Sex determination: why so many ways of doing it?

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new collection</label> </li> <li> <input type="radio" id="collections-action-panel-existing" class="collections-existing" name="collections" value="existing" checked="true" data-ga-category="save_share" data-ga-action="collections" data-ga-label="collections_radio_existing"> <label for="collections-action-panel-existing">Add to an existing collection</label> </li> </ul> </div> <div class="controls-wrapper"> <div class="action-panel-control-wrap new-collections-controls"> <label for="collections-action-panel-add-to-new" class="action-panel-label required-field-asterisk"> Name your collection: </label> <input type="text" name="add-to-new-collection" id="collections-action-panel-add-to-new" class="collections-action-add-to-new" pattern="[^"&=<>\/]*" title="The following characters are not allowed in the Name field: "&=<>/" maxlength="100" data-ga-category="save_share" data-ga-action="create_collection" data-ga-label="non_favorties_collection"> <div class="collections-new-name-too-long usa-input-error-message selection-validation-message"> Name must be less than 100 characters </div> </div> <div class="action-panel-control-wrap existing-collections-controls"> <label for="collections-action-panel-add-to-existing" class="action-panel-label"> Choose a collection: </label> <select id="collections-action-panel-add-to-existing" class="action-panel-selector collections-action-add-to-existing" data-ga-category="save_share" data-ga-action="select_collection" data-ga-label="($('#collections-action-add-to-existing').val() === 'Favorites') ? 'Favorites' : 'non_favorites_collection'"> </select> <div class="collections-retry-load-on-error usa-input-error-message selection-validation-message"> Unable to load your collection due to an error<br> <a href="#">Please try again</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="action-panel-actions"> <button class="action-panel-submit" type="submit" data-loading-label="Adding..." data-pinger-ignore data-ga-category="save_share" data-ga-action="collections" data-ga-label="add"> Add </button> <button class="action-panel-cancel" aria-label="Close 'Add to Collections' panel" ref="linksrc=close_collections_panel" aria-controls="collections-action-panel" aria-expanded="false" data-ga-category="save_share" data-ga-action="collections" data-ga-label="cancel"> Cancel </button> </div> </form> </div> </div> <div id="bibliography-action-panel" class="bibliography-action-panel action-panel in-progress-dots-panel" aria-hidden="true" data-bibliography-open-panel-enabled="false" data-bibliography-open-panel-url-hash="#open-bibliography-panel"> <div class="inner-wrap"> <h3 class="action-panel-heading"> Add to My Bibliography </h3> <form id="bibliography-action-panel-form" class="bibliography-action-panel-form action-panel-content action-form action-panel-smaller-selectors" data-add-to-bibliography-max-amount="100" data-add-to-bibliography-batch-size="10" data-bibliography-delegates-url="/list-bibliography-delegates/" data-add-to-bibliography-url="/add-to-bibliography/" data-get-article-ids-by-search-url="/get-article-ids-by-search/" data-mybib-root-url="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/myncbi/collections/mybibliography/"> <input type="hidden" name="csrfmiddlewaretoken" value="NZf8qQrd8cWB6EGwGdvJULpnbHMbjoykY7tjnlVAm0zzVXWd8lIQyq4LO5kFwfcO"> <div class="action-panel-control-wrap bibliographies-controls"> <div class="choice-group"> <ul class="bibliographies-action-add radio-group-items"> <li> <input name="bibliography" id="my-bibliography" class="my-bibliography" type="radio" checked/> <label for="my-bibliography">My Bibliography</label> </li> </ul> </div> </div> <div class="bibliographies-retry-load-on-error usa-input-error-message selection-validation-message"> Unable to load your delegates due to an error<br> <a href="#">Please try again</a> </div> <div class="action-panel-actions"> <button class="action-panel-submit" type="submit" data-loading-label="Adding..." data-pinger-ignore> Add </button> <button class="action-panel-cancel" aria-label="Close 'Add to bibliography' panel" ref="linksrc=close_bibliography_panel" aria-controls="bibliography-action-panel" aria-expanded="false" data-ga-category="save_share" data-ga-action="mybib" data-ga-label="cancel"> Cancel </button> </div> </form> </div> </div> <div id="saved-search-action-panel" class="saved-search-action-panel action-panel " aria-hidden="true" data-saved-search-open-panel-enabled="false" data-saved-search-open-panel-url-hash="#open-saved-search-panel"> <div class="inner-wrap"> <h2 class="action-panel-heading"> Your saved search </h2> <form id="saved-search-action-panel-form" class="saved-search-action-panel-form action-panel-content action-form" data-create-saved-search-url="/create-saved-search/" data-try-search-terms-url="/try-search-term/" data-saved-search-root-url="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/myncbi/searches/"> <input type="hidden" name="csrfmiddlewaretoken" value="NZf8qQrd8cWB6EGwGdvJULpnbHMbjoykY7tjnlVAm0zzVXWd8lIQyq4LO5kFwfcO"> <div class="action-panel-control-wrap"> <label for="saved-search-name" class="action-panel-label saved-search-name-label required-field-asterisk"> Name of saved search: </label> <input maxlength="200" type="text" name="saved-search-name" id="saved-search-name" class="saved-search-name" value="" required pattern="[^"&=<>\/]*" title="The following characters are not allowed in the Name field: "&=<>/"> </div> <div class="action-panel-control-wrap"> <label for="saved-search-term" class="action-panel-label required-field-asterisk"> Search terms: </label> <textarea name="saved-search-term" id="saved-search-term" class="saved-search-term" required></textarea> </div> <div class="test-search-term-wrap"> <a href="#" class="try-search-term">Test search terms</a> </div> <div class="choice-group action-panel-extra-margin-top"> <span class="action-panel-label" id="fieldset-label"> Would you like email updates of new search results? </span> <fieldset id="saved-search-alert" aria-describedby="fieldset-label"> <legend class="usa-sr-only">Saved Search Alert Radio Buttons</legend> <ul class="radio-group-items"> <li> <input type="radio" id="saved-search-alert-yes" class="saved-search-alert-yes" name="saved-search-alert" value="yes" checked> <label for="saved-search-alert-yes" class="action-panel-label">Yes</label> </li> <li> <input aria-label="No radio input" type="radio" id="saved-search-alert-no" class="saved-search-alert-no" name="saved-search-alert" value="no"> <label for="saved-search-alert-no" class="action-panel-label">No</label> </li> </ul> </fieldset> </div> <div class="alert-schedule-wrap"> <div class="action-panel-control-wrap"> <label class="action-panel-label"> Email: </label> <span aria-label="Email address" id="saved-search-email" class="action-panel-label"><span class="action-panel-label-bold"></span> (<a class="myncbi-account-settings" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/account/settings/">change</a>)</span> </div> <div class="action-panel-control-wrap action-panel-extra-margin-top"> <label for="saved-search-frequency" class="action-panel-label"> Frequency: </label> <select id="saved-search-frequency" class="no-border-panel-selector saved-search-frequency"> <option value="monthly">Monthly</option> <option value="weekly">Weekly</option> <option value="daily">Daily</option> </select> </div> <div class="action-panel-control-wrap saved-search-monthly-additional"> <label for="saved-search-monthly-on-day" class="action-panel-label"> Which day? </label> <select id="saved-search-monthly-on-day" class="no-border-panel-selector"> <option value="Sunday">The first Sunday</option> <option value="Monday">The first Monday</option> <option value="Tuesday">The first Tuesday</option> <option value="Wednesday">The first Wednesday</option> <option value="Thursday">The first Thursday</option> <option value="Friday">The first Friday</option> <option value="Saturday">The first Saturday</option> <option value="day">The first day</option> <option