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class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hieroglyphs,_hieratic,_and_Demotic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1 Hieroglyphs, hieratic, and Demotic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hieroglyphs,_hieratic,_and_Demotic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Writing_implements_and_materials" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Writing_implements_and_materials"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 Writing implements and materials </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Writing_implements_and_materials-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Preservation_of_written_material" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Preservation_of_written_material"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 Preservation of written material </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Preservation_of_written_material-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classical,_Middle,_Late,_and_Demotic_Egyptian_language" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classical,_Middle,_Late,_and_Demotic_Egyptian_language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.4 Classical, Middle, Late, and Demotic Egyptian language </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classical,_Middle,_Late,_and_Demotic_Egyptian_language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literary_functions:_social,_religious_and_educational" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literary_functions:_social,_religious_and_educational"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Literary functions: social, religious and educational </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literary_functions:_social,_religious_and_educational-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dating,_setting,_and_authorship" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dating,_setting,_and_authorship"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Dating, setting, and authorship </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dating,_setting,_and_authorship-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literary_genres_and_subjects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literary_genres_and_subjects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Literary genres and subjects </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Literary_genres_and_subjects-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Literary genres and subjects subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Literary_genres_and_subjects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Instructions_and_teachings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Instructions_and_teachings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Instructions and teachings </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Instructions_and_teachings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Narrative_tales_and_stories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Narrative_tales_and_stories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Narrative tales and stories </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Narrative_tales_and_stories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Laments,_discourses,_dialogues,_and_prophecies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Laments,_discourses,_dialogues,_and_prophecies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Laments, discourses, dialogues, and prophecies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Laments,_discourses,_dialogues,_and_prophecies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Poems,_songs,_hymns,_and_afterlife_texts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Poems,_songs,_hymns,_and_afterlife_texts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Poems, songs, hymns, and afterlife texts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Poems,_songs,_hymns,_and_afterlife_texts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Private_letters,_model_letters,_and_epistles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Private_letters,_model_letters,_and_epistles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Private letters, model letters, and epistles </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Private_letters,_model_letters,_and_epistles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biographical_and_autobiographical_texts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biographical_and_autobiographical_texts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.6 Biographical and autobiographical texts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biographical_and_autobiographical_texts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Decrees,_chronicles,_king_lists,_and_histories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decrees,_chronicles,_king_lists,_and_histories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.7 Decrees, chronicles, king lists, and histories </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decrees,_chronicles,_king_lists,_and_histories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tomb_and_temple_graffiti" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tomb_and_temple_graffiti"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.8 Tomb and temple graffiti </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tomb_and_temple_graffiti-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy,_translation_and_interpretation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy,_translation_and_interpretation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Legacy, translation and interpretation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legacy,_translation_and_interpretation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Ancient Egyptian literature</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 35 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-35" aria-hidden="true" > 35 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ab mw-list-item"><a href="https://ab.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B6%D3%99%D1%8B%D1%82%D3%99%D0%BC%D1%81%D1%8B%D1%80%D1%82%D3%99_%D2%A9%D1%8B%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Ажәытәмсыртә ҩыра – Abkhazian" lang="ab" hreflang="ab" data-title="Ажәытәмсыртә ҩыра" data-language-autonym="Аԥсшәа" data-language-local-name="Abkhazian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Аԥсшәа</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D8%AF%D8%A8_%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1%D9%8A_%D9%82%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%85" title="أدب مصري قديم – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="أدب مصري قديم" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lliteratura_del_Antiguu_Exiptu" title="Lliteratura del Antiguu Exiptu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Lliteratura del Antiguu Exiptu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Q%C9%99dim_Misir_%C9%99d%C9%99biyyat%C4%B1" title="Qədim Misir ədəbiyyatı – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Qədim Misir ədəbiyyatı" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9A%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF" title="প্রাচীন মিশরীয় সাহিত্য – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="প্রাচীন মিশরীয় সাহিত্য" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0_%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D1%8B%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0_%D0%95%D0%B3%D1%96%D0%BF%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Літаратура Старажытнага Егіпта – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Літаратура Старажытнага Егіпта" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literatura_de_l%27antic_Egipte" title="Literatura de l'antic Egipte – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Literatura de l'antic Egipte" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staroegyptsk%C3%A9_p%C3%ADsemnictv%C3%AD" title="Staroegyptské písemnictví – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Staroegyptské písemnictví" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alt%C3%A4gyptische_Literatur" title="Altägyptische Literatur – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Altägyptische Literatur" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literatura_del_Antiguo_Egipto" title="Literatura del Antiguo Egipto – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Literatura del Antiguo Egipto" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A8%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86" title="ادبیات مصر باستان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ادبیات مصر باستان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Litt%C3%A9rature_de_l%27%C3%89gypte_antique" title="Littérature de l'Égypte antique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Littérature de l'Égypte antique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literatura_exipcia" title="Literatura exipcia – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Literatura exipcia" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B3%A0%EB%8C%80_%EC%9D%B4%EC%A7%91%ED%8A%B8_%EB%AC%B8%ED%95%99" title="고대 이집트 문학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="고대 이집트 문학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D4%B5%D5%A3%D5%AB%D5%BA%D5%BF%D5%B8%D5%BD%D5%AB_%D5%A3%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Հին Եգիպտոսի գրականություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հին Եգիպտոսի գրականություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sastra_Mesir_Kuno" title="Sastra Mesir Kuno – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sastra Mesir Kuno" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letteratura_dell%27antico_Egitto" title="Letteratura dell'antico Egitto – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Letteratura dell'antico Egitto" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A1%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%9E%D7%A6%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%9D_%D7%94%D7%A2%D7%AA%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%94" title="ספרות מצרים העתיקה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ספרות מצרים העתיקה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senov%C4%97s_Egipto_literat%C5%ABra" title="Senovės Egipto literatūra – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Senovės Egipto literatūra" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%93kori_egyiptomi_irodalom" title="Ókori egyiptomi irodalom – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Ókori egyiptomi irodalom" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A8_%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1%D9%89_%D9%82%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%85" title="ادب مصرى قديم – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="ادب مصرى قديم" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sastera_Mesir_purba" title="Sastera Mesir purba – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Sastera Mesir purba" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oud-Egyptische_literatuur" title="Oud-Egyptische literatuur – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Oud-Egyptische literatuur" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E4%BB%A3%E3%82%A8%E3%82%B8%E3%83%97%E3%83%88%E6%96%87%E5%AD%A6" title="古代エジプト文学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="古代エジプト文学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%A8xtes_de_l%27Egipte_antica" title="Tèxtes de l'Egipte antica – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Tèxtes de l'Egipte antica" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literatura_do_Antigo_Egito" title="Literatura do Antigo Egito – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Literatura do Antigo Egito" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0_%D0%94%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%95%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BF%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Литература Древнего Египта – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Литература Древнего Египта" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staroegyptsk%C3%A1_literat%C3%BAra" title="Staroegyptská literatúra – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Staroegyptská literatúra" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D1%9A%D0%B8%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82" title="Староегипатска књижевност – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Староегипатска књижевност" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muinaisen_Egyptin_kirjallisuus" title="Muinaisen Egyptin kirjallisuus – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Muinaisen Egyptin kirjallisuus" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fornegyptisk_litteratur" title="Fornegyptisk litteratur – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Fornegyptisk litteratur" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antik_M%C4%B1s%C4%B1r_edebiyat%C4%B1" title="Antik Mısır edebiyatı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Antik Mısır edebiyatı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li 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id="mw-indicator-featured-star" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Featured_articles*" title="This is a featured article. Click here for more information."><img alt="Featured article" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/20px-Cscr-featured.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/30px-Cscr-featured.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/40px-Cscr-featured.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="466" data-file-height="443" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Literature written in the Egyptian language</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LuxorTemple03.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Inscribed hieroglyphics cover an obelisk in foreground. A stone statue is in background." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/LuxorTemple03.jpg/300px-LuxorTemple03.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/LuxorTemple03.jpg/450px-LuxorTemple03.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/LuxorTemple03.jpg/600px-LuxorTemple03.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">Egyptian hieroglyphs</a> with <a href="/wiki/Cartouche" title="Cartouche">cartouches</a> for the name "<a href="/wiki/Ramesses_II" title="Ramesses II">Ramesses II</a>", from the <a href="/wiki/Luxor_Temple" title="Luxor Temple">Luxor Temple</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom</a></figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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title="History of literature">History of literature</a> by era</th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> <a href="/wiki/Ancient_literature" title="Ancient literature">Ancient</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ancient_text_corpora" title="Ancient text corpora">corpora</a>)</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Ancient_literature#Bronze_Age" title="Ancient literature">Bronze Age</a></dd></dl> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ancient Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_literature" title="Akkadian literature">Akkadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elamite_language#History" title="Elamite language">Elamite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hattic_language" title="Hattic language">Hattic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittite_inscriptions" title="Hittite inscriptions">Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurro-Urartian_languages" title="Hurro-Urartian languages">Hurro-Urartian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luwian_language#Vocabulary_and_texts" title="Luwian language">Luwian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lydian_language#Sample_text_and_vocabulary" title="Lydian language">Lydian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumerian_literature" title="Sumerian literature">Sumerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugaritic_texts" title="Ugaritic texts">Ugarit</a></li></ul> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Ancient_literature#Classical_Antiquity" title="Ancient literature">Classical</a></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_literature" title="Ancient Greek literature">Ancient Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Hebrew_writings" title="Ancient Hebrew writings">Ancient Hebrew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashokan_Prakrit" title="Ashokan Prakrit">Ancient Prakrit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_classics" title="Chinese classics">Classical Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Classical Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_language#Attestations" title="Parthian language">Parthian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phrygian_language#Inscriptions" title="Phrygian language">Phrygian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_literature#Persian_literature_of_the_medieval_and_pre-modern_periods" title="Persian literature">Old Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sangam_literature" title="Sangam literature">Old Tamil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_literature" title="Sanskrit literature">Sanskrit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_literature" title="Syriac literature">Syriac</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> <a href="/wiki/Early_medieval_literature" title="Early medieval literature">Early medieval</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_literature" title="Arabic literature">Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_literature" title="Armenian literature">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bactrian_language#Records" title="Bactrian language">Bactrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_literature" title="Byzantine literature">Byzantine Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coptic_literature" title="Coptic literature">Coptic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gandhari_language#Buddhist_manuscripts_in_Gāndhāri" title="Gandhari language">Gandhari Prakrit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ge%CA%BDez#History_and_literature" title="Geʽez">Geʽez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_literature" title="Georgian literature">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_literature#Heian_literature" title="Japanese literature">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kannada_literature" title="Kannada literature">Kannada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maharashtri_Prakrit#Early_literature" title="Maharashtri Prakrit">Maharashtri Prakrit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolic_languages#Pre-Proto-Mongolic" title="Mongolic languages">Pre-Proto-Mongolic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Church_Slavonic" title="Old Church Slavonic">Old Church Slavonic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_English_literature" title="Old English literature">Old English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_High_German_literature" title="Old High German literature">Old German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Khmer#Attestation_and_History" title="Old Khmer">Old Khmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Malay_language#Old_Malay" title="History of the Malay language">Old Malay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Turkic#Literary_works" title="Old Turkic">Old Turkic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_literature" title="Old Norse literature">Norse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pali_literature" title="Pali literature">Pali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sabaic" title="Sabaic">Sabaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saka_language#Texts" title="Saka language">Saka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sogdian_language#Discovery_of_Sogdian_texts" title="Sogdian language">Sogdian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_literature" title="Tibetan literature">Tibetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tocharian_languages" title="Tocharian languages">Tocharian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Welsh_literature" title="Medieval Welsh literature">Welsh</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> <a href="/wiki/Medieval_literature" title="Medieval literature">Medieval</a> by century</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/10th_century_in_literature" title="10th century in literature">10th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/11th_century_in_literature" title="11th century in literature">11th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/12th_century_in_literature" title="12th century in literature">12th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/13th_century_in_literature" title="13th century in literature">13th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/14th_century_in_literature" title="14th century in literature">14th</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_literature" title="Early modern literature">Early modern</a> by century</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/15th_century_in_literature" title="15th century in literature">15th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/16th_century_in_literature" title="16th century in literature">16th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/17th_century_in_literature" title="17th century in literature">17th</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> Modern by century</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/18th_century_in_literature" title="18th century in literature">18th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/19th_century_in_literature" title="19th century in literature">19th</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> <a href="/wiki/Contemporary_literature" title="Contemporary literature">Contemporary</a> by century</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/20th_century_in_literature" title="20th century in literature">20th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/21st_century_in_literature" title="21st century in literature">21st</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="background:#ddddff;"> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg/16px-Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg/24px-Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg/32px-Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="309" data-file-height="274" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Literature" title="Portal:Literature">Literature portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_literature_by_era" title="Template:History of literature by era"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_literature_by_era" title="Template talk:History of literature by era"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_literature_by_era" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of literature by era"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks plainlist" style="width:auto;"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="background:#decd87;;font-size:115%;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt#Culture" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egyptian culture</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="font-size:110%;padding-top:0.25em;line-height:1.5em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_architecture" title="Ancient Egyptian architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Art of ancient Egypt">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clothing_in_ancient_Egypt" title="Clothing in ancient Egypt">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_cuisine" title="Ancient Egyptian cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dance_and_Dancers_in_Ancient_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Dance and Dancers in Ancient Egypt">Dance</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Literature</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_Egyptian_culture" title="Template:Ancient Egyptian culture"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_Egyptian_culture" title="Template talk:Ancient Egyptian culture"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_Egyptian_culture" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient Egyptian culture"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Ancient Egyptian literature was written with the <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_language" title="Egyptian language">Egyptian language</a> from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egypt</a>'s <a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_Egypt" title="History of ancient Egypt">pharaonic period</a> until the end of <a href="/wiki/Egypt_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Egypt (Roman province)">Roman domination</a>. It represents the oldest <a href="/wiki/Text_corpus" title="Text corpus">corpus</a> of <a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Egypt">Egyptian literature</a>. Along with <a href="/wiki/Sumerian_literature" title="Sumerian literature">Sumerian literature</a>, it is considered the world's <a href="/wiki/Ancient_literature" title="Ancient literature">earliest literature</a>.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> <a href="/wiki/Writing_in_ancient_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Writing in ancient Egypt">Writing in ancient Egypt</a>—both <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">hieroglyphic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hieratic" title="Hieratic">hieratic</a>—first appeared in the late 4th millennium BC during the late phase of <a href="/wiki/Predynastic_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Predynastic Egypt">predynastic Egypt</a>. By the <a href="/wiki/Old_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Kingdom">Old Kingdom</a> (26th century BC to 22nd century BC), literary works included <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_funerary_texts" title="Ancient Egyptian funerary texts">funerary texts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Epistle" title="Epistle">epistles</a> and letters, <a href="/wiki/Hymns" class="mw-redirect" title="Hymns">hymns</a> and poems, and commemorative <a href="/wiki/Autobiography" title="Autobiography">autobiographical</a> texts recounting the careers of prominent administrative officials. It was not until the early <a href="/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom</a> (21st century BC to 17th century BC) that a narrative <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_literature" title="Egyptian literature">Egyptian literature</a> was created. This was a "media revolution" which, according to <a href="/wiki/Richard_B._Parkinson" title="Richard B. Parkinson">Richard B. Parkinson</a>, was the result of the rise of an intellectual class of <a href="/wiki/Scribe" title="Scribe">scribes</a>, new cultural sensibilities about individuality, unprecedented levels of literacy, and mainstream access to written materials.