la société ICOREM (informatique communale région méditerranée) filiale de la Caisse des Dépôts.</p> <p>Cette société s'est également chargée de constituer une base de données géographique des <span title="230 000 000 m² ou 230 km²" style="cursor:help">23 000</span> <abbr class="abbr" title="hectare">ha</abbr> de la commune et en même temps, a développé l'application CARINE (cartographie informatisée de l'espace).</p> <p>La base de données fut constituée de multiples strates : topographie au 1/1000 ième, cadastre, POS, réseaux et données alphanumériques.</p> <p>Cette base de données est maintenue à jour, et encore utilisée aujourd'hui par les services de la communauté urbaine de Marseille (2020).</p> <p>La société ICOREM pionnière en France dans ce domaine a joué un rôle de conseil et de mise en œuvre de SIG : Ville d'Antibes, Juan les pins, Toulouse, Communauté urbaine de Lyon, Département de Vaucluse. À l'étranger : Palma de Majorque, Valencia, Caracas, Quito, Guatemala City, Ryad.</p> <p>L'accès aux données par les différents utilisateurs a considérablement évolué au fur et à mesure des évolutions de l'informatique.</p> <p>Au début des années <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/1980?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="1980">1980</a>, M&S Computing (qui deviendra plus tard Intergraph) avec Bentley Systems Incorporated pour la plateforme CAD, Environnemental Systems Research Institute (ESRI), CARIS (Computer Aided Resource Information System), <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/MapInfo?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="MapInfo">MapInfo</a> Corporation et ERDAS (Earth Resource Data Analysis System), deviennent des logiciels commerciaux, intégrant un nombre important de fonctionnalités, combinant la première approche de la « séparation spatiale », avec la deuxième approche consistant à l’organisation d’attribut dans les structures de base de données. En parallèle, on observe le développement de deux systèmes publics (MOSS et <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/GRASS_GIS?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="GRASS GIS">GRASS GIS</a>) entre la fin des années <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/1970?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="1970">1970</a> et le début des années <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/1980?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="1980">1980</a><sup id="cite_ref-wiki.osgeo.org_7-0" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-wiki.osgeo.org-7"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>7<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>.</p> <p>En 1986, le système <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/MIDAS_(satellite)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="MIDAS (satellite)">MIDAS</a> (Mapping Display and Analysis System), le premier logiciel S.I.G pour <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Ordinateur?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Ordinateur">ordinateur</a> personnel a été développé sous <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/MS-DOS?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="MS-DOS">DOS</a>. MIDAS a été rebaptisé <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/MapInfo?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="MapInfo">MapInfo</a> au début des <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Ann%C3%A9es_1990?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Années 1990">années 1990</a> lors de son portage sous <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Microsoft_Windows?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Microsoft Windows">Windows</a>. C’est à partir de ce moment-là que le du S.I.G passe du monde de la recherche pour devenir une <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Industrie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Industrie">industrie</a> à part entière.</p> <p>À la fin du <abbr class="abbr" title="20ᵉ siècle"><span class="romain">XX</span><sup style="font-size:72%">e</sup></abbr> siècle, la croissance exponentielle des différents systèmes d’information a permis au S.I.G de se démocratiser et de devenir accessible à tous les utilisateurs disposant d’un <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Ordinateur?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Ordinateur">ordinateur</a> et d’un accès à <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Internet?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Internet">Internet</a>. Plus récemment, l’avènement de solutions <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Open_Source?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Open Source">Open Source</a> fonctionnant sous différents systèmes d’exploitation a permis de voir émerger un nombre croissant de solutions. De plus en plus de <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Donn%C3%A9e_(informatique)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Donnée (informatique)">données</a> localisées et d’<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Application_(informatique)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Application (informatique)">applications</a> de cartographie sont désormais disponible sur le <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Web?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Web">web</a><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-8"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>8<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. Les logiciels gratuits et de qualité sont désormais nombreux.</p> <p>Dans les années 2010, alors que l'<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Intelligence_g%C3%A9ospatiale?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Intelligence géospatiale">intelligence géospatiale</a> ne cesse de prendre de l'importance, les logiciels de SIG ne contiennent eux-mêmes pas ou peu d'<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Intelligence_artificielle?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Intelligence artificielle">intelligence artificielle</a> (IA), mais s'interfacent de plus en plus avec des objets intelligents ou des systèmes d'IA. La « Géo IA forte » n'existe pas encore, mais l'IA semble déjà pouvoir révolutionner certains aspects de l'information géographique, grâce à des analyses, interprétations et prédictions spatiales plus fines, en permettant de créer des <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Jumeaux_num%C3%A9riques?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Jumeaux numériques">jumeaux numériques</a><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-9"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>9<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup> et d'améliorer l'<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Aide_%C3%A0_la_d%C3%A9cision?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Aide à la décision">aide à la décision</a>, notamment dans le domaine de la gestion des risques, de la <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Intelligence_artificielle_dans_la_sant%C3%A9?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Intelligence artificielle dans la santé">santé</a>, de la <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Intelligence_artificielle_dans_la_sant%C3%A9?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Intelligence artificielle dans la santé">santé environnementale</a>, de l'urbanisme, de l'agriculture, de l'industrie et de la gestion de l'eau<sup id="cite_ref-SIG_IA2017_10-0" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-SIG_IA2017-10"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>10<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. Ses applications possibles ou effectives concernent la simulation de l'évolution de l'<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Occupation_des_sols?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Occupation des sols">occupation des sols</a> et de la végétation, la prédiction de catastrophes naturelles, l'évaluation des effets de la <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Mont%C3%A9e_des_oc%C3%A9ans?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Montée des océans">montée des océans</a>, du réchauffement climatique, de la <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Fragmentation_%C3%A9copaysag%C3%A8re?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Fragmentation écopaysagère">fragmentation écopaysagère</a> et du risque de <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Retrait-gonflement_des_argiles?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Retrait-gonflement des argiles">retrait-gonflement des argiles</a> ou d'autres <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Mouvements_de_terrain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Mouvements de terrain">mouvements de terrain</a>, ainsi que la <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Accidentologie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Accidentologie">prévention ou gestion d'accidents industriels</a>. L'IA permet aussi de meilleures prédictions en écologie, agriculture, géologie ou prospection minière, et une meilleure estimation des paramètres environnementaux comme l'<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Humidit%C3%A9?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Humidité">humidité</a> et la <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Rugosit%C3%A9?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Rugosité">rugosité</a> du sol. Elle peut prédire le potentiel géographique local en énergie solaire<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-11"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>11<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. Un des avantages majeurs de l'IA dans les SIG est sa capacité à traiter le <i><span class="lang-en" lang="en"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Big_data?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Big data">big data</a></span></i> et des données incomplètes ou hétérogènes, ou de travailler sur de la donnée synthétique ou des jumeaux numériques<sup id="cite_ref-SIG_IA2017_10-1" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-SIG_IA2017-10"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>10<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. Elle permet aussi de travailler à rebours, par exemple sur les <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Pal%C3%A9oenvironnement?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Paléoenvironnement">paléoenvironnements</a><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-12"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>12<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. En 2022, l'<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Institut_national_de_l%27information_g%C3%A9ographique_et_foresti%C3%A8re?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Institut national de l'information géographique et forestière">Institut national de l'information géographique et forestière</a> souhaite développer son usage de l’IA pour produire des <span class="citation">« cartes de l’anthropocène »</span> mises à jour tous les trois ans, incluant une cartographie des <span class="citation">« changements climatiques rapides »</span><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-13"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>13<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup><sup class="need_ref_tag" style="padding-left:2px;"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Aide:R%C3%A9f%C3%A9rence_non_conforme?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Aide:Référence non conforme">[réf. non conforme]</a></sup><sup class="reference cite_virgule">,</sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-14"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>14<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>.