value="weekday">The first weekday</option> </select> </div> <div class="action-panel-control-wrap saved-search-weekly-additional"> <label for="saved-search-weekly-on-day" class="action-panel-label"> Which day? </label> <select id="saved-search-weekly-on-day" class="no-border-panel-selector saved-search-weekly-on-day"> <option value="Sunday">Sunday</option> <option value="Monday">Monday</option> <option value="Tuesday">Tuesday</option> <option value="Wednesday">Wednesday</option> <option value="Thursday">Thursday</option> <option value="Friday">Friday</option> <option value="Saturday">Saturday</option> </select> </div> <div class="action-panel-control-wrap"> <label for="saved-search-report" class="action-panel-label"> Report format: </label> <select id="saved-search-report" class="no-border-panel-selector saved-search-report"> <option value="DocSum">Summary</option> <option value="DocSumText">Summary (text)</option> <option value="Abstract">Abstract</option> <option value="AbstractText">Abstract (text)</option> <option value="MEDLINE">PubMed</option> </select> </div> <div class="action-panel-control-wrap"> <label for="saved-search-amount" class="action-panel-label"> Send at most: </label> <select id="saved-search-amount" class="no-border-panel-selector saved-search-amount"> <option value="1">1 item</option> <option value="5" selected>5 items</option> <option value="10">10 items</option> <option value="20">20 items</option> <option value="50">50 items</option> <option value="100">100 items</option> <option value="200">200 items</option> </select> </div> <div> <input type="checkbox" id="saved-search-send-if-no-result" class="saved-search-send-if-no-result" name="saved-search-send-if-no-result"> <label for="saved-search-send-if-no-result" class="action-panel-label smaller-checkbox"> Send even when there aren't any new results </label> </div> <div class="action-panel-control-wrap option-text-in-email-wrap"> <label for="saved-search-email-text" class="action-panel-label"> Optional text in email: </label> <textarea name="saved-search-email-text" id="saved-search-email-text" class="saved-search-email-text"></textarea> </div> </div> <div class="action-panel-actions"> <button class="action-panel-submit" type="submit" data-loading-label="Saving..." data-ga-category="save_share" data-ga-action="alert" data-ga-label="save"> Save </button> <button class="action-panel-cancel" aria-label="Close 'Your saved search' panel" ref="linksrc=close_saved_search_panel" aria-controls="saved-search-action-panel" aria-expanded="false" data-ga-category="save_share" data-ga-action="alert" data-ga-label="cancel"> Cancel </button> </div> </form> </div> </div> <div id="citation-manager-action-panel" class="citation-manager-action-panel action-panel" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="inner-wrap"> <h2 class="action-panel-heading"> Create a file for external citation management software </h2> <form id="citation-manager-action-panel-form" class="action-panel-content action-form" action="/results-export-ids/" data-by-search-action="/results-export-search-data/" data-by-ids-action="/results-export-ids/" method="post" data-by-search-method="post" data-by-ids-method="post"> <input type="hidden" name="csrfmiddlewaretoken" value="NZf8qQrd8cWB6EGwGdvJULpnbHMbjoykY7tjnlVAm0zzVXWd8lIQyq4LO5kFwfcO"> <input name="results-format" type="hidden" value="pubmed"/> <div class="action-panel-actions"> <button class="action-panel-submit" type="submit" data-loading-label="Sending..." data-ga-category="save_share" data-ga-action="citation_manager" data-ga-label="save"> Create file </button> <button class="action-panel-cancel" aria-label="Close 'Send citations to citation manager' panel" ref="linksrc=close_citation_manager_panel" aria-controls="citation-manager-action-panel" aria-expanded="false" data-ga-category="save_share" data-ga-action="citation_manager" data-ga-label="cancel"> Cancel </button> </div> </form> </div> </div> <div id="rss-action-panel" class="rss-action-panel action-panel " aria-hidden="true"> <div class="inner-wrap"> <h2 class="action-panel-heading"> Your RSS Feed </h2> <form id="rss-action-panel-form" class="rss-action-panel-form action-panel-content action-form" data-create-rss-feed-url="/create-rss-feed-url/" data-search-form-term-value=""> <input type="hidden" name="csrfmiddlewaretoken" value="NZf8qQrd8cWB6EGwGdvJULpnbHMbjoykY7tjnlVAm0zzVXWd8lIQyq4LO5kFwfcO"> <div class="action-panel-control-wrap"> <label for="rss-name" class="action-panel-label required-field-asterisk"> Name of RSS Feed: </label> <input maxlength="200" placeholder="Name" type="text" name="rss-name" id="rss-name" class="rss-name" value='' required pattern="[^"&=<>\/]*" title="The following characters are not allowed in the Name field: "&=<>/"> </div> <div class="rss-limit-wrap"> <div class="action-panel-control-wrap action-panel-extra-margin-top"> <label for="rss-limit" class="action-panel-label"> Number of items displayed: </label> <select id="rss-limit" class="no-border-panel-selector rss-limit"> <option value="5">5</option> <option value="10">10</option> <option value="15" selected="selected">15</option> <option value="20">20</option> <option value="50">50</option> <option value="100">100</option> </select> </div> </div> <div class="action-panel-actions"> <button class="action-panel-submit" type="submit" data-loading-label="Creating..." data-ga-category="save_share" data-ga-action="alert" data-ga-label="save"> Create RSS </button> <button class="action-panel-cancel" aria-label="Close 'Your RSS' panel" ref="linksrc=close_rss_panel" aria-controls="rss-action-panel" aria-expanded="false" data-ga-category="save_share" data-ga-action="alert" data-ga-label="cancel"> Cancel </button> </div> <div class="action-panel-control-wrap rss-link-copy-wrap"> <label for="rss-link" class="usa-sr-only">RSS Link</label> <input placeholder="Your RSS Feed Link" type="text" name="rss-link" id="rss-link" class="rss-link" title="RSS Link"> <button type="button" disabled class="rss-link-copy-button disabled" data-ga-category="save_share" data-ga-action="rss" data-ga-label="copy"> Copy </button> </div> </form> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="article-page" id="article-page" data-article-pmid="24983465"> <aside class="page-sidebar"> <div class="inner-wrap"> <div class="full-text-links"> <div class="full-view"> <h3 class="title"> Full text links </h3> <div class="full-text-links-list"> <a class="link-item dialog-focus" 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'Favorites' : 'non_favorites_collection'"></select><div class="collections-retry-load-on-error usa-input-error-message selection-validation-message"> Unable to load your collection due to an error<br><a href="#">Please try again</a></div></div></div><div class="action-panel-actions"><button class="action-panel-submit" type="submit" data-loading-label="Adding..." data-pinger-ignore data-ga-category="collections_button" data-ga-action="click" data-ga-label="add"> Add </button><button class="action-panel-cancel" aria-label="Close 'Add to Collections' panel" ref="linksrc=close_collections_panel" aria-controls="collections-action-panel" aria-expanded="false" data-ga-category="collections_button" data-ga-action="click" data-ga-label="cancel"> Cancel </button></div></form></div></div></div></div><button class="more-actions-button more-actions-dialog-trigger" title="Open dialog with more actions to take" ref="linksrc=more_actions_btn"></button><div class="display-options" 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class="title">Actions</div><div class="content"><ul class="journal-actions-links"><li><a class="search-in-pubmed-link dropdown-block-link" href="/?term=%22PLoS+Biol%22%5Bjour%5D&sort=date&sort_order=desc" data-href="/?term=%22PLoS+Biol%22%5Bjour%5D&sort=date&sort_order=desc" ref="linksrc=search_in_pubmed_journal_name_link&journal_abbrev=PLoS Biol" data-ga-category="search" data-ga-action="journal_link" data-ga-label="PLoS Biol"> Search in PubMed </a></li><li><a class="search-in-nlm-catalog-link dropdown-block-link" ref ="linksrc=search_in_nlm_catalog_link" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/nlmcatalog?term=%22PLoS+Biol%22%5BTitle+Abbreviation%5D" data-ga-category="search_catalog" data-ga-action="journal_link" data-ga-label="PLoS Biol"> Search in NLM Catalog </a></li><li><a class="add-to-search-link dropdown-block-link" ref ="linksrc=add_to_search_link" role="button" data-search-term='"PLoS Biol"[jour]' data-ga-category="search" data-ga-action="add_to_search" data-ga-label='"PLoS Biol"[jour]' href="#"> Add to Search </a></li></ul></div></div></div><span class="period">. </span><span class="cit">2014 Jul 1;12(7):e1001899.