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> The creation of literature was thus an elite exercise, monopolized by a scribal class attached to government offices and the royal court of the ruling <a href="/wiki/Pharaoh" title="Pharaoh">pharaoh</a>. However, there is no full consensus among modern scholars concerning the dependence of ancient <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_literature" title="Egyptian literature">Egyptian literature</a> on the sociopolitical order of the royal courts. <a href="/wiki/Middle_Egyptian" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Egyptian">Middle Egyptian</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Spoken_language" title="Spoken language">spoken language</a> of the Middle Kingdom, became a <a href="/wiki/Classical_language" title="Classical language">classical language</a> during the <a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom</a> (16th century BC to 11th century BC), when the <a href="/wiki/Vernacular_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Vernacular language">vernacular language</a> known as <a href="/wiki/Late_Egyptian" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Egyptian">Late Egyptian</a> first appeared in writing. Scribes of the New Kingdom <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/canon" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:canon">canonized</a> and copied many literary texts written in Middle Egyptian, which remained the language used for oral readings of sacred hieroglyphic texts. Some genres of Middle Kingdom literature, such as "<a href="/wiki/Sebayt" title="Sebayt">teachings</a>" and <a href="/wiki/Traditional_stories" class="mw-redirect" title="Traditional stories">fictional tales</a>, remained popular in the New Kingdom, although the genre of <a href="/wiki/Prophecy" title="Prophecy">prophetic texts</a> was not revived until the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Ptolemaic_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Ptolemaic Egypt">Ptolemaic period</a> (4th century BC to 1st century BC). Popular tales included the <a href="/wiki/Story_of_Sinuhe" title="Story of Sinuhe">Story of Sinuhe</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_Eloquent_Peasant" title="The Eloquent Peasant">The Eloquent Peasant</a>, while important teaching texts include the <a href="/wiki/Instructions_of_Amenemhat" title="Instructions of Amenemhat">Instructions of Amenemhat</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_Loyalist_Teaching" class="mw-redirect" title="The Loyalist Teaching">The Loyalist Teaching</a>. By the New Kingdom period, the writing of commemorative graffiti on sacred temple and tomb walls flourished as a unique genre of literature, yet it employed formulaic phrases similar to other genres. The acknowledgment of rightful authorship remained important only in a few genres, while texts of the "teaching" genre were <a href="/wiki/Pseudonym" title="Pseudonym">pseudonymous</a> and falsely attributed to prominent historical figures. Ancient Egyptian literature has been preserved on a wide variety of media. This includes <a href="/wiki/Papyrus" title="Papyrus">papyrus</a> scrolls and packets, limestone or ceramic <a href="/wiki/Ostracon" title="Ostracon">ostraca</a>, wooden writing boards, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_architecture" title="Ancient Egyptian architecture">monumental stone edifices</a> and <a href="/wiki/Coffin_Texts" title="Coffin Texts">coffins</a>. Texts preserved and unearthed by modern archaeologists represent a small fraction of ancient Egyptian literary material. The area of the <a href="/wiki/Flooding_of_the_Nile" title="Flooding of the Nile">floodplain of the Nile</a> is under-represented because the moist environment is unsuitable for the preservation of papyri and ink inscriptions. On the other hand, hidden caches of literature, buried for thousands of years, have been discovered in settlements on the dry desert margins of Egyptian civilization. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Scripts,_media,_and_languages">Scripts, media, and languages</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Egyptian_literature&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Scripts, media, and languages">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hieroglyphs,_hieratic,_and_Demotic">Hieroglyphs, hieratic, and Demotic</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Egyptian_literature&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Hieroglyphs, hieratic, and Demotic">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Writing_in_ancient_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Writing in ancient Egypt">Writing in ancient Egypt</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Princess_Nefertiabet_before_her_meal-E_15591-IMG_9645-gradient.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A flat limestone block with a painted, carved raised-relief of woman in spotted linen cloth, seated near table with food items. Painted hieroglyphs decorate the rest of the surface." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Princess_Nefertiabet_before_her_meal-E_15591-IMG_9645-gradient.jpg/220px-Princess_Nefertiabet_before_her_meal-E_15591-IMG_9645-gradient.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Princess_Nefertiabet_before_her_meal-E_15591-IMG_9645-gradient.jpg/330px-Princess_Nefertiabet_before_her_meal-E_15591-IMG_9645-gradient.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Princess_Nefertiabet_before_her_meal-E_15591-IMG_9645-gradient.jpg/440px-Princess_Nefertiabet_before_her_meal-E_15591-IMG_9645-gradient.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4800" data-file-height="3600" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Slab_stela" title="Slab stela">slab stela</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Old_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Kingdom">Old Kingdom</a> Egyptian princess <a href="/wiki/Neferetiabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Neferetiabet">Neferetiabet</a> (dated <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2590–2565 BC), from her tomb at <a href="/wiki/Giza" title="Giza">Giza</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">hieroglyphs</a> carved and painted on <a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></figcaption></figure> Ancient Egyptians used three forms of writing: Demotic, Hieratic, and Hieroglyphic. Demotic writing was easier for medieval Arabic scholars to decipher because materials in more than one script and language were available to read (Demotic, Coptic, Greek). Demotic writing was known as the common script and was similar to the late Coptic language, which was widely spoken throughout the ancient Middle East. Hieratic writing was described as the script of the elite/priests (cursive). This writing seems to have been commonly used along with other types of writings in many scripts and books. Hieroglyphics was known as the script of kings. It had a phonetic resemblance to Greek characters. The knowledge of hieroglyphic writing among the Copts people is even believed to have survived up until the 7th century. Egyptian hieroglyphics were believed to be letters with a phonetic aspect and use to represent ideas. They were popularly used by medieval Arabs in the sciences, and in Islamic arts for their symbolism and aesthetic. The Rosetta Stone is important because it helped scholars decipher Egyptian hieroglyphics. In 1799, scholars were able to interpret hieroglyphics as more than just symbols; they also represented sounds and ideas. The Rosetta Stone aided in the translation because it contained the same written text in three languages; at the time of discovery, researchers were able to read the ancient Greek written on the stone and translated the accompanying Egyptian hieroglyphics.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> By the <a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Dynastic Period of Egypt">Early Dynastic Period</a> in the late 4th millennium BC, <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">Egyptian hieroglyphs</a> and their cursive form <a href="/wiki/Hieratic" title="Hieratic">hieratic</a> were well-established <a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">written scripts</a>.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> Egyptian hieroglyphs are small artistic pictures of natural objects.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> For example, the hieroglyph for <a href="/wiki/Door_bolt_(s_hieroglyph)" class="mw-redirect" title="Door bolt (s hieroglyph)">door-bolt</a>, pronounced se, produced the <a href="/wiki/S" title="S">s</a> sound; combined with another or multiple hieroglyphs, one could thus spell out the sound of words for more abstract concepts like sorrow, happiness, beauty, and evil.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Narmer_Palette" title="Narmer Palette">Narmer Palette</a>, dated <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/circa" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:circa">c</a>. 3100 BC during the last phase of <a href="/wiki/Predynastic_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Predynastic Egypt">Predynastic Egypt</a>, combines the hieroglyphs for catfish and chisel to produce the name of King <a href="/wiki/Narmer" title="Narmer">Narmer</a>.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> The Egyptians called their hieroglyphs "words of god" and reserved their use for exalted purposes, such as communicating with <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_religion" title="Ancient Egyptian religion">divinities and spirits of the dead</a> through <a href="/wiki/Funerary_texts" class="mw-redirect" title="Funerary texts">funerary texts</a>.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> Each hieroglyphic word represented both a specific object and embodied the essence of that object, recognizing it as divinely made and belonging within the greater <a href="/wiki/Cosmos" title="Cosmos">cosmos</a>.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> Through acts of priestly ritual, like burning <a href="/wiki/Incense" title="Incense">incense</a>, the priest allowed spirits and deities to read the hieroglyphs decorating the surfaces of temples.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> In funerary texts beginning in and following the <a href="/wiki/Twelfth_dynasty_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Twelfth dynasty of Egypt">Twelfth Dynasty</a>, the Egyptians believed that disfiguring, and even omitting certain hieroglyphs, brought consequences, either good or bad, for a deceased tomb occupant whose spirit relied on the texts as a source of nourishment in the afterlife.<a href="#cite_note-wilson_71_forman_quirke_101_103-12">[12]</a> Mutilating the hieroglyph of a <a href="/wiki/Venomous_snake" title="Venomous snake">venomous snake</a>, or other dangerous animal, removed a potential threat.<a href="#cite_note-wilson_71_forman_quirke_101_103-12">[12]</a> However, removing every instance of the hieroglyphs representing a deceased person's name would deprive <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_soul" class="mw-redirect" title="Egyptian soul">his or her soul</a> of the ability to read the funerary texts and condemn that soul to an inanimate existence.<a href="#cite_note-wilson_71_forman_quirke_101_103-12">[12]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AbbottPapyrus-BritishMuseum-August21-08.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A faded document with cursive hieratic handwriting in black ink, slightly torn and fragmented on the right" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/AbbottPapyrus-BritishMuseum-August21-08.jpg/220px-AbbottPapyrus-BritishMuseum-August21-08.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="111" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/AbbottPapyrus-BritishMuseum-August21-08.jpg/330px-AbbottPapyrus-BritishMuseum-August21-08.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/AbbottPapyrus-BritishMuseum-August21-08.jpg/440px-AbbottPapyrus-BritishMuseum-August21-08.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3270" data-file-height="1644" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Abbott_Papyrus" title="Abbott Papyrus">Abbott Papyrus</a>, a record written in <a href="/wiki/Hieratic" title="Hieratic">hieratic</a> script; it describes an inspection of royal tombs in the <a href="/wiki/Theban_Necropolis" title="Theban Necropolis">Theban Necropolis</a> and is dated to the 16th regnal year of <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_IX" title="Ramesses IX">Ramesses IX</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1110 BC.</figcaption></figure> Hieratic is a simplified, cursive form of Egyptian hieroglyphs.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> Like hieroglyphs, hieratic was used in sacred and religious texts. By the 1st millennium BC, calligraphic hieratic became the script predominantly used in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_funerary_texts" title="Ancient Egyptian funerary texts">funerary papyri</a> and temple rolls.<a href="#cite_note-forman_quirke_1996_19-14">[14]</a> Whereas the writing of hieroglyphs required the utmost precision and care, cursive hieratic could be written much more quickly and was therefore more practical for <a href="/wiki/Scribal" class="mw-redirect" title="Scribal">scribal</a> record-keeping.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> Its primary purpose was to serve as a <a href="/wiki/Shorthand" title="Shorthand">shorthand</a> script for non-royal, non-monumental, and less formal writings such as private letters, legal documents, poems, tax records, <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Egyptian medicine">medical texts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_mathematics" class="mw-redirect" title="Egyptian mathematics">mathematical treatises</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sebayt" title="Sebayt">instructional guides</a>.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> Hieratic could be written in two different styles; one was more calligraphic and usually reserved for government records and literary manuscripts, the other was used for informal accounts and letters.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> By the mid-1st millennium BC, hieroglyphs and hieratic were still used for royal, monumental, religious, and funerary writings, while a new, even more cursive script was used for informal, day-to-day writing: <a href="/wiki/Demotic_(Egyptian)" title="Demotic (Egyptian)">Demotic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-forman_quirke_1996_19-14">[14]</a> The final script adopted by the ancient Egyptians was the <a href="/wiki/Coptic_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Coptic alphabet">Coptic alphabet</a>, a revised version of the <a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek alphabet</a>.<a href="#cite_note-forman_quirke_1996_17-18">[18]</a> Coptic became the standard in the 4th century AD when <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> became the <a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">state religion</a> throughout the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>; hieroglyphs were discarded as <a href="/wiki/Idolatry" title="Idolatry">idolatrous images</a> of a pagan tradition, unfit for writing the <a href="/wiki/Biblical_canon" title="Biblical canon">Biblical canon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-forman_quirke_1996_17-18">[18]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Writing_implements_and_materials">Writing implements and materials</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Egyptian_literature&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Writing implements and materials">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:OstraconMentioningInspectionOfTombs-BritishMuseum-August21-08.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A light-colored stone fragment with hieratic handwriting in black ink scrawled on its surface" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/OstraconMentioningInspectionOfTombs-BritishMuseum-August21-08.jpg/170px-OstraconMentioningInspectionOfTombs-BritishMuseum-August21-08.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="284" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/OstraconMentioningInspectionOfTombs-BritishMuseum-August21-08.jpg/255px-OstraconMentioningInspectionOfTombs-BritishMuseum-August21-08.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/OstraconMentioningInspectionOfTombs-BritishMuseum-August21-08.jpg/340px-OstraconMentioningInspectionOfTombs-BritishMuseum-August21-08.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1086" data-file-height="1812" /></a><figcaption>An <a href="/wiki/Ostracon" title="Ostracon">ostracon</a> with <a href="/wiki/Hieratic" title="Hieratic">hieratic</a> script mentioning officials involved in the inspection and clearing of tombs during the <a href="/wiki/Twenty-first_dynasty_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Twenty-first dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-first dynasty of Egypt</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1070–945 BC</figcaption></figure> Egyptian literature was produced on a variety of <a href="/wiki/Media_(communication)" title="Media (communication)">media</a>. Along with the <a href="/wiki/Chisel" title="Chisel">chisel</a>, necessary for making inscriptions on stone, the chief writing tool of ancient Egypt was the <a href="/wiki/Reed_pen" title="Reed pen">reed pen</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Phragmites" title="Phragmites">reed</a> fashioned into a stem with a bruised, brush-like end.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> With pigments of carbon black and red <a href="/wiki/Ochre" title="Ochre">ochre</a>, the reed pen was used to write on scrolls of <a href="/wiki/Papyrus" title="Papyrus">papyrus</a>—a thin material made from beating together strips of <a href="/wiki/Pith" title="Pith">pith</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Cyperus_papyrus" title="Cyperus papyrus">Cyperus papyrus</a> plant—as well as on small ceramic or limestone <a href="/wiki/Potsherd" class="mw-redirect" title="Potsherd">potsherds</a> known as <a href="/wiki/Ostraca" class="mw-redirect" title="Ostraca">ostraca</a>.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> It is thought that papyrus rolls were moderately expensive commercial items, since many are <a href="/wiki/Palimpsest" title="Palimpsest">palimpsests</a>, manuscripts that have had their original contents <a href="/wiki/Eraser" title="Eraser">erased</a> or scraped off to make room for new written works.<a href="#cite_note-wente_1990_4-21">[21]</a> This, along with the practice of tearing pieces off of larger papyrus documents to make smaller letters, suggests that there were seasonal shortages caused by the limited growing season of Cyperus papyrus.<a href="#cite_note-wente_1990_4-21">[21]</a> It also explains the frequent use of ostraca and limestone flakes as writing media for shorter written works.<a href="#cite_note-Wente_1990_4–5-22">[22]</a> In addition to stone, ceramic ostraca, and papyrus, writing media also included wood, ivory, and plaster.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> By the <a href="/wiki/Egypt_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Egypt (Roman province)">Roman period of Egypt</a>, the traditional Egyptian reed pen had been replaced by the chief writing tool of the <a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_world" title="Greco-Roman world">Greco-Roman world</a>: a shorter, thicker reed pen with a <a href="/wiki/Nib_(pen)" title="Nib (pen)">cut nib</a>.<a href="#cite_note-forman_quirke_1996_169-24">[24]</a> Likewise, the original Egyptian pigments were discarded in favor of Greek <a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">lead</a>-based <a href="/wiki/Ink" title="Ink">inks</a>.<a href="#cite_note-forman_quirke_1996_169-24">[24]</a> The adoption of Greco-Roman writing tools influenced Egyptian <a href="/wiki/Handwriting" title="Handwriting">handwriting</a>, as hieratic signs became more spaced, had rounder flourishes, and greater angular precision.<a href="#cite_note-forman_quirke_1996_169-24">[24]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Preservation_of_written_material">Preservation of written material</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Egyptian_literature&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Preservation of written material">edit</a>]</div> Underground Egyptian tombs built in the desert provide possibly the most protective environment for the preservation of papyrus documents. For example, there are many well-preserved <a href="/wiki/Book_of_the_Dead" title="Book of the Dead">Book of the Dead</a> funerary papyri placed in tombs to act as afterlife guides for the souls of the deceased tomb occupants.<a href="#cite_note-quirke_2004_14-25">[25]</a> However, it was only customary during the late Middle Kingdom and first half of the New Kingdom to place non-religious papyri in burial chambers. Thus, the majority of well-preserved literary papyri are dated to this period.<a href="#cite_note-quirke_2004_14-25">[25]</a> Most settlements in ancient Egypt were situated on the <a href="/wiki/Alluvium" title="Alluvium">alluvium</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Flooding_of_the_Nile" title="Flooding of the Nile">Nile floodplain</a>. This moist environment was unfavorable for long-term preservation of papyrus documents. Archaeologists have discovered a larger quantity of papyrus documents in desert settlements on land elevated above the floodplain,<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> and in settlements that lacked irrigation works, such as <a href="/wiki/Elephantine" title="Elephantine">Elephantine</a>, <a href="/wiki/El-Lahun" class="mw-redirect" title="El-Lahun">El-Lahun</a>, and <a href="/wiki/El-Hiba" class="mw-redirect" title="El-Hiba">El-Hiba</a>.<a href="#cite_note-wente_1990_2_3-27">[27]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Egyptian_harvest.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Two black-haired Egyptian peasants dressed in white-colored linen garb, standing in a field while collecting papyrus plants, with a motif of green vegetation at the bottom, and cut-off lower portion of another scene with peasants in a field at the top" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Egyptian_harvest.jpg/220px-Egyptian_harvest.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Egyptian_harvest.jpg/330px-Egyptian_harvest.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Egyptian_harvest.jpg/440px-Egyptian_harvest.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1246" data-file-height="1095" /></a><figcaption>Egyptian peasants <a href="/wiki/Cyperus_papyrus" title="Cyperus papyrus">harvesting papyrus</a>, from a mural painting in a <a href="/wiki/Deir_el-Medina" title="Deir el-Medina">Deir el-Medina</a> tomb dated to the early <a href="/wiki/Ramesside_Period" class="mw-redirect" title="Ramesside Period">Ramesside Period</a> (i.e. <a href="/wiki/Nineteenth_dynasty_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Nineteenth dynasty of Egypt">Nineteenth dynasty</a>)</figcaption></figure> Writings on more permanent media have also been lost in several ways. Stones with inscriptions were frequently re-used as building materials, and ceramic ostraca require a dry environment to ensure the preservation of the ink on their surfaces.<a href="#cite_note-tait_2003_9_10-28">[28]</a> Whereas papyrus rolls and packets were usually stored in boxes for safekeeping, ostraca were routinely discarded in waste pits; one such pit was discovered by chance at the <a href="/wiki/Ramesside_Period" class="mw-redirect" title="Ramesside Period">Ramesside-era</a> village of <a href="/wiki/Deir_el-Medina" title="Deir el-Medina">Deir el-Medina</a>, and has yielded the majority of known private letters on ostraca.<a href="#cite_note-Wente_1990_4–5-22">[22]</a> Documents found at this site include letters, hymns, fictional narratives, recipes, business receipts, and <a href="/wiki/Will_(law)" class="mw-redirect" title="Will (law)">wills and testaments</a>.<a href="#cite_note-wilson_2003_91_93-29">[29]</a> <a href="/wiki/Penelope_Wilson" title="Penelope Wilson">Penelope Wilson</a> describes this archaeological find as the equivalent of sifting through a modern <a href="/wiki/Landfill" title="Landfill">landfill</a> or <a href="/wiki/Waste_container" title="Waste container">waste container</a>.<a href="#cite_note-wilson_2003_91_93-29">[29]</a> She notes that the inhabitants of Deir el-Medina were incredibly literate by ancient Egyptian standards, and cautions that such finds only come "in rarefied circumstances and in particular conditions."<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> <a href="/wiki/John_W._Tait" title="John W. Tait">John W. Tait</a> stresses, "Egyptian material survives in a very uneven fashion ... the unevenness of survival comprises both time and space."<a href="#cite_note-tait_2003_9_10-28">[28]</a> For instance, there is a dearth of written material from all periods from the <a href="/wiki/Nile_Delta" title="Nile Delta">Nile Delta</a> but an abundance at western <a href="/wiki/Thebes,_Egypt" title="Thebes, Egypt">Thebes</a>, dating from its heyday.<a href="#cite_note-tait_2003_9_10-28">[28]</a> He notes that while some texts were copied numerous times, others survive from a single copy; for example, there is only one complete surviving copy of the <a href="/wiki/Tale_of_the_Shipwrecked_Sailor" title="Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor">Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor</a> from the Middle Kingdom.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> However, Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor also appears in fragments of texts on ostraca from the New Kingdom.<a href="#cite_note-fischer_elfert_2003_121-32">[32]</a> Many other literary works survive only in fragments or through incomplete copies of lost originals.