</p> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"> <span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span> <h2 id="Quelques_concepts">Quelques concepts</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique&action=edit&section=2&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Modifier la section : Quelques concepts" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>modifier</span> </a> </span> </div> <section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Les_composants_du_SIG">Les composants du SIG</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique&action=edit&section=3&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Modifier la section : Les composants du SIG" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>modifier</span> </a> </span> </div> <p>Un système d'information géographique est constitué de cinq composantes majeures.</p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"> <h4 id="Les_logiciels">Les logiciels</h4><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique&action=edit&section=4&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Modifier la section : Les logiciels" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>modifier</span> </a> </span> </div> <p>Ils assurent les six fonctions suivantes (parfois regroupées sous le terme des « <i>6A</i> ») :</p> <ul> <li>saisie des informations géographiques sous forme numérique (<i>Acquisition</i>)</li> <li>gestion de base de données (<i>Archivage</i>)</li> <li>manipulation et interrogation des données géographiques (<i>Analyse</i>)</li> <li>mise en forme et visualisation (<i>Affichage</i>)</li> <li>représentation du monde réel (<i>Abstraction</i>)</li> <li>la prospective (<i>Anticipation</i>).</li> </ul> <p>Une <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Liste_des_logiciels_SIG?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Liste des logiciels SIG">liste des logiciels SIG</a>, libres et propriétaires, est disponible.</p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"> <h4 id="Les_données"><span id="Les_donn.C3.A9es"></span>Les données</h4><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique&action=edit&section=5&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Modifier la section : Les données" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>modifier</span> </a> </span> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"> <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Fichier:DatendimensionenImGIS.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description"> <noscript> <img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/DatendimensionenImGIS.jpg/290px-DatendimensionenImGIS.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="75" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1346" data-file-height="350"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 290px;height: 75px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/DatendimensionenImGIS.jpg/290px-DatendimensionenImGIS.jpg" data-width="290" data-height="75" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/DatendimensionenImGIS.jpg/435px-DatendimensionenImGIS.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/DatendimensionenImGIS.jpg/580px-DatendimensionenImGIS.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a> <figcaption> Taille/dimension de la représentation de la donnée </figcaption> </figure> <p>Les <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Donn%C3%A9es_g%C3%A9ographiques?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Données géographiques">données géographiques</a> sont importées à partir de fichiers ou saisies par un opérateur. Une donnée est dite « géographique » lorsqu'elle fait référence à un ou plusieurs objets localisés à la surface de la Terre. Ses coordonnées sont définies par un <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_g%C3%A9od%C3%A9sique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Système géodésique">système géodésique</a> (ou système de référence spatiale). Voir le <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Les_donn%C3%A9es_du_syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique">paragraphe suivant</a>.</p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"> <h4 id="Les_matériels_informatiques"><span id="Les_mat.C3.A9riels_informatiques"></span>Les matériels informatiques</h4><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique&action=edit&section=6&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Modifier la section : Les matériels informatiques" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>modifier</span> </a> </span> </div> <p>Le <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Traitement_de_l%27information?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Traitement de l'information">traitement</a> des <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Donn%C3%A9e_(informatique)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Donnée (informatique)">données</a> se fait à l'aide des logiciels sur un <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Ordinateur?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Ordinateur">ordinateur</a> de bureau ou sur un <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Ordinateur_renforc%C3%A9?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Ordinateur renforcé">ordinateur durci</a> directement sur le terrain. L'ordinateur de terrain avec <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Global_Positioning_System?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Global Positioning System">GPS</a> et <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Laser_t%C3%A9l%C3%A9m%C3%A8tre?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Laser télémètre">laser télémètre</a> permet la cartographie et la collecte des données. La construction de la carte en temps réel et la visualisation de la carte sur le terrain augmente la productivité et la qualité du résultat. La tendance depuis les années 2000 est à une cartographie précise et interactive, où l'analyse des données se fait de plus en plus in situ, sur le terrain, de même que la validation. Des systèmes client-serveur en <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Intranet?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Intranet">intranet</a>, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Extranet?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Extranet">extranet</a> voire <i>via</i> <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Internet?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Internet">Internet</a> facilitent ensuite, et de plus en plus, la diffusion des résultats.</p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"> <h4 id="Les_savoir-faire">Les savoir-faire</h4><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique&action=edit&section=7&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Modifier la section : Les savoir-faire" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>modifier</span> </a> </span> </div> <p>Un système d'information géographique fait appel à une <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Connaissance_technique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Connaissance technique">connaissance technique</a> et à divers savoir-faire, et donc divers métiers, qui peuvent être effectués par une ou plusieurs personnes. Le spécialiste doit mobiliser des compétences en géodésie (connaissance des concepts de système de référence et de système de projection), en analyse des <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Donn%C3%A9e_(informatique)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Donnée (informatique)">données</a>, des processus et de modélisation (analyse <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Merise_(informatique)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Merise (informatique)">Merise</a>, langage <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Unified_Modeling_Language?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Unified Modeling Language">UML</a> par exemple), en traitement statistique, en sémiologie graphique et cartographique, en traitement graphique. Il doit savoir traduire en requêtes informatiques les questions qu'on lui pose. Toutes les compétences techniques se retrouvent dans le métier de <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/G%C3%A9omaticien?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Géomaticien">géomaticien</a><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-15"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>15<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>, compétences auxquelles viennent se greffer des compétences "métiers" thématiques.</p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"> <h4 id="Les_utilisateurs">Les utilisateurs</h4><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique&action=edit&section=8&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Modifier la section : Les utilisateurs" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>modifier</span> </a> </span> </div> <p>Comme tous les <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Utilisateur_(informatique)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Utilisateur (informatique)">utilisateurs</a> de systèmes d'information géographique ne sont pas forcément des spécialistes, un tel système propose une série de boîtes à outils que l’<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Utilisateur_(informatique)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Utilisateur (informatique)">utilisateur</a> assemble pour réaliser son projet. N’importe qui peut, un jour ou l’autre, être amené à utiliser un SIG. Le niveau de compétences requis pour la conduite des opérations les plus basiques (voir <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/G%C3%A9omatique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Géomatique">géomatique</a>), est généralement celui de technicien supérieur. Mais afin d'assurer une bonne qualité d'interprétation des résultats de l'analyse des données et des opérations avancées, celles-ci sont généralement confiées à un ingénieur disposant d'une bonne connaissance des <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Donn%C3%A9e_(informatique)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Donnée (informatique)">données</a> manipulées et de la nature des traitements effectués par les <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Logiciel?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Logiciel">logiciels</a>. Enfin, des spécialistes sont parfois amenés à intervenir sur des aspects techniques précis.</p> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"> <span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span> <h2 id="Logiciels">Logiciels</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique&action=edit&section=9&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Modifier la section : Logiciels" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>modifier</span> </a> </span> </div> <section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <div class="bandeau-container bandeau-section metadata bandeau-niveau-information"> <div class="bandeau-cell bandeau-icone-css loupe"> Article détaillé : <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Liste_des_logiciels_SIG?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Liste des logiciels SIG">Liste des logiciels SIG</a>. </div> </div> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"> <span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span> <h2 id="Exemples_de_bases_de_données_/_référentiels"><span id="Exemples_de_bases_de_donn.C3.A9es_.2F_r.C3.A9f.C3.A9rentiels"></span>Exemples de bases de données / référentiels</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique&action=edit&section=10&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Modifier la section : Exemples de bases de données / référentiels" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>modifier</span> </a> </span> </div> <section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <ul> <li><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Corine_Land_Cover?