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<div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1 Early English kingdoms (to 927) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_English_kingdoms_(to_927)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_England_(927–1066)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_England_(927–1066)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 United England (927–1066) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_England_(927–1066)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-High_Medieval_England" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#High_Medieval_England"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 High Medieval England </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-High_Medieval_England-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle High Medieval England subsection </button> <ul id="toc-High_Medieval_England-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-House_of_Normandy_(1066–1135)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#House_of_Normandy_(1066–1135)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 House of Normandy (1066–1135) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-House_of_Normandy_(1066–1135)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-House_of_Anjou_(1154–1216)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#House_of_Anjou_(1154–1216)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 House of Anjou (1154–1216) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-House_of_Anjou_(1154–1216)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_Medieval_England" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_Medieval_England"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Late Medieval England </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Late_Medieval_England-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Late Medieval England subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Late_Medieval_England-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-House_of_Plantagenet_(1216–1399)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#House_of_Plantagenet_(1216–1399)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 House of Plantagenet (1216–1399) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-House_of_Plantagenet_(1216–1399)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Houses_of_Lancaster_and_York_(1399–1485)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Houses_of_Lancaster_and_York_(1399–1485)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Houses of Lancaster and York (1399–1485) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Houses_of_Lancaster_and_York_(1399–1485)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_Modern_England" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" 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id="toc-Spanish_Armada_(1588)_and_English_Armada_(1589)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medieval_and_Early_Modern_Scotland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medieval_and_Early_Modern_Scotland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Medieval and Early Modern Scotland </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medieval_and_Early_Modern_Scotland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-After_Union_of_the_Crowns,_1603–1707" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#After_Union_of_the_Crowns,_1603–1707"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 After Union of the Crowns, 1603–1707 </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-After_Union_of_the_Crowns,_1603–1707-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle After Union of the Crowns, 1603–1707 subsection </button> <ul id="toc-After_Union_of_the_Crowns,_1603–1707-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Charles_I_(1625–1649)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Charles_I_(1625–1649)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Charles I (1625–1649) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Charles_I_(1625–1649)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Commonwealth_(1649–1660)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Commonwealth_(1649–1660)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Commonwealth (1649–1660) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Commonwealth_(1649–1660)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Restoration_(1660–1688)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Restoration_(1660–1688)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Restoration (1660–1688) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Restoration_(1660–1688)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Glorious_Revolution_1688–1707" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Glorious_Revolution_1688–1707"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Glorious Revolution 1688–1707 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Glorious_Revolution_1688–1707-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Major_battles_of_the_English/Royal_Navy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Major_battles_of_the_English/Royal_Navy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Major battles of the English/Royal Navy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Major_battles_of_the_English/Royal_Navy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li 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.sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-top-image"><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom"><img alt="United