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classical,_Middle,_Late,_and_Demotic_Egyptian_language">Classical, Middle, Late, and Demotic Egyptian language</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Egyptian_literature&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Classical, Middle, Late, and Demotic Egyptian language">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Luxor,_West_Bank,_Ramesseum,_column_top_decorations,_Egypt,_Oct_2004.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Two stone columns supporting a roof, painted with faded colors and incised with writing of Egyptian hieroglyphs" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Luxor%2C_West_Bank%2C_Ramesseum%2C_column_top_decorations%2C_Egypt%2C_Oct_2004.jpg/220px-Luxor%2C_West_Bank%2C_Ramesseum%2C_column_top_decorations%2C_Egypt%2C_Oct_2004.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Luxor%2C_West_Bank%2C_Ramesseum%2C_column_top_decorations%2C_Egypt%2C_Oct_2004.jpg/330px-Luxor%2C_West_Bank%2C_Ramesseum%2C_column_top_decorations%2C_Egypt%2C_Oct_2004.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Luxor%2C_West_Bank%2C_Ramesseum%2C_column_top_decorations%2C_Egypt%2C_Oct_2004.jpg/440px-Luxor%2C_West_Bank%2C_Ramesseum%2C_column_top_decorations%2C_Egypt%2C_Oct_2004.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="853" /></a><figcaption>Columns with inscribed and painted <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">Egyptian hieroglyphs</a>, from the <a href="/wiki/Hypostyle" title="Hypostyle">hypostyle</a> hall of the <a href="/wiki/Ramesseum" title="Ramesseum">Ramesseum</a> (at <a href="/wiki/Luxor" title="Luxor">Luxor</a>) built during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_II" title="Ramesses II">Ramesses II</a> (r. 1279–1213 BC)</figcaption></figure> Although writing first appeared during the very late 4th millennium BC, it was only used to convey short names and labels; connected strings of text did not appear until about 2600 BC, at the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Old_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Kingdom">Old Kingdom</a>.<a href="#cite_note-allen_2000_1-34">[34]</a> This development marked the beginning of the first known phase of the <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_language" title="Egyptian language">Egyptian language</a>: <a href="/wiki/Old_Egyptian" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Egyptian">Old Egyptian</a>.<a href="#cite_note-allen_2000_1-34">[34]</a> Old Egyptian remained a <a href="/wiki/Spoken_language" title="Spoken language">spoken language</a> until about 2100 BC, when, during the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom</a>, it evolved into <a href="/wiki/Middle_Egyptian" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Egyptian">Middle Egyptian</a>.<a href="#cite_note-allen_2000_1-34">[34]</a> While Middle Egyptian was closely related to Old Egyptian, <a href="/wiki/Late_Egyptian" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Egyptian">Late Egyptian</a> was significantly different in <a href="/wiki/Grammar" title="Grammar">grammatical</a> structure. Late Egyptian possibly appeared as a <a href="/wiki/Vernacular_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Vernacular language">vernacular language</a> as early as 1600 BC, but was not used as a <a href="/wiki/Written_language" title="Written language">written language</a> until c. 1300 BC during the <a href="/wiki/Amarna_Period" title="Amarna Period">Amarna Period</a> of the <a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom</a>.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> Late Egyptian evolved into <a href="/wiki/Demotic_(Egyptian)" title="Demotic (Egyptian)">Demotic</a> by the 7th century BC, and although Demotic remained a spoken language until the 5th century AD, it was gradually evolved into <a href="/wiki/Coptic_language" title="Coptic language">Coptic</a> beginning in the 1st century AD.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> Hieratic was used alongside hieroglyphs for writing in Old and Middle Egyptian, becoming the dominant form of writing in Late Egyptian.<a href="#cite_note-allen_2000_6-37">[37]</a> By the New Kingdom and throughout the rest of <a href="/wiki/History_of_Ancient_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Ancient Egypt">ancient Egyptian history</a>, Middle Egyptian became a <a href="/wiki/Classical_language" title="Classical language">classical language</a> that was usually reserved for reading and writing in hieroglyphs<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> and the spoken language for more exalted forms of literature, such as historical records, commemorative autobiographies, hymns, and funerary spells.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> However, Middle Kingdom literature written in Middle Egyptian was also rewritten in hieratic during later periods.<a href="#cite_note-wildung_2003_61-40">[40]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Literary_functions:_social,_religious_and_educational">Literary functions: social, religious and educational</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Egyptian_literature&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Literary functions: social, religious and educational">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:EgyptianScribe.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A painted, realistic stone statue of a black-haired, perhaps middle-aged man sitting cross-legged while holding a stone-carved depiction of a papyrus reading scroll in his lap" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/EgyptianScribe.jpg/220px-EgyptianScribe.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/EgyptianScribe.jpg/330px-EgyptianScribe.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/EgyptianScribe.jpg/440px-EgyptianScribe.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="667" /></a><figcaption>Seated statue of an Egyptian <a href="/wiki/Scribe" title="Scribe">scribe</a> holding a <a href="/wiki/Papyrus" title="Papyrus">papyrus</a> document in his lap, found in the western cemetery at <a href="/wiki/Giza" title="Giza">Giza</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fifth_dynasty_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Fifth dynasty of Egypt">Fifth dynasty of Egypt</a> (25th to 24th centuries BC)</figcaption></figure> Throughout ancient Egyptian history, the ability to read and write were the main requirements for serving in public office, although government officials were assisted in their day-to-day work by an elite, <a href="/wiki/Literacy" title="Literacy">literate</a> social group known as <a href="/wiki/Scribe" title="Scribe">scribes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> As evidenced by <a href="/wiki/Papyrus_Anastasi_I" title="Papyrus Anastasi I">Papyrus Anastasi I</a> of the Ramesside Period, scribes could even be expected, according to Wilson, "...to organize the excavation of a lake and the building of a brick ramp, to establish the number of men needed to transport an <a href="/wiki/Obelisk" title="Obelisk">obelisk</a> and to arrange the provisioning of a military mission".<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> Besides government employment, scribal services in drafting letters, sales documents, and legal documents would have been frequently sought by illiterate people.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> Prevalence and percentage of literacy in Egyptian society remains difficult to determine. Literate people are thought to have comprised 1-15% of the population based on very limited evidence. The percentage varied by period and region.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> the remainder being illiterate farmers, herdsmen, artisans, and other laborers,<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> as well as merchants who required the assistance of scribal secretaries.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> The privileged status of the scribe over illiterate manual laborers was the subject of a popular Ramesside Period instructional text, <a href="/wiki/The_Satire_of_the_Trades" title="The Satire of the Trades">The Satire of the Trades</a>, where lowly, undesirable occupations, for example, potter, fisherman, laundry man, and soldier, were mocked and the scribal profession praised.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> A similar demeaning attitude towards the illiterate is expressed in the Middle Kingdom Teaching of Khety, which is used to reinforce the scribes' elevated position within the social hierarchy.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%C3%84gyptisches_Museum_Kairo_2016-03-29_Ka-aper_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/%C3%84gyptisches_Museum_Kairo_2016-03-29_Ka-aper_01.jpg/220px-%C3%84gyptisches_Museum_Kairo_2016-03-29_Ka-aper_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="370" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/%C3%84gyptisches_Museum_Kairo_2016-03-29_Ka-aper_01.jpg/330px-%C3%84gyptisches_Museum_Kairo_2016-03-29_Ka-aper_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/%C3%84gyptisches_Museum_Kairo_2016-03-29_Ka-aper_01.jpg/440px-%C3%84gyptisches_Museum_Kairo_2016-03-29_Ka-aper_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2848" data-file-height="4796" /></a><figcaption>Wooden statue of the scribe <a href="/wiki/Kaaper" title="Kaaper">Kaaper</a>, 5th or 4th dynasty of the <a href="/wiki/Old_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Kingdom">Old Kingdom</a>, from <a href="/wiki/Saqqara" title="Saqqara">Saqqara</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2500 BC</figcaption></figure> The scribal class was the social group responsible for maintaining, transmitting, and canonizing literary classics, and writing new compositions.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> Classic works, such as the <a href="/wiki/Story_of_Sinuhe" title="Story of Sinuhe">Story of Sinuhe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Instructions_of_Amenemhat" title="Instructions of Amenemhat">Instructions of Amenemhat</a>, were copied by schoolboys as pedagogical exercises in writing and to instill the required ethical and moral values that distinguished the scribal social class.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> <a href="/wiki/Wisdom_texts" class="mw-redirect" title="Wisdom texts">Wisdom texts</a> of the "<a href="/wiki/Sebayt" title="Sebayt">teaching</a>" genre represent the majority of pedagogical texts written on ostraca during the Middle Kingdom; narrative tales, such as Sinuhe and <a href="/wiki/King_Neferkare_and_General_Sasenet" title="King Neferkare and General Sasenet">King Neferkare and General Sasenet</a>, were rarely copied for school exercises until the New Kingdom.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> <a href="/wiki/William_Kelly_Simpson" title="William Kelly Simpson">William Kelly Simpson</a> describes narrative tales such as Sinuhe and The Shipwrecked Sailor as "...instructions or teachings in the guise of narratives", since the main <a href="/wiki/Protagonist" title="Protagonist">protagonists</a> of such stories embodied the accepted virtues of the day, such as love of home or self-reliance.<a href="#cite_note-simpson_1972_5_6-54">[54]</a> There are some known instances where those outside the scribal profession were literate and had access to classical literature. Menena, a draughtsman working at Deir el-Medina during the <a href="/wiki/Twentieth_dynasty_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Twentieth dynasty of Egypt">Twentieth dynasty of Egypt</a>, quoted passages from the Middle Kingdom narratives <a href="/wiki/Eloquent_Peasant" class="mw-redirect" title="Eloquent Peasant">Eloquent Peasant</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tale_of_the_Shipwrecked_Sailor" title="Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor">Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor</a> in an instructional letter reprimanding his disobedient son.<a href="#cite_note-fischer_elfert_2003_121-32">[32]</a> Menena's Ramesside contemporary Hori, the scribal author of the <a href="/wiki/Satire" title="Satire">satirical</a> letter in Papyrus Anastasi I, admonished his addressee for quoting the <a href="/wiki/Instruction_of_Hardjedef" title="Instruction of Hardjedef">Instruction of Hardjedef</a> in the unbecoming manner of a non-scribal, semi-educated person.<a href="#cite_note-fischer_elfert_2003_121-32">[32]</a> <a href="/wiki/Hans-Werner_Fischer-Elfert" title="Hans-Werner Fischer-Elfert">Hans-Werner Fischer-Elfert</a> further explains this perceived amateur affront to orthodox literature: <blockquote>What may be revealed by Hori's attack on the way in which some Ramesside scribes felt obliged to demonstrate their greater or lesser acquaintance with ancient literature is the conception that these venerable works were meant to be known in full and not to be misused as quarries for popular sayings mined deliberately from the past. The classics of the time were to be memorized completely and comprehended thoroughly before being cited.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hieroglyphs_from_the_tomb_of_Seti_I.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A stone fragment with brightly painted colors and raised-relief images of Egyptian hieroglyphs, written in vertical columns, set against a beige background" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Hieroglyphs_from_the_tomb_of_Seti_I.jpg/220px-Hieroglyphs_from_the_tomb_of_Seti_I.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Hieroglyphs_from_the_tomb_of_Seti_I.jpg/330px-Hieroglyphs_from_the_tomb_of_Seti_I.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Hieroglyphs_from_the_tomb_of_Seti_I.jpg/440px-Hieroglyphs_from_the_tomb_of_Seti_I.jpg 2x" data-file-width="589" data-file-height="379" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">Hieroglyphs</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Mortuary_Temple_of_Seti_I" title="Mortuary Temple of Seti I">Mortuary Temple of Seti I</a>, now in the <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a></figcaption></figure> There is limited but solid evidence in Egyptian literature and <a href="/wiki/Art_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Art of ancient Egypt">art</a> for the practice of oral reading of texts to audiences.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> The oral performance word "to recite" (šdj) was usually associated with <a href="/wiki/Biographies" class="mw-redirect" title="Biographies">biographies</a>, letters, and spells.<a href="#cite_note-parkinson_2002_78_79-57">[57]</a> Singing (ḥsj) was meant for praise songs, <a href="/wiki/Love_song" title="Love song">love songs</a>, funerary <a href="/wiki/Lament" title="Lament">laments</a>, and certain spells.<a href="#cite_note-parkinson_2002_78_79-57">[57]</a> <a href="/wiki/Discourse" title="Discourse">Discourses</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Prophecy_of_Neferti" title="Prophecy of Neferti">Prophecy of Neferti</a> suggest that compositions were meant for oral reading among elite gatherings.<a href="#cite_note-parkinson_2002_78_79-57">[57]</a> In the 1st millennium BC Demotic <a href="/wiki/Short_story_cycle" title="Short story cycle">short story cycle</a> centered on the deeds of <a href="/wiki/Petiese" title="Petiese">Petiese</a>, the stories begin with the phrase "The voice which is before Pharaoh", which indicates that an oral speaker and audience was involved in the reading of the text.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> A fictional audience of high government officials and members of the royal court are mentioned in some texts, but a wider, non-literate audience may have been involved.<a href="#cite_note-parkinson_2002_80_81-59">[59]</a> For example, a funerary stela of <a href="/wiki/Senusret_I" title="Senusret I">Senusret I</a> (r. 1971–1926 BC) explicitly mentions people who will gather and listen to a scribe who "recites" the stela inscriptions out loud.<a href="#cite_note-parkinson_2002_80_81-59">[59]</a> Literature also served religious purposes. Beginning with the <a href="/wiki/Pyramid_Texts" title="Pyramid Texts">Pyramid Texts</a> of the Old Kingdom, works of funerary literature written on tomb walls, and later on <a href="/wiki/Coffin_Texts" title="Coffin Texts">coffins</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Book_of_the_Dead" title="Book of the Dead">papyri</a> placed within tombs, were designed to protect and nurture souls in their afterlife.<a href="#cite_note-forman_quirke_budge-60">[60]</a> This included the use of magical spells, <a href="/wiki/Incantation" title="Incantation">incantations</a>, and lyrical hymns.<a href="#cite_note-forman_quirke_budge-60">[60]</a> Copies of non-funerary literary texts found in non-royal tombs suggest that the dead could entertain themselves in the afterlife by reading these teaching texts and narrative tales.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> Although the creation of literature was predominantly a male scribal pursuit, some works are thought to have been written by women. For example, several references to women writing letters and surviving private letters sent and received by women have been found.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> However, <a href="/wiki/Edward_F._Wente" title="Edward F. Wente">Edward F. Wente</a> asserts that, even with explicit references to women reading letters, it is possible that women employed others to write documents.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dating,_setting,_and_authorship">Dating, setting, and authorship</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Egyptian_literature&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Dating, setting, and authorship">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Minnakht_01.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A flat stone surface, beige in color, with incised markings of Egyptian hieroglyphs written in clearly-marked horizontal columns" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Minnakht_01.JPG/220px-Minnakht_01.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Minnakht_01.JPG/330px-Minnakht_01.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Minnakht_01.JPG/440px-Minnakht_01.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Stela" class="mw-redirect" title="Stela">stela</a> of Minnakht, chief of the <a href="/wiki/Scribe" title="Scribe">scribes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">hieroglyph</a> inscriptions, dated to the reign of <a href="/wiki/Ay_(pharaoh)" title="Ay (pharaoh)">Ay</a> (r. 1323–1319 BC)</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Richard_B._Parkinson" title="Richard B. Parkinson">Richard B. Parkinson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_D._Morenz" class="mw-redirect" title="Ludwig D. Morenz">Ludwig D. Morenz</a> write that ancient Egyptian literature—narrowly defined as <a href="/wiki/Belles-lettres" title="Belles-lettres">belles-lettres</a> ("beautiful writing")—was not recorded in written form until the early Twelfth dynasty of the Middle Kingdom.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> Old Kingdom texts served mainly to maintain the divine cults, preserve souls in the afterlife, and document accounts for practical uses in daily life. It was not until the Middle Kingdom that texts were written for the purpose of entertainment and intellectual curiosity.<a href="#cite_note-morenz_2003_102-65">[65]</a> Parkinson and Morenz also speculate that written works of the Middle Kingdom were transcriptions of the <a href="/wiki/Oral_literature" title="Oral literature">oral literature</a> of the Old Kingdom.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> It is known that some oral poetry was preserved in later writing; for example, litter-bearers' songs were preserved as written verses in tomb inscriptions of the Old Kingdom.<a href="#cite_note-morenz_2003_102-65">[65]</a> Dating texts by methods of <a href="/wiki/Palaeography" title="Palaeography">palaeography</a>, the study of handwriting, is problematic because of differing styles of hieratic script.<a href="#cite_note-parkinson_2002_47_48-67">[67]</a> The use of <a href="/wiki/Orthography" title="Orthography">orthography</a>, the study of writing systems and symbol usage, is also problematic, since some texts' authors may have copied the characteristic style of an older <a href="/wiki/Archetype" title="Archetype">archetype</a>.<a href="#cite_note-parkinson_2002_47_48-67">[67]</a> Fictional accounts were often set in remote historical settings, the use of contemporary settings in fiction being a relatively recent phenomenon.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> The style of a text provides little help in determining an exact date for its composition, as genre and authorial choice might be more concerned with the mood of a text than the era in which it was written.<a href="#cite_note-parkinson_2002_46-69">[69]</a> For example, authors of the Middle Kingdom could set fictional <a href="/wiki/Wisdom_texts" class="mw-redirect" title="Wisdom texts">wisdom texts</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Golden_age" class="mw-redirect" title="Golden age">golden age</a> of the Old Kingdom (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Instructions_of_Kagemni" title="Instructions of Kagemni">Kagemni</a>, Ptahhotep, and the prologue of Neferti), or they could write fictional accounts placed in a chaotic age resembling more the problematic life of the <a href="/wiki/First_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt" title="First Intermediate Period of Egypt">First Intermediate Period</a> (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Teaching_for_King_Merykare" class="mw-redirect" title="Teaching for King Merykare">Merykare</a> and The Eloquent Peasant).<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> Other fictional texts are set <a href="/wiki/List_of_Latin_phrases:_I#in_illo_tempore" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Latin phrases: I">in illo tempore</a> (in an indeterminable era) and usually contain timeless themes.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Heqanakht_Letter_I_MET_EG39_22.3.516.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A museum display of an ancient fragment of a papyrus document safeguarded by sealed thick glass, with cursive hieratic handwriting in black ink on its surface" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Heqanakht_Letter_I_MET_EG39_22.3.516.jpg/220px-Heqanakht_Letter_I_MET_EG39_22.3.516.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="231" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Heqanakht_Letter_I_MET_EG39_22.3.516.jpg/330px-Heqanakht_Letter_I_MET_EG39_22.3.516.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Heqanakht_Letter_I_MET_EG39_22.3.516.jpg/440px-Heqanakht_Letter_I_MET_EG39_22.3.516.jpg 2x" data-file-width="739" data-file-height="775" /></a><figcaption>One of the <a href="/wiki/Heqanakht_papyri" class="mw-redirect" title="Heqanakht papyri">Heqanakht papyri</a>, a collection of hieratic <a href="/wiki/Letter_(message)" title="Letter (message)">private letters</a> dated to the <a href="/wiki/Eleventh_dynasty_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Eleventh dynasty of Egypt">Eleventh dynasty</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom</a><a href="#cite_note-wente_1990_54_55_58_63-72">[72]</a></figcaption></figure> Parkinson writes that nearly all literary texts were <a href="/wiki/Pseudonym" title="Pseudonym">pseudonymous</a>, and frequently falsely attributed to well-known male protagonists of earlier history, such as <a href="/wiki/Pharaoh" title="Pharaoh">kings</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vizier_(Ancient_Egypt)" title="Vizier (Ancient Egypt)">viziers</a>.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> Only the literary genres of "teaching" and "laments/discourses" contain works attributed to historical authors; texts in genres such as "narrative tales" were never attributed to a well-known historical person.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> Tait asserts that during the Classical Period of Egypt, "Egyptian scribes constructed their own view of the history of the role of scribes and of the 'authorship' of texts", but during the <a href="/wiki/Late_Period_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Late Period of ancient Egypt">Late Period</a>, this role was instead maintained by the religious elite attached to the temples.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> There are a few exceptions to the rule of pseudonymity. The real authors of some Ramesside Period teaching texts were acknowledged, but these cases are rare, localized, and do not typify mainstream works.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> Those who wrote private and sometimes model letters were acknowledged as the original authors. Private letters could be used in courts of law as testimony, since a person's unique handwriting could be identified as authentic.<a href="#cite_note-wente_1990_7-77">[77]</a> Private letters received or written by the pharaoh were sometimes inscribed in hieroglyphics on stone monuments to celebrate kingship, while kings' decrees inscribed on <a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_Egyptian_stelas" title="Category:Ancient Egyptian stelas">stone stelas</a> were often made public.<a href="#cite_note-wente_1990_17_18-78">[78]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Literary_genres_and_subjects">Literary genres and subjects</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Egyptian_literature&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Literary genres and subjects">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For technical works outside literature proper, see <a href="/wiki/Medical_papyri" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical papyri">Medical papyri</a> and <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_mathematics" class="mw-redirect" title="Egyptian mathematics">Egyptian mathematics</a>.</div> Modern Egyptologists categorize Egyptian texts into <a href="/wiki/Literary_genre" title="Literary genre">genres</a>, for example "<a href="/wiki/Lament" title="Lament">laments</a>/<a href="/wiki/Discourse" title="Discourse">discourses</a>" and narrative tales.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> The only genre of literature named as such by the ancient Egyptians was the "teaching" or <a href="/wiki/Sebayt" title="Sebayt">sebayt</a> genre.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> Parkinson states that the titles of a work, its opening statement, or key words found in the body of text should be used as indicators of its particular genre.