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Corine Land Cover">Corine Land Cover</a>, base de données européenne d'occupation du sol, financée par la communauté européenne.</li> <li><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Urban_Atlas&action=edit&redlink=1&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="new" title="Urban Atlas (page inexistante)">Urban Atlas</a>, base de données d'occupation du sol, plus précise que Corine Land Cover.</li> <li>Plan cadastral informatisé, maintenu par la DGFiP-direction générale des finances publiques).</li> <li>Cartes géologiques au 1/50 000 produites par le <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/BRGM?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="BRGM">BRGM</a>.</li> <li>BD CARTO : Cette base de données contient les réseaux routiers et ferrés, les unités administratives, le réseau hydrographique, l'occupation du sol, la toponymie et les équipements.</li> <li>BD RHF : Référentiel hydrogéologique français produit par le <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/BRGM?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="BRGM">BRGM</a>.</li> <li>BD CARTHAGE : Référentiel des données sur l'eau de surface produit à l'origine par l'<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Institut_national_de_l%27information_g%C3%A9ographique_et_foresti%C3%A8re?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Institut national de l'information géographique et forestière">IGN</a> pour le compte du Ministère de l'Écologie, administré par chaque <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Agence_de_l%27eau?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Agence de l'eau">agence de l'eau</a>.</li> <li>le Référentiel à Grande Echelle (RGE) français, constitué par l'<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Institut_national_de_l%27information_g%C3%A9ographique_et_foresti%C3%A8re?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Institut national de l'information géographique et forestière">IGN</a>, composé de la BD ADRESSE, BD PARCELLAIRE, BD ORTHO et BD TOPO.</li> <li><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/OpenStreetMap?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="OpenStreetMap">OpenStreetMap</a> : base de données cartographique Open Source.</li> <li>Geosignal (accès par <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Web_Map_Service?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Web Map Service">WMS</a>).</li> <li><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Wheelmap.org?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Wheelmap.org">Wheelmap.org</a>: carte <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Interactions_homme-machine?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Informatique" class="mw-redirect" title="Interactions homme-machine">interactive</a> des endroits <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Accessible?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Accessible">accessibles</a> en <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Fauteuil_roulant?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Fauteuil roulant">fauteuil roulant</a>, partout dans le monde.</li> </ul> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"> <span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span> <h2 id="Utilisations">Utilisations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique&action=edit&section=11&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Modifier la section : Utilisations" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>modifier</span> </a> </span> </div> <section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <div class="bandeau-container bandeau-section metadata bandeau-niveau-information"> <div class="bandeau-cell bandeau-icone-css loupe"> Article détaillé : <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Applications_des_syst%C3%A8mes_d%27information_g%C3%A9ographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Applications des systèmes d'information géographique">Applications des systèmes d'information géographique</a>. </div> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"> <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Fichier:Swisstopo_Eiger_-_Grindelwald.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description"> <noscript> <img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Swisstopo_Eiger_-_Grindelwald.jpg/220px-Swisstopo_Eiger_-_Grindelwald.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1537" data-file-height="1025"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 147px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Swisstopo_Eiger_-_Grindelwald.jpg/220px-Swisstopo_Eiger_-_Grindelwald.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="147" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Swisstopo_Eiger_-_Grindelwald.jpg/330px-Swisstopo_Eiger_-_Grindelwald.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Swisstopo_Eiger_-_Grindelwald.jpg/440px-Swisstopo_Eiger_-_Grindelwald.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a> <figcaption> Visualisation d'une carte topographique en 3D sur un portail SIG </figcaption> </figure> <p>Les SIG sont utilisés essentiellement pour :</p> <ul> <li>l'<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Analyse_spatiale?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Analyse spatiale">analyse spatiale</a> ;</li> <li>la gestion de données et de bases de données géographiques ;</li> <li>l'aide à la décision, notamment pour l'<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Am%C3%A9nagement_du_territoire?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Aménagement du territoire">aménagement du territoire</a> ; comme l'<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Entente_interd%C3%A9partementale_pour_la_d%C3%A9moustication_du_littoral_m%C3%A9diterran%C3%A9en?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Entente interdépartementale pour la démoustication du littoral méditerranéen">Entente interdépartementale pour la démoustication du littoral méditerranéen</a><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-16"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>16<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>.</li> <li>les définitions de <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Zone_de_chalandise?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Zone de chalandise">zones de chalandise</a>, implantations de <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Point_de_vente?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Point de vente">points de vente</a>, aides au <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Plan_m%C3%A9dia?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Plan média">mediaplanning</a> notamment en <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Affichage?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Affichage">affichage</a>, optimisation de la distribution d'<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Imprim%C3%A9_sans_adresse?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Imprimé sans adresse">ISA</a> (imprimés sans adresses) ;</li> <li>la <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Cartographie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Cartographie">cartographie</a> ;</li> <li>la <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Cartographie_r%C3%A9glementaire&action=edit&redlink=1&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="new" title="Cartographie réglementaire (page inexistante)">cartographie réglementaire</a>, destinée à représenter et à rendre opposables les droits à construire sur un terrain particulier. En France, elle permet d’élaborer graphiquement les <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Plan_local_d%27urbanisme?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Plan local d'urbanisme">plans locaux d'urbanisme (PLU)</a> et de les éditer sous forme de documents papiers ou informatiques. La cartographie réglementaire doit permettre de faire le lien entre les différents acteurs de l’immobilier en partant des collectivités publiques compétentes en matière d’urbanisme en passant par les professionnels de la construction (<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Promoteur_immobilier?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Promoteur immobilier">promoteurs immobiliers</a> et <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Ma%C3%AEtre_d%27%C5%93uvre?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Maître d'œuvre">maîtres d’œuvre</a>) sans oublier le public non professionnel ;</li> <li>l'<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Information_g%C3%A9ographique_b%C3%A9n%C3%A9vole?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Information géographique bénévole">information géographique bénévole</a>.</li> </ul> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"> <span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span> <h2 id="Perspectives">Perspectives</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique&action=edit&section=12&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Modifier la section : Perspectives" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>modifier</span> </a> </span> </div> <section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> <p>Le monde des systèmes d'information géographique est en pleine évolution depuis les années 1970. Leur utilisation ne cesse de s'accroître tout comme le nombre de personnes qu'il emploie.</p> <p>Même s'il manque encore une composante temporelle au SIG ; le « <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Temps?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Temps">temps</a> », encore difficile à gérer et représenter dynamiquement, les applications SIG / SIRS se développent et s'améliorent rapidement.</p> <p>Une notion qui est en cours d'évolution dans les SIG est la <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/3D?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="3D">3D</a>. L'altitude est prise en compte depuis longtemps, avec les <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Mod%C3%A8le_num%C3%A9rique_de_terrain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Modèle numérique de terrain">MNT</a> (Modèles Numériques de Terrain) et <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/TIN?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="TIN">TIN</a> (<i>Triangular Irregular Network</i>). Certains logiciels SIG 3D existent déjà, c'est le cas de SpaceEyes3D ou encore de Virtual Terrain Project (<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Logiciel_libre?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Logiciel libre">logiciel libre</a>).</p> <p>Les SIG tendent à une meilleure <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Interop%C3%A9rabilit%C3%A9?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Interopérabilité">interopérabilité</a> et accessibilité via le <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Web?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Web">Web</a> avec :</p> <ul> <li>Serveurs cartographiques,</li> <li>SIRS partagés sur le <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Web?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Web">Web</a>.</li> <li>des outils SIG/SIRS nomades qui apparaissent grâce au PDA et <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Tablette_PC?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Tablette PC">tablette PC</a> dans le monde de l'<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Agriculture_de_pr%C3%A9cision?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Agriculture de précision">agriculture de précision</a><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-17"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>17<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup> ou de la <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Sylviculture?