</span> </div> <span class="citation-doi"> doi: 10.1371/journal.pbio.1001899. </span> <span class="secondary-date"> eCollection 2014 Jul. </span> </div> <h1 class="heading-title"> Sex determination: why so many ways of doing it? </h1> <div class="inline-authors"> <div class="authors"> <div class="authors-list"> <span class="authors-list-item "><a class="full-name" href="/?term=Bachtrog+D&cauthor_id=24983465" ref="linksrc=author_name_link" data-ga-category="search" data-ga-action="author_link" data-ga-label="Doris Bachtrog">Doris Bachtrog</a><sup class="affiliation-links"><span class="author-sup-separator"> </span><a class="affiliation-link" title="University of California, Berkeley, Department of Integrative Biology, Berkeley, California, United States of America." href="#full-view-affiliation-1" ref="linksrc=author_aff"> 1 </a></sup><span class="comma">, </span></span><span class="authors-list-item "><a class="full-name" href="/?term=Mank+JE&cauthor_id=24983465" ref="linksrc=author_name_link" data-ga-category="search" data-ga-action="author_link" data-ga-label="Judith E Mank">Judith E Mank</a><sup class="affiliation-links"><span class="author-sup-separator"> </span><a class="affiliation-link" title="University College London, Department of Genetics, Evolution and Environment, London, United Kingdom." href="#full-view-affiliation-2" ref="linksrc=author_aff"> 2 </a></sup><span class="comma">, </span></span><span class="authors-list-item "><a class="full-name" href="/?term=Peichel+CL&cauthor_id=24983465" ref="linksrc=author_name_link" data-ga-category="search" data-ga-action="author_link" data-ga-label="Catherine L Peichel">Catherine L Peichel</a><sup class="affiliation-links"><span class="author-sup-separator"> </span><a class="affiliation-link" title="Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Divisions of Human Biology and Basic Sciences, Seattle, Washington, United States of America." href="#full-view-affiliation-3" ref="linksrc=author_aff"> 3 </a></sup><span class="comma">, </span></span><span class="authors-list-item "><a class="full-name" href="/?term=Kirkpatrick+M&cauthor_id=24983465" ref="linksrc=author_name_link" data-ga-category="search" data-ga-action="author_link" data-ga-label="Mark Kirkpatrick">Mark Kirkpatrick</a><sup class="affiliation-links"><span class="author-sup-separator"> </span><a class="affiliation-link" title="University of Texas, Department of Integrative Biology, Austin, Texas, United States of America." href="#full-view-affiliation-4" ref="linksrc=author_aff"> 4 </a></sup><span class="comma">, </span></span><span class="authors-list-item "><a class="full-name" href="/?term=Otto+SP&cauthor_id=24983465" ref="linksrc=author_name_link" data-ga-category="search" data-ga-action="author_link" data-ga-label="Sarah P Otto">Sarah P Otto</a><sup class="affiliation-links"><span class="author-sup-separator"> </span><a class="affiliation-link" title="University of British Columbia, Department of Zoology, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada." href="#full-view-affiliation-5" ref="linksrc=author_aff"> 5 </a></sup><span class="comma">, </span></span><span class="authors-list-item "><a class="full-name" href="/?term=Ashman+TL&cauthor_id=24983465" ref="linksrc=author_name_link" data-ga-category="search" data-ga-action="author_link" data-ga-label="Tia-Lynn Ashman">Tia-Lynn Ashman</a><sup class="affiliation-links"><span class="author-sup-separator"> </span><a class="affiliation-link" title="University of Pittsburgh, Department of Biological Sciences, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America." href="#full-view-affiliation-6" ref="linksrc=author_aff"> 6 </a></sup><span class="comma">, </span></span><span class="authors-list-item "><a class="full-name" href="/?term=Hahn+MW&cauthor_id=24983465" ref="linksrc=author_name_link" data-ga-category="search" data-ga-action="author_link" data-ga-label="Matthew W Hahn">Matthew W Hahn</a><sup class="affiliation-links"><span class="author-sup-separator"> </span><a class="affiliation-link" title="Indiana University, Department of Biology, Bloomington Indiana, United States of America." href="#full-view-affiliation-7" ref="linksrc=author_aff"> 7 </a></sup><span class="comma">, </span></span><span class="authors-list-item "><a class="full-name" href="/?term=Kitano+J&cauthor_id=24983465" ref="linksrc=author_name_link" data-ga-category="search" data-ga-action="author_link" data-ga-label="Jun Kitano">Jun Kitano</a><sup class="affiliation-links"><span class="author-sup-separator"> </span><a class="affiliation-link" title="National Institute of Genetics, Ecological Genetics Laboratory, Mishima, Shizuoka, Japan." href="#full-view-affiliation-8" ref="linksrc=author_aff"> 8 </a></sup><span class="comma">, </span></span><span class="authors-list-item "><a class="full-name" href="/?term=Mayrose+I&cauthor_id=24983465" ref="linksrc=author_name_link" data-ga-category="search" data-ga-action="author_link" data-ga-label="Itay Mayrose">Itay Mayrose</a><sup class="affiliation-links"><span class="author-sup-separator"> </span><a class="affiliation-link" title="Tel Aviv University, Department of Molecular Biology and Ecology of Plants, Tel Aviv, Israel." href="#full-view-affiliation-9" ref="linksrc=author_aff"> 9 </a></sup><span class="comma">, </span></span><span class="authors-list-item "><a class="full-name" href="/?term=Ming+R&cauthor_id=24983465" ref="linksrc=author_name_link" data-ga-category="search" data-ga-action="author_link" data-ga-label="Ray Ming">Ray Ming</a><sup class="affiliation-links"><span class="author-sup-separator"> </span><a class="affiliation-link" title="University of Illinois, Department of Plant Biology, Urbana-Champaign, Illinois, United States of America." href="#full-view-affiliation-10" ref="linksrc=author_aff"> 10 </a></sup><span class="comma">, </span></span><span class="authors-list-item "><a class="full-name" href="/?term=Perrin+N&cauthor_id=24983465" ref="linksrc=author_name_link" data-ga-category="search" data-ga-action="author_link" data-ga-label="Nicolas Perrin">Nicolas Perrin</a><sup class="affiliation-links"><span class="author-sup-separator"> </span><a class="affiliation-link" title="University of Lausanne, Department of Ecology and Evolution, Lausanne, Switzerland." href="#full-view-affiliation-11" ref="linksrc=author_aff"> 11 </a></sup><span class="comma">, </span></span><span class="authors-list-item "><a class="full-name" href="/?term=Ross+L&cauthor_id=24983465" ref="linksrc=author_name_link" data-ga-category="search" data-ga-action="author_link" data-ga-label="Laura Ross">Laura Ross</a><sup class="affiliation-links"><span class="author-sup-separator"> </span><a class="affiliation-link" title="University of Oxford, Department of Zoology, Oxford, United Kingdom." href="#full-view-affiliation-12" ref="linksrc=author_aff"> 12 </a></sup><span class="comma">, </span></span><span class="authors-list-item "><a class="full-name" href="/?term=Valenzuela+N&cauthor_id=24983465" ref="linksrc=author_name_link" data-ga-category="search" data-ga-action="author_link" data-ga-label="Nicole Valenzuela">Nicole Valenzuela</a><sup class="affiliation-links"><span class="author-sup-separator"> </span><a class="affiliation-link" title="Iowa State University, Department of Ecology, Evolution and Organismal Biology, Ames, Iowa, United States of America." href="#full-view-affiliation-13" ref="linksrc=author_aff"> 13 </a></sup><span class="comma">, </span></span><span class="authors-list-item "><a