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> Only the genre of "narrative tales" employed <a href="/wiki/Prose" title="Prose">prose</a>, yet many of the works of that genre, as well as those of other genres, were written in <a href="/wiki/Verse_(poetry)" title="Verse (poetry)">verse</a>.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> Most ancient Egyptian verses were written in <a href="/wiki/Couplet" title="Couplet">couplet</a> form, but sometimes <a href="/wiki/Tercet" title="Tercet">triplets</a> and <a href="/wiki/Quatrain" title="Quatrain">quatrains</a> were used.<a href="#cite_note-foster_2001_xvi-83">[83]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Instructions_and_teachings">Instructions and teachings</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Egyptian_literature&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Instructions and teachings">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Ancient Egyptian philosophy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Loyalist_Teaching-beginning.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="An ancient, torn and fragmented papyrus document, with cursive hieratic handwriting in black and red ink on its surface" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Loyalist_Teaching-beginning.jpg/220px-Loyalist_Teaching-beginning.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="282" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Loyalist_Teaching-beginning.jpg/330px-Loyalist_Teaching-beginning.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Loyalist_Teaching-beginning.jpg/440px-Loyalist_Teaching-beginning.jpg 2x" data-file-width="468" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="New Kingdom">New Kingdom</a> copy on <a href="/wiki/Papyrus" title="Papyrus">papyrus</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Loyalist_Teaching" title="Loyalist Teaching">Loyalist Teaching</a>, written in <a href="/wiki/Hieratic" title="Hieratic">hieratic</a> script</figcaption></figure> The "instructions" or "teaching" genre, as well as the genre of "reflective discourses", can be grouped in the larger corpus of <a href="/wiki/Wisdom_literature" title="Wisdom literature">wisdom literature</a> found in the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Near_East" title="Ancient Near East">ancient Near East</a>.<a href="#cite_note-parkinson_2002_110-84">[84]</a> The genre is <a href="/wiki/Didactic" class="mw-redirect" title="Didactic">didactic</a> in nature and is thought to have formed part of the Middle Kingdom scribal education <a href="/wiki/Syllabus" title="Syllabus">syllabus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-parkinson_2002_110_235-85">[85]</a> However, teaching texts often incorporate narrative elements that can instruct as well as entertain.<a href="#cite_note-parkinson_2002_110_235-85">[85]</a> Parkinson asserts that there is evidence that teaching texts were not created primarily for use in scribal education, but for ideological purposes.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> For example, <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Erman" title="Adolf Erman">Adolf Erman</a> (1854–1937) writes that the fictional instruction given by <a href="/wiki/Amenemhat_I" title="Amenemhat I">Amenemhat I</a> (r. 1991–1962 BC) to his sons "...far exceeds the bounds of school philosophy, and there is nothing whatever to do with school in a great warning his children to be loyal to the king".<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> While narrative literature, embodied in works such as The Eloquent Peasant, emphasize the individual hero who challenges society and its accepted ideologies, the teaching texts instead stress the need to comply with society's accepted dogmas.<a href="#cite_note-loprieno_1996_217-88">[88]</a> Key words found in teaching texts include "to know" (rḫ) and "to teach" (sbꜣ).<a href="#cite_note-parkinson_2002_110-84">[84]</a> These texts usually adopt the formulaic title structure of "the instruction of X made for Y", where "X" can be represented by an authoritative figure (such as a <a href="/wiki/Vizier_(Ancient_Egypt)" title="Vizier (Ancient Egypt)">vizier</a> or <a href="/wiki/Pharaoh" title="Pharaoh">king</a>) providing moral guidance to his son(s).<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> It is sometimes difficult to determine how many fictional addressees are involved in these teachings, since some texts switch between singular and plural when referring to their audiences.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> Examples of the "teaching" genre include the <a href="/wiki/Maxims_of_Ptahhotep" class="mw-redirect" title="Maxims of Ptahhotep">Maxims of Ptahhotep</a>, <a href="/wiki/Instructions_of_Kagemni" title="Instructions of Kagemni">Instructions of Kagemni</a>, <a href="/wiki/Teaching_for_King_Merykare" class="mw-redirect" title="Teaching for King Merykare">Teaching for King Merykare</a>, <a href="/wiki/Instructions_of_Amenemhat" title="Instructions of Amenemhat">Instructions of Amenemhat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Instruction_of_Hardjedef" title="Instruction of Hardjedef">Instruction of Hardjedef</a>, <a href="/wiki/Loyalist_Teaching" title="Loyalist Teaching">Loyalist Teaching</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Instructions_of_Amenemope" class="mw-redirect" title="Instructions of Amenemope">Instructions of Amenemope</a>.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> Teaching texts that have survived from the Middle Kingdom were written on papyrus manuscripts.<a href="#cite_note-parkinson_2002_235_236-92">[92]</a> No educational ostraca from the Middle Kingdom have survived.<a href="#cite_note-parkinson_2002_235_236-92">[92]</a> The earliest schoolboy's wooden writing board, with a copy of a teaching text (i.e. Ptahhotep), dates to the <a href="/wiki/Eighteenth_dynasty_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt">Eighteenth dynasty</a>.<a href="#cite_note-parkinson_2002_235_236-92">[92]</a> Ptahhotep and Kagemni are both found on the <a href="/wiki/Prisse_Papyrus" title="Prisse Papyrus">Prisse Papyrus</a>, which was written during the Twelfth dynasty of the Middle Kingdom.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> The entire Loyalist Teaching survives only in manuscripts from the New Kingdom, although the entire first half is preserved on a Middle Kingdom biographical stone stela commemorating the <a href="/wiki/Twelfth_dynasty_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Twelfth dynasty of Egypt">Twelfth dynasty</a> official Sehetepibre.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> Merykare, Amenemhat, and Hardjedef are genuine Middle Kingdom works, but only survive in later New Kingdom copies.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> Amenemope is a New Kingdom compilation.<a href="#cite_note-simpson_1972_241-96">[96]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Narrative_tales_and_stories">Narrative tales and stories</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Egyptian_literature&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Narrative tales and stories">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PapyrusWestcar_photomerge-AltesMuseum-Berlin-3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A fragmented papyrus scroll slightly torn at the edges, with cursive hieratic handwriting in black ink" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/PapyrusWestcar_photomerge-AltesMuseum-Berlin-3.jpg/220px-PapyrusWestcar_photomerge-AltesMuseum-Berlin-3.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="88" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/PapyrusWestcar_photomerge-AltesMuseum-Berlin-3.jpg/330px-PapyrusWestcar_photomerge-AltesMuseum-Berlin-3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/PapyrusWestcar_photomerge-AltesMuseum-Berlin-3.jpg/440px-PapyrusWestcar_photomerge-AltesMuseum-Berlin-3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3676" data-file-height="1476" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Westcar_Papyrus" title="Westcar Papyrus">Westcar Papyrus</a>, although written in <a href="/wiki/Hieratic" title="Hieratic">hieratic</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Fifteenth_dynasty_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Fifteenth dynasty of Egypt">Fifteenth</a> to <a href="/wiki/Seventeenth_dynasty_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Seventeenth dynasty of Egypt">Seventeenth</a> dynasties, contains the <a href="/wiki/Westcar_Papyrus" title="Westcar Papyrus">Tale of the Court of King Cheops</a>, which is written in a phase of <a href="/wiki/Middle_Egyptian" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Egyptian">Middle Egyptian</a> that is dated to the <a href="/wiki/Twelfth_dynasty_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Twelfth dynasty of Egypt">Twelfth dynasty</a>.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a></figcaption></figure> The genre of "tales and stories" is probably the least represented genre from surviving literature of the Middle Kingdom and Middle Egyptian.<a href="#cite_note-parkinson_2002_109-98">[98]</a> In Late Egyptian literature, "tales and stories" comprise the majority of surviving literary works dated from the <a href="/wiki/Ramesside_Period" class="mw-redirect" title="Ramesside Period">Ramesside Period</a> of the New Kingdom into the <a href="/wiki/Late_Period_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Late Period of ancient Egypt">Late Period</a>.<a href="#cite_note-fischer_elfert_2003_120-99">[99]</a> Major narrative works from the Middle Kingdom include the <a href="/wiki/Westcar_Papyrus" title="Westcar Papyrus">Tale of the Court of King Cheops</a>, <a href="/wiki/King_Neferkare_and_General_Sasenet" title="King Neferkare and General Sasenet">King Neferkare and General Sasenet</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Eloquent_Peasant" title="The Eloquent Peasant">The Eloquent Peasant</a>, <a href="/wiki/Story_of_Sinuhe" title="Story of Sinuhe">Story of Sinuhe</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tale_of_the_Shipwrecked_Sailor" title="Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor">Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor</a>.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> The New Kingdom corpus of tales includes the Quarrel of Apepi and Seqenenre, <a href="/wiki/The_Taking_of_Joppa" title="The Taking of Joppa">The Taking of Joppa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tale_of_the_Doomed_Prince" title="Tale of the Doomed Prince">Tale of the Doomed Prince</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tale_of_Two_Brothers" title="Tale of Two Brothers">Tale of Two Brothers</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Report_of_Wenamun" class="mw-redirect" title="Report of Wenamun">Report of Wenamun</a>.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> Stories from the 1st millennium BC written in Demotic include the story of the <a href="/wiki/Famine_Stela" title="Famine Stela">Famine Stela</a> (set in the Old Kingdom, although written during the <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_dynasty" title="Ptolemaic dynasty">Ptolemaic dynasty</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Short_story_cycle" title="Short story cycle">short story cycles</a> of the Ptolemaic and <a href="/wiki/Egypt_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Egypt (Roman province)">Roman</a> periods that transform well-known historical figures such as <a href="/wiki/Khaemweset" title="Khaemweset">Khaemweset</a> (<a href="/wiki/Nineteenth_dynasty_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Nineteenth dynasty of Egypt">Nineteenth Dynasty</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Inaros_II" title="Inaros II">Inaros</a> (<a href="/wiki/History_of_Persian_Egypt" title="History of Persian Egypt">First Persian Period</a>) into fictional, legendary heroes.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> This is contrasted with many stories written in Late Egyptian, whose authors frequently chose divinities as protagonists and mythological places as settings.<a href="#cite_note-simpson_1972_5_6-54">[54]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lintel_of_Amenemhat_I_and_Deities_MET_DP322051.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Light gray stone surface with carved and painted images of two woman, a falcon-headed god, a black-haired man with a long goatee, a jackal-headed god, and Egyptian hieroglyphs inscribed along the top" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Lintel_of_Amenemhat_I_and_Deities_MET_DP322051.jpg/400px-Lintel_of_Amenemhat_I_and_Deities_MET_DP322051.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="105" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Lintel_of_Amenemhat_I_and_Deities_MET_DP322051.jpg/600px-Lintel_of_Amenemhat_I_and_Deities_MET_DP322051.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Lintel_of_Amenemhat_I_and_Deities_MET_DP322051.jpg/800px-Lintel_of_Amenemhat_I_and_Deities_MET_DP322051.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="1048" /></a><figcaption>A raised-relief depiction of <a href="/wiki/Amenemhat_I" title="Amenemhat I">Amenemhat I</a> accompanied by deities; the death of Amenemhat I is reported by his son <a href="/wiki/Senusret_I" title="Senusret I">Senusret I</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Story_of_Sinuhe" title="Story of Sinuhe">Story of Sinuhe</a>.</figcaption></figure> Parkinson defines tales as "...non-commemorative, non-functional, fictional <a href="/wiki/Narrative" title="Narrative">narratives</a>" that usually employ the key word "narrate" (sdd).<a href="#cite_note-parkinson_2002_109-98">[98]</a> He describes it as the most open-ended genre, since the tales often incorporate elements of other literary genres.<a href="#cite_note-parkinson_2002_109-98">[98]</a> For example, Morenz describes the opening section of the foreign adventure tale Sinuhe as a "...funerary self-presentation" that parodies the typical <a href="/wiki/Autobiography" title="Autobiography">autobiography</a> found on commemorative funerary <a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_Egyptian_stelas" title="Category:Ancient Egyptian stelas">stelas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-morenz_2003_102_104-103">[103]</a> The autobiography is for a <a href="/wiki/Courier" title="Courier">courier</a> whose service began under Amenemhat I.<a href="#cite_note-parkinson_2002_297_298-104">[104]</a> Simpson states that the death of Amenemhat I in the report given by his son, <a href="/wiki/Coregent" class="mw-redirect" title="Coregent">coregent</a>, and successor <a href="/wiki/Senusret_I" title="Senusret I">Senusret I</a> (r. 1971–1926 BC) to the army in the beginning of Sinuhe is "...excellent propaganda".<a href="#cite_note-simpson_1972_57-105">[105]</a> Morenz describes The Shipwrecked Sailor as an expeditionary report and a travel-narrative myth.<a href="#cite_note-morenz_2003_102_104-103">[103]</a> Simpson notes the literary device of the <a href="/wiki/Story_within_a_story" title="Story within a story">story within a story</a> in The Shipwrecked Sailor may provide "...the earliest examples of a narrative <a href="/wiki/Quarry" title="Quarry">quarrying</a> report".<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> With the setting of a magical desert island, and a character who is a talking snake, The Shipwrecked Sailor may also be classified as a <a href="/wiki/Fairy_tale" title="Fairy tale">fairy tale</a>.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> While stories like Sinuhe, Taking of Joppa, and the Doomed prince contain fictional portrayals of Egyptians abroad, the Report of Wenamun is most likely based on a true account of an Egyptian who traveled to <a href="/wiki/Byblos" title="Byblos">Byblos</a> in <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a> to obtain <a href="/wiki/Cedrus_libani" title="Cedrus libani">cedar</a> for <a href="/wiki/Shipbuilding" title="Shipbuilding">shipbuilding</a> during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_XI" title="Ramesses XI">Ramesses XI</a>.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> Narrative tales and stories are most often found on papyri, but partial and sometimes complete texts are found on ostraca. For example, Sinuhe is found on five papyri composed during the <a href="/wiki/Twelfth_dynasty_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Twelfth dynasty of Egypt">Twelfth</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_dynasty_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Thirteenth dynasty of Egypt">Thirteenth</a> dynasties.<a href="#cite_note-simpson_1972_57_parkinson_2002_297_298-109">[109]</a> This text was later copied numerous times on ostraca during the <a href="/wiki/Nineteenth_dynasty_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Nineteenth dynasty of Egypt">Nineteenth</a> and <a href="/wiki/Twentieth_dynasty_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Twentieth dynasty of Egypt">Twentieth</a> dynasties, with one ostraca containing the complete text on both sides.<a href="#cite_note-simpson_1972_57_parkinson_2002_297_298-109">[109]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Laments,_discourses,_dialogues,_and_prophecies">Laments, discourses, dialogues, and prophecies</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Egyptian_literature&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Laments, discourses, dialogues, and prophecies">edit</a>]</div> The Middle Kingdom genre of "<a href="/wiki/Prophecy" title="Prophecy">prophetic texts</a>", also known as "<a href="/wiki/Lament" title="Lament">laments</a>", "<a href="/wiki/Discourse" title="Discourse">discourses</a>", "<a href="/wiki/Dialogue" title="Dialogue">dialogues</a>", and "apocalyptic literature",<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> include such works as the <a href="/wiki/Admonitions_of_Ipuwer" class="mw-redirect" title="Admonitions of Ipuwer">Admonitions of Ipuwer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prophecy_of_Neferti" title="Prophecy of Neferti">Prophecy of Neferti</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dispute_between_a_man_and_his_Ba" title="Dispute between a man and his Ba">Dispute between a man and his Ba</a>. This genre had no known precedent in the Old Kingdom and no known original compositions were produced in the New Kingdom.<a href="#cite_note-morenz_2003_103-111">[111]</a> However, works like Prophecy of Neferti were frequently copied during the Ramesside Period of the New Kingdom,<a href="#cite_note-simpson_1972_6_7-112">[112]</a> when this Middle Kingdom genre was canonized but discontinued.<a href="#cite_note-parkinson_2002_232_233-113">[113]</a> Egyptian prophetic literature underwent a revival during the Greek <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic dynasty</a> and <a href="/wiki/Egypt_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Egypt (Roman province)">Roman period of Egypt</a> with works such as the <a href="/wiki/Demotic_Chronicle" title="Demotic Chronicle">Demotic Chronicle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oracle_of_the_Lamb" title="Oracle of the Lamb">Oracle of the Lamb</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oracle_of_the_Potter" title="Oracle of the Potter">Oracle of the Potter</a>, and two prophetic texts that focus on <a href="/wiki/Nectanebo_II" title="Nectanebo II">Nectanebo II</a> (r. 360–343 BC) as a protagonist.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> Along with "teaching" texts, these reflective discourses (key word mdt) are grouped with the wisdom literature category of the ancient Near East.<a href="#cite_note-parkinson_2002_110-84">[84]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ba_bird.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="An anthropomorphic bird with a human head in ancient Egyptian style, colored in green, yellow, white, red, brown, and black" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Ba_bird.svg/220px-Ba_bird.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="278" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Ba_bird.svg/330px-Ba_bird.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Ba_bird.svg/440px-Ba_bird.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="475" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_soul#Ba" class="mw-redirect" title="Egyptian soul">ba</a> in bird form, one component of the <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_soul" class="mw-redirect" title="Egyptian soul">Egyptian soul</a> that is discussed in the Middle Kingdom discourse <a href="/wiki/Dispute_between_a_man_and_his_Ba" title="Dispute between a man and his Ba">Dispute between a man and his Ba</a></figcaption></figure> In Middle Kingdom texts, connecting themes include a pessimistic outlook, descriptions of social and religious change, and great disorder throughout the land, taking the form of a <a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">syntactic</a> "then-now" verse formula.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> Although these texts are usually described as laments, Neferti digresses from this model, providing a positive solution to a problematic world.<a href="#cite_note-parkinson_2002_110-84">[84]</a> Although it survives only in later copies from the <a href="/wiki/Eighteenth_dynasty_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt">Eighteenth dynasty</a> onward, Parkinson asserts that, due to obvious political content, Neferti was originally written during or shortly after the reign of Amenemhat I.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> Simpson calls it "...a blatant political pamphlet designed to support the new regime" of the Twelfth dynasty founded by Amenemhat, who usurped the throne from the <a href="/wiki/Mentuhotep_IV" title="Mentuhotep IV">Mentuhotep</a> line of the <a href="/wiki/Eleventh_dynasty_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Eleventh dynasty of Egypt">Eleventh dynasty</a>.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> In the narrative discourse, <a href="/wiki/Sneferu" title="Sneferu">Sneferu</a> (r. 2613–2589 BC) of the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_dynasty_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Fourth dynasty of Egypt">Fourth dynasty</a> summons to court the sage and lector priest Neferti. Neferti entertains the king with prophecies that the land will enter into a chaotic age, alluding to the <a href="/wiki/First_Intermediate_Period" class="mw-redirect" title="First Intermediate Period">First Intermediate Period</a>, only to be restored to its former glory by a righteous king— Ameny—whom the ancient Egyptian would readily recognize as Amenemhat I.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> A similar model of a tumultuous world transformed into a golden age by a savior king was adopted for the Lamb and Potter, although for their audiences living under Roman domination, the savior was yet to come.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> Although written during the Twelfth dynasty, Ipuwer only survives from a <a href="/wiki/Nineteenth_dynasty_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Nineteenth dynasty of Egypt">Nineteenth dynasty</a> papyrus. However, A man and his Ba is found on an original Twelfth dynasty papyrus, Papyrus Berlin 3024.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> These two texts resemble other discourses in style, tone, and subject matter, although they are unique in that the fictional audiences are given very active roles in the exchange of dialogue.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> In Ipuwer, a sage addresses an unnamed king and his attendants, describing the miserable state of the land, which he blames on the king's inability to uphold royal virtues. This can be seen either as a warning to kings or as a legitimization of the current dynasty, contrasting it with the supposedly turbulent period that preceded it.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> In A man and his Ba, a man recounts for an audience a conversation with his ba (a component of the <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_soul" class="mw-redirect" title="Egyptian soul">Egyptian soul</a>) on whether to continue living in despair or to seek death as an escape from misery.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Poems,_songs,_hymns,_and_afterlife_texts">Poems, songs, hymns, and afterlife texts</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Egyptian_literature&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Poems, songs, hymns, and afterlife texts">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_judgement_of_the_dead_in_the_presence_of_Osiris.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Cursive hieratic handwriting in black ink with inks of various colors used to paint pictures of men and anthropomorphic deities traveling through the afterlife in vignette scenes covering the central portion of the document as well as the top right" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/The_judgement_of_the_dead_in_the_presence_of_Osiris.jpg/220px-The_judgement_of_the_dead_in_the_presence_of_Osiris.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/The_judgement_of_the_dead_in_the_presence_of_Osiris.jpg/330px-The_judgement_of_the_dead_in_the_presence_of_Osiris.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/The_judgement_of_the_dead_in_the_presence_of_Osiris.jpg/440px-The_judgement_of_the_dead_in_the_presence_of_Osiris.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2446" data-file-height="1112" /></a><figcaption>This <a href="/wiki/Vignette_(graphic_design)" title="Vignette (graphic design)">vignette</a> scene from the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_the_Dead" title="Book of the Dead">Book of the Dead</a> of <a href="/wiki/Hunefer" title="Hunefer">Hunefer</a> (<a href="/wiki/Nineteenth_dynasty_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Nineteenth dynasty of Egypt">Nineteenth dynasty</a>) shows his heart being weighed against the <a href="/wiki/Ma%27at#Ma'at_themes_found_in_Book_of_the_Dead_and_tomb_inscriptions" class="mw-redirect" title="Ma'at">feather of truth</a>. If his heart is lighter than the feather, he is allowed into the afterlife; if not, his heart is swallowed by <a href="/wiki/Ammit" title="Ammit">Ammit</a>.</figcaption></figure> The funerary stone <a href="/wiki/Slab_stela" title="Slab stela">slab stela</a> was first produced during the early Old Kingdom. Usually found in <a href="/wiki/Mastaba" title="Mastaba">mastaba</a> tombs, they combined <a href="/wiki/Raised-relief" class="mw-redirect" title="Raised-relief">raised-relief</a> artwork with inscriptions bearing the name of the deceased, their official titles (if any), and <a href="/wiki/Invocation" title="Invocation">invocations</a>.