Kingdom" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Naval_Ensign_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/125px-Naval_Ensign_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="63" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Naval_Ensign_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/188px-Naval_Ensign_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Naval_Ensign_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/250px-Naval_Ensign_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="line-height:1.0em;padding-bottom:0.5em;"><a href="/wiki/His_Majesty%27s_Naval_Service" title="His Majesty's Naval Service">His Majesty's Naval Service</a> of the <a href="/wiki/British_Armed_Forces" title="British Armed Forces">British Armed Forces</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-size:110%;line-height:1.2em;padding:0.25em;background-color:#efefef"> Components</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.15em;padding-bottom:0.5em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a></li></ul> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy_Surface_Fleet" title="Royal Navy Surface Fleet">Surface Fleet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fleet_Air_Arm" title="Fleet Air Arm">Fleet Air Arm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy_Submarine_Service" title="Royal Navy Submarine Service">Submarine Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Naval_Reserve" title="Royal Naval Reserve">Royal Naval Reserve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy_Medical_Service" title="Royal Navy Medical Service">Royal Navy Medical Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Alexandra%27s_Royal_Naval_Nursing_Service" title="Queen Alexandra's Royal Naval Nursing Service">Nursing Service (QARNNS)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy_Chaplaincy_Service" title="Royal Navy Chaplaincy Service">Chaplaincy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy_Police" title="Royal Navy Police">Royal Navy Police</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Marines" title="Royal Marines">Royal Marines</a></li></ul> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Marines_Reserve" title="Royal Marines Reserve">Royal Marines Reserve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Marines_Band_Service" title="Royal Marines Band Service">Royal Marines Band Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structure_of_the_Royal_Marines" title="Structure of the Royal Marines">Organisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_equipment_of_the_Royal_Marines" title="List of equipment of the Royal Marines">Equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniforms_of_the_Royal_Marines" title="Uniforms of the Royal Marines">Uniforms</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> <ul><li>Special Forces</li></ul> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Special_Boat_Service" title="Special Boat Service">Special Boat Service</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Naval_Careers_Service" title="Naval Careers Service">Naval Careers Service</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-size:110%;line-height:1.2em;padding:0.25em;background-color:#efefef"> History and future</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.15em;padding-bottom:0.5em;"> <ul><li><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">before 1707</a> / <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Royal_Navy_(after_1707)" title="History of the Royal Navy (after 1707)">after 1707</a> / <a href="/wiki/Future_of_the_Royal_Navy" title="Future of the Royal Navy">future</a></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Royal_Marines" title="History of the Royal Marines">History of the Royal Marines</a></li></ul> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coloured_squadrons_of_the_Royal_Navy" title="Coloured squadrons of the Royal Navy">Coloured squadrons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Customs_and_traditions_of_the_Royal_Navy" title="Customs and traditions of the Royal Navy">Customs and traditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_command_flags_of_the_Royal_Navy" title="List of command flags of the Royal Navy">Flag officer command flags</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-size:110%;line-height:1.2em;padding:0.25em;background-color:#efefef"> Operations</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.15em;padding-bottom:0.5em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Standing_Royal_Navy_deployments" title="Standing Royal Navy deployments">Current deployments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_Party_(Royal_Navy)" title="Naval Party (Royal Navy)">Naval parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Royal_Navy_shore_establishments" title="List of Royal Navy shore establishments">Shore establishments</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-size:110%;line-height:1.2em;padding:0.25em;background-color:#efefef"> Equipment</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.15em;padding-bottom:0.5em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_active_Royal_Navy_ships" title="List of active Royal Navy ships">Current fleet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ship_names_of_the_Royal_Navy" title="List of ship names of the Royal Navy">Historic ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_equipment_of_the_Royal_Navy" title="List of equipment of the Royal Navy">Equipment</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-size:110%;line-height:1.2em;padding:0.25em;background-color:#efefef"> Personnel</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.15em;padding-bottom:0.5em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Admiralty_(United_Kingdom)" title="Admiralty (United Kingdom)">The Admiralty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_senior_officers_of_the_Royal_Navy" title="List of senior officers of the Royal Navy">Senior