class="full-name" href="/?term=Vamosi+JC&cauthor_id=24983465" ref="linksrc=author_name_link" data-ga-category="search" data-ga-action="author_link" data-ga-label="Jana C Vamosi">Jana C Vamosi</a><sup class="affiliation-links"><span class="author-sup-separator"> </span><a class="affiliation-link" title="University of Calgary, Department of Biological Sciences, Calgary, Alberta, Canada." href="#full-view-affiliation-14" ref="linksrc=author_aff"> 14 </a></sup><span class="semicolon">; </span></span><span class="authors-list-item "><a class="full-name" href="/?term=Tree+of+Sex+Consortium%5BCorporate+Author%5D" ref="linksrc=author_name_link" data-ga-category="search" data-ga-action="author_link" data-ga-label="Tree of Sex Consortium">Tree of Sex Consortium</a></span> </div> </div> </div> <div class="short-article-details"> Affiliations <button class="more-details" id="toggle-authors" data-alt-text="Collapse" aria-controls="expanded-authors" aria-expanded="false" data-pinger-ignore data-fetch-url="/24983465/long-authors/" data-id-prefix=""> <span class="title"> Expand </span> </button> </div> <div class="extended-article-details" id="expanded-authors" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="expanded-authors" id="full-view-expanded-authors"> <div class="affiliations"> <h3 class="title"> Affiliations </h3> <ul class="item-list"> <li data-affiliation-id="full-view-affiliation-1" id="full-view-affiliation-1" ><sup class="key">1</sup> University of California, Berkeley, Department of Integrative Biology, Berkeley, California, United States of America.</li> <li data-affiliation-id="full-view-affiliation-2" id="full-view-affiliation-2" ><sup class="key">2</sup> University College London, Department of Genetics, Evolution and Environment, London, United Kingdom.</li> <li data-affiliation-id="full-view-affiliation-3" id="full-view-affiliation-3" ><sup class="key">3</sup> Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Divisions of Human Biology and Basic Sciences, Seattle, Washington, United States of America.</li> <li data-affiliation-id="full-view-affiliation-4" id="full-view-affiliation-4" ><sup class="key">4</sup> University of Texas, Department of Integrative Biology, Austin, Texas, United States of America.</li> <li data-affiliation-id="full-view-affiliation-5" id="full-view-affiliation-5" ><sup class="key">5</sup> University of British Columbia, Department of Zoology, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.</li> <li data-affiliation-id="full-view-affiliation-6" id="full-view-affiliation-6" ><sup class="key">6</sup> University of Pittsburgh, Department of Biological Sciences, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America.</li> <li data-affiliation-id="full-view-affiliation-7" id="full-view-affiliation-7" ><sup class="key">7</sup> Indiana University, Department of Biology, Bloomington Indiana, United States of America.</li> <li data-affiliation-id="full-view-affiliation-8" id="full-view-affiliation-8" ><sup class="key">8</sup> National Institute of Genetics, Ecological Genetics Laboratory, Mishima, Shizuoka, Japan.</li> <li data-affiliation-id="full-view-affiliation-9" id="full-view-affiliation-9" ><sup class="key">9</sup> Tel Aviv University, Department of Molecular Biology and Ecology of Plants, Tel Aviv, Israel.</li> <li data-affiliation-id="full-view-affiliation-10" id="full-view-affiliation-10" ><sup class="key">10</sup> University of Illinois, Department of Plant Biology, Urbana-Champaign, Illinois, United States of America.</li> <li data-affiliation-id="full-view-affiliation-11" id="full-view-affiliation-11" ><sup class="key">11</sup> University of Lausanne, Department of Ecology and Evolution, Lausanne, Switzerland.</li> <li data-affiliation-id="full-view-affiliation-12" id="full-view-affiliation-12" ><sup class="key">12</sup> University of Oxford, Department of Zoology, Oxford, United Kingdom.</li> <li data-affiliation-id="full-view-affiliation-13" id="full-view-affiliation-13" ><sup class="key">13</sup> Iowa State University, Department of Ecology, Evolution and Organismal Biology, Ames, Iowa, United States of America.</li> <li data-affiliation-id="full-view-affiliation-14" id="full-view-affiliation-14" ><sup class="key">14</sup> University of Calgary, Department of Biological Sciences, Calgary, Alberta, Canada.</li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <ul class="identifiers" id="full-view-identifiers"> <li> <span class="identifier pubmed"> <span class="id-label"> PMID: </span> <strong class="current-id" title="PubMed ID">24983465</strong> </span> </li> <li> <span class="identifier pmc"> <span class="id-label"> PMCID: </span> <a class="id-link" target="_blank" rel="noopener" ref="linksrc=article_id_link&article_id=PMC4077654&id_type=PMC" href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4077654/" data-ga-category="full_text" data-ga-action="PMCID" > PMC4077654 </a> </span> </li> <li> <span class="identifier doi"> <span class="id-label"> DOI: </span> <a class="id-link" target="_blank" rel="noopener" ref="linksrc=article_id_link&article_id=10.1371/journal.pbio.1001899&id_type=DOI" href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.1001899" data-ga-category="full_text" data-ga-action="DOI" > 10.1371/journal.pbio.1001899 </a> </span> </li> </ul> <div class="in-clipboard-label " hidden> Item in Clipboard </div> </div> <div class="short-view" id="short-view-heading"> <div class="publication-type" >Review</div> <h1 class="heading-title"> Sex determination: why so many ways of doing it? </h1> <div class="short-citation"> <span class="authors-list"> <span class="authors-list-item "><span class="full-name">Doris Bachtrog</span><span class="citation-separator"> et al.</span></span> </span> <span class="citation-journal"> PLoS Biol<span class="citation-separator">.</span> </span> <span class="date"> <time class="citation-year" datetime="2014">2014</time><span class="citation-separator">.</span> </span> </div> <div class="more-article-details-section with-display-settings"> <button class="more-article-details" id="toggle-article-details" data-alt-text="Hide details" ref="linksrc=toggle_article_details" aria-controls="full-article-details" aria-expanded="false" data-fetch-url="/24983465/long-authors/" data-id-prefix=""> <span class="title">Show details</span> </button> <div 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href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/nlmcatalog?term=%22PLoS+Biol%22%5BTitle+Abbreviation%5D" data-ga-category="search_catalog" data-ga-action="journal_link" data-ga-label="PLoS Biol"> Search in NLM Catalog </a></li><li><a class="add-to-search-link dropdown-block-link" ref ="linksrc=add_to_search_link" role="button" data-search-term='"PLoS Biol"[jour]' data-ga-category="search" data-ga-action="add_to_search" data-ga-label='"PLoS Biol"[jour]' href="#"> Add to Search </a></li></ul></div></div></div><span class="period">. </span><span class="cit">2014 Jul 1;12(7):e1001899.