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> Funerary poems were thought to preserve a monarch's soul in death. The <a href="/wiki/Pyramid_Texts" title="Pyramid Texts">Pyramid Texts</a> are the earliest surviving religious literature incorporating <a href="/wiki/Poetry" title="Poetry">poetic</a> verse.<a href="#cite_note-forman_quirke_48_51_simpson_4_5_269_erman_1_2-125">[125]</a> These texts do not appear in tombs or pyramids originating before the reign of <a href="/wiki/Unas" title="Unas">Unas</a> (r. 2375–2345 BC), who had the <a href="/wiki/Pyramid_of_Unas" title="Pyramid of Unas">Pyramid of Unas</a> built at <a href="/wiki/Saqqara" title="Saqqara">Saqqara</a>.<a href="#cite_note-forman_quirke_48_51_simpson_4_5_269_erman_1_2-125">[125]</a> The Pyramid Texts are chiefly concerned with the function of preserving and nurturing the soul of the sovereign in the afterlife.<a href="#cite_note-forman_quirke_48_51_simpson_4_5_269_erman_1_2-125">[125]</a> This aim eventually included safeguarding both the sovereign and his subjects in the afterlife.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> A variety of textual traditions evolved from the original Pyramid Texts: the <a href="/wiki/Coffin_Texts" title="Coffin Texts">Coffin Texts</a> of the Middle Kingdom,<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> the so-called <a href="/wiki/Book_of_the_Dead" title="Book of the Dead">Book of the Dead</a>, <a href="/wiki/Litany_of_Ra" class="mw-redirect" title="Litany of Ra">Litany of Ra</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Amduat" title="Amduat">Amduat</a> written on papyri from the New Kingdom until the end of ancient Egyptian civilization.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> Poems were also written to celebrate kingship. For example, at the <a href="/wiki/Precinct_of_Amun-Re" title="Precinct of Amun-Re">Precinct of Amun-Re</a> at <a href="/wiki/Karnak" title="Karnak">Karnak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thutmose_III" title="Thutmose III">Thutmose III</a> (r. 1479–1425 BC) of the Eighteenth dynasty erected a stela commemorating his military victories in which the gods bless Thutmose in poetic verse and ensure for him victories over his enemies.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> In addition to stone stelas, poems have been found on wooden writing boards used by schoolboys.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> Besides the glorification of kings,<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> poems were written to honor various <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_deities" title="Ancient Egyptian deities">deities</a>, and even the <a href="/wiki/Nile" title="Nile">Nile</a>.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maler_der_Grabkammer_des_Nacht_001.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A brown-skinned man in white-linen garb, seated and playing a stringed harp with both hands" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Maler_der_Grabkammer_des_Nacht_001.jpg/220px-Maler_der_Grabkammer_des_Nacht_001.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="252" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Maler_der_Grabkammer_des_Nacht_001.jpg/330px-Maler_der_Grabkammer_des_Nacht_001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Maler_der_Grabkammer_des_Nacht_001.jpg/440px-Maler_der_Grabkammer_des_Nacht_001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2024" data-file-height="2321" /></a><figcaption>A blind <a href="/wiki/Harp" title="Harp">harpist</a>, from a mural of the <a href="/wiki/Eighteenth_dynasty_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt">Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt</a>, 15th century BC</figcaption></figure> Surviving hymns and songs from the Old Kingdom include the morning greeting hymns to the gods in their respective temples.<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> A cycle of Middle-Kingdom songs dedicated to <a href="/wiki/Senusret_III" title="Senusret III">Senusret III</a> (r. 1878–1839 BC) have been discovered at <a href="/wiki/El-Lahun" class="mw-redirect" title="El-Lahun">El-Lahun</a>.<a href="#cite_note-simpson_279_erman_134-134">[134]</a> Erman considers these to be secular songs used to greet the pharaoh at <a href="/wiki/Memphis,_Egypt" title="Memphis, Egypt">Memphis</a>,<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a> while Simpson considers them to be religious in nature but affirms that the division between religious and secular songs is not very sharp.<a href="#cite_note-simpson_279_erman_134-134">[134]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Harper%27s_Song" class="mw-redirect" title="Harper's Song">Harper's Song</a>, the lyrics found on a tombstone of the Middle Kingdom and on <a href="/wiki/Papyrus_Harris_500" title="Papyrus Harris 500">Papyrus Harris 500</a> from the New Kingdom, was to be performed for dinner guests at formal banquets.<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> During the reign of <a href="/wiki/Akhenaten" title="Akhenaten">Akhenaten</a> (r. 1353–1336 BC), the <a href="/wiki/Great_Hymn_to_the_Aten" title="Great Hymn to the Aten">Great Hymn to the Aten</a>—preserved in tombs of <a href="/wiki/Amarna" title="Amarna">Amarna</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Southern_Tomb_25" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern Tomb 25">the tomb</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ay_(pharaoh)" title="Ay (pharaoh)">Ay</a>—was written to the <a href="/wiki/Aten" title="Aten">Aten</a>, the sun-disk deity given <a href="/wiki/Atenism" title="Atenism">exclusive patronage</a> during his reign.<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> Simpson compares this composition's wording and sequence of ideas to those of <a href="/wiki/Psalm_104" title="Psalm 104">Psalm 104</a>.<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> Only a single poetic hymn in the Demotic script has been preserved.<a href="#cite_note-tait_2003_10-139">[139]</a> However, there are many surviving examples of Late-Period Egyptian hymns written in hieroglyphs on temple walls.<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> No Egyptian <a href="/wiki/Love_song" title="Love song">love song</a> has been dated from before the New Kingdom, these being written in Late Egyptian, although it is speculated that they existed in previous times.<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> Erman compares the love songs to the <a href="/wiki/Song_of_Songs" title="Song of Songs">Song of Songs</a>, citing the labels "sister" and "brother" that lovers used to address each other.<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Private_letters,_model_letters,_and_epistles">Private letters, model letters, and epistles</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Egyptian_literature&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Private letters, model letters, and epistles">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Heratic_script_limestone.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A stone fragment with cursive hieratic handwriting in black ink" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Heratic_script_limestone.jpg/220px-Heratic_script_limestone.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="377" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Heratic_script_limestone.jpg/330px-Heratic_script_limestone.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Heratic_script_limestone.jpg/440px-Heratic_script_limestone.jpg 2x" data-file-width="936" data-file-height="1604" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hieratic" title="Hieratic">Hieratic</a> script on an <a href="/wiki/Ostracon" title="Ostracon">ostracon</a> made of <a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</a>; the script was written as an exercise by a schoolboy in Ancient Egypt. He copied four <a href="/wiki/Letter_(message)" title="Letter (message)">letters</a> from the vizier Khay (who was active during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_II" title="Ramesses II">Ramesses II</a>).</figcaption></figure> The ancient Egyptian model letters and <a href="/wiki/Epistle" title="Epistle">epistles</a> are grouped into a single literary genre. Papyrus rolls sealed with mud stamps were used for long-distance letters, while ostraca were frequently used to write shorter, non-confidential letters sent to recipients located nearby.<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> Letters of royal or official correspondence, originally written in hieratic, were sometimes given the exalted status of being inscribed on stone in hieroglyphs.<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> The various texts written by schoolboys on wooden writing boards include model letters.<a href="#cite_note-parkinson_2002_235_236-92">[92]</a> Private letters could be used as epistolary model letters for schoolboys to copy, including letters written by their teachers or their families.<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a> However, these models were rarely featured in educational manuscripts; instead fictional letters found in numerous manuscripts were used.<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a> The common epistolary formula used in these model letters was "The official A. saith to the scribe B".<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> The oldest-known <a href="/wiki/Letter_(message)" title="Letter (message)">private letters</a> on papyrus were found in a funerary temple dating to the reign of <a href="/wiki/Djedkare-Izezi" class="mw-redirect" title="Djedkare-Izezi">Djedkare-Izezi</a> (r. 2414–2375 BC) of the <a href="/wiki/Fifth_dynasty_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Fifth dynasty of Egypt">Fifth dynasty</a>.<a href="#cite_note-wente_1990_54-148">[148]</a> More letters are dated to the <a href="/wiki/Sixth_dynasty_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Sixth dynasty of Egypt">Sixth dynasty</a>, when the epistle subgenre began.<a href="#cite_note-wente_1990_15_54-149">[149]</a> The educational text Book of Kemit, dated to the <a href="/wiki/Eleventh_dynasty_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Eleventh dynasty of Egypt">Eleventh dynasty</a>, contains a list of epistolary greetings and a narrative with an ending in letter form and suitable terminology for use in commemorative <a href="/wiki/Biographies" class="mw-redirect" title="Biographies">biographies</a>.<a href="#cite_note-wente_1990_15-150">[150]</a> Other letters of the early Middle Kingdom have also been found to use epistolary formulas similar to the Book of Kemit.<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Heqanakht_papyri" class="mw-redirect" title="Heqanakht papyri">Heqanakht papyri</a>, written by a gentleman farmer, date to the Eleventh dynasty and represent some of the lengthiest private letters known to have been written in ancient Egypt.<a href="#cite_note-wente_1990_54_55_58_63-72">[72]</a> During the late Middle Kingdom, greater standardization of the epistolary formula can be seen, for example in a series of model letters taken from dispatches sent to the <a href="/wiki/Semna_(Nubia)" title="Semna (Nubia)">Semna fortress</a> of <a href="/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia">Nubia</a> during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Amenemhat_III" title="Amenemhat III">Amenemhat III</a> (r. 1860–1814 BC).<a href="#cite_note-wente_1990_68-152">[152]</a> Epistles were also written during all three dynasties of the New Kingdom.<a href="#cite_note-wente_1990_89-153">[153]</a> While <a href="/wiki/Letters_to_the_dead" title="Letters to the dead">letters to the dead</a> had been written since the Old Kingdom, the writing of petition letters in epistolary form to deities began in the Ramesside Period, becoming very popular during the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Persian_Egypt" title="History of Persian Egypt">Persian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_dynasty_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemaic dynasty of Egypt">Ptolemaic</a> periods.<a href="#cite_note-wente_1990_210-154">[154]</a> The epistolary Satirical Letter of <a href="/wiki/Papyrus_Anastasi_I" title="Papyrus Anastasi I">Papyrus Anastasi I</a> written during the <a href="/wiki/Nineteenth_dynasty_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Nineteenth dynasty of Egypt">Nineteenth dynasty</a> was a pedagogical and didactic text copied on numerous ostraca by schoolboys.<a href="#cite_note-wente_1990_98-155">[155]</a> Wente describes the versatility of this epistle, which contained "proper greetings with wishes for this life and the next, the rhetoric composition, interpretation of <a href="/wiki/Aphorism" title="Aphorism">aphorisms</a> in wisdom literature, <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_mathematics" class="mw-redirect" title="Egyptian mathematics">application of mathematics</a> to <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_architecture" title="Ancient Egyptian architecture">engineering problems</a> and the calculation of supplies for an army, and the geography of <a href="/wiki/Western_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Asia">western Asia</a>".<a href="#cite_note-wente_1990_98_99-156">[156]</a> Moreover, Wente calls this a "polemical tractate" that counsels against the rote, mechanical learning of terms for places, professions, and things; for example, it is not acceptable to know just the place names of western Asia, but also important details about its <a href="/wiki/Topography" title="Topography">topography</a> and routes.<a href="#cite_note-wente_1990_98_99-156">[156]</a> To enhance the teaching, the text employs sarcasm and irony.<a href="#cite_note-wente_1990_98_99-156">[156]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biographical_and_autobiographical_texts">Biographical and autobiographical texts</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Egyptian_literature&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Biographical and autobiographical texts">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Autobiography_of_Weni" title="Autobiography of Weni">Autobiography of Weni</a> and <a href="/wiki/Autobiography_of_Harkhuf" title="Autobiography of Harkhuf">Autobiography of Harkhuf</a></div> Catherine Parke, Professor Emerita of English and Women's Studies at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Missouri" title="University of Missouri">University of Missouri</a> in <a href="/wiki/Columbia,_Missouri" title="Columbia, Missouri">Columbia, Missouri</a>, writes that the earliest "commemorative inscriptions" belong to ancient Egypt and date to the 3rd millennium BC.<a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a> She writes: "In ancient Egypt the formulaic accounts of Pharaoh's lives praised the continuity of dynastic power. Although typically written in the first person, these pronouncements are public, general testimonials, not personal utterances."<a href="#cite_note-parke_2002_1_2-158">[158]</a> She adds that as in these ancient inscriptions, the human urge to "...celebrate, commemorate, and immortalize, the impulse of life against death", is the aim of <a href="/wiki/Biographies" class="mw-redirect" title="Biographies">biographies</a> written today.<a href="#cite_note-parke_2002_1_2-158">[158]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Funerary_Stele_of_Ba.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A stone stela with raised-relief images of a man seated with his son and wife, while a man stands to the right giving libations; Egyptian hieroglyphs are written in distinctly-marked horizontal columns at the bottom portion of the stela." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Funerary_Stele_of_Ba.jpg/220px-Funerary_Stele_of_Ba.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="343" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Funerary_Stele_of_Ba.jpg/330px-Funerary_Stele_of_Ba.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Funerary_Stele_of_Ba.jpg/440px-Funerary_Stele_of_Ba.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1615" data-file-height="2515" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_Egyptian_stelas" title="Category:Ancient Egyptian stelas">funerary stela</a> of a man named Ba (seated, sniffing a sacred <a href="/wiki/Lotus_Flower" class="mw-redirect" title="Lotus Flower">lotus</a> while receiving libations); Ba's son Mes and wife Iny are also seated. The identity of the libation bearer is unspecified. The stela is dated to the <a href="/wiki/Eighteenth_dynasty_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt">Eighteenth dynasty</a> of the <a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom</a> period.</figcaption></figure> Olivier Perdu, a professor of <a href="/wiki/Egyptology" title="Egyptology">Egyptology</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Coll%C3%A8ge_de_France" title="Collège de France">Collège de France</a>, states that biographies did not exist in ancient Egypt, and that commemorative writing should be considered <a href="/wiki/Autobiographies" class="mw-redirect" title="Autobiographies">autobiographical</a>.<a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a> Edward L. Greenstein, Professor of Bible at the <a href="/wiki/Tel_Aviv_University" title="Tel Aviv University">Tel Aviv University</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bar-Ilan_University" title="Bar-Ilan University">Bar-Ilan University</a>, disagrees with Perdu's terminology, stating that the ancient world produced no "autobiographies" in the modern sense, and these should be distinguished from 'autobiographical' texts of the ancient world.<a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a> However, both Perdu and Greenstein assert that autobiographies of the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Near_East" title="Ancient Near East">ancient Near East</a> should not be equated with the modern concept of autobiography.<a href="#cite_note-koosed_2006_29-161">[161]</a> In her discussion of the <a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastes" title="Ecclesiastes">Ecclesiastes</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Hebrew Bible</a>, Jennifer Koosed, associate professor of religion at <a href="/wiki/Albright_College" title="Albright College">Albright College</a>, explains that there is no solid consensus among scholars as to whether true biographies or autobiographies existed in the ancient world.<a href="#cite_note-koosed_2006_28_29-162">[162]</a> One of the major scholarly arguments against this theory is that the concept of <a href="/wiki/Individual" title="Individual">individuality</a> did not exist until the European <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>, prompting Koosed to write "...thus autobiography is made a product of European civilization: <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a> begat <a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rosseau</a> begat <a href="/wiki/Henry_Brooks_Adams" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry Brooks Adams">Henry Adams</a>, and so on".<a href="#cite_note-koosed_2006_28_29-162">[162]</a> Koosed asserts that the use of first-person "I" in ancient Egyptian commemorative funerary texts should not be taken literally since the supposed author is already dead. Funerary texts should be considered biographical instead of autobiographical.<a href="#cite_note-koosed_2006_29-161">[161]</a> Koosed cautions that the term "biography" applied to such texts is problematic, since they also usually describe the deceased person's experiences of journeying through the <a href="/wiki/Duat" title="Duat">afterlife</a>.<a href="#cite_note-koosed_2006_29-161">[161]</a> Beginning with the funerary stelas for officials of the late <a href="/wiki/Third_dynasty_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Third dynasty of Egypt">Third dynasty</a>, small amounts of biographical detail were added next to the deceased men's titles.<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a> However, it was not until the <a href="/wiki/Sixth_dynasty_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Sixth dynasty of Egypt">Sixth dynasty</a> that narratives of the lives and careers of government officials were inscribed.<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a> Tomb biographies became more detailed during the Middle Kingdom, and included information about the deceased person's family.<a href="#cite_note-breasted_1962_5_6-165">[165]</a> The vast majority of autobiographical texts are dedicated to scribal bureaucrats, but during the New Kingdom some were dedicated to military officers and soldiers.<a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a> Autobiographical texts of the Late Period place a greater stress upon seeking help from deities than acting righteously to succeed in life.<a href="#cite_note-lichtheim_1980_5-167">[167]</a> Whereas earlier autobiographical texts exclusively dealt with celebrating successful lives, Late Period autobiographical texts include laments for premature death, similar to the <a href="/wiki/Epitaph" title="Epitaph">epitaphs</a> of ancient Greece.<a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Decrees,_chronicles,_king_lists,_and_histories">Decrees, chronicles, king lists, and histories</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Egyptian_literature&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Decrees, chronicles, king lists, and histories">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ThutmosesIII-AnnalsOfThutmosesIII-Karnak.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Ground-level outside view of stone walls with raised-relief carvings of human figures and hieroglyphic writing; a doorway is positioned at the center; the top left portion shows a blue sky without clouds." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/ThutmosesIII-AnnalsOfThutmosesIII-Karnak.png/170px-ThutmosesIII-AnnalsOfThutmosesIII-Karnak.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="263" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/ThutmosesIII-AnnalsOfThutmosesIII-Karnak.png/255px-ThutmosesIII-AnnalsOfThutmosesIII-Karnak.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/ThutmosesIII-AnnalsOfThutmosesIII-Karnak.png/340px-ThutmosesIII-AnnalsOfThutmosesIII-Karnak.png 2x" data-file-width="581" data-file-height="900" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Annal" class="mw-redirect" title="Annal">Annals</a> of Pharaoh <a href="/wiki/Thutmose_III" title="Thutmose III">Thutmose III</a> at <a href="/wiki/Karnak" title="Karnak">Karnak</a></figcaption></figure> Modern historians consider that some biographical—or autobiographical—texts are important historical documents.<a href="#cite_note-Gozzoli_2006_1_8-169">[169]</a> For example, the biographical stelas of military generals in tomb chapels built under Thutmose III provide much of the information known about the wars in <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a> However, the <a href="/wiki/Annal" class="mw-redirect" title="Annal">annals</a> of Thutmose III, carved into the walls of several monuments built during his reign, such as those at Karnak, also preserve information about these campaigns.<a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a> The annals of <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_II" title="Ramesses II">Ramesses II</a> (r. 1279–1213 BC), recounting the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kadesh" title="Battle of Kadesh">Battle of Kadesh</a> against the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Hittites" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Hittites">Hittites</a> include, for the first time in Egyptian literature, a narrative <a href="/wiki/Epic_poetry" title="Epic poetry">epic poem</a>, distinguished from all earlier poetry that served to celebrate and instruct.<a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a> Other documents useful for investigating Egyptian history are ancient <a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_Egyptian_King_lists" title="Category:Ancient Egyptian King lists">lists of kings</a> found in terse <a href="/wiki/Chronicle" title="Chronicle">chronicles</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/Fifth_dynasty_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Fifth dynasty of Egypt">Fifth dynasty</a> <a href="/wiki/Palermo_stone" class="mw-redirect" title="Palermo stone">Palermo stone</a>.<a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a> These documents legitimated the contemporary pharaoh's claim to sovereignty.<a href="#cite_note-bard_shubert_1999_36-174">[174]</a> Throughout ancient Egyptian history, royal <a href="/wiki/Decree" title="Decree">decrees</a> recounted the deeds of ruling pharaohs.<a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a> For example, the <a href="/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia">Nubian</a> pharaoh <a href="/wiki/Piye" title="Piye">Piye</a> (r. 752–721 BC), founder of the <a href="/wiki/Twenty-fifth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-fifth Dynasty</a>, had a stela erected and written in classical Middle Egyptian that describes with unusual nuances and vivid imagery his successful military campaigns.<a href="#cite_note-lichtheim_1980_7-176">[176]</a> An Egyptian historian, known by his Greek name as <a href="/wiki/Manetho" title="Manetho">Manetho</a> (c. 3rd century BC), was the first to compile a <a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">comprehensive history</a> of Egypt.<a href="#cite_note-gozzoli_2006_191_225_brewer_teeter_1999_27_28_lichtheim_1980_7-177">[177]</a> Manetho was active during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemy II">Ptolemy II</a> (r. 283–246 BC) and used <a href="/wiki/Histories_(Herodotus)" title="Histories (Herodotus)">The Histories</a> by the Greek <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a> (c. 484 BC–c. 425 BC) as his main source of inspiration for a history of Egypt written in Greek.<a href="#cite_note-gozzoli_2006_191_225_brewer_teeter_1999_27_28_lichtheim_1980_7-177">[177]</a> However, the primary sources for Manetho's work were the king list chronicles of previous Egyptian dynasties.<a href="#cite_note-bard_shubert_1999_36-174">[174]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tomb_and_temple_graffiti">Tomb and temple graffiti</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Egyptian_literature&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Tomb and temple graffiti">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Graffiti_Kom_Ombo.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Surface of a stone wall with incised graffiti artwork of a dog, highlighted by angled late afternoon light" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Graffiti_Kom_Ombo.JPG/220px-Graffiti_Kom_Ombo.