officers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniforms_of_the_Royal_Navy" title="Uniforms of the Royal Navy">Uniforms</a></li> <li><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy_officer_rank_insignia" title="Royal Navy officer rank insignia">Officer</a> / <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy_ratings_rank_insignia" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Navy ratings rank insignia">ratings rank insignia</a></div></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-size:110%;line-height:1.2em;padding:0.25em;background-color:#efefef"> Auxiliary services</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.15em;padding-bottom:0.5em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Fleet_Auxiliary" title="Royal Fleet Auxiliary">Royal Fleet Auxiliary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serco_Marine_Services" title="Serco Marine Services">Marine Services</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Royal_Navy" title="Template:Royal Navy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Royal_Navy" title="Template talk:Royal Navy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Royal_Navy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Royal Navy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Properly speaking, the history of the Royal Navy began in 1546 with the establishment of the "Navy Royal" by <a href="/wiki/Henry_VIII" title="Henry VIII">Henry VIII</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChilds2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidnwLSAwAAQBAJpgPA298_298]-1">[1]</a> This became the <a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_Navy" class="mw-redirect" title="Parliamentary Navy">Parliamentary Navy</a> during the period of the <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_England" title="Commonwealth of England">Commonwealth</a> with the modern incarnation of Royal Navy established in 1660 following the <a href="/wiki/English_Restoration" class="mw-redirect" title="English Restoration">Restoration</a> of <a href="/wiki/Charles_II_of_England" title="Charles II of England">King Charles II</a> to the throne. The English navy began operating together with the much smaller <a href="/wiki/Royal_Scots_Navy" title="Royal Scots Navy">Royal Scots Navy</a> at the time of the <a href="/wiki/Union_of_the_Crowns" title="Union of the Crowns">Union of the Crowns</a> under <a href="/wiki/James_I_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="James I of England">James I</a> in 1603 but only formally merged in 1707 at the establishment of the united <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">Kingdom of Great Britain</a>. The history of the English navy can be traced back much further, however. Ad hoc levies of ships allowed seaborne invasions by at least the 7th century and naval battles occurred against <a href="/wiki/Viking_invasion_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Viking invasion of England">invading Vikings</a> in the 9th. Following the 11th-century <a href="/wiki/Norman_Conquest_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Norman Conquest of England">Norman Conquest</a>, naval expenses were initially avoided but the 1204 <a href="/wiki/French_conquest_of_Normandy" class="mw-redirect" title="French conquest of Normandy">loss of Normandy</a> made control of the <a href="/wiki/English_Channel" title="English Channel">Channel</a> much more essential. Early fleets were borrowed from the kingdom's merchants and fishers, particularly at the <a href="/wiki/Cinque_Ports" title="Cinque Ports">Cinque Ports</a>, assembled as needed and then dispersed. <a href="/wiki/John_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="John of England">King John</a> began maintaining a number of large ships in the king's own name and the Cinque Port wardens developed into <a href="/wiki/Lord_High_Admiral_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Lord High Admiral of the United Kingdom">admirals</a>, permanent officers ready to levy and command fleets and provided legal jurisdiction over England's seas and coasts. A full standing navy took shape during the 16th century and finally became a regular establishment during the tumults of the 17th. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_Medieval_England">Early Medieval England</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Royal_Navy_(before_1707)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early Medieval England">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_English_kingdoms_(to_927)">Early English kingdoms (to 927)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Royal_Navy_(before_1707)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Early English kingdoms (to 927)">edit</a>]</div> Some evidence of English ship construction in the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Saxon">Anglo-Saxon</a> period is available from the boat burials at <a href="/wiki/Snape,_Suffolk" title="Snape, Suffolk">Snape</a> (about 550) and <a href="/wiki/Sutton_Hoo" title="Sutton Hoo">Sutton Hoo</a> (about 625), though warships would probably have been larger than the vessels interred there. There is little evidence of the naval activities of the English kingdoms before the mid-9th century, but King <a href="/wiki/Edwin_of_Northumbria" title="Edwin of Northumbria">Edwin of Northumbria</a> (616/7–633/4) conquered the <a href="/wiki/Isle_of_Man" title="Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anglesey" title="Anglesey">Anglesey</a>, and another King of <a href="/wiki/Northumbria" title="Northumbria">Northumbria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ecgfrith_of_Northumbria" title="Ecgfrith of Northumbria">Ecgfrith</a>, sent a military expedition to <a href="/wiki/Gaelic_Ireland" title="Gaelic Ireland">Gaelic Ireland</a> in 684.