</span> </div> <span class="citation-doi"> doi: 10.1371/journal.pbio.1001899. </span> <span class="secondary-date"> eCollection 2014 Jul. </span> </div> <div class="expanded-authors" id="short-view-expanded-authors"> <div class="authors"> <h3 class="title"> Authors </h3> <div class="authors-list"> <span class="authors-list-item "><a class="full-name" href="/?term=Bachtrog+D&cauthor_id=24983465" ref="linksrc=author_name_link" data-ga-category="search" data-ga-action="author_link" data-ga-label="Doris Bachtrog">Doris Bachtrog</a><sup class="affiliation-links"><span class="author-sup-separator"> </span><a class="affiliation-link" title="University of California, Berkeley, Department of Integrative Biology, Berkeley, California, United States of America." href="#short-view-affiliation-1" ref="linksrc=author_aff"> 1 </a></sup><span class="comma">, </span></span><span class="authors-list-item "><a class="full-name" href="/?term=Mank+JE&cauthor_id=24983465" ref="linksrc=author_name_link" data-ga-category="search" data-ga-action="author_link" data-ga-label="Judith E Mank">Judith E Mank</a><sup class="affiliation-links"><span class="author-sup-separator"> </span><a class="affiliation-link" title="University College London, Department of Genetics, Evolution and Environment, London, United Kingdom." href="#short-view-affiliation-2" ref="linksrc=author_aff"> 2 </a></sup><span class="comma">, </span></span><span class="authors-list-item "><a class="full-name" href="/?term=Peichel+CL&cauthor_id=24983465" ref="linksrc=author_name_link" data-ga-category="search" data-ga-action="author_link" data-ga-label="Catherine L Peichel">Catherine L Peichel</a><sup class="affiliation-links"><span class="author-sup-separator"> </span><a class="affiliation-link" title="Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Divisions of Human Biology and Basic Sciences, Seattle, Washington, United States of America." href="#short-view-affiliation-3" ref="linksrc=author_aff"> 3 </a></sup><span class="comma">, </span></span><span class="authors-list-item "><a class="full-name" href="/?term=Kirkpatrick+M&cauthor_id=24983465" ref="linksrc=author_name_link" data-ga-category="search" data-ga-action="author_link" data-ga-label="Mark Kirkpatrick">Mark Kirkpatrick</a><sup class="affiliation-links"><span class="author-sup-separator"> </span><a class="affiliation-link" title="University of Texas, Department of Integrative Biology, Austin, Texas, United States of America." href="#short-view-affiliation-4" ref="linksrc=author_aff"> 4 </a></sup><span class="comma">, </span></span><span class="authors-list-item "><a class="full-name" href="/?term=Otto+SP&cauthor_id=24983465" ref="linksrc=author_name_link" data-ga-category="search" data-ga-action="author_link" data-ga-label="Sarah P Otto">Sarah P Otto</a><sup class="affiliation-links"><span class="author-sup-separator"> </span><a class="affiliation-link" title="University of British Columbia, Department of Zoology, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada." href="#short-view-affiliation-5" ref="linksrc=author_aff"> 5 </a></sup><span class="comma">, </span></span><span class="authors-list-item "><a class="full-name" href="/?term=Ashman+TL&cauthor_id=24983465" ref="linksrc=author_name_link" data-ga-category="search" data-ga-action="author_link" data-ga-label="Tia-Lynn Ashman">Tia-Lynn Ashman</a><sup class="affiliation-links"><span class="author-sup-separator"> </span><a class="affiliation-link" title="University of Pittsburgh, Department of Biological Sciences, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America." href="#short-view-affiliation-6" ref="linksrc=author_aff"> 6 </a></sup><span class="comma">, </span></span><span class="authors-list-item "><a class="full-name" href="/?term=Hahn+MW&cauthor_id=24983465" ref="linksrc=author_name_link" data-ga-category="search" data-ga-action="author_link" data-ga-label="Matthew W Hahn">Matthew W Hahn</a><sup class="affiliation-links"><span class="author-sup-separator"> </span><a class="affiliation-link" title="Indiana University, Department of Biology, Bloomington Indiana, United States of America." href="#short-view-affiliation-7" ref="linksrc=author_aff"> 7 </a></sup><span class="comma">, </span></span><span class="authors-list-item "><a class="full-name" href="/?term=Kitano+J&cauthor_id=24983465" ref="linksrc=author_name_link" data-ga-category="search" data-ga-action="author_link" data-ga-label="Jun Kitano">Jun Kitano</a><sup class="affiliation-links"><span class="author-sup-separator"> </span><a class="affiliation-link" title="National Institute of Genetics, Ecological Genetics Laboratory, Mishima, Shizuoka, Japan." href="#short-view-affiliation-8" ref="linksrc=author_aff"> 8 </a></sup><span class="comma">, </span></span><span class="authors-list-item "><a class="full-name" href="/?term=Mayrose+I&cauthor_id=24983465" ref="linksrc=author_name_link" data-ga-category="search" data-ga-action="author_link" data-ga-label="Itay Mayrose">Itay Mayrose</a><sup class="affiliation-links"><span class="author-sup-separator"> </span><a class="affiliation-link" title="Tel Aviv University, Department of Molecular Biology and Ecology of Plants, Tel Aviv, Israel." href="#short-view-affiliation-9" ref="linksrc=author_aff"> 9 </a></sup><span class="comma">, </span></span><span class="authors-list-item "><a class="full-name" href="/?term=Ming+R&cauthor_id=24983465" ref="linksrc=author_name_link" data-ga-category="search" data-ga-action="author_link" data-ga-label="Ray Ming">Ray Ming</a><sup class="affiliation-links"><span class="author-sup-separator"> </span><a class="affiliation-link" title="University of Illinois, Department of Plant Biology, Urbana-Champaign, Illinois, United States of America." href="#short-view-affiliation-10" ref="linksrc=author_aff"> 10 </a></sup><span class="comma">, </span></span><span class="authors-list-item "><a class="full-name" href="/?term=Perrin+N&cauthor_id=24983465" ref="linksrc=author_name_link" data-ga-category="search" data-ga-action="author_link" data-ga-label="Nicolas Perrin">Nicolas Perrin</a><sup class="affiliation-links"><span class="author-sup-separator"> </span><a class="affiliation-link" title="University of Lausanne, Department of Ecology and Evolution, Lausanne, Switzerland." href="#short-view-affiliation-11" ref="linksrc=author_aff"> 11 </a></sup><span class="comma">, </span></span><span class="authors-list-item "><a class="full-name" href="/?term=Ross+L&cauthor_id=24983465" ref="linksrc=author_name_link" data-ga-category="search" data-ga-action="author_link" data-ga-label="Laura Ross">Laura Ross</a><sup class="affiliation-links"><span class="author-sup-separator"> </span><a class="affiliation-link" title="University of Oxford, Department of Zoology, Oxford, United Kingdom." href="#short-view-affiliation-12" ref="linksrc=author_aff"> 12 </a></sup><span class="comma">, </span></span><span class="authors-list-item "><a class="full-name" href="/?term=Valenzuela+N&cauthor_id=24983465" ref="linksrc=author_name_link" data-ga-category="search" data-ga-action="author_link" data-ga-label="Nicole Valenzuela">Nicole Valenzuela</a><sup class="affiliation-links"><span class="author-sup-separator"> </span><a class="affiliation-link" title="Iowa State University, Department of Ecology, Evolution and Organismal Biology, Ames, Iowa, United States of America." href="#short-view-affiliation-13" ref="linksrc=author_aff"> 13 </a></sup><span class="comma">, </span></span><span class="authors-list-item "><a class="full-name" href="/?term=Vamosi+JC&cauthor_id=24983465" ref="linksrc=author_name_link" data-ga-category="search" data-ga-action="author_link" data-ga-label="Jana C Vamosi">Jana C Vamosi</a><sup class="affiliation-links"><span class="author-sup-separator"> </span><a class="affiliation-link" title="University of Calgary, Department of Biological Sciences, Calgary, Alberta, Canada." href="#short-view-affiliation-14" ref="linksrc=author_aff"> 14 </a></sup><span class="semicolon">; </span></span><span class="authors-list-item "><a class="full-name" href="/?term=Tree+of+Sex+Consortium%5BCorporate+Author%5D" ref="linksrc=author_name_link" data-ga-category="search" data-ga-action="author_link" data-ga-label="Tree of Sex Consortium">Tree of Sex Consortium</a></span> </div> </div> <div class="affiliations"> <h3 class="title"> Affiliations </h3> <ul class="item-list"> <li data-affiliation-id="short-view-affiliation-1" id="short-view-affiliation-1" ><sup class="key">1</sup> University of California, Berkeley, Department of Integrative Biology, Berkeley, California, United States of America.</li> <li data-affiliation-id="short-view-affiliation-2" id="short-view-affiliation-2" ><sup class="key">2</sup> University College London, Department of Genetics, Evolution and Environment, London, United Kingdom.</li> <li data-affiliation-id="short-view-affiliation-3" id="short-view-affiliation-3" ><sup class="key">3</sup> Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Divisions of Human Biology and Basic Sciences, Seattle, Washington, United States of America.</li> <li data-affiliation-id="short-view-affiliation-4" id="short-view-affiliation-4" ><sup class="key">4</sup> University of Texas, Department of Integrative Biology, Austin, Texas, United States of America.