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Graffiti_Kom_Ombo.JPG/330px-Graffiti_Kom_Ombo.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Graffiti_Kom_Ombo.JPG/440px-Graffiti_Kom_Ombo.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Artistic <a href="/wiki/Graffiti" title="Graffiti">graffiti</a> of a canine figure at the <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Kom_Ombo" title="Temple of Kom Ombo">Temple of Kom Ombo</a>, built during the <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_dynasty" title="Ptolemaic dynasty">Ptolemaic dynasty</a></figcaption></figure> Fischer-Elfert distinguishes ancient Egyptian <a href="/wiki/Graffiti" title="Graffiti">graffiti</a> writing as a literary genre.<a href="#cite_note-fischer_elfert_2003_133-178">[178]</a> During the New Kingdom, scribes who traveled to ancient sites often left graffiti messages on the walls of sacred <a href="/wiki/Mortuary_temple" title="Mortuary temple">mortuary temples</a> and <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_pyramids" title="Egyptian pyramids">pyramids</a>, usually in commemoration of these structures.<a href="#cite_note-179">[179]</a> Modern scholars do not consider these scribes to have been mere <a href="/wiki/Tourist" class="mw-redirect" title="Tourist">tourists</a>, but <a href="/wiki/Pilgrim" class="mw-redirect" title="Pilgrim">pilgrims</a> visiting sacred sites where the extinct cult centers could be used for communicating with the gods.<a href="#cite_note-fischer_elfert_2003_132-180">[180]</a> There is evidence from an educational ostracon found in the tomb of <a href="/wiki/Senenmut" title="Senenmut">Senenmut</a> (<a href="/wiki/TT71" title="TT71">TT71</a>) that formulaic graffiti writing was practiced in scribal schools.<a href="#cite_note-fischer_elfert_2003_132-180">[180]</a> In one graffiti message, left at the mortuary temple of Thutmose III at <a href="/wiki/Deir_el-Bahri" class="mw-redirect" title="Deir el-Bahri">Deir el-Bahri</a>, a modified saying from <a href="/wiki/The_Maxims_of_Ptahhotep" title="The Maxims of Ptahhotep">The Maxims of Ptahhotep</a> is incorporated into a prayer written on the temple wall.<a href="#cite_note-fischer_elfert_2003_132_133-181">[181]</a> Scribes usually wrote their graffiti in separate clusters to distinguish their graffiti from others'.<a href="#cite_note-fischer_elfert_2003_133-178">[178]</a> This led to competition among scribes, who would sometimes denigrate the quality of graffiti inscribed by others, even ancestors from the scribal profession.<a href="#cite_note-fischer_elfert_2003_133-178">[178]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy,_translation_and_interpretation">Legacy, translation and interpretation</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Egyptian_literature&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Legacy, translation and interpretation">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Decipherment_of_ancient_Egyptian_scripts" title="Decipherment of ancient Egyptian scripts">Decipherment of ancient Egyptian scripts</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Transliteration_of_Ancient_Egyptian" title="Transliteration of Ancient Egyptian">Transliteration of Ancient Egyptian</a></div> After the <a href="/wiki/Copt" class="mw-redirect" title="Copt">Copts</a> converted to <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> in the first centuries AD, their <a href="/wiki/Coptic_literature" title="Coptic literature">Coptic literature</a> became separated from the pharaonic and <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic</a> literary traditions.<a href="#cite_note-182">[182]</a> Nevertheless, scholars speculate that ancient Egyptian literature, perhaps in oral form, influenced <a href="/wiki/Greek_literature" title="Greek literature">Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arabic_literature" title="Arabic literature">Arabic literature</a>. Parallels are drawn between the Egyptian soldiers sneaking into <a href="/wiki/Jaffa" title="Jaffa">Jaffa</a> hidden in baskets to capture the city in the story <a href="/wiki/The_Taking_of_Joppa" title="The Taking of Joppa">The Taking of Joppa</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Mycenae" title="Mycenae">Mycenaean</a> Greeks sneaking into <a href="/wiki/Troy" title="Troy">Troy</a> inside the <a href="/wiki/Trojan_Horse" title="Trojan Horse">Trojan Horse</a>.<a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a> The Taking of Joppa has also been compared to the Arabic story of <a href="/wiki/Ali_Baba" class="mw-redirect" title="Ali Baba">Ali Baba</a> in <a href="/wiki/One_Thousand_and_One_Nights" title="One Thousand and One Nights">One Thousand and One Nights</a>.<a href="#cite_note-184">[184]</a> It has been conjectured that <a href="/wiki/Sinbad_the_Sailor" title="Sinbad the Sailor">Sinbad the Sailor</a> may have been inspired by the pharaonic Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor.<a href="#cite_note-mokhtar_1990_116_117-185">[185]</a> Some Egyptian literature was commented on by scholars of the ancient world. For example, the Jewish Roman historian <a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a> (37–c. 100 AD) quoted and provided commentary on Manetho's historical texts.<a href="#cite_note-186">[186]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rosetta_Stone.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A large, ancient, black-colored stone block with written inscriptions covering one side of its surface, with pieces clearly broken off with now missing text" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Rosetta_Stone.JPG/220px-Rosetta_Stone.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="257" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Rosetta_Stone.JPG/330px-Rosetta_Stone.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Rosetta_Stone.JPG/440px-Rosetta_Stone.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3665" data-file-height="4288" /></a><figcaption>The trilingual <a href="/wiki/Rosetta_Stone" title="Rosetta Stone">Rosetta Stone</a> in the <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a></figcaption></figure> The most recently carved hieroglyphic inscription of ancient Egypt known today is found in a temple of <a href="/wiki/Philae" class="mw-redirect" title="Philae">Philae</a>, dated precisely to 394 AD during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Theodosius_I" title="Theodosius I">Theodosius I</a> (r. 379–395 AD).<a href="#cite_note-187">[187]</a> In the 4th century AD, the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic civilization">Hellenized</a> Egyptian <a href="/wiki/Horapollo" title="Horapollo">Horapollo</a> compiled a survey of almost two hundred Egyptian hieroglyphs and provided his interpretation of their meanings, although his understanding was limited and he was unaware of the phonetic uses of each hieroglyph.<a href="#cite_note-wilson_2003_104_105-188">[188]</a> This survey was apparently lost until 1415, when the Italian <a href="/wiki/Cristoforo_Buondelmonti" title="Cristoforo Buondelmonti">Cristoforo Buondelmonti</a> acquired it at the island of <a href="/wiki/Andros" title="Andros">Andros</a>.<a href="#cite_note-wilson_2003_104_105-188">[188]</a> <a href="/wiki/Athanasius_Kircher" title="Athanasius Kircher">Athanasius Kircher</a> (1601–1680) was the first in Europe to realize that <a href="/wiki/Coptic_language" title="Coptic language">Coptic</a> was a direct linguistic descendant of ancient Egyptian.<a href="#cite_note-wilson_2003_104_105-188">[188]</a> In his <a href="/wiki/Oedipus_Aegyptiacus" title="Oedipus Aegyptiacus">Oedipus Aegyptiacus</a>, he made the first concerted European effort to interpret the meaning of Egyptian hieroglyphs, albeit based on symbolic inferences.<a href="#cite_note-wilson_2003_104_105-188">[188]</a> It was not until 1799, with the <a href="/wiki/French_campaign_in_Egypt_and_Syria#Scientific_expedition" class="mw-redirect" title="French campaign in Egypt and Syria">Napoleonic discovery</a> of a trilingual (i.e. hieroglyphic, Demotic, Greek) stela inscription on the <a href="/wiki/Rosetta_Stone" title="Rosetta Stone">Rosetta Stone</a>, that modern scholars had the resources to decipher Egyptian texts.<a href="#cite_note-189">[189]</a> The key breakthroughs were made more than twenty years later, in the work of <a href="/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Champollion" title="Jean-François Champollion">Jean-François Champollion</a> in deciphering hieroglyphs and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Young_(scientist)" title="Thomas Young (scientist)">Thomas Young</a> in deciphering Demotic.<a href="#cite_note-190">[190]</a> By the time of Champollion's death in 1832, it was possible to discern the general sense of Egyptian texts.<a href="#cite_note-191">[191]</a> The first scholar able to read an Egyptian text in full was <a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_de_Roug%C3%A9" title="Emmanuel de Rougé">Emmanuel de Rougé</a>, who published the first translations of Egyptian literary texts in 1856.<a href="#cite_note-192">[192]</a> Before the 1970s, scholarly consensus was that ancient Egyptian literature—although sharing similarities with modern literary categories—was not an independent discourse, uninfluenced by the ancient sociopolitical order.<a href="#cite_note-193">[193]</a> However, from the 1970s onwards, a growing number of historians and literary scholars have questioned this theory.<a href="#cite_note-loprieno_1996_212_213-194">[194]</a> While scholars before the 1970s treated ancient Egyptian literary works as viable historical sources that accurately reflected the conditions of this ancient society, scholars now caution against this approach.<a href="#cite_note-loprieno_1996_211_213-195">[195]</a> Scholars are increasingly using a multifaceted <a href="/wiki/Hermeneutic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hermeneutic">hermeneutic</a> approach to the study of individual literary works, in which not only the style and content, but also the cultural, social and historical context of the work are taken into account.<a href="#cite_note-loprieno_1996_212_213-194">[194]</a> Individual works can then be used as <a href="/wiki/Case_studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Case studies">case studies</a> for reconstructing the main features of ancient Egyptian literary discourse.<a href="#cite_note-loprieno_1996_212_213-194">[194]</a> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Egyptian_literature&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFoster2001">Foster 2001</a>, p. xx. </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFParkinson2002">Parkinson 2002</a>, pp. 64–66. </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFormanQuirke1996">Forman & Quirke 1996</a>, p. 26. </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> Okasha El Daly. (2005). Egyptology: The Missing Millennium: Ancient Egypt in Medieval Arabic Writings. </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilson2003">Wilson 2003</a>, pp. 7–10; <a href="#CITEREFFormanQuirke1996">Forman & Quirke 1996</a>, pp. 10–12; <a href="#CITEREFWente1990">Wente 1990</a>, p. 2; <a href="#CITEREFAllen2000">Allen 2000</a>, pp. 1–2, 6. </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilson2003">Wilson 2003</a>, p. 28; <a href="#CITEREFFormanQuirke1996">Forman & Quirke 1996</a>, p. 13; <a href="#CITEREFAllen2000">Allen 2000</a>, p. 3. </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFormanQuirke1996">Forman & Quirke 1996</a>, p. 13; for similar examples, see Allen (2000: 3) and Erman (2005: xxxv-xxxvi). </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilkinson2000">Wilkinson 2000</a>, pp. 23–24; <a href="#CITEREFWilson2004">Wilson 2004</a>, p. 11; <a href="#CITEREFGardiner1915">Gardiner 1915</a>, p. 72. </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilson2003">Wilson 2003</a>, pp. 22, 47; <a href="#CITEREFFormanQuirke1996">Forman & Quirke 1996</a>, pp. 10; <a href="#CITEREFWente1990">Wente 1990</a>, p. 2; <a href="#CITEREFParkinson2002">Parkinson 2002</a>, p. 73. </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFormanQuirke1996">Forman & Quirke 1996</a>, p. 10. </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilson2003">Wilson 2003</a>, pp. 63–64. </li> <li id="cite_note-wilson_71_forman_quirke_101_103-12">^ <a href="#cite_ref-wilson_71_forman_quirke_101_103_12-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-wilson_71_forman_quirke_101_103_12-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-wilson_71_forman_quirke_101_103_12-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilson2003">Wilson 2003</a>, p. 71; <a href="#CITEREFFormanQuirke1996">Forman & Quirke 1996</a>, pp. 101–103. </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFErman2005">Erman 2005</a>, p. xxxvii; <a href="#CITEREFSimpson1972">Simpson 1972</a>, pp. 8–9; <a href="#CITEREFFormanQuirke1996">Forman & Quirke 1996</a>, p. 19; <a href="#CITEREFAllen2000">Allen 2000</a>, p. 6. </li> <li id="cite_note-forman_quirke_1996_19-14">^ <a href="#cite_ref-forman_quirke_1996_19_14-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-forman_quirke_1996_19_14-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFFormanQuirke1996">Forman & Quirke 1996</a>, p. 19. </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilson2003">Wilson 2003</a>, pp. 22–23. </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilson2003">Wilson 2003</a>, pp. 22–23, 91–92; <a href="#CITEREFParkinson2002">Parkinson 2002</a>, p. 73; <a href="#CITEREFWente1990">Wente 1990</a>, pp. 1–2; <a href="#CITEREFSpalinger1990">Spalinger 1990</a>, p. 297; <a href="#CITEREFAllen2000">Allen 2000</a>, p. 6. </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFParkinson2002">Parkinson 2002</a>, pp. 73–74; <a href="#CITEREFFormanQuirke1996">Forman & Quirke 1996</a>, p. 19. </li> <li id="cite_note-forman_quirke_1996_17-18">^ <a href="#cite_ref-forman_quirke_1996_17_18-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-forman_quirke_1996_17_18-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFFormanQuirke1996">Forman & Quirke 1996</a>, p. 17. </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFormanQuirke1996">Forman & Quirke 1996</a>, pp. 17–19, 169; <a href="#CITEREFAllen2000">Allen 2000</a>, p. 6. </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFormanQuirke1996">Forman & Quirke 1996</a>, pp. 19, 169; <a href="#CITEREFAllen2000">Allen 2000</a>, p. 6; <a href="#CITEREFSimpson1972">Simpson 1972</a>, pp. 8–9; <a href="#CITEREFErman2005">Erman 2005</a>, pp. xxxvii, xlii; <a href="#CITEREFFoster2001">Foster 2001</a>, p. xv. </li> <li id="cite_note-wente_1990_4-21">^ <a href="#cite_ref-wente_1990_4_21-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-wente_1990_4_21-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWente1990">Wente 1990</a>, p. 4. </li> <li id="cite_note-Wente_1990_4–5-22">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wente_1990_4–5_22-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wente_1990_4–5_22-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWente1990">Wente 1990</a>, pp. 4–5. </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllen2000">Allen 2000</a>, p. 5; <a href="#CITEREFFoster2001">Foster 2001</a>, p. xv; see also <a href="#CITEREFWente1990">Wente 1990</a>, pp. 5–6 for a wooden writing board example. </li> <li id="cite_note-forman_quirke_1996_169-24">^ <a href="#cite_ref-forman_quirke_1996_169_24-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-forman_quirke_1996_169_24-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-forman_quirke_1996_169_24-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFFormanQuirke1996">Forman & Quirke 1996</a>, p. 169. </li> <li id="cite_note-quirke_2004_14-25">^ <a href="#cite_ref-quirke_2004_14_25-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-quirke_2004_14_25-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFQuirke2004">Quirke 2004</a>, p. 14. </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWente1990">Wente 1990</a>, pp. 2–3; <a href="#CITEREFTait2003">Tait 2003</a>, pp. 9–10. </li> <li id="cite_note-wente_1990_2_3-27"><a href="#cite_ref-wente_1990_2_3_27-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWente1990">Wente 1990</a>, pp. 2–3. </li> <li id="cite_note-tait_2003_9_10-28">^ <a href="#cite_ref-tait_2003_9_10_28-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-tait_2003_9_10_28-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-tait_2003_9_10_28-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFTait2003">Tait 2003</a>, pp. 9–10. </li> <li id="cite_note-wilson_2003_91_93-29">^ <a href="#cite_ref-wilson_2003_91_93_29-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-wilson_2003_91_93_29-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilson2003">Wilson 2003</a>, pp. 91–93. </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilson2003">Wilson 2003</a>, pp. 91–93; see also <a href="#CITEREFWente1990">Wente 1990</a>, pp. 132–133. </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTait2003">Tait 2003</a>, p. 10; see also <a href="#CITEREFParkinson2002">Parkinson 2002</a>, pp. 298–299. </li> <li id="cite_note-fischer_elfert_2003_121-32">^ <a href="#cite_ref-fischer_elfert_2003_121_32-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-fischer_elfert_2003_121_32-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-fischer_elfert_2003_121_32-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFFischer-Elfert2003">Fischer-Elfert 2003</a>, p. 121. </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSimpson1972">Simpson 1972</a>, pp. 3–4; <a href="#CITEREFFoster2001">Foster 2001</a>, pp. xvii–xviii. </li> <li id="cite_note-allen_2000_1-34">^ <a href="#cite_ref-allen_2000_1_34-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-allen_2000_1_34-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-allen_2000_1_34-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllen2000">Allen 2000</a>, p. 1. </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllen2000">Allen 2000</a>, p. 1; <a href="#CITEREFFischer-Elfert2003">Fischer-Elfert 2003</a>, p. 119; <a href="#CITEREFErman2005">Erman 2005</a>, pp. xxv–xxvi. </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllen2000">Allen 2000</a>, p. 1; <a href="#CITEREFWildung2003">Wildung 2003</a>, p. 61. </li> <li id="cite_note-allen_2000_6-37"><a href="#cite_ref-allen_2000_6_37-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllen2000">Allen 2000</a>, p. 6. </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllen2000">Allen 2000</a>, pp. 1, 5–6; <a href="#CITEREFWildung2003">Wildung 2003</a>, p. 61; <a href="#CITEREFErman2005">Erman 2005</a>, pp. xxv–xxvii; <a href="#CITEREFLichtheim1980">Lichtheim 1980</a>, p. 4. </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllen2000">Allen 2000</a>, p. 5; <a href="#CITEREFErman2005">Erman 2005</a>, pp. xxv–xxvii; <a href="#CITEREFLichtheim1980">Lichtheim 1980</a>, p. 4. </li> <li id="cite_note-wildung_2003_61-40"><a href="#cite_ref-wildung_2003_61_40-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWildung2003">Wildung 2003</a>, p. 61. </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWente1990">Wente 1990</a>, pp. 6–7; see also <a href="#CITEREFWilson2003">Wilson 2003</a>, pp. 19–20, 96–97; <a href="#CITEREFErman2005">Erman 2005</a>, pp. xxvii–xxviii. </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilson2003">Wilson 2003</a>, p. 96. </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWente1990">Wente 1990</a>, pp. 7–8. </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFZinn2012" class="citation book cs1">Zinn, Katharine (2012). "Literacy, Pharaonic Egypt". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://repository.uwtsd.ac.uk/id/eprint/569/1/Literacy%2C%20Pharaonic%20Egypt.pdf">The Encyclopedia of Ancient History</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781444338386.wbeah15244">10.1002/9781444338386.wbeah15244</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-7935-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-7935-5"><bdi>978-1-4051-7935-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Literacy%2C+Pharaonic+Egypt&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Ancient+History&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9781444338386.wbeah15244&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-7935-5&rft.aulast=Zinn&rft.aufirst=Katharine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frepository.uwtsd.ac.uk%2Fid%2Feprint%2F569%2F1%2FLiteracy%252C%2520Pharaonic%2520Egypt.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egyptian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/museums-static/digitalegypt/literature/literacy.html">Literacy</a>, University College London</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Literacy&rft.pub=University+College+London&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ucl.ac.uk%2Fmuseums-static%2Fdigitalegypt%2Fliterature%2Fliteracy.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egyptian+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWente1990">Wente 1990</a>, pp. 7–8; <a href="#CITEREFParkinson2002">Parkinson 2002</a>, pp. 66–67. </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilson2003">Wilson 2003</a>, pp. 23–24. </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilson2003">Wilson 2003</a>, p. 95. </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilson2003">Wilson 2003</a>, pp. 96–98. </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFParkinson2002">Parkinson 2002</a>, pp. 66–67. </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFischer-Elfert2003">Fischer-Elfert 2003</a>, pp. 119–121; <a href="#CITEREFParkinson2002">Parkinson 2002</a>, p. 50. </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilson2003">Wilson 2003</a>, pp. 97–98; see <a href="#CITEREFParkinson2002">Parkinson 2002</a>, pp. 53–54; see also <a href="#CITEREFFischer-Elfert2003">Fischer-Elfert 2003</a>, pp. 119–121. </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFParkinson2002">Parkinson 2002</a>, pp. 54–55; see also <a href="#CITEREFMorenz2003">Morenz 2003</a>, p. 104. </li> <li id="cite_note-simpson_1972_5_6-54">^ <a href="#cite_ref-simpson_1972_5_6_54-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-simpson_1972_5_6_54-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSimpson1972">Simpson 1972</a>, pp. 5–6. </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFischer-Elfert2003">Fischer-Elfert 2003</a>, p. 122. </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFParkinson2002">Parkinson 2002</a>, pp. 78–79; for pictures (with captions) of Egyptian miniature funerary models of boats with men reading papyrus texts aloud, see <a href="#CITEREFFormanQuirke1996">Forman & Quirke 1996</a>, pp. 76–77, 83. </li> <li id="cite_note-parkinson_2002_78_79-57">^ <a href="#cite_ref-parkinson_2002_78_79_57-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-parkinson_2002_78_79_57-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-parkinson_2002_78_79_57-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFParkinson2002">Parkinson 2002</a>, pp. 78–79. </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilson2003">Wilson 2003</a>, p. 93. </li> <li id="cite_note-parkinson_2002_80_81-59">^ <a href="#cite_ref-parkinson_2002_80_81_59-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-parkinson_2002_80_81_59-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFParkinson2002">Parkinson 2002</a>, pp. 80–81. </li> <li id="cite_note-forman_quirke_budge-60">^ <a href="#cite_ref-forman_quirke_budge_60-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-forman_quirke_budge_60-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFFormanQuirke1996">Forman & Quirke 1996</a>, pp. 51–56, 62–63, 68–72, 111–112; <a href="#CITEREFBudge1972">Budge 1972</a>, pp. 240–243. </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFParkinson2002">Parkinson 2002</a>, p. 70. </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWente1990">Wente 1990</a>, pp. 1, 9, 132–133. </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWente1990">Wente 1990</a>, p. 9. </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFParkinson2002">Parkinson 2002</a>, pp. 45–46, 49–50, 55–56; <a href="#CITEREFMorenz2003">Morenz 2003</a>, p. 102; see also <a href="#CITEREFSimpson1972">Simpson 1972</a>, pp. 3–6 and <a href="#CITEREFErman2005">Erman 2005</a>, pp. xxiv–xxv. </li> <li id="cite_note-morenz_2003_102-65">^ <a href="#cite_ref-morenz_2003_102_65-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-morenz_2003_102_65-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMorenz2003">Morenz 2003</a>, p. 102. </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFParkinson2002">Parkinson 2002</a>, pp. 45–46, 49–50, 55–56; <a href="#CITEREFMorenz2003">Morenz 2003</a>, p. 102. </li> <li id="cite_note-parkinson_2002_47_48-67">^ <a href="#cite_ref-parkinson_2002_47_48_67-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-parkinson_2002_47_48_67-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFParkinson2002">Parkinson 2002</a>, pp. 47–48. </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFParkinson2002">Parkinson 2002</a>, pp. 45–46; <a href="#CITEREFMorenz2003">Morenz 2003</a>, pp. 103–104. </li> <li id="cite_note-parkinson_2002_46-69"><a href="#cite_ref-parkinson_2002_46_69-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFParkinson2002">Parkinson 2002</a>, p. 46. </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFParkinson2002">Parkinson 2002</a>, pp. 46–47; see also <a href="#CITEREFMorenz2003">Morenz 2003</a>, pp. 101–102. </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMorenz2003">Morenz 2003</a>, pp. 104–107. </li> <li id="cite_note-wente_1990_54_55_58_63-72">^ <a href="#cite_ref-wente_1990_54_55_58_63_72-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-wente_1990_54_55_58_63_72-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWente1990">Wente 1990</a>, pp. 54–55, 58–63. </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFParkinson2002">Parkinson 2002</a>, pp. 75–76. </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFParkinson2002">Parkinson 2002</a>, pp. 75–76; <a href="#CITEREFFischer-Elfert2003">Fischer-Elfert 2003</a>, p. 120. </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTait2003">Tait 2003</a>, pp. 12–13. </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFParkinson2002">Parkinson 2002</a>, pp. 238–239. </li> <li id="cite_note-wente_1990_7-77"><a href="#cite_ref-wente_1990_7_77-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWente1990">Wente 1990</a>, p. 7. </li> <li id="cite_note-wente_1990_17_18-78"><a href="#cite_ref-wente_1990_17_18_78-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWente1990">Wente 1990</a>, pp. 17–18. </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFischer-Elfert2003">Fischer-Elfert 