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Sylviculture">sylviculture</a> et de l'<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/%C3%89cosociocertification?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Écosociocertification">écosociocertification</a> forestière.</li> <li>une meilleure interopérabilité. Par exemple, l'<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Union_europ%C3%A9enne?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Union européenne">Union européenne</a>, avec la <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Directive_INSPIRE?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Directive INSPIRE">directive INSPIRE</a> aide à harmoniser les <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Informations_g%C3%A9ographiques?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Informations géographiques">informations géographiques</a> entre les <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/%C3%89tats_membres_de_l%27Union_europ%C3%A9enne?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="États membres de l'Union européenne">États membres</a>, notamment par l'emploi de <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/M%C3%A9tadonn%C3%A9e?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Métadonnée">métadonnées</a>.</li> </ul> <p>Ceci devrait permettre des utilisations <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Interdisciplinarit%C3%A9?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Interdisciplinarité">interdisciplinaires</a> améliorées, par exemple dans le domaine <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Sant%C3%A9-environnement?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Santé-environnement">santé-environnement</a><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-18"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>18<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup> et <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/%C3%89co%C3%A9pid%C3%A9miologie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Écoépidémiologie">écoépidémiologie</a>, ou du <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/D%C3%A9veloppement_durable?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Développement durable">développement durable</a> ou de la <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Prospective?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Prospective">prospective</a>.</p> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"> <span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span> <h2 id="Notes_et_références"><span id="Notes_et_r.C3.A9f.C3.A9rences"></span>Notes et références</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique&action=edit&section=13&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Modifier la section : Notes et références" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>modifier</span> </a> </span> </div> <section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink noprint"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-1">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage"><abbr class="abbr indicateur-langue" title="Langue : anglais">(en)</abbr> « <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=http://www.esri.com/news/arcnews/fall12articles/the-fiftieth-anniversary-of-gis.html"><cite style="font-style:normal;" lang="en">The 50th Anniversary of GIS</cite></a> », <i>ESRI</i> <small style="line-height:1em;">(consulté le <time class="nowrap" datetime="2013-04-18" data-sort-value="2013-04-18">18 avril 2013</time>)</small></span>.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink noprint"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-2">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage"><span class="noarchive">« <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=http://ucgis.org/ucgis-fellow/roger-tomlinson"><cite style="font-style:normal; color:var(--color-link-red, #d73333);">ucgis.org/ucgis-fellow/roger-t…</cite></a> »<sup class="plainlinks">(<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://web.archive.org/web/*/http://ucgis.org/ucgis-fellow/roger-tomlinson">Archive.org</a> • <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/?url%3Dhttp://ucgis.org/ucgis-fellow/roger-tomlinson">Wikiwix</a> • <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://archive.is/http://ucgis.org/ucgis-fellow/roger-tomlinson">Archive.is</a> • <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?hl%3Dfr%26q%3Dcache:http://ucgis.org/ucgis-fellow/roger-tomlinson">Google</a> • <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Projet:Correction_des_liens_externes?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#J'ai_trouv%C3%A9_un_lien_mort,_que_faire_?" title="Projet:Correction des liens externes">Que faire ?</a>)</sup></span></span>.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink noprint"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-3">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage">« <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k842918/f353.image"><cite style="font-style:normal;">Rapport sur la marche et les effets du choléra dans Paris et le département de la Seine. Année 1832</cite></a> », sur <span class="italique"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Gallica?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Gallica">Gallica</a></span> <small style="line-height:1em;">(consulté le <time class="nowrap" datetime="2012-05-10" data-sort-value="2012-05-10">10 mai 2012</time>)</small></span>.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-map_printing_methods-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink noprint"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-map_printing_methods_4-0">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="Fitzgerald"><span class="ouvrage" id="Joseph_H._Fitzgerald"><abbr class="abbr indicateur-langue" title="Langue : anglais">(en)</abbr> Joseph H. <span class="nom_auteur">Fitzgerald</span>, <span class="noarchive">« <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=http://www.broward.org/library/bienes/lii14009.htm"><cite style="font-style:normal;" lang="en">Map Printing Methods</cite></a> » <small class="plainlinks cachelinks">[<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://web.archive.org/web/20070604194024/http://www.broward.org/library/bienes/lii14009.htm">archive du <time class="nowrap" datetime="2007-06-04" data-sort-value="2007-06-04">4 juin 2007</time></a>]</small></span> <small style="line-height:1em;">(consulté le <time class="nowrap" datetime="2007-06-09" data-sort-value="2007-06-09">9 juin 2007</time>)</small></span></span>.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-Tomlinson-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink noprint"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-Tomlinson_5-0">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage"><span class="noarchive">« <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=http://www.urisa.org/node/395"><cite style="font-style:normal; color:var(--color-link-red, #d73333);">GIS Hall of Fame – Roger Tomlinson</cite></a> »<sup class="plainlinks">(<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://web.archive.org/web/*/http://www.urisa.org/node/395">Archive.org</a> • <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/?url%3Dhttp://www.urisa.org/node/395">Wikiwix</a> • <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://archive.is/http://www.urisa.org/node/395">Archive.is</a> • <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?hl%3Dfr%26q%3Dcache:http://www.urisa.org/node/395">Google</a> • <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Projet:Correction_des_liens_externes?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#J'ai_trouv%C3%A9_un_lien_mort,_que_faire_?" title="Projet:Correction des liens externes">Que faire ?</a>)</sup></span>, <i>URISA</i> <small style="line-height:1em;">(consulté le <time class="nowrap" datetime="2007-06-09" data-sort-value="2007-06-09">9 juin 2007</time>)</small></span>.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-Fisher-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink noprint"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-Fisher_6-0">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="Lovison-Golob"><span class="ouvrage" id="Lucia_Lovison-Golob">Lucia <span class="nom_auteur">Lovison-Golob</span>, <span class="noarchive">« <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=http://www.gis.dce.harvard.edu/fisher/HTFisher.htm"><cite style="font-style:normal; color:var(--color-link-red, #d73333);">Howard T. Fisher</cite></a> »<sup class="plainlinks">(<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://web.archive.org/web/*/http://www.gis.dce.harvard.edu/fisher/HTFisher.htm">Archive.org</a> • <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/?url%3Dhttp://www.gis.dce.harvard.edu/fisher/HTFisher.htm">Wikiwix</a> • <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://archive.is/http://www.gis.dce.harvard.edu/fisher/HTFisher.htm">Archive.is</a> • <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?hl%3Dfr%26q%3Dcache:http://www.gis.dce.harvard.edu/fisher/HTFisher.htm">Google</a> • <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Projet:Correction_des_liens_externes?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#J'ai_trouv%C3%A9_un_lien_mort,_que_faire_?" title="Projet:Correction des liens externes">Que faire ?</a>)</sup></span>, <i>Harvard University</i> <small style="line-height:1em;">(consulté le <time class="nowrap" datetime="2007-06-09" data-sort-value="2007-06-09">9 juin 2007</time>)</small></span></span>.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-wiki.osgeo.org-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink noprint"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-wiki.osgeo.org_7-0">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage"><abbr class="abbr indicateur-langue" title="Langue : anglais">(en)</abbr> « <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=http://wiki.osgeo.org/wiki/Open_Source_GIS_History"><cite style="font-style:normal;" lang="en">Open Source GIS History – OSGeo Wiki Editors</cite></a> » <small style="line-height:1em;">(consulté le <time class="nowrap" datetime="2009-03-21" data-sort-value="2009-03-21">21 mars 2009</time>)</small></span>.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink noprint"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-8">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text">Fu, P., and J. Sun. 2010. <i>Web GIS: Principles and Applications</i>. ESRI Press. Redlands, CA. <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Sp%C3%A9cial:Ouvrages_de_r%C3%A9f%C3%A9rence/1-58948-245-X?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Spécial:Ouvrages de référence/1-58948-245-X"><span class="nowrap">1-58948-245-X</span></a>)</small>.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink noprint"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-9">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="BallouchBillenKasprzyk2024"><span class="ouvrage" id="Zouhair_BallouchRoland_BillenJean-Paul_Kasprzyk2024">Zouhair <span class="nom_auteur">Ballouch</span>, Roland <span class="nom_auteur">Billen</span> et Jean-Paul <span class="nom_auteur">Kasprzyk</span>, <cite class="italique">Obtention d'objets sémantiques 3D pour les applications urbaines</cite> (rapport d’activité), université d'Adrar, <time>2024</time> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://orbi.uliege.be/bitstream/2268/314705/1/rapport%2520light_SEM3D.pdf">lire en ligne</a> <abbr class="abbr indicateur-format format-pdf" title="Document au format Portable Document Format (PDF) d'Adobe">[PDF]</abbr>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Obtention+d%27objets+s%C3%A9mantiques+3D+pour+les+applications+urbaines&rft.pub=universit%C3%A9+d%27Adrar&rft.aulast=Ballouch&rft.aufirst=Zouhair&rft.au=Billen%2C+Roland&rft.au=Kasprzyk%2C+Jean-Paul&rft.date=2024&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3ASyst%C3%A8me+d%27information+g%C3%A9ographique"></span></span></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-SIG_IA2017-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink noprint">↑ <sup><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-SIG_IA2017_10-0">a</a> et <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-SIG_IA2017_10-1">b</a></sup> </span><span class="reference-text"><abbr class="abbr indicateur-langue" title="Langue : anglais">(en)</abbr> Christian Carolin, <i>GIS and artificial intelligence : what developments and what future ?