</li> <li data-affiliation-id="short-view-affiliation-5" id="short-view-affiliation-5" ><sup class="key">5</sup> University of British Columbia, Department of Zoology, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.</li> <li data-affiliation-id="short-view-affiliation-6" id="short-view-affiliation-6" ><sup class="key">6</sup> University of Pittsburgh, Department of Biological Sciences, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America.</li> <li data-affiliation-id="short-view-affiliation-7" id="short-view-affiliation-7" ><sup class="key">7</sup> Indiana University, Department of Biology, Bloomington Indiana, United States of America.</li> <li data-affiliation-id="short-view-affiliation-8" id="short-view-affiliation-8" ><sup class="key">8</sup> National Institute of Genetics, Ecological Genetics Laboratory, Mishima, Shizuoka, Japan.</li> <li data-affiliation-id="short-view-affiliation-9" id="short-view-affiliation-9" ><sup class="key">9</sup> Tel Aviv University, Department of Molecular Biology and Ecology of Plants, Tel Aviv, Israel.</li> <li data-affiliation-id="short-view-affiliation-10" id="short-view-affiliation-10" ><sup class="key">10</sup> University of Illinois, Department of Plant Biology, Urbana-Champaign, Illinois, United States of America.</li> <li data-affiliation-id="short-view-affiliation-11" id="short-view-affiliation-11" ><sup class="key">11</sup> University of Lausanne, Department of Ecology and Evolution, Lausanne, Switzerland.</li> <li data-affiliation-id="short-view-affiliation-12" id="short-view-affiliation-12" ><sup class="key">12</sup> University of Oxford, Department of Zoology, Oxford, United Kingdom.</li> <li data-affiliation-id="short-view-affiliation-13" id="short-view-affiliation-13" ><sup class="key">13</sup> Iowa State University, Department of Ecology, Evolution and Organismal Biology, Ames, Iowa, United States of America.</li> <li data-affiliation-id="short-view-affiliation-14" id="short-view-affiliation-14" ><sup class="key">14</sup> University of Calgary, Department of Biological Sciences, Calgary, Alberta, Canada.</li> </ul> </div> </div> <ul class="identifiers" id="short-view-identifiers"> <li> <span class="identifier pubmed"> <span class="id-label"> PMID: </span> <strong class="current-id" title="PubMed ID">24983465</strong> </span> </li> <li> <span class="identifier pmc"> <span class="id-label"> PMCID: </span> <a class="id-link" target="_blank" rel="noopener" ref="linksrc=article_id_link&article_id=PMC4077654&id_type=PMC" href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4077654/" data-ga-category="full_text" data-ga-action="PMCID" > PMC4077654 </a> </span> </li> <li> <span class="identifier doi"> <span class="id-label"> DOI: </span> <a class="id-link" target="_blank" rel="noopener" ref="linksrc=article_id_link&article_id=10.1371/journal.pbio.1001899&id_type=DOI" href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.1001899" data-ga-category="full_text" data-ga-action="DOI" > 10.1371/journal.pbio.1001899 </a> </span> </li> </ul> <div class="in-clipboard-label " hidden> Item in Clipboard </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="actions-buttons inline"><div class="inner-wrap"><button class="full-text-links-button full-text-links-dialog-trigger" title="Open dialog with full text links" ref="linksrc=full_text_links"> Full text links </button><button class="citation-button citation-dialog-trigger" aria-label="Open dialog with citation text in different styles" data-ga-category="save_share" data-ga-action="cite" data-ga-label="open" data-all-citations-url="/24983465/citations/" data-citation-style="nlm" data-pubmed-format-link="/24983465/export/"><span class="button-label">Cite</span></button><button class="more-actions-button more-actions-dialog-trigger" title="Open dialog with more actions to take" ref="linksrc=more_actions_btn"></button><div class="display-options" data-format-key="format" data-default-format-value="abstract" data-current-format-value="abstract" role="region"><button class="trigger usa-button" title="Change format" data-ga-category="display_options" data-ga-action="display_options_dialog"><span class="button-label">Display options</span></button><div class="dropdown" hidden><div class="title"> Display options </div><div class="content"><div class="format-container"><span class="option-label"> Format </span><select name="format" data-initial-value="abstract" aria-label="Display format" id="inline-actions-display-format"><option value="abstract">Abstract</option><option value="pubmed">PubMed</option><option value="pmid">PMID</option></select></div></div></div></div></div></div> <div class="abstract" id="abstract"> <h2 class="title"> Abstract </h2> <div class="abstract-content selected" id="eng-abstract"> <p> Sexual reproduction is an ancient feature of life on earth, and the familiar X and Y chromosomes in humans and other model species have led to the impression that sex determination mechanisms are old and conserved. In fact, males and females are determined by diverse mechanisms that evolve rapidly in many taxa. Yet this diversity in primary sex-determining signals is coupled with conserved molecular pathways that trigger male or female development. Conflicting selection on different parts of the genome and on the two sexes may drive many of these transitions, but few systems with rapid turnover of sex determination mechanisms have been rigorously studied. Here we survey our current understanding of how and why sex determination evolves in animals and plants and identify important gaps in our knowledge that present exciting research opportunities to characterize the evolutionary forces and molecular pathways underlying the evolution of sex determination. </p> </div> </div> <p class="disclaimer" id="disclaimer"> <a href="/disclaimer/" target="_blank" ga_category="literature_resources" ga_action="disclaimer_link" ga_label="under_abstract">PubMed Disclaimer</a> </p> <div class="conflict-of-interest" id="conflict-of-interest"> <h2 class="title"> Conflict of interest statement </h2> <div class="statement"> <p xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:p1="http://pubmed.gov/pub-one">The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.</p> </div> </div> <div class="figures" id="figures"> <h2 class="title"> Figures </h2> <div class="figures-list" id="slides-container" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageGallery"> <figure class="figure-item " itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" itemprop="associatedMedia" data-slide-index="0" data-label-slug="figure-1"> <a class="figure-link" href="https://cdn.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/blobs/ab53/4077654/41dfb2b02fa6/pbio.1001899.g001.jpg" itemprop="contentUrl" aria-describedby="figure-caption-0" role="button" data-image-width="653" data-image-height="605" data-image-alt="Figure 1" data-pmc-id="PMC4077654" data-figure-id="pbio-1001899-g001"> <img class="figure-thumb" itemprop="thumbnail" id="article-image-0" src="https://cdn.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/blobs/ab53/4077654/0f9a96ee5a11/pbio.1001899.g001.gif" alt="Figure 1" /> </a> <meta itemprop="width" itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" content="653"> <meta itemprop="height" itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" content="605"> <div class="figure-caption figure-caption-text" itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" itemprop="caption" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="caption-wrap"> <strong class="figure-label"> <p> Figure 1. Sex chromosome differentiation. </p> </strong> <div class="figure-caption-contents"><b> A. </b> Reconstructed…</div> </div> </div> <div class="figure-caption-medium figure-caption-text" aria-hidden="true"> <strong class="figure-label"> <p> Figure 1. Sex chromosome differentiation. </p> </strong> <div class="figure-caption-contents"><b> A. </b> Reconstructed evolutionary path of sex chromosome differentiation in humans.