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESwanton200039-2">[2]</a> The threat from <a href="/wiki/Vikings" title="Vikings">Vikings</a> increased significantly in the early 9th century, and invasions became a serious menace from about 835.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESavage199684-3">[3]</a> In 851 an unprecedentedly large force of Danes invaded southern England, carried on about 350 ships. Campaigning inland, this force was decisively defeated by King <a href="/wiki/%C3%86thelwulf_of_Wessex" class="mw-redirect" title="Æthelwulf of Wessex">Æthelwulf of Wessex</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Aclea" title="Battle of Aclea">Battle of Aclea</a>, but a naval action was also won by Æthelwulf's son <a href="/wiki/%C3%86thelstan_of_Wessex" class="mw-redirect" title="Æthelstan of Wessex">Æthelstan</a> and Ealdorman Ealhere at <a href="/wiki/Sandwich,_Kent" title="Sandwich, Kent">Sandwich, Kent</a>, capturing nine ships.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESavage199686-4">[4]</a> The Danish <a href="/wiki/Great_Heathen_Army" title="Great Heathen Army">Great Army</a>, which conquered about half of England during its campaigns in 865–879, operated largely by land and no naval operations against it by the English kingdoms are recorded. However, in the following years a number of clashes are recorded between Viking raiders and the forces of <a href="/wiki/Alfred_the_Great" title="Alfred the Great">Alfred the Great</a>, the last remaining English king. These included a victory over four ships by a squadron led by the king himself in 882, and operations against the Danes of <a href="/wiki/East_Anglia" title="East Anglia">East Anglia</a> in 884, which saw an entire Danish squadron of sixteen ships captured by an English force, which was then itself defeated on its way home by another fleet.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESavage199693-5">[5]</a> In 896 Alfred had a number of new ships built to his own design, "nearly twice as long as the others, some having 60 oars, some even more", to counter raids along the south coast.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESavage1996107-6">[6]</a> A clash in the <a href="/wiki/Solent" class="mw-redirect" title="Solent">Solent</a> later that year saw nine of his new ships defeat six Danish ships.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHelm1963[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidlf_RAAAAMAAJpgPA109_109]-7">[7]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_England_(927–1066)">United England (927–1066)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Royal_Navy_(before_1707)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: United England (927–1066)">edit</a>]</div> Naval operations are glimpsed again in 934, when <a href="/wiki/%C3%86thelstan" title="Æthelstan">King Æthelstan</a>, now ruler of all England, <a href="/wiki/%C3%86thelstan%27s_invasion_of_Scotland" title="Æthelstan's invasion of Scotland">invaded Scotland</a> with a combined sea and land force.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoot2011165-8">[8]</a> Under King <a href="/wiki/Edgar_the_Peaceable" class="mw-redirect" title="Edgar the Peaceable">Edgar</a> (959–975) the kings of Scotland, of Cumbria and of four other kingdoms would regularly swear to be King Edgar's faithful allies by land and sea.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESwanton2000119-9">[9]</a> The renewal of serious Viking attacks in the reign of <a href="/wiki/%C3%86thelred_the_Unready" title="Æthelred the Unready">Æthelred the Unready</a> led to a general muster of ships at London in 992 against the fleet of <a href="/wiki/Olaf_I_of_Norway" class="mw-redirect" title="Olaf I of Norway">Olaf Tryggvason</a>, but amid confusion and alleged treachery the English fleet suffered heavy losses. In 1008, Æthelred ordered a new programme of naval construction, under which one warship was to be provided for every 310 hides of land in the kingdom. In 1009 the king took the new fleet out to <a href="/wiki/Sandwich,_Kent" title="Sandwich, Kent">Sandwich, Kent</a> to guard against the threat of invasion (this port, near the junction of the <a href="/wiki/North_Sea" title="North Sea">North Sea</a> and the <a href="/wiki/English_Channel" title="English Channel">English Channel</a> and lying within the sheltered offshore anchorage of the Downs, appears frequently in the sources for this period as a position where fleets were stationed on guard). However, this deployment ended in disaster due to internal dissension. Accusations against the great <a href="/wiki/Sussex" title="Sussex">Sussex</a> thegn Wulfnoth (probably the father of <a href="/wiki/Godwin,_Earl_of_Wessex" title="Godwin, Earl of Wessex">Godwin, later Earl of Wessex</a>) led to his flight from the fleet with 20 ships manned by his supporters. A force of 80 ships sent after him was wrecked by a storm and the beached ships burnt by Wulfnoth, after which the remainder of the fleet dispersed in confusion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESwanton2000138-10">[10]</a> English naval forces were supplemented by Scandinavian mercenaries. Directly after the fiasco of 1009 a new invasion force led by the Danish warlord <a href="/wiki/Thorkell_the_Tall" title="Thorkell the Tall">Thorkell the Tall</a> began a devastating campaign in England. When the attackers were finally bought off and dispersed in 1012, Thorkell entered Æthelred's service with 45 ships. When the King of Denmark <a href="/wiki/Swein_Forkbeard" class="mw-redirect" title="Swein Forkbeard">Swein Forkbeard</a> conquered England in 1013, the fleet remained loyal to Æthelred after the rest of the kingdom had submitted to the invader. Swein's death in 1014 led to Æthelred's brief return to power, but in 1015-16 England was again conquered by Swein's son <a href="/wiki/Canute_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Canute the Great">Cnut</a>, whose invasion force had been joined by 40 ship-loads of Danish mercenaries who defected from Æthelred's service. Having secured the throne, Cnut dismissed the bulk of his fleet, but maintained a standing force of 40 ships, funded by national taxation. In 1025 Cnut led an Anglo-Danish fleet to campaign against his enemies in Scandinavia, and in 1028 he conquered Norway with a force including 50 English ships. The standing fleet was in time reduced to 16 ships, but increased again after Cnut's son <a href="/wiki/Harthacnut" title="Harthacnut">Harthacnut</a> brought a fleet from Denmark to claim the throne in 1040.