</i>, <i>Géomatique Expert</i>, n° 118, septembre-octobre 2017 (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://www.unge.net/fichiers/actualite/453-geomatique-expert-118-article-sig-et-ia.pdf">lire en ligne</a> <abbr class="abbr indicateur-format format-pdf" title="Document au format Portable Document Format (PDF)">[PDF]</abbr>).</span></li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink noprint"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-11">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="KourtArbaouiBenatiallah2023"><span class="ouvrage" id="Mohamed_Lakbir_KourtMohammed_Yacine_ArbaouiDjelloul_Benatiallah2023">Mohamed Lakbir <span class="nom_auteur">Kourt</span>, Mohammed Yacine <span class="nom_auteur">Arbaoui</span> et Djelloul <span class="nom_auteur">Benatiallah</span>, <cite class="italique">Une nouvelle méthode d’Intelligence Artificielle pour estimer le rayonnement solaire</cite> (mémoire de fin d’étude), université Ahmed Draia-Adrar, <time>2023</time> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://dspace.univ-adrar.edu.dz/jspui/handle/123456789/8924">lire en ligne</a>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Une+nouvelle+m%C3%A9thode+d%E2%80%99Intelligence+Artificielle+pour+estimer+le+rayonnement+solaire&rft.pub=universit%C3%A9+Ahmed+Draia-Adrar&rft.aulast=Kourt&rft.aufirst=Mohamed+Lakbir&rft.au=Arbaoui%2C+Mohammed+Yacine&rft.au=Benatiallah%2C+Djelloul&rft.date=2023&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3ASyst%C3%A8me+d%27information+g%C3%A9ographique"></span></span></span>.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink noprint"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-12">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text">Zimmermann, B., Boussard, M., Boulbes, N., & Grégoire, S., XAI et information géographique : application aux reconstructions paléoenvironnementales, <i>Actes de la 8e conférence nationale sur les Applications Pratiques de l’Intelligence Artificielle (APIA) 2022</i>, Plate-Forme Intelligence Artificielle, Association Française pour l’Intelligence Artificielle, 2022. hal-04564109 APIA, 92 ([url=<a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://hal.science/hal-04564109v1/file/ActesAPIA2022.pdf%23page%3D93">https://hal.science/hal-04564109v1/file/ActesAPIA2022.pdf#page=93</a> lire en ligne] <abbr class="abbr indicateur-format format-pdf" title="Document au format Portable Document Format (PDF)">[PDF]</abbr>).</span></li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink noprint"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-13">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text">IGN (2022) <i>Feuille de route Intelligence artificielle 2022-2024</i> |url= <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://www.ign.fr/files/default/2022-04/ia_feuille_route_ign.pdf">https://www.ign.fr/files/default/2022-04/ia_feuille_route_ign.pdf</a></span></li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink noprint"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-14">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="2022">« <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://web.archive.org/web/20240914001149/https://www.ign.fr/feuille-route-ia"><cite style="font-style:normal;">L'intelligence artificielle pour cartographier les changements climatiques rapides</cite></a> », sur <span class="italique">IGN</span>, <time class="nowrap" datetime="2022-02-23" data-sort-value="2022-02-23">23 février 2022</time> <small style="line-height:1em;">(consulté le <time class="nowrap" datetime="2024-10-02" data-sort-value="2024-10-02">2 octobre 2024</time>)</small></span>.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink noprint"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-15">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage">« <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=http://www.idgeo.fr/lapec-reconnait-metier-geomaticien/"><cite style="font-style:normal;">Le métier de Géomaticien</cite></a> »</span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink noprint"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-16">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=http://www.esrifrance.fr/sig2006/EID.html">www.esrifrance.fr/sig2006/EID.html</a></span></li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink noprint"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-17">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="Cahier_des_Techniques_de_l'INRA2014"><span class="ouvrage" id="Le_Cahier_des_Techniques_de_l'INRA2014">Le Cahier des Techniques de l'INRA, <cite class="italique">GPS et SIG</cite>, Paris, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, <time>2014</time>, 181 <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://www6.inra.fr/cahier_des_techniques/Les-numeros-thematiques/GPS-et-SIG">lire en ligne</a>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=GPS+et+SIG&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Institut+National+de+la+Recherche+Agronomique&rft.au=Le+Cahier+des+Techniques+de+l%27INRA&rft.date=2014&rft.tpages=181&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3ASyst%C3%A8me+d%27information+g%C3%A9ographique"></span></span></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink noprint"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-18">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=http://www.afsset.fr/upload/bibliotheque/848343049727170578887700468731/rapport-action-35-pnse-croisement-donnees.pdf"><i>Systèmes d’information en santé environnement</i></a>, enquête <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/AFSSET?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="AFSSET">AFSSET</a>/<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Institut_fran%C3%A7ais_de_l%27environnement?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Institut français de l'environnement">IFEN</a> sur le croisement de données dans le champ <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Sant%C3%A9_environnement?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Santé environnement">santé environnement</a>, juin 2008. Synthèse des résultats (= Action 35 du <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Plan_national_sant%C3%A9_environnement?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Plan national santé environnement">Plan national santé environnement</a>).</span></li> </ol> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique&action=edit&section=14&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Modifier la section : Sources" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>modifier</span> </a> </span> </div> <ul> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k842918">Rapport sur la marche et les effets du choléra dans Paris et le département de la Seine. Année 1832.</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=http://www.unice.fr/geonet/">GEO-NET Les apprentis géomaticiens de Nice</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=http://georezo.net/blog/sigurba/">SIG & URBA</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=http://geo212.com/">GEO212</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=http://www.spaceyes.fr/">SpaceEyes 3D</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=http://vterrain.org/">Virtual Terrain Project</a></li> </ul> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(8)"> <span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span> <h2 id="Voir_aussi">Voir aussi</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique&action=edit&section=15&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Modifier la section : Voir aussi" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>modifier</span> </a> </span> </div> <section class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-8"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r194021218">.mw-parser-output .autres-projets>.titre{text-align:center;margin:0.2em 0}.mw-parser-output .autres-projets>ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .autres-projets>ul>li{list-style:none;margin:0.2em 0;text-indent:0;padding-left:24px;min-height:20px;text-align:left;display:block}.mw-parser-output .autres-projets>ul>li>a{font-style:italic}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .autres-projets{float:none}}</style> <div class="autres-projets boite-grise boite-a-droite noprint js-interprojets"> <p class="titre">Sur les autres projets Wikimedia :</p> <ul class="noarchive plainlinks"> <li class="commons"><a class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:GIS?uselang%3Dfr">Système d'information géographique</a>, sur <span class="project">Wikimedia Commons</span></li> <li class="wikiversity"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://fr.wikiversity.org/wiki/D%25C3%25A9partement:M%25C3%25A9thodologie_en_g%25C3%25A9ographie" class="extiw" title="v:Département:Méthodologie en géographie">Département:Méthodologie en géographie</a>, <span class="nowrap">sur <span class="project">Wikiversity</span></span></li> </ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Bibliographie">Bibliographie</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique&action=edit&section=16&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Modifier la section : Bibliographie" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>modifier</span> </a> </span> </div> <ul> <li>Guy Lebègue, « Du <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Industrie_spatiale?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Industrie spatiale">spatial</a> aux <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Travaux_publics?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Travaux publics">travaux publics</a> : les <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Conception_et_fabrication_assist%C3%A9es_par_ordinateur?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Conception et fabrication assistées par ordinateur">maquettes virtuelles</a> », avec la collaboration d'Éric Lebègue, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Centre_scientifique_et_technique_du_b%C3%A2timent?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Centre scientifique et technique du bâtiment">CSTB</a> et Laurent Lebègue, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/CNES?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="CNES">CNES</a>, <i>Lettre <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/AAAF?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="AAAF">AAAF</a> Cannes</i>, spécial <time class="nowrap" datetime="2007-03" data-sort-value="2007-03">mars 2007</time>, publiée sur <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=http://sd-1.archive-host.com/membres/up/170308460557144264/aaafca_200703_lettre155_spec.pdf">archive-host.com</a>, reprise dans <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=http://www.aaafasso.fr/DOSSIERSAAAF/DOSS.ACCES_LIBRE/Lettre_acces_libre/Lettres_2007/Lettre_AAAF_n_6_2007.pdf"><i>La Lettre AAAF</i> <abbr class="abbr" title="numéro">n<sup>o</sup></abbr> 6 de juin 2007</a> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <span class="plainlinks noarchive"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://portal.issn.org/resource/issn/1767-0675">1767-0675</a></span>)</small>.