…</div> </div> <figcaption id="figure-caption-0" class="figure-caption-full figure-caption-text" itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" itemprop="description"> <strong class="figure-label"> Figure 1. Sex chromosome differentiation. </strong> <div class="figure-caption-contents"><b>A.</b> Reconstructed evolutionary path of sex chromosome differentiation in humans. Sex chromosomes originate from autosomes that acquired a sex-determining function (the <i>Sry</i> gene) after their split from monotremes. Suppression of recombination between the sex chromosomes, associated with degeneration of the non-recombining region of the Y chromosome, results in the morphological and genetic differentiation of sex chromosomes. Recombination suppression occurred in multiple episodes along the human X and Y chromosome, forming so-called evolutionary strata. The oldest stratum is shared between eutherian mammals and marsupials, while the youngest stratum of humans is primate-specific. <b>B.</b> The degree of sex chromosome differentiation ranges widely across species, spanning the entire spectrum of homomorphic to heteromorphic sex chromosomes, from a single sex-determining locus, as seen in pufferfish, a small differentiated region (strawberry and emu), most of the sex chromosomes apart from short recombining regions (humans), to the entire sex chromosome pair, as seen in <i>Drosophila</i>. Note that the sex chromosomes are not drawn to scale.</div> </figcaption> </figure> <figure class="figure-item " itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" itemprop="associatedMedia" data-slide-index="1" data-label-slug="figure-2"> <a class="figure-link" href="https://cdn.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/blobs/ab53/4077654/d576db2586a6/pbio.1001899.g002.jpg" itemprop="contentUrl" aria-describedby="figure-caption-1" role="button" data-image-width="717" data-image-height="379" data-image-alt="Figure 2" data-pmc-id="PMC4077654" data-figure-id="pbio-1001899-g002"> <img class="figure-thumb" itemprop="thumbnail" id="article-image-1" src="https://cdn.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/blobs/ab53/4077654/979b9bc407c8/pbio.1001899.g002.gif" alt="Figure 2" /> </a> <meta itemprop="width" itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" content="717"> <meta itemprop="height" itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" content="379"> <div class="figure-caption figure-caption-text" itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" itemprop="caption" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="caption-wrap"> <strong class="figure-label"> <p> Figure 2. Evolutionary pathways from hermaphroditism to… </p> </strong> </div> </div> <div class="figure-caption-medium figure-caption-text" aria-hidden="true"> <strong class="figure-label"> <p> Figure 2. Evolutionary pathways from hermaphroditism to separate sexes. </p> </strong> <div class="figure-caption-contents"><p> Shown are two-step pathways involving intermediate… </p></div> </div> <figcaption id="figure-caption-1" class="figure-caption-full figure-caption-text" itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" itemprop="description"> <strong class="figure-label"> Figure 2. Evolutionary pathways from hermaphroditism to separate sexes. </strong> <div class="figure-caption-contents">Shown are two-step pathways involving intermediate male- and female-sterile individuals. Loss-of-function mutations (red) are assumed to be recessive, while gain-of-function mutations (green) are assumed to be dominant. Ancestral alleles are in black. M, male fertility allele; m, male sterility mutation; F, female fertility allele; f, female sterility mutation. Because loss of function mutations (red) are almost 50 times more frequent than gain of function mutations (green) in flowering plants, we would expect pathways 1 (e.g., some poplar species) or 2 (e.g., papaya) to arise earlier. Furthermore, transitions through gynodioecy, pathways 2 and 3 (e.g., strawberry) allow females to completely avoid inbreeding depression, while transitions through androdioecy are more costly because males must compete with hermaphrodites for fertilization and do not have any of their own ovules to fertilize. These theoretical arguments help to account for the prevalence of gynodioecy and the XY chromosome system (via pathway 2) observed in plants; nevertheless, all four pathways may be biologically relevant, although no known examples for pathway 4 currently exist.</div> </figcaption> </figure> <figure class="figure-item " itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" itemprop="associatedMedia" data-slide-index="2" data-label-slug="figure-3"> <a class="figure-link" href="https://cdn.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/blobs/ab53/4077654/8789283f054f/pbio.1001899.g003.jpg" itemprop="contentUrl" aria-describedby="figure-caption-2" role="button" data-image-width="780" data-image-height="330" data-image-alt="Figure 3" data-pmc-id="PMC4077654" data-figure-id="pbio-1001899-g003"> <img class="figure-thumb" itemprop="thumbnail" id="article-image-2" src="https://cdn.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/blobs/ab53/4077654/a08ba21942eb/pbio.1001899.g003.gif" alt="Figure 3" /> </a> <meta itemprop="width" itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" content="780"> <meta itemprop="height" itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" content="330"> <div class="figure-caption figure-caption-text" itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" itemprop="caption" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="caption-wrap"> <strong class="figure-label"> <p> Figure 3. Diversity of sex determination systems… </p> </strong> </div> </div> <div class="figure-caption-medium figure-caption-text" aria-hidden="true"> <strong class="figure-label"> <p> Figure 3. Diversity of sex determination systems for representative plant and animal clades. </p> </strong> <div class="figure-caption-contents"><p> The bubble… </p></div> </div> <figcaption id="figure-caption-2" class="figure-caption-full figure-caption-text" itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" itemprop="description"> <strong class="figure-label"> Figure 3. Diversity of sex determination systems for representative plant and animal clades. </strong> <div class="figure-caption-contents">The bubble insert graph for the plant clades represents the relative proportion of species with documented sex chromosomes within plants with separate sexes. Vertebrates: Mammalia (placental, marsupial, and monotreme mammals), Aves (birds), Reptilia (turtles, snakes, crocodiles, lizards), Amphibia (frogs, toads, salamanders), and Teleostei (bony fishes). Invertebrates: Acari (mites and ticks), Crustacea (shrimps, barnacles, crabs), and Insects, which include Coccoidea (scale insects), Coleoptera (beetles), Hymenoptera (ants, bees, and wasps), Lepidoptera (butterflies), and Diptera (flies). Plants: Gymnosperms (non-flowering plants) and Angiosperms (flowering plants).</div> </figcaption> </figure> <figure class="figure-item " itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" itemprop="associatedMedia" data-slide-index="3" data-label-slug="figure-4"> <a class="figure-link" href="https://cdn.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/blobs/ab53/4077654/1617a2dbd1d5/pbio.1001899.g004.jpg" itemprop="contentUrl" aria-describedby="figure-caption-3" role="button" data-image-width="694" data-image-height="1018" data-image-alt="Figure 4" data-pmc-id="PMC4077654" data-figure-id="pbio-1001899-g004"> <img class="figure-thumb" itemprop="thumbnail" id="article-image-3" src="https://cdn.