2003</a>, pp. 122–123; <a href="#CITEREFSimpson1972">Simpson 1972</a>, p. 3. </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFischer-Elfert2003">Fischer-Elfert 2003</a>, pp. 122–123; <a href="#CITEREFSimpson1972">Simpson 1972</a>, pp. 5–6; <a href="#CITEREFParkinson2002">Parkinson 2002</a>, p. 110. </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFParkinson2002">Parkinson 2002</a>, pp. 108–109. </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFoster2001">Foster 2001</a>, pp. xv–xvi. </li> <li id="cite_note-foster_2001_xvi-83"><a href="#cite_ref-foster_2001_xvi_83-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFoster2001">Foster 2001</a>, p. xvi. </li> <li id="cite_note-parkinson_2002_110-84">^ <a href="#cite_ref-parkinson_2002_110_84-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-parkinson_2002_110_84-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-parkinson_2002_110_84-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-parkinson_2002_110_84-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFParkinson2002">Parkinson 2002</a>, p. 110. </li> <li id="cite_note-parkinson_2002_110_235-85">^ <a href="#cite_ref-parkinson_2002_110_235_85-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-parkinson_2002_110_235_85-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFParkinson2002">Parkinson 2002</a>, pp. 110, 235. </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFParkinson2002">Parkinson 2002</a>, pp. 236–237. </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFErman2005">Erman 2005</a>, p. 54. </li> <li id="cite_note-loprieno_1996_217-88"><a href="#cite_ref-loprieno_1996_217_88-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLoprieno1996">Loprieno 1996</a>, p. 217. </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSimpson1972">Simpson 1972</a>, p. 6; see also <a href="#CITEREFParkinson2002">Parkinson 2002</a>, pp. 236–238. </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFParkinson2002">Parkinson 2002</a>, pp. 237–238. </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFParkinson2002">Parkinson 2002</a>, pp. 313–319; <a href="#CITEREFSimpson1972">Simpson 1972</a>, pp. 159–200, 241–268. </li> <li id="cite_note-parkinson_2002_235_236-92">^ <a href="#cite_ref-parkinson_2002_235_236_92-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-parkinson_2002_235_236_92-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-parkinson_2002_235_236_92-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-parkinson_2002_235_236_92-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFParkinson2002">Parkinson 2002</a>, pp. 235–236. </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFParkinson2002">Parkinson 2002</a>, pp. 313–315; <a href="#CITEREFSimpson1972">Simpson 1972</a>, pp. 159–177. </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFParkinson2002">Parkinson 2002</a>, pp. 318–319. </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFParkinson2002">Parkinson 2002</a>, pp. 313–314, 315–317; <a href="#CITEREFSimpson1972">Simpson 1972</a>, pp. 180, 193. </li> <li id="cite_note-simpson_1972_241-96"><a href="#cite_ref-simpson_1972_241_96-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSimpson1972">Simpson 1972</a>, p. 241. </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFParkinson2002">Parkinson 2002</a>, pp. 295–296. </li> <li id="cite_note-parkinson_2002_109-98">^ <a href="#cite_ref-parkinson_2002_109_98-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-parkinson_2002_109_98-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-parkinson_2002_109_98-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFParkinson2002">Parkinson 2002</a>, p. 109. </li> <li id="cite_note-fischer_elfert_2003_120-99"><a href="#cite_ref-fischer_elfert_2003_120_99-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFischer-Elfert2003">Fischer-Elfert 2003</a>, p. 120. </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFParkinson2002">Parkinson 2002</a>, pp. 294–299; <a href="#CITEREFSimpson1972">Simpson 1972</a>, pp. 15–76; <a href="#CITEREFErman2005">Erman 2005</a>, pp. 14–52. </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSimpson1972">Simpson 1972</a>, pp. 77–158; <a href="#CITEREFErman2005">Erman 2005</a>, pp. 150–175. </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGozzoli2006">Gozzoli 2006</a>, pp. 247–249; for another source on the Famine Stela, see <a href="#CITEREFLichtheim1980">Lichtheim 1980</a>, pp. 94–95. </li> <li id="cite_note-morenz_2003_102_104-103">^ <a href="#cite_ref-morenz_2003_102_104_103-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-morenz_2003_102_104_103-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMorenz2003">Morenz 2003</a>, pp. 102–104. </li> <li id="cite_note-parkinson_2002_297_298-104"><a href="#cite_ref-parkinson_2002_297_298_104-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFParkinson2002">Parkinson 2002</a>, pp. 297–298. </li> <li id="cite_note-simpson_1972_57-105"><a href="#cite_ref-simpson_1972_57_105-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSimpson1972">Simpson 1972</a>, p. 57. </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSimpson1972">Simpson 1972</a>, p. 50; see also <a href="#CITEREFFoster2001">Foster 2001</a>, p. 8. </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFoster2001">Foster 2001</a>, p. 8. </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSimpson1972">Simpson 1972</a>, pp. 81, 85, 87, 142; <a href="#CITEREFErman2005">Erman 2005</a>, pp. 174–175. </li> <li id="cite_note-simpson_1972_57_parkinson_2002_297_298-109">^ <a href="#cite_ref-simpson_1972_57_parkinson_2002_297_298_109-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-simpson_1972_57_parkinson_2002_297_298_109-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSimpson1972">Simpson 1972</a>, p. 57 states that there are two Middle-Kingdom manuscripts for Sinuhe, while the updated work of <a href="#CITEREFParkinson2002">Parkinson 2002</a>, pp. 297–298 mentions five manuscripts. </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSimpson1972">Simpson 1972</a>, pp. 6–7; <a href="#CITEREFParkinson2002">Parkinson 2002</a>, pp. 110, 193; for "apocalyptic" designation, see <a href="#CITEREFGozzoli2006">Gozzoli 2006</a>, p. 283. </li> <li id="cite_note-morenz_2003_103-111"><a href="#cite_ref-morenz_2003_103_111-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMorenz2003">Morenz 2003</a>, p. 103. </li> <li id="cite_note-simpson_1972_6_7-112"><a href="#cite_ref-simpson_1972_6_7_112-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSimpson1972">Simpson 1972</a>, pp. 6–7. </li> <li id="cite_note-parkinson_2002_232_233-113"><a href="#cite_ref-parkinson_2002_232_233_113-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFParkinson2002">Parkinson 2002</a>, pp. 232–233. </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGozzoli2006">Gozzoli 2006</a>, pp. 283–304; see also <a href="#CITEREFParkinson2002">Parkinson 2002</a>, p. 233, who alludes to this genre being revived in periods after the Middle Kingdom and cites Depauw (1997: 97–9), Frankfurter (1998: 241–8), and Bresciani (1999). </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSimpson1972">Simpson 1972</a>, pp. 7–8; <a href="#CITEREFParkinson2002">Parkinson 2002</a>, pp. 110–111. </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFParkinson2002">Parkinson 2002</a>, pp. 45–46, 49–50, 303–304. </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSimpson1972">Simpson 1972</a>, p. 234. </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFParkinson2002">Parkinson 2002</a>, pp. 197–198, 303–304; <a href="#CITEREFSimpson1972">Simpson 1972</a>, p. 234; <a href="#CITEREFErman2005">Erman 2005</a>, p. 110. </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGozzoli2006">Gozzoli 2006</a>, pp. 301–302. </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFParkinson2002">Parkinson 2002</a>, pp. 308–309; <a href="#CITEREFSimpson1972">Simpson 1972</a>, pp. 201, 210. </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFParkinson2002">Parkinson 2002</a>, pp. 111, 308–309. </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFParkinson2002">Parkinson 2002</a>, p. 308; <a href="#CITEREFSimpson1972">Simpson 1972</a>, p. 210; <a href="#CITEREFErman2005">Erman 2005</a>, pp. 92–93. </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFParkinson2002">Parkinson 2002</a>, p. 309; <a href="#CITEREFSimpson1972">Simpson 1972</a>, p. 201; <a href="#CITEREFErman2005">Erman 2005</a>, p. 86. </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBardShubert1999">Bard & Shubert 1999</a>, p. 674. </li> <li id="cite_note-forman_quirke_48_51_simpson_4_5_269_erman_1_2-125">^ <a href="#cite_ref-forman_quirke_48_51_simpson_4_5_269_erman_1_2_125-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-forman_quirke_48_51_simpson_4_5_269_erman_1_2_125-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-forman_quirke_48_51_simpson_4_5_269_erman_1_2_125-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFFormanQuirke1996">Forman & Quirke 1996</a>, pp. 48–51; <a href="#CITEREFSimpson1972">Simpson 1972</a>, pp. 4–5, 269; <a href="#CITEREFErman2005">Erman 2005</a>, pp. 1–2. </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFormanQuirke1996">Forman & Quirke 1996</a>, pp. 116–117. </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFormanQuirke1996">Forman & Quirke 1996</a>, pp. 65–109. </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFormanQuirke1996">Forman & Quirke 1996</a>, pp. 109–165. </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSimpson1972">Simpson 1972</a>, p. 285. </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFErman2005">Erman 2005</a>, p. 140. </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFErman2005">Erman 2005</a>, pp. 254–274. </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFErman2005">Erman 2005</a>, pp. 137–146, 281–305. </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFErman2005">Erman 2005</a>, p. 10. </li> <li id="cite_note-simpson_279_erman_134-134">^ <a href="#cite_ref-simpson_279_erman_134_134-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-simpson_279_erman_134_134-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSimpson1972">Simpson 1972</a>, p. 279; <a href="#CITEREFErman2005">Erman 2005</a>, p. 134. </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFErman2005">Erman 2005</a>, p. 134. </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSimpson1972">Simpson 1972</a>, p. 297; <a href="#CITEREFErman2005">Erman 2005</a>, pp. 132–133. </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFErman2005">Erman 2005</a>, pp. 288–289; <a href="#CITEREFFoster2001">Foster 2001</a>, p. 1. </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSimpson1972">Simpson 1972</a>, p. 289. </li> <li id="cite_note-tait_2003_10-139"><a href="#cite_ref-tait_2003_10_139-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTait2003">Tait 2003</a>, p. 10. </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLichtheim1980">Lichtheim 1980</a>, p. 104. </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSimpson1972">Simpson 1972</a>, pp. 7, 296–297; <a href="#CITEREFErman2005">Erman 2005</a>, pp. 242–243; see also <a href="#CITEREFFoster2001">Foster 2001</a>, p. 17. </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFErman2005">Erman 2005</a>, pp. 242–243. </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWente1990">Wente 1990</a>, pp. 2, 4–5. </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilson2003">Wilson 2003</a>, pp. 91–92; <a href="#CITEREFWente1990">Wente 1990</a>, pp. 5–6. </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFErman2005">Erman 2005</a>, p. 198; see also <a href="#CITEREFLichtheim2006">Lichtheim 2006</a>, p. 167. </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFErman2005">Erman 2005</a>, pp. 198, 205. </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFErman2005">Erman 2005</a>, p. 205. </li> <li id="cite_note-wente_1990_54-148"><a href="#cite_ref-wente_1990_54_148-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWente1990">Wente 1990</a>, p. 54. </li> <li id="cite_note-wente_1990_15_54-149"><a href="#cite_ref-wente_1990_15_54_149-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWente1990">Wente 1990</a>, pp. 15, 54. </li> <li id="cite_note-wente_1990_15-150"><a href="#cite_ref-wente_1990_15_150-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWente1990">Wente 1990</a>, p. 15. </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWente1990">Wente 1990</a>, p. 55. </li> <li id="cite_note-wente_1990_68-152"><a href="#cite_ref-wente_1990_68_152-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWente1990">Wente 1990</a>, p. 68. </li> <li id="cite_note-wente_1990_89-153"><a href="#cite_ref-wente_1990_89_153-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWente1990">Wente 1990</a>, p. 89. </li> <li id="cite_note-wente_1990_210-154"><a href="#cite_ref-wente_1990_210_154-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWente1990">Wente 1990</a>, p. 210. </li> <li id="cite_note-wente_1990_98-155"><a href="#cite_ref-wente_1990_98_155-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWente1990">Wente 1990</a>, p. 98. </li> <li id="cite_note-wente_1990_98_99-156">^ <a href="#cite_ref-wente_1990_98_99_156-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-wente_1990_98_99_156-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-wente_1990_98_99_156-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFWente1990">Wente 1990</a>, pp. 98–99. </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFParke2002">Parke 2002</a>, pp. xxi, 1–2. </li> <li id="cite_note-parke_2002_1_2-158">^ <a href="#cite_ref-parke_2002_1_2_158-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-parke_2002_1_2_158-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFParke2002">Parke 2002</a>, pp. 1–2. </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPerdu1995">Perdu 1995</a>, p. 2243. </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGreenstein1995">Greenstein 1995</a>, p. 2421. </li> <li id="cite_note-koosed_2006_29-161">^ <a href="#cite_ref-koosed_2006_29_161-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-koosed_2006_29_161-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-koosed_2006_29_161-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFKoosed2006">Koosed 2006</a>, p. 29. </li> <li id="cite_note-koosed_2006_28_29-162">^ <a href="#cite_ref-koosed_2006_28_29_162-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-koosed_2006_28_29_162-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFKoosed2006">Koosed 2006</a>, pp. 28–29. </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBreasted1962">Breasted 1962</a>, pp. 5–6; see also <a href="#CITEREFFoster2001">Foster 2001</a>, p. xv. </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBreasted1962">Breasted 1962</a>, pp. 5–6; see also <a href="#CITEREFBardShubert1999">Bard & Shubert 1999</a>, pp. 36–37. </li> <li id="cite_note-breasted_1962_5_6-165"><a href="#cite_ref-breasted_1962_5_6_165-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBreasted1962">Breasted 1962</a>, pp. 5–6. </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLichtheim2006">Lichtheim 2006</a>, p. 11. </li> <li id="cite_note-lichtheim_1980_5-167"><a href="#cite_ref-lichtheim_1980_5_167-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLichtheim1980">Lichtheim 1980</a>, p. 5. </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLichtheim1980">Lichtheim 1980</a>, p. 6. </li> <li id="cite_note-Gozzoli_2006_1_8-169"><a href="#cite_ref-Gozzoli_2006_1_8_169-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGozzoli2006">Gozzoli 2006</a>, pp. 1–8. </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBreasted1962">Breasted 1962</a>, pp. 12–13. </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSeters1997">Seters 1997</a>, p. 147. </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLichtheim2006">Lichtheim 2006</a>, p. 6. </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGozzoli2006">Gozzoli 2006</a>, pp. 1–8; <a href="#CITEREFBrewerTeeter1999">Brewer & Teeter 1999</a>, pp. 27–28; <a href="#CITEREFBardShubert1999">Bard & Shubert 1999</a>, p. 36. </li> <li id="cite_note-bard_shubert_1999_36-174">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bard_shubert_1999_36_174-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-bard_shubert_1999_36_174-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBardShubert1999">Bard & Shubert 1999</a>, p. 36. </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLichtheim1980">Lichtheim 1980</a>, p. 7; <a href="#CITEREFBardShubert1999">Bard & Shubert 1999</a>, p. 36. </li> <li id="cite_note-lichtheim_1980_7-176"><a href="#cite_ref-lichtheim_1980_7_176-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLichtheim1980">Lichtheim 1980</a>, p. 7. </li> <li id="cite_note-gozzoli_2006_191_225_brewer_teeter_1999_27_28_lichtheim_1980_7-177">^ <a href="#cite_ref-gozzoli_2006_191_225_brewer_teeter_1999_27_28_lichtheim_1980_7_177-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-gozzoli_2006_191_225_brewer_teeter_1999_27_28_lichtheim_1980_7_177-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFGozzoli2006">Gozzoli 2006</a>, pp. 8, 191–225; <a href="#CITEREFBrewerTeeter1999">Brewer & Teeter 1999</a>, pp. 27–28; <a href="#CITEREFLichtheim1980">Lichtheim 1980</a>, p. 7. </li> <li id="cite_note-fischer_elfert_2003_133-178">^ <a href="#cite_ref-fischer_elfert_2003_133_178-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-fischer_elfert_2003_133_178-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-fischer_elfert_2003_133_178-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFFischer-Elfert2003">Fischer-Elfert 2003</a>, p. 133. </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFischer-Elfert2003">Fischer-Elfert 2003</a>, p. 131. </li> <li id="cite_note-fischer_elfert_2003_132-180">^ <a href="#cite_ref-fischer_elfert_2003_132_180-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-fischer_elfert_2003_132_180-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFFischer-Elfert2003">Fischer-Elfert 2003</a>, p. 132. </li> <li id="cite_note-fischer_elfert_2003_132_133-181"><a href="#cite_ref-fischer_elfert_2003_132_133_181-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFischer-Elfert2003">Fischer-Elfert 2003</a>, pp. 132–133. </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBardShubert1999">Bard & Shubert 1999</a>, p. 76. </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSimpson1972">Simpson 1972</a>, p. 81. </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMokhtar1990">Mokhtar 1990</a>, pp. 116–117; <a href="#CITEREFSimpson1972">Simpson 1972</a>, p. 81. </li> <li id="cite_note-mokhtar_1990_116_117-185"><a href="#cite_ref-mokhtar_1990_116_117_185-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMokhtar1990">Mokhtar 1990</a>, pp. 116–117. </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGozzoli2006">Gozzoli 2006</a>, pp. 192–193, 224. </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilson2003">Wilson 2003</a>, pp. 104–105; <a href="#CITEREFFoster2001">Foster 2001</a>, pp. xiv–xv. </li> <li id="cite_note-wilson_2003_104_105-188">^ <a href="#cite_ref-wilson_2003_104_105_188-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-wilson_2003_104_105_188-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-wilson_2003_104_105_188-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-wilson_2003_104_105_188-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilson2003">Wilson 2003</a>, pp. 104–105. </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllen2000">Allen 2000</a>, p. 8 </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllen2000">Allen 2000</a>, pp. 8–9<a href="#CITEREFThompson2015">Thompson 2015</a>, p. 123 </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGardiner1915">Gardiner 1915</a>, p. 62 </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBierbrier2012">Bierbrier 2012</a>, p. 476 </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLoprieno1996">Loprieno 1996</a>, pp. 211–212. </li> <li id="cite_note-loprieno_1996_212_213-194">^ <a href="#cite_ref-loprieno_1996_212_213_194-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-loprieno_1996_212_213_194-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-loprieno_1996_212_213_194-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFLoprieno1996">Loprieno 1996</a>, pp. 212–213. </li> <li id="cite_note-loprieno_1996_211_213-195"><a href="#cite_ref-loprieno_1996_211_213_195-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLoprieno1996">Loprieno 1996</a>, pp. 211, 213. </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Egyptian_literature&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllen2000" class="citation cs2">Allen, James P. (2000), Middle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-65312-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-65312-6"><bdi>0-521-65312-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Middle+Egyptian%3A+An+Introduction+to+the+Language+and+Culture+of+Hieroglyphs&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-521-65312-6&rft.aulast=Allen&rft.aufirst=James+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egyptian+literature" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBardShubert1999" class="citation cs2">Bard, Katherine A.; Shubert, Steven Blake (1999), Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt, New York and London: Routledge, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-18589-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-18589-0"><bdi>0-415-18589-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Archaeology+of+Ancient+Egypt&rft.place=New+York+and+London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-415-18589-0&rft.aulast=Bard&rft.aufirst=Katherine+A.&rft.au=Shubert%2C+Steven+Blake&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egyptian+literature" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBierbrier2012" class="citation cs2">Bierbrier, Morris L., ed. (2012), Who Was Who in Egyptology, 4th Revised Edition, London: Egypt Exploration Society, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85698-207-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85698-207-1"><bdi>978-0-85698-207-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Who+Was+Who+in+Egyptology%2C+4th+Revised+Edition&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Egypt+Exploration+Society&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-85698-207-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egyptian+literature" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBreasted1962" class="citation cs2">Breasted, James Henry (1962), Ancient Records of Egypt: Vol. I, The First to the Seventeenth Dynasties, & Vol. II, the Eighteenth Dynasty, New York: Russell & Russell, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8462-0134-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8462-0134-8"><bdi>0-8462-0134-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Records+of+Egypt%3A+Vol.+I%2C+The+First+to+the+Seventeenth+Dynasties%2C+%26+Vol.+II%2C+the+Eighteenth+Dynasty&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Russell+%26+Russell&rft.date=1962&rft.isbn=0-8462-0134-8&rft.aulast=Breasted&rft.aufirst=James+Henry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egyptian+literature" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrewerTeeter1999" class="citation cs2">Brewer, Douglas J.; Teeter, Emily (1999), Egypt and the Egyptians, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-44518-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-44518-3"><bdi>0-521-44518-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Egypt+and+the+Egyptians&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-521-44518-3&rft.aulast=Brewer&rft.aufirst=Douglas+J.&rft.au=Teeter%2C+Emily&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egyptian+literature" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBudge1972" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/E._A._Wallis_Budge" title="E. A. Wallis Budge">Budge, E. A. Wallis</a> (1972), The Dwellers on the Nile: Chapters on the Life, History, Religion, and Literature of the Ancient Egyptians, New York: Benjamin Blom</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dwellers+on+the+Nile%3A+Chapters+on+the+Life%2C+History%2C+Religion%2C+and+Literature+of+the+Ancient+Egyptians&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Benjamin+Blom&rft.date=1972&rft.aulast=Budge&rft.aufirst=E.+A.