</li> <li>Jean Denègre et François Salgé, <i>Les systèmes d'information géographique</i> <abbr class="abbr" title="Deuxième">2<sup>e</sup></abbr> édition 2004, éditions PUF, <abbr class="abbr" title="collection">coll.</abbr> « <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Que_sais-je_%3F?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Que sais-je ?">Que sais-je ?</a> » <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Sp%C3%A9cial:Ouvrages_de_r%C3%A9f%C3%A9rence/2130539238?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Spécial:Ouvrages de référence/2130539238"><span class="nowrap">2130539238</span></a>)</small>.</li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Articles_connexes">Articles connexes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique&action=edit&section=17&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Modifier la section : Articles connexes" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>modifier</span> </a> </span> </div> <div style="column-width:30em;column-count:3;column-gap:1em;" class="colonnes"> <ul> <li>Sogefi</li> <li><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_d%27information?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Système d'information">Système d'information</a></li> <li><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Information_g%C3%A9ographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Information géographique">Information géographique</a></li> <li><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Information_g%C3%A9ographique_b%C3%A9n%C3%A9vole?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Information géographique bénévole">Information géographique bénévole</a></li> <li><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/G%C3%A9omatique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Géomatique">Géomatique</a></li> <li><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/G%C3%A9olocalisation?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Géolocalisation">Géolocalisation</a></li> <li><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Wikisig?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Wikisig">WikiSIG</a></li> <li><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Topographie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Topographie">Topographie</a></li> <li><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Territoire?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Territoire">Territoire</a>, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Am%C3%A9nagement_du_territoire?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Aménagement du territoire">Aménagement du territoire</a></li> <li><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/G%C3%A9ographie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Géographie">Géographie</a>, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/G%C3%A9ographie_physique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Géographie physique">Géographie physique</a>, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/G%C3%A9ographie_politique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Géographie politique">Géographie politique</a></li> <li><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Mod%C3%A8le_num%C3%A9rique_de_terrain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Modèle numérique de terrain">Modèle numérique de terrain</a></li> <li><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Liste_des_logiciels_SIG?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Liste des logiciels SIG">Liste des logiciels SIG</a></li> <li><i><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Global_Positioning_System?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Global Positioning System">Global Positioning System</a></i></li> <li><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Cartographie_des_corridors_biologiques?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Cartographie des corridors biologiques">Cartographie des corridors biologiques</a></li> </ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Liens_externes">Liens externes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique&action=edit&section=18&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Modifier la section : Liens externes" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>modifier</span> </a> </span> </div> <ul> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=http://cnig.gouv.fr/">Site du CNIG</a> : le site du conseil national de l'information géographique, avec de nombreuses ressources documentaires de référence.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=http://www.canal-u.tv/producteurs/universite_de_tous_les_savoirs/dossier_programmes/les_conferences_de_l_annee_2000/l_homme_ses_milieux_et_ses_territoires/cartographie_et_systemes_d_information_geographique_sig">Cartographie et systèmes d'information géographique (SIG)</a></li> <li><abbr class="abbr indicateur-langue" title="Langue : anglais">(en)</abbr> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=http://www.opengeospatial.org/standards">OpenGIS Specifications (Standards)</a>, sur le site de l'Opengeospatial Consortium</li> <li><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Articque_Solutions&action=edit&redlink=1&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="new" title="Articque Solutions (page inexistante)">Articque Solutions</a>, société éditrice d'un Système d'Analyse Géographique (SAG)</li> </ul> <ul id="bandeau-portail" class="bandeau-portail"> <li><span class="bandeau-portail-element"><span class="bandeau-portail-icone"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Portail:G%C3%A9ographie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Portail de la géographie"> <noscript> <img alt="icône décorative" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Circle-icons-globe.svg/24px-Circle-icons-globe.svg.png" decoding="async" width="24" height="24" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 24px;height: 24px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Circle-icons-globe.svg/24px-Circle-icons-globe.svg.png" data-alt="icône décorative" data-width="24" data-height="24" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Circle-icons-globe.svg/36px-Circle-icons-globe.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Circle-icons-globe.svg/48px-Circle-icons-globe.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a></span></span> <span class="bandeau-portail-texte"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Portail:G%C3%A9ographie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Portail:Géographie">Portail de la géographie</a></span> </span></li> <li><span class="bandeau-portail-element"><span class="bandeau-portail-icone"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Portail:Informatique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Portail de l’informatique"> <noscript> <img alt="icône décorative" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Circle-icons-computer.svg/24px-Circle-icons-computer.svg.png" decoding="async" width="24" height="24" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 24px;height: 24px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Circle-icons-computer.svg/24px-Circle-icons-computer.svg.png" data-alt="icône décorative" data-width="24" data-height="24" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Circle-icons-computer.svg/36px-Circle-icons-computer.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Circle-icons-computer.svg/48px-Circle-icons-computer.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a></span></span> <span class="bandeau-portail-texte"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Portail:Informatique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Portail:Informatique">Portail de l’informatique</a></span> </span></li> <li><span class="bandeau-portail-element"><span class="bandeau-portail-icone"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Portail:Information_g%C3%A9ographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Portail de l’information géographique"> <noscript> <img alt="icône décorative" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Map_ballonicon2.svg/24px-Map_ballonicon2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="24" height="24" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 24px;height: 24px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Map_ballonicon2.svg/24px-Map_ballonicon2.svg.png" data-alt="icône décorative" data-width="24" data-height="24" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Map_ballonicon2.svg/36px-Map_ballonicon2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Map_ballonicon2.svg/48px-Map_ballonicon2.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a></span></span> <span class="bandeau-portail-texte"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Portail:Information_g%C3%A9ographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Portail:Information géographique">Portail de l’information géographique</a></span> </span></li> </ul>   </section> </div> <noscript> <img src="https://login.m.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&mobile=1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"> </noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet=""> Ce document provient de « <a dir="ltr" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title%3DSyst%C3%A8me_d%2527information_g%C3%A9ographique%26oldid%3D219138164">https://fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Système_d%27information_géographique&oldid=219138164</a> ». </div> </div> </div> <div class="post-content" id="page-secondary-actions"> </div> </main> <footer class="mw-footer minerva-footer" role="contentinfo"><a class="last-modified-bar" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique&action=history&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB"> <div class="post-content last-modified-bar__content"><span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon-size-medium minerva-icon--modified-history"></span> <span class="last-modified-bar__text modified-enhancement" data-user-name="Guillaume Le Conquistador" data-user-gender="unknown" data-timestamp="1727983586"> <span>Dernière modification le 3 octobre 2024, à 20:26</span> </span> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon-size-small minerva-icon--expand"></span> </div></a> <div class="post-content footer-content"> <div id="mw-data-after-content"> <div class="read-more-container"></div> </div> <div id="p-lang"> <h4>Langues</h4> <section> <ul id="p-variants" class="minerva-languages"></ul> <ul class="minerva-languages"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografiese_inligtingstelsel" title="Geografiese inligtingstelsel – afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Geografiese inligtingstelsel" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D9%2586%25D8%25B8%25D8%25A7%25D9%2585_%25D9%2585%25D8%25B9%25D9%2584%25D9%2588%25D9%2585%25D8%25A7%25D8%25AA_%25D8%25AC%25D8%25BA%25D8%25B1%25D8%25A7%25D9%2581%25D9%258A%25D8%25A9" title="نظام معلومات جغرافية – arabe" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="نظام معلومات جغرافية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="arabe" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E0%25A6%25AD%25E0%25A7%258C%25E0%25A6%2597%25E0%25A7%258B%25E0%25A6%25B2%25E0%25A6%25BF%25E0%25A6%2595_%25E0%25A6%25A4%25E0%25A6%25A5%25E0%25A7%258D%25E0%25A6%25AF_%25E0%25A6%25AC%25E0%25A7%258D%25E0%25A6%25AF%25E0%25A7%25B1%25E0%25A6%25B8%25E0%25A7%258D%25E0%25A6%25A5%25E0%25A6%25BE" title="ভৌগোলিক তথ্য ব্যৱস্থা – assamais" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="ভৌগোলিক তথ্য ব্যৱস্থা" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="assamais" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_d%2527informaci%25C3%25B3n_xeogr%25C3%25A1fica" title="Sistema d'información xeográfica – asturien" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Sistema d'información xeográfica" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="asturien" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-awa mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://awa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E0%25A4%259C%25E0%25A5%2580_%25E0%25A4%2586%25E0%25A4%2587_%25E0%25A4%258F%25E0%25A4%25B8" title="जी आइ एस – awadhi" lang="awa" hreflang="awa" data-title="जी आइ एस" data-language-autonym="अवधी" data-language-local-name="awadhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अवधी</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Co%25C4%259Frafi_informasiya_sistemi" title="Coğrafi informasiya sistemi – azerbaïdjanais" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Coğrafi informasiya sistemi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="azerbaïdjanais" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%2593%25D0%25B5%25D0%25B0%25D1%2596%25D0%25BD%25D1%2584%25D0%25B0%25D1%2580%25D0%25BC%25D0%25B0%25D1%2586%25D1%258B%25D0%25B9%25D0%25BD%25D1%258B%25D1%258F_%25D1%2581%25D1%2596%25D1%2581%25D1%2582%25D1%258D%25D0%25BC%25D1%258B" title="Геаінфармацыйныя сістэмы – biélorusse" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Геаінфармацыйныя сістэмы" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="biélorusse" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%2593%25D0%25B5%25D0%25BE%25D0%25B3%25D1%2580%25D0%25B0%25D1%2584%25D1%2581%25D0%25BA%25D0%25B0_%25D0%25B8%25D0%25BD%25D1%2584%25D0%25BE%25D1%2580%25D0%25BC%25D0%25B0%25D1%2586%25D0%25B8%25D0%25BE%25D0%25BD%25D0%25BD%25D0%25B0_%25D1%2581%25D0%25B8%25D1%2581%25D1%2582%25D0%25B5%25D0%25BC%25D0%25B0" title="Географска информационна система – bulgare" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Географска информационна система" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="bulgare" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E0%25A4%259C%25E0%25A5%2580%25E0%25A4%2586%25E0%25A4%2587%25E0%25A4%258F%25E0%25A4%25B8" title="जीआइएस – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="जीआइएस" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E0%25A6%25AD%25E0%25A7%258C%25E0%25A6%2597%25E0%25A7%258B%25E0%25A6%25B2%25E0%25A6%25BF%25E0%25A6%2595_%25E0%25A6%25A4%25E0%25A6%25A5%25E0%25A7%258D%25E0%25A6%25AF_%25E0%25A6%25AC%25E0%25A7%258D%25E0%25A6%25AF%25E0%25A6%25AC%25E0%25A6%25B8%25E0%25A7%258D%25E0%25A6%25A5%25E0%25A6%25BE" title="ভৌগোলিক তথ্য ব্যবস্থা – bengali" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ভৌগোলিক তথ্য ব্যবস্থা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="bengali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/GIS" title="GIS – bosniaque" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="GIS" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="bosniaque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_d%2527informaci%25C3%25B3_geogr%25C3%25A0fica" title="Sistema d'informació geogràfica – catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Sistema d'informació geogràfica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D8%25B3%25DB%258C%25D8%25B3%25D8%25AA%25D9%2585%25DB%258C_%25D8%25B2%25D8%25A7%25D9%2586%25DB%258C%25D8%25A7%25D8%25B1%25DB%258C%25DB%258C_%25D8%25AC%25D9%2588%25DA%25AF%25D8%25B1%25D8%25A7%25D9%2581%25DB%258C" title="سیستمی زانیاریی جوگرافی – sorani" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="سیستمی زانیاریی جوگرافی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="sorani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografick%25C3%25BD_informa%25C4%258Dn%25C3%25AD_syst%25C3%25A9m" title="Geografický informační systém – tchèque" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Geografický informační systém" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="tchèque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografisk_informationssystem" title="Geografisk informationssystem – danois" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Geografisk informationssystem" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="danois" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoinformationssystem" title="Geoinformationssystem – allemand" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Geoinformationssystem" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="allemand" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25CE%25A3%25CF%258D%25CF%2583%25CF%2584%25CE%25B7%25CE%25BC%25CE%25B1_%25CE%2593%25CE%25B5%25CF%2589%25CE%25B3%25CF%2581%25CE%25B1%25CF%2586%25CE%25B9%25CE%25BA%25CF%258E%25CE%25BD_%25CE%25A0%25CE%25BB%25CE%25B7%25CF%2581%25CE%25BF%25CF%2586%25CE%25BF%25CF%2581%25CE%25B9%25CF%258E%25CE%25BD" title="Σύστημα Γεωγραφικών Πληροφοριών – grec" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Σύστημα Γεωγραφικών Πληροφοριών" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="grec" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-en mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographic_information_system" title="Geographic information system – anglais" lang="en" hreflang="en" data-title="Geographic information system" data-language-autonym="English" data-language-local-name="anglais" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>English</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografia_informsistemo" title="Geografia informsistemo – espéranto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Geografia informsistemo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="espéranto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_de_informaci%25C3%25B3n_geogr%25C3%25A1fica" title="Sistema de información geográfica – espagnol" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Sistema de información geográfica" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="espagnol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoinfos%25C3%25BCsteem" title="Geoinfosüsteem – estonien" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Geoinfosüsteem" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="estonien" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/GIS" title="GIS – basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="GIS" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D8%25B3%25D8%25A7%25D9%2585%25D8%25A7%25D9%2586%25D9%2587_%25D8%25A7%25D8%25B7%25D9%2584%25D8%25A7%25D8%25B9%25D8%25A7%25D8%25AA_%25D8%25AC%25D8%25BA%25D8%25B1%25D8%25A7%25D9%2581%25DB%258C%25D8%25A7%25DB%258C%25DB%258C" title="سامانه اطلاعات جغرافیایی – persan" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="سامانه اطلاعات جغرافیایی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="persan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paikkatietoj%25C3%25A4rjestelm%25C3%25A4" title="Paikkatietojärjestelmä – finnois" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Paikkatietojärjestelmä" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="finnois" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_de_informaci%25C3%25B3n_xeogr%25C3%25A1fica" title="Sistema de información xeográfica – galicien" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Sistema de información xeográfica" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="galicien" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D7%259E%25D7%25A2%25D7%25A8%25D7%259B%25D7%25AA_%25D7%259E%25D7%2599%25D7%2593%25D7%25A2_%25D7%2592%25D7%2590%25D7%2595%25D7%2592%25D7%25A8%25D7%25A4%25D7%2599" title="מערכת מידע גאוגרפי – hébreu" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מערכת מידע גאוגרפי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="hébreu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E0%25A4%25AD%25E0%25A5%258C%25E0%25A4%2597%25E0%25A5%258B%25E0%25A4%25B2%25E0%25A4%25BF%25E0%25A4%2595_%25E0%25A4%25B8%25E0%25A5%2582%25E0%25A4%259A%25E0%25A4%25A8%25E0%25A4%25BE_%25E0%25A4%25A4%25E0%25A4%2582%25E0%25A4%25A4%25E0%25A5%258D%25E0%25A4%25B0" title="भौगोलिक सूचना तंत्र – hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="भौगोलिक सूचना तंत्र" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografski_informacijski_sustav" title="Geografski informacijski sustav – croate" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Geografski informacijski sustav" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="croate" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%25C3%25B6ldrajzi_inform%25C3%25A1ci%25C3%25B3s_rendszer" title="Földrajzi információs rendszer – hongrois" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Földrajzi információs rendszer" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="hongrois" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D4%25B1%25D5%25B7%25D5%25AD%25D5%25A1%25D6%2580%25D5%25B0%25D5%25A1%25D5%25A3%25D6%2580%25D5%25A1%25D5%25AF%25D5%25A1%25D5%25B6_%25D5%25BF%25D5%25A5%25D5%25B2%25D5%25A5%25D5%25AF%25D5%25A1%25D5%25BF%25D5%25BE%25D5%25A1%25D5%25AF%25D5%25A1%25D5%25B6_%25D5%25B0%25D5%25A1%25D5%25B4%25D5%25A1%25D5%25AF%25D5%25A1%25D6%2580%25D5%25A3" title="Աշխարհագրական տեղեկատվական համակարգ – arménien" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Աշխարհագրական տեղեկատվական համակարգ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="arménien" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistem_informasi_geografis" title="Sistem informasi geografis – indonésien" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sistem informasi geografis" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="indonésien" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landfr%25C3%25A6%25C3%25B0ilegt_uppl%25C3%25BDsingakerfi" title="Landfræðilegt upplýsingakerfi – islandais" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Landfræðilegt upplýsingakerfi" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="islandais" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographic_information_system" title="Geographic information system – italien" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Geographic information system" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="italien" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E5%259C%25B0%25E7%2590%2586%25E6%2583%2585%25E5%25A0%25B1%25E3%2582%25B7%25E3%2582%25B9%25E3%2583%2586%25E3%2583%25A0" title="地理情報システム – japonais" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="地理情報システム" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="japonais" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E1%2583%2592%25E1%2583%2594%25E1%2583%259D%25E1%2583%2592%25E1%2583%25A0%25E1%2583%2590%25E1%2583%25A4%25E1%2583%2598%25E1%2583%25A3%25E1%2583%259A%25E1%2583%2598_%25E1%2583%25A1%25E1%2583%2590%25E1%2583%2598%25E1%2583%259C%25E1%2583%25A4%25E1%2583%259D%25E1%2583%25A0%25E1%2583%259B%25E1%2583%2590%25E1%2583%25AA%25E1%2583%2598%25E1%2583%259D_%25E1%2583%25A1%25E1%2583%2598%25E1%2583%25A1%25E1%2583%25A2%25E1%2583%2594%25E1%2583%259B%25E1%2583%2590" title="გეოგრაფიული საინფორმაციო სისტემა – géorgien" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="გეოგრაფიული საინფორმაციო სისტემა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="géorgien" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%2593%25D0%25B5%25D0%25BE%25D0%25B3%25D1%2580%25D0%25B0%25D1%2584%25D0%25B8%25D1%258F%25D0%25BB%25D1%258B%25D2%259B_%25D0%25B0%25D2%259B%25D0%25BF%25D0%25B0%25D1%2580%25D0%25B0%25D1%2582%25D1%2582%25D1%258B%25D2%259B_%25D0%25B6%25D2%25AF%25D0%25B9%25D0%25B5" title="Географиялық ақпараттық жүйе – kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Географиялық ақпараттық жүйе" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25EC%25A7%2580%25EB%25A6%25AC_%25EC%25A0%2595%25EB%25B3%25B4_%25EC%258B%259C%25EC%258A%25A4%25ED%2585%259C" title="지리 정보 시스템 – coréen" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="지리 정보 시스템" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="coréen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografin%25C4%2597_informacin%25C4%2597_sistema" title="Geografinė informacinė sistema – lituanien" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Geografinė informacinė sistema" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="lituanien" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25C4%25A2eogr%25C4%2581fisk%25C4%2581_inform%25C4%2581cijas_sist%25C4%2593ma" title="Ģeogrāfiskā informācijas