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/blobs/ab53/4077654/c23cb4d27c82/pbio.1001899.g004.gif" alt="Figure 4" /> </a> <meta itemprop="width" itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" content="694"> <meta itemprop="height" itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" content="1018"> <div class="figure-caption figure-caption-text" itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" itemprop="caption" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="caption-wrap"> <strong class="figure-label"> <p> Figure 4. Schematic overview of some sex… </p> </strong> </div> </div> <div class="figure-caption-medium figure-caption-text" aria-hidden="true"> <strong class="figure-label"> <p> Figure 4. Schematic overview of some sex determination (SD) mechanisms. </p> </strong> <div class="figure-caption-contents"><p> M refers to meiosis, F… </p></div> </div> <figcaption id="figure-caption-3" class="figure-caption-full figure-caption-text" itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" itemprop="description"> <strong class="figure-label"> Figure 4. Schematic overview of some sex determination (SD) mechanisms. </strong> <div class="figure-caption-contents">M refers to meiosis, F to fertilization. Haploid stages (n) are indicated as shaded areas and diploid stages (nn) are unshaded. <b>Hermaphrodites:</b> Most flowering plants (and gastropods and earthworms) simultaneously contain both male and female sexual organs (<i>simultaneous hermaphrodites</i>). Many fish and some gastropods and plants are <i>sequential hermaphrodites</i>; clownfish, for example, are born males and change into females, while many wrasses or gobies begin life as females and then change to males. <b>Environmental Sex Determination:</b> In turtles and some other reptiles, sex is determined by incubation temperature of the eggs (<i>temperature-dependent sex determination</i>). <i>Social factors</i> can act as primary sex-determining cues: sexually undifferentiated larvae of the marine green spoonworm that land on unoccupied sea floor develop into females (and grow up to 15 cm long), while larvae that come into contact with females develop into tiny males (1–3 mm long) that live inside the female. <b>Genotypic Sex Determination:</b> Almost all mammals and beetles, many flies and some fish have <i>male heterogamety</i> (XY sex chromosomes), while <i>female heterogamety</i> (ZW sex chromosomes) occurs in birds, snakes, butterflies, and some fish. In mosses or liverworts, separate sexes are only found in the haploid phase of the life cycle of an individual (<i>UV sex chromosomes</i>). In some flowering plants and fish, such as zebrafish, sex is determined by multiple genes (<i>polygenic sex determination</i>). In bees, ants, and wasps, males develop from unfertilized haploid eggs, and females from fertilized diploid eggs (<i>haplodiploidy</i>), while males of many scale insects inactivate or lose their paternal chromosomes (<i>paternal genome elimination</i>). In some species, sex is under the control of cytoplasmic elements, such as intracellular parasites (e.g., <i>Wolbachia</i>) in many insects or mitochondria in many flowering plants (<i>cytoplasmic sex determination</i>). In some flies and crustaceans, all offspring of a particular individual female are either exclusively male or exclusively female (<i>monogeny</i>).</div> </figcaption> </figure> <figure class="figure-item " itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" itemprop="associatedMedia" data-slide-index="4" data-label-slug="figure-5"> <a class="figure-link" href="https://cdn.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/blobs/ab53/4077654/fa123956243a/pbio.1001899.g005.jpg" itemprop="contentUrl" aria-describedby="figure-caption-4" role="button" data-image-width="729" data-image-height="498" data-image-alt="Figure 5" data-pmc-id="PMC4077654" data-figure-id="pbio-1001899-g005"> <img class="figure-thumb" itemprop="thumbnail" id="article-image-4" src="https://cdn.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/blobs/ab53/4077654/cdf942ebf223/pbio.1001899.g005.gif" alt="Figure 5" /> </a> <meta itemprop="width" itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" content="729"> <meta itemprop="height" itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" content="498"> <div class="figure-caption figure-caption-text" itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" itemprop="caption" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="caption-wrap"> <strong class="figure-label"> <p> Figure 5. Transitions versus differentiation of sex… </p> </strong> </div> </div> <div class="figure-caption-medium figure-caption-text" aria-hidden="true"> <strong class="figure-label"> <p> Figure 5. Transitions versus differentiation of sex chromosomes. </p> </strong> <div class="figure-caption-contents"><p> Transitions between homomorphic sex chromosomes result from… </p></div> </div> <figcaption id="figure-caption-4" class="figure-caption-full figure-caption-text" itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" itemprop="description"> <strong class="figure-label"> Figure 5. Transitions versus differentiation of sex chromosomes. </strong> <div class="figure-caption-contents">Transitions between homomorphic sex chromosomes result from new masculinizing (M′) or feminizing (F′) mutations that invade an existing XY or ZW system to create a new chromosome pair (in grey) that harbors the sex-determining gene (additional transitional karyotypes are indicated by unshaded circles). XY→XY transitions result in the loss of the ancestral Y (and ZW→ZW transitions cause loss of the ancestral W). Transitions between XY and ZW systems result in some offspring that are homozygous for the Y (blue) or W (red) chromosome and are thus more likely if the chromosomes have similar gene content but become increasingly difficult if these chromosomes have degenerated (side boxes on left and right), causing YY and WW individuals to be less fit.</div> </figcaption> </figure> </div>  <div class="pswp figures-dialog" id="figures-dialog" tabindex="-1" role="dialog" aria-hidden="true" data-image-gallery-uid="article-figures" aria-label="Figures Dialog">  <div class="pswp__bg"></div>  <div class="pswp__scroll-wrap">  <div class="pswp__container"> <div class="pswp__item"></div> <div class="pswp__item"></div> <div class="pswp__item"></div> </div>  <div class="pswp__ui pswp__ui--hidden"> <div class="pswp__top-bar">  <div class="pswp__counter"></div> <button class="pswp__button pswp__button--close" title="Close (Esc)"></button> <button class="pswp__button pswp__button--share" title="Share"></button> <button class="pswp__button pswp__button--fs" title="Toggle fullscreen"></button> <button class="pswp__button pswp__button--zoom" title="Zoom in/out"></button>   <div class="pswp__preloader"> <div class="pswp__preloader__icn"> <div class="pswp__preloader__cut"> <div class="pswp__preloader__donut"></div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="pswp__share-modal pswp__share-modal--hidden pswp__single-tap"> <div class="pswp__share-tooltip"></div> </div> <button class="pswp__button pswp__button--arrow--left" title="Previous (arrow left)"> </button> <button class="pswp__button pswp__button--arrow--right" title="Next (arrow right)"> </button> <div class="pswp__caption"> <div class="pswp__caption__center"></div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="figure-dialog-caption"> <div class="figure-caption-link-container"> <a class="figure-caption-link" href="#">See this image and copyright information in PMC</a> </div> <div class="figure-caption-center" data-expand-title="click to show full caption" data-collapse-title="click to hide full caption"> </div> <button class="figure-caption-toggle-btn" aria-label="show full caption" data-expand-text="show full caption" data-collapse-text="hide full caption">  </button> </div> </div> <div class="similar-articles" id="similar"> <h2 class="title"> Similar articles </h2> <ul class="articles-list" id="similar-articles-list"> <li class="full-docsum"> <div class="docsum-content" style="display:inline;"> <a class="docsum-title" href="/25578929/" ref="article_id=25578929&linksrc=similar_articles_link&ordinalpos=1" data-ga-category="similar_article" data-ga-action="25578929" data-ga-label=""> The role of sex chromosomes in mammalian germ cell differentiation: can the germ cells carrying X and Y chromosomes differentiate into fertile oocytes? 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Sex determination: why so many ways of doing it? - PubMed