+Wallis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egyptian+literature" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFErman2005" class="citation cs2">Erman, Adolf (2005), Ancient Egyptian Literature: A Collection of Poems, Narratives and Manuals of Instructions from the Third and Second Millennia BC, translated by Aylward M. Blackman, New York: Kegan Paul, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7103-0964-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-7103-0964-3"><bdi>0-7103-0964-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Egyptian+Literature%3A+A+Collection+of+Poems%2C+Narratives+and+Manuals+of+Instructions+from+the+Third+and+Second+Millennia+BC&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Kegan+Paul&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-7103-0964-3&rft.aulast=Erman&rft.aufirst=Adolf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egyptian+literature" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFischer-Elfert2003" class="citation cs2">Fischer-Elfert, Hans-W. (2003), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/neverhadlikeoccu0000unse/page/119">"Representations of the Past in the New Kingdom Literature"</a>, in Tait, John W. (ed.), 'Never Had the Like Occurred': Egypt's View of Its Past, London: University College London, Institute of Archaeology, an imprint of Cavendish Publishing Limited, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/neverhadlikeoccu0000unse/page/119">119–138</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84472-007-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-84472-007-1"><bdi>1-84472-007-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Representations+of+the+Past+in+the+New+Kingdom+Literature&rft.btitle=%27Never+Had+the+Like+Occurred%27%3A+Egypt%27s+View+of+Its+Past&rft.place=London&rft.pages=119-138&rft.pub=University+College+London%2C+Institute+of+Archaeology%2C+an+imprint+of+Cavendish+Publishing+Limited&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=1-84472-007-1&rft.aulast=Fischer-Elfert&rft.aufirst=Hans-W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fneverhadlikeoccu0000unse%2Fpage%2F119&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egyptian+literature" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFormanQuirke1996" class="citation cs2">Forman, Werner; Quirke, Stephen (1996), Hieroglyphs and the Afterlife in Ancient Egypt, Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8061-2751-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-8061-2751-1"><bdi>0-8061-2751-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hieroglyphs+and+the+Afterlife+in+Ancient+Egypt&rft.place=Norman&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-8061-2751-1&rft.aulast=Forman&rft.aufirst=Werner&rft.au=Quirke%2C+Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egyptian+literature" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoster2001" class="citation cs2">Foster, John Lawrence (2001), Ancient Egyptian Literature: An Anthology, Austin: University of Texas Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-292-72527-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-292-72527-2"><bdi>0-292-72527-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Egyptian+Literature%3A+An+Anthology&rft.place=Austin&rft.pub=University+of+Texas+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-292-72527-2&rft.aulast=Foster&rft.aufirst=John+Lawrence&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egyptian+literature" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGardiner1915" class="citation cs2">Gardiner, Alan H. (1915), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zenodo.org/record/1449856">"The Nature and Development of the Egyptian Hieroglyphic Writing"</a>, The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, 2 (2): 61–75, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3853896">10.2307/3853896</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3853896">3853896</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Egyptian+Archaeology&rft.atitle=The+Nature+and+Development+of+the+Egyptian+Hieroglyphic+Writing&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=61-75&rft.date=1915&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3853896&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3853896%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Gardiner&rft.aufirst=Alan+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F1449856&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egyptian+literature" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGozzoli2006" class="citation cs2">Gozzoli, Roberto B. (2006), The Writings of History in Ancient Egypt during the First Millennium BC (ca. 1070–180 BC): Trends and Perspectives, London: Golden House Publications, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9550256-3-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-9550256-3-X"><bdi>0-9550256-3-X</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Writings+of+History+in+Ancient+Egypt+during+the+First+Millennium+BC+%28ca.+1070%E2%80%93180+BC%29%3A+Trends+and+Perspectives&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Golden+House+Publications&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-9550256-3-X&rft.aulast=Gozzoli&rft.aufirst=Roberto+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egyptian+literature" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreenstein1995" class="citation cs2">Greenstein, Edward L. (1995), "Autobiographies in Ancient Western Asia", Civilizations of the Ancient Near East, New York: Scribner, pp. 2421–2432</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Autobiographies+in+Ancient+Western+Asia&rft.btitle=Civilizations+of+the+Ancient+Near+East&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=2421-2432&rft.pub=Scribner&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Greenstein&rft.aufirst=Edward+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egyptian+literature" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoosed2006" class="citation cs2">Koosed, Jennifer L. (2006), (Per)mutations of Qohelet: Reading the Body in the Book, New York and London: T & T Clark International (Continuum imprint), <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-567-02632-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-567-02632-9"><bdi>0-567-02632-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%28Per%29mutations+of+Qohelet%3A+Reading+the+Body+in+the+Book&rft.place=New+York+and+London&rft.pub=T+%26+T+Clark+International+%28Continuum+imprint%29&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-567-02632-9&rft.aulast=Koosed&rft.aufirst=Jennifer+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egyptian+literature" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLichtheim1980" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Miriam_Lichtheim" title="Miriam Lichtheim">Lichtheim, Miriam</a> (1980), Ancient Egyptian Literature: Volume III: The Late Period, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-04020-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-04020-1"><bdi>0-520-04020-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Egyptian+Literature%3A+Volume+III%3A+The+Late+Period&rft.place=Berkeley+and+Los+Angeles&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=0-520-04020-1&rft.aulast=Lichtheim&rft.aufirst=Miriam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egyptian+literature" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLichtheim2006" class="citation cs2">Lichtheim, Miriam (2006), Ancient Egyptian Literature: Volume II: The New Kingdom, with a new foreword by Hans-W. Fischer-Elfert, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-24843-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-24843-0"><bdi>0-520-24843-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Egyptian+Literature%3A+Volume+II%3A+The+New+Kingdom&rft.place=Berkeley+and+Los+Angeles&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-520-24843-0&rft.aulast=Lichtheim&rft.aufirst=Miriam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egyptian+literature" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLoprieno1996" class="citation cs2">Loprieno, Antonio (1996), "Defining Egyptian Literature: Ancient Texts and Modern Literary Theory", in Cooper, Jerrold S.; Schwartz, Glenn M. (eds.), The Study of the Ancient Near East in the 21st Century, The William Foxwell Albright Centennial Conference, Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns, pp. 209–250, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-931464-96-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-931464-96-X"><bdi>0-931464-96-X</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Defining+Egyptian+Literature%3A+Ancient+Texts+and+Modern+Literary+Theory&rft.btitle=The+Study+of+the+Ancient+Near+East+in+the+21st+Century&rft.place=Winona+Lake%2C+Indiana&rft.series=The+William+Foxwell+Albright+Centennial+Conference&rft.pages=209-250&rft.pub=Eisenbrauns&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-931464-96-X&rft.aulast=Loprieno&rft.aufirst=Antonio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egyptian+literature" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMokhtar1990" class="citation cs2">Mokhtar, G. (1990), General History of Africa II: Ancient Civilizations of Africa (Abridged ed.), Berkeley: University of California Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/92-3-102585-6" title="Special:BookSources/92-3-102585-6"><bdi>92-3-102585-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=General+History+of+Africa+II%3A+Ancient+Civilizations+of+Africa&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.edition=Abridged&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=92-3-102585-6&rft.aulast=Mokhtar&rft.aufirst=G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egyptian+literature" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorenz2003" class="citation cs2">Morenz, Ludwid D. (2003), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/neverhadlikeoccu0000unse/page/101">"Literature as a Construction of the Past in the Middle Kingdom"</a>, in Tait, John W. (ed.), 'Never Had the Like Occurred': Egypt's View of Its Past, translated by Martin Worthington, London: University College London, Institute of Archaeology, an imprint of Cavendish Publishing Limited, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/neverhadlikeoccu0000unse/page/101">101–118</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84472-007-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-84472-007-1"><bdi>1-84472-007-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Literature+as+a+Construction+of+the+Past+in+the+Middle+Kingdom&rft.btitle=%27Never+Had+the+Like+Occurred%27%3A+Egypt%27s+View+of+Its+Past&rft.place=London&rft.pages=101-118&rft.pub=University+College+London%2C+Institute+of+Archaeology%2C+an+imprint+of+Cavendish+Publishing+Limited&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=1-84472-007-1&rft.aulast=Morenz&rft.aufirst=Ludwid+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fneverhadlikeoccu0000unse%2Fpage%2F101&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egyptian+literature" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParke2002" class="citation cs2">Parke, Catherine Neal (2002), Biography: Writing Lives, New York and London: Routledge, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-93892-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-93892-9"><bdi>0-415-93892-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Biography%3A+Writing+Lives&rft.place=New+York+and+London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-415-93892-9&rft.aulast=Parke&rft.aufirst=Catherine+Neal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egyptian+literature" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParkinson2002" class="citation cs2">Parkinson, R. B. (2002), Poetry and Culture in Middle Kingdom Egypt: A Dark Side to Perfection, London: Continuum, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8264-5637-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-8264-5637-5"><bdi>0-8264-5637-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Poetry+and+Culture+in+Middle+Kingdom+Egypt%3A+A+Dark+Side+to+Perfection&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Continuum&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-8264-5637-5&rft.aulast=Parkinson&rft.aufirst=R.+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egyptian+literature" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFQuirke2004" class="citation cs2">Quirke, S. (2004), Egyptian Literature 1800 BC, questions and readings, London: Golden House Publications, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9547218-6-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-9547218-6-1"><bdi>0-9547218-6-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Egyptian+Literature+1800+BC%2C+questions+and+readings&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Golden+House+Publications&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-9547218-6-1&rft.aulast=Quirke&rft.aufirst=S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egyptian+literature" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerdu1995" class="citation cs2">Perdu, Olivier (1995), "Ancient Egyptian Autobiographies", in Sasson, Jack (ed.), Civilizations of the Ancient Near East, New York: Scribner, pp. 2243–2254</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ancient+Egyptian+Autobiographies&rft.btitle=Civilizations+of+the+Ancient+Near+East&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=2243-2254&rft.pub=Scribner&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Perdu&rft.aufirst=Olivier&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egyptian+literature" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeters1997" class="citation cs2">Seters, John Van (1997), In Search of History: Historiography in the Ancient World and the Origins of Biblical History, New Haven: Yale University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57506-013-2" title="Special:BookSources/1-57506-013-2"><bdi>1-57506-013-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+Search+of+History%3A+Historiography+in+the+Ancient+World+and+the+Origins+of+Biblical+History&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=1-57506-013-2&rft.aulast=Seters&rft.aufirst=John+Van&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egyptian+literature" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimpson1972" class="citation cs2">Simpson, William Kelly (1972), Simpson, William Kelly (ed.), The Literature of Ancient Egypt: An Anthology of Stories, Instructions, and Poetry, translations by R.O. Faulkner, Edward F. Wente, Jr., and William Kelly Simpson, New Haven and London: Yale University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-01482-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-01482-1"><bdi>0-300-01482-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Literature+of+Ancient+Egypt%3A+An+Anthology+of+Stories%2C+Instructions%2C+and+Poetry&rft.place=New+Haven+and+London&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=0-300-01482-1&rft.aulast=Simpson&rft.aufirst=William+Kelly&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egyptian+literature" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpalinger1990" class="citation cs2">Spalinger, Anthony (1990), "The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus as a Historical Document", Studien zur Altägyptischen Kultur, 17: 295–337</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Studien+zur+Alt%C3%A4gyptischen+Kultur&rft.atitle=The+Rhind+Mathematical+Papyrus+as+a+Historical+Document&rft.volume=17&rft.pages=295-337&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=Spalinger&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egyptian+literature" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTait2003" class="citation cs2">Tait, John W. (2003), "Introduction—'...Since the Time of the Gods'", in Tait, John (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/neverhadlikeoccu0000unse/page/1">'Never Had the Like Occurred': Egypt's View of Its Past</a>, London: University College London, Institute of Archaeology, an imprint of Cavendish Publishing Limited, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/neverhadlikeoccu0000unse/page/1">1–14</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84472-007-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-84472-007-1"><bdi>1-84472-007-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction%E2%80%94%27...Since+the+Time+of+the+Gods%27&rft.btitle=%27Never+Had+the+Like+Occurred%27%3A+Egypt%27s+View+of+Its+Past&rft.place=London&rft.pages=1-14&rft.pub=University+College+London%2C+Institute+of+Archaeology%2C+an+imprint+of+Cavendish+Publishing+Limited&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=1-84472-007-1&rft.aulast=Tait&rft.aufirst=John+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fneverhadlikeoccu0000unse%2Fpage%2F1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egyptian+literature" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThompson2015" class="citation cs2">Thompson, Jason (2015), Wonderful Things: A History of Egyptology, 1. From Antiquity to 1881, Cairo and New York: American University in Cairo Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-977-416-599-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-977-416-599-3"><bdi>978-977-416-599-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wonderful+Things%3A+A+History+of+Egyptology%2C+1.+From+Antiquity+to+1881&rft.place=Cairo+and+New+York&rft.pub=American+University+in+Cairo+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-977-416-599-3&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=Jason&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egyptian+literature" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWente1990" class="citation cs2">Wente, Edward F. (1990), Meltzer, Edmund S. (ed.), Letters from Ancient Egypt, translated by Edward F. Wente, Atlanta: Scholars Press, Society of Biblical Literature, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55540-472-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-55540-472-3"><bdi>1-55540-472-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Letters+from+Ancient+Egypt&rft.place=Atlanta&rft.pub=Scholars+Press%2C+Society+of+Biblical+Literature&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=1-55540-472-3&rft.aulast=Wente&rft.aufirst=Edward+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egyptian+literature" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWildung2003" class="citation cs2">Wildung, Dietrich (2003), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/neverhadlikeoccu0000unse/page/61">"Looking Back into the Future: The Middle Kingdom as a Bridge to the Past"</a>, in Tait, John (ed.), 'Never Had the Like Occurred': Egypt's View of Its Past, London: University College London, Institute of Archaeology, an imprint of Cavendish Publishing Limited, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/neverhadlikeoccu0000unse/page/61">61–78</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84472-007-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-84472-007-1"><bdi>1-84472-007-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Looking+Back+into+the+Future%3A+The+Middle+Kingdom+as+a+Bridge+to+the+Past&rft.btitle=%27Never+Had+the+Like+Occurred%27%3A+Egypt%27s+View+of+Its+Past&rft.place=London&rft.pages=61-78&rft.pub=University+College+London%2C+Institute+of+Archaeology%2C+an+imprint+of+Cavendish+Publishing+Limited&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=1-84472-007-1&rft.aulast=Wildung&rft.aufirst=Dietrich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fneverhadlikeoccu0000unse%2Fpage%2F61&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egyptian+literature" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilkinson2000" class="citation cs2">Wilkinson, Toby A. H. (2000), "What a King Is This: Narmer and the Concept of the Ruler", The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, 86: 23–32, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3822303">10.2307/3822303</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3822303">3822303</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Egyptian+Archaeology&rft.atitle=What+a+King+Is+This%3A+Narmer+and+the+Concept+of+the+Ruler&rft.volume=86&rft.pages=23-32&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3822303&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3822303%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Wilkinson&rft.aufirst=Toby+A.+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egyptian+literature" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilson2003" class="citation cs2">Wilson, Penelope (2003), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sacredsignshiero0000wils">Sacred Signs: Hieroglyphs in Ancient Egypt</a>, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-280299-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-280299-2"><bdi>0-19-280299-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sacred+Signs%3A+Hieroglyphs+in+Ancient+Egypt&rft.place=Oxford+and+New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-19-280299-2&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=Penelope&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsacredsignshiero0000wils&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egyptian+literature" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilson2004" class="citation cs2">Wilson, Penelope (2004), Hieroglyphs: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-280502-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-280502-9"><bdi>0-19-280502-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hieroglyphs%3A+A+Very+Short+Introduction&rft.place=Oxford+and+New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-19-280502-9&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=Penelope&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Egyptian+literature" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Egyptian_literature&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 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Egypt</a> (by <a href="/wiki/Fordham_University" title="Fordham University">Fordham University</a>, NY)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ancient-egypt.org/index.html">The Language of Ancient Egypt</a> (by Belgian Egyptologist Jacques Kinnaer)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wisdomlib.org/egypt/book/the-literature-of-the-ancient-egyptians/index.html">Book: Literature of the Ancient Egyptians, Readable HTML format</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/15932/15932-h/15932-h.htm#Pg_37">The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Literature of the Ancient Egyptians</a> (E. A. Wallis Budge)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090423133312/http://www.utexas.edu/utpress/excerpts/exfosanc.html">University of Texas Press – Ancient Egyptian Literature: An Anthology (2001)</a> (The entire preface, by John L. Foster)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding-left:81px"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_agriculture" title="Ancient Egyptian agriculture">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_architecture" title="Ancient Egyptian architecture">Architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Revival_architecture" title="Egyptian Revival architecture">Revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Egyptian_obelisks" title="List of Egyptian obelisks">Obelisks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pylon_(architecture)" title="Pylon (architecture)">Pylon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Art of ancient Egypt">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Portraiture_in_ancient_Egypt" title="Portraiture in ancient Egypt">Portraiture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_astronomy" title="Egyptian astronomy">Astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_chronology" title="Egyptian chronology">Chronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_in_ancient_Egypt" title="Urban planning in ancient Egypt">Cities</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Egyptian_towns_and_cities" title="List of ancient Egyptian towns and cities">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clothing_in_ancient_Egypt" title="Clothing in ancient Egypt">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy" title="Ancient Egyptian race controversy">Ancient Egyptian race controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_history_of_Egypt" title="Population history of Egypt">Population history of Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Egypt" title="Prehistoric Egypt">Prehistoric Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_cuisine" title="Ancient Egyptian cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dance_in_ancient_Egypt" title="Dance in ancient Egypt">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynasties_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Dynasties of ancient Egypt">Dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_funerary_practices" title="Ancient Egyptian funerary practices">Funerary practices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Geography_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Category:Geography of ancient Egypt">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Royal_Wife" title="Great Royal Wife">Great Royal Wives</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Egyptian_royal_consorts" title="List of ancient Egyptian royal consorts">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">Hieroglyphs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cursive_hieroglyphs" title="Cursive hieroglyphs">Cursive hieroglyphs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_Egypt" title="History of ancient Egypt">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_language" title="Egyptian language">Language</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demotic_(Egyptian)" title="Demotic (Egyptian)">Demotic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hieratic" title="Hieratic">Hieratic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_mathematics" title="Ancient Egyptian mathematics">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_medicine" title="Ancient Egyptian medicine">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Military of ancient Egypt">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Egypt" title="Music of Egypt">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_mythology" title="Egyptian mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Egyptians" title="List of ancient Egyptians">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharaoh" title="Pharaoh">Pharaohs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pharaohs" title="List of pharaohs">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_royal_titulary" title="Ancient Egyptian royal titulary">Titulary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_pottery" title="Ancient Egyptian pottery">Pottery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_religion" title="Ancient Egyptian religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Egyptian_scribes" title="List of ancient Egyptian scribes">Scribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Egyptian_sites" title="List of ancient Egyptian sites">Sites</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_historical_capitals_of_Egypt" title="List of historical capitals of Egypt">Capitals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nome_(Egypt)" title="Nome (Egypt)">District</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_technology" title="Ancient Egyptian technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_trade" title="Ancient Egyptian trade">Trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia_relations" title="Egypt–Mesopotamia relations">Egypt–Mesopotamia relations</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="2" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/Giza_pyramid_complex" title="Giza pyramid complex"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg/100px-All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="66" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg/150px-All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg/200px-All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4372" data-file-height="2906" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding-left:81px"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Egyptology" title="Egyptology">Egyptology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Egyptologists" title="List of Egyptologists">Egyptologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museums_of_Egyptian_antiquities" title="List of museums of 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_Egypt" title="Category:Ancient Egypt">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Ancient_Egypt" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Ancient Egypt">Commons</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Outline of ancient Egypt">Outline</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /> <a 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