sistēma – letton" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Ģeogrāfiskā informācijas sistēma" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="letton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%2593%25D0%25B5%25D0%25BE%25D0%25B3%25D1%2580%25D0%25B0%25D1%2584%25D1%2581%25D0%25BA%25D0%25B8_%25D0%25B8%25D0%25BD%25D1%2584%25D0%25BE%25D1%2580%25D0%25BC%25D0%25B0%25D1%2586%25D0%25B8%25D1%2581%25D0%25BA%25D0%25B8_%25D1%2581%25D0%25B8%25D1%2581%25D1%2582%25D0%25B5%25D0%25BC" title="Географски информациски систем – macédonien" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Географски информациски систем" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="macédonien" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E0%25B4%25AD%25E0%25B5%2582%25E0%25B4%25B5%25E0%25B4%25BF%25E0%25B4%25B5%25E0%25B4%25B0%25E0%25B4%25B5%25E0%25B5%258D%25E0%25B4%25AF%25E0%25B4%25B5%25E0%25B4%25B8%25E0%25B5%258D%25E0%25B4%25A5" title="ഭൂവിവരവ്യവസ്ഥ – malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഭൂവിവരവ്യവസ്ഥ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E0%25A4%25AD%25E0%25A5%258C%25E0%25A4%2597%25E0%25A5%258B%25E0%25A4%25B2%25E0%25A4%25BF%25E0%25A4%2595_%25E0%25A4%25AE%25E0%25A4%25BE%25E0%25A4%25B9%25E0%25A4%25BF%25E0%25A4%25A4%25E0%25A5%2580_%25E0%25A4%25AA%25E0%25A5%258D%25E0%25A4%25B0%25E0%25A4%25A3%25E0%25A4%25BE%25E0%25A4%25B2%25E0%25A5%2580" title="भौगोलिक माहिती प्रणाली – marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="भौगोलिक माहिती प्रणाली" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistem_maklumat_geografi" title="Sistem maklumat geografi – malais" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Sistem maklumat geografi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="malais" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/GIS" title="GIS – birman" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="GIS" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="birman" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E0%25A4%25AD%25E0%25A5%258C%25E0%25A4%2597%25E0%25A5%258B%25E0%25A4%25B2%25E0%25A4%25BF%25E0%25A4%2595_%25E0%25A4%25B8%25E0%25A5%2582%25E0%25A4%259A%25E0%25A4%25A8%25E0%25A4%25BE_%25E0%25A4%25AA%25E0%25A5%258D%25E0%25A4%25B0%25E0%25A4%25A3%25E0%25A4%25BE%25E0%25A4%25B2%25E0%25A5%2580" title="भौगोलिक सूचना प्रणाली – népalais" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="भौगोलिक सूचना प्रणाली" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="népalais" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografisch_informatiesysteem" title="Geografisch informatiesysteem – néerlandais" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Geografisch informatiesysteem" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="néerlandais" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/GIS" title="GIS – norvégien nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="GIS" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="norvégien nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografisk_informasjonssystem" title="Geografisk informasjonssystem – norvégien bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Geografisk informasjonssystem" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="norvégien bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_informacji_geograficznej" title="System informacji geograficznej – polonais" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="System informacji geograficznej" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="polonais" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D8%25AF_%25D8%25AC%25D8%25BA%25D8%25B1%25D8%25A7%25D9%2581%25D9%258A%25D9%2588%25D9%258A_%25D9%2585%25D8%25B9%25D9%2584%25D9%2588%25D9%2585%25D8%25A7%25D8%25AA%25D9%2588_%25D8%25B3%25D9%258A%25D8%25B3%25D8%25AA%25D9%2585" title="د جغرافيوي معلوماتو سيستم – pachto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د جغرافيوي معلوماتو سيستم" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="pachto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_de_informa%25C3%25A7%25C3%25A3o_geogr%25C3%25A1fica" title="Sistema de informação geográfica – portugais" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Sistema de informação geográfica" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="portugais" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistem_de_informa%25C8%259Bii_geografice" title="Sistem de informații geografice – roumain" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Sistem de informații geografice" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="roumain" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%2593%25D0%25B5%25D0%25BE%25D0%25B8%25D0%25BD%25D1%2584%25D0%25BE%25D1%2580%25D0%25BC%25D0%25B0%25D1%2586%25D0%25B8%25D0%25BE%25D0%25BD%25D0%25BD%25D0%25B0%25D1%258F_%25D1%2581%25D0%25B8%25D1%2581%25D1%2582%25D0%25B5%25D0%25BC%25D0%25B0" title="Геоинформационная система – russe" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Геоинформационная система" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="russe" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografski_informacijski_sistem" title="Geografski informacijski sistem – serbo-croate" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Geografski informacijski sistem" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="serbo-croate" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E0%25B6%25B7%25E0%25B7%2596%25E0%25B6%259C%25E0%25B7%259D%25E0%25B6%25BD%25E0%25B7%2593%25E0%25B6%25BA_%25E0%25B6%25AD%25E0%25B7%259C%25E0%25B6%25BB%25E0%25B6%25AD%25E0%25B7%2594%25E0%25B6%25BB%25E0%25B7%2594_%25E0%25B6%25B4%25E0%25B6%25AF%25E0%25B7%258A%25E0%25B6%25B0%25E0%25B6%25AD%25E0%25B7%2592" title="භූගෝලීය තොරතුරු පද්ධති – cingalais" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="භූගෝලීය තොරතුරු පද්ධති" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="cingalais" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/GIS" title="GIS – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="GIS" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografick%25C3%25BD_informa%25C4%258Dn%25C3%25BD_syst%25C3%25A9m" title="Geografický informačný systém – slovaque" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Geografický informačný systém" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="slovaque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografski_informacijski_sistem" title="Geografski informacijski sistem – slovène" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Geografski informacijski sistem" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="slovène" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/GIS" title="GIS – albanais" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="GIS" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="albanais" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%2593%25D0%25B5%25D0%25BE%25D0%25B3%25D1%2580%25D0%25B0%25D1%2584%25D1%2581%25D0%25BA%25D0%25B8_%25D0%25B8%25D0%25BD%25D1%2584%25D0%25BE%25D1%2580%25D0%25BC%25D0%25B0%25D1%2586%25D0%25B8%25D0%25BE%25D0%25BD%25D0%25B8_%25D1%2581%25D0%25B8%25D1%2581%25D1%2582%25D0%25B5%25D0%25BC" title="Географски информациони систем – serbe" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Географски информациони систем" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="serbe" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografiskt_informationssystem" title="Geografiskt informationssystem – suédois" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Geografiskt informationssystem" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="suédois" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E0%25AE%25AA%25E0%25AF%2581%25E0%25AE%25B5%25E0%25AE%25BF%25E0%25AE%25AF%25E0%25AE%25BF%25E0%25AE%25AF%25E0%25AE%25B2%25E0%25AF%258D_%25E0%25AE%25A4%25E0%25AE%2595%25E0%25AE%25B5%25E0%25AE%25B2%25E0%25AF%258D_%25E0%25AE%25AE%25E0%25AF%2581%25E0%25AE%25B1%25E0%25AF%2588%25E0%25AE%25AE%25E0%25AF%2588" title="புவியியல் தகவல் முறைமை – tamoul" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="புவியியல் தகவல் முறைமை" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="tamoul" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%25A1%25D0%25BE%25D0%25BC%25D0%25BE%25D0%25BD%25D0%25B0%25D0%25B8_%25D0%25B8%25D1%2582%25D1%2582%25D0%25B8%25D0%25BB%25D0%25BE%25D1%258A%25D0%25BE%25D1%2582%25D0%25B8_%25D2%25B7%25D1%2583%25D2%2593%25D1%2580%25D0%25BE%25D1%2584%25D0%25B8%25D1%2591%25D3%25A3" title="Сомонаи иттилоъоти ҷуғрофиёӣ – tadjik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Сомонаи иттилоъоти ҷуғрофиёӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="tadjik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E0%25B8%25A3%25E0%25B8%25B0%25E0%25B8%259A%25E0%25B8%259A%25E0%25B8%25AA%25E0%25B8%25B2%25E0%25B8%25A3%25E0%25B8%25AA%25E0%25B8%2599%25E0%25B9%2580%25E0%25B8%2597%25E0%25B8%25A8%25E0%25B8%25A0%25E0%25B8%25B9%25E0%25B8%25A1%25E0%25B8%25B4%25E0%25B8%25A8%25E0%25B8%25B2%25E0%25B8%25AA%25E0%25B8%2595%25E0%25B8%25A3%25E0%25B9%258C" title="ระบบสารสนเทศภูมิศาสตร์ – thaï" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ระบบสารสนเทศภูมิศาสตร์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="thaï" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Co%25C4%259Frafi_bilgi_sistemi" title="Coğrafi bilgi sistemi – turc" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Coğrafi bilgi sistemi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="turc" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%2593%25D0%25B5%25D0%25BE%25D1%2596%25D0%25BD%25D1%2584%25D0%25BE%25D1%2580%25D0%25BC%25D0%25B0%25D1%2586%25D1%2596%25D0%25B9%25D0%25BD%25D0%25B0_%25D1%2581%25D0%25B8%25D1%2581%25D1%2582%25D0%25B5%25D0%25BC%25D0%25B0" title="Геоінформаційна система – ukrainien" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Геоінформаційна система" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="ukrainien" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografik_axborot_tizimi" title="Geografik axborot tizimi – ouzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Geografik axborot tizimi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="ouzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%25E1%25BB%2587_th%25E1%25BB%2591ng_th%25C3%25B4ng_tin_%25C4%2591%25E1%25BB%258Ba_l%25C3%25BD" title="Hệ thống thông tin địa lý – vietnamien" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Hệ thống thông tin địa lý" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="vietnamien" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E5%259C%25B0%25E7%2590%2586%25E4%25BF%25A1%25E6%2581%25AF%25E7%25B3%25BB%25E7%25BB%259F" title="地理信息系统 – wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="地理信息系统" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E5%259C%25B0%25E7%2590%2586%25E4%25BF%25A1%25E6%2581%25AF%25E7%25B3%25BB%25E7%25BB%259F" title="地理信息系统 – chinois" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="地理信息系统" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="chinois" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%25C4%2593-l%25C3%25AD_chu-s%25C3%25ACn_h%25C4%2593-th%25C3%25B3ng" title="Tē-lí chu-sìn hē-thóng – minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Tē-lí chu-sìn hē-thóng" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E5%259C%25B0%25E7%2590%2586%25E8%25B3%2587%25E8%25A8%258A%25E7%25B3%25BB%25E7%25B5%25B1" title="地理資訊系統 – cantonais" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="地理資訊系統" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="cantonais" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li> </ul> </section> </div> <div class="minerva-footer-logo"> <img src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-fr.svg" alt="Wikipédia" width="119" height="18" style="width: 7.4375em; height: 1.125em;"> </div> <ul id="footer-info" class="footer-info hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod">La dernière modification de cette page a été faite le 3 octobre 2024 à 20:26.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Le contenu est disponible sous licence <a 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