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESwanton2000160-11">[11]</a> The early years of <a href="/wiki/Edward_the_Confessor" title="Edward the Confessor">Edward the Confessor</a>'s reign saw a series of large naval operations under the king's own command, including in 1045 the deployment at <a href="/wiki/Sandwich,_Kent" title="Sandwich, Kent">Sandwich</a> of a particularly big fleet to guard against an expected invasion from Norway, and a blockade of <a href="/wiki/Flanders" title="Flanders">Flanders</a> in 1049, in support of a land campaign by the German Emperor <a href="/wiki/Henry_III_of_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry III of Germany">Henry III</a>. In 1050 Edward reduced the standing force, then numbering 14 ships, to five. After a political crisis in 1051 saw Earl Godwin and <a href="/wiki/House_of_Godwin" title="House of Godwin">his sons</a> driven into exile, Edward sent out a force of 40 ships to Sandwich to guard against their return. However Godwin, returning with ships from Flanders, eluded them, and he and his son <a href="/wiki/Harold_Godwinson" title="Harold Godwinson">Harold</a>, coming from Ireland, gathered a powerful fleet from the butsecarles ("boatmen") of the Earldom of Wessex. With this fleet and an army also gathered from Wessex, Godwin came to London and confronted the king, who was supported by an army and a fleet of 50 ships. The crisis ended with the negotiated reinstatement of Godwin and his sons to their former possessions and power.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESwanton2000168-12">[12]</a> In 1063 Earl Harold Godwinson led a fleet to <a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a> against <a href="/wiki/Gruffydd_ap_Llywelyn" title="Gruffydd ap Llywelyn">Gruffydd ap Llywelyn</a> of <a href="/wiki/Gwynedd" title="Gwynedd">Gwynedd</a>, while his brother <a href="/wiki/Tostig_Godwinson" title="Tostig Godwinson">Tostig</a> invaded by land. Harold put Gruffydd to flight and destroyed his fleet and his residence at <a href="/wiki/Rhuddlan" title="Rhuddlan">Rhuddlan</a>, defeats which led to Gruffydd's murder by his own people in order to end the war. King Edward installed Gruffydd's half-brothers in his place, and they swore to serve him "on water and on land", suggesting that England's native naval forces could be supplemented by tributary contingents from neighbouring dependent territories as well as by foreign mercenaries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESwanton2000190-13">[13]</a> In 1066, following Edward's death and his own election as king, Harold assembled a powerful army and fleet in the <a href="/wiki/Solent" class="mw-redirect" title="Solent">Solent</a> to guard against the invasion being prepared by <a href="/wiki/William_I_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="William I of England">William of Normandy</a>. However, having waited all summer without the <a href="/wiki/Normans" title="Normans">Normans</a> appearing, their provisions were exhausted and Harold was forced to dismiss them; many of the ships were wrecked on the way back to London. William was then able to cross unopposed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESwanton2000196-14">[14]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="High_Medieval_England">High Medieval England</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Royal_Navy_(before_1707)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: High Medieval England">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="House_of_Normandy_(1066–1135)">House of Normandy (1066–1135)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Royal_Navy_(before_1707)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: House of Normandy (1066–1135)">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bayeux_horses_boats.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Bayeux_horses_boats.jpg/220px-Bayeux_horses_boats.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Bayeux_horses_boats.jpg/330px-Bayeux_horses_boats.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Bayeux_horses_boats.jpg/440px-Bayeux_horses_boats.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3379" data-file-height="2245" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Bayeux_tapestry" class="mw-redirect" title="Bayeux tapestry">Bayeux tapestry</a> Norman naval forces</figcaption></figure> English naval power appears to have initially declined as a result of the <a href="/wiki/Norman_conquest_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Norman conquest of England">Norman Conquest</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodger199735–49-15">[15]</a> Following the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hastings" title="Battle of Hastings">Battle of Hastings</a>, the Norman navy that brought over <a href="/wiki/William_the_Conqueror" title="William the Conqueror">William the Conqueror</a> seemingly disappeared from records, possibly due to William receiving all of those ships from <a href="/wiki/Feudal_obligation" class="mw-redirect" title="Feudal obligation">feudal obligations</a> or because of some sort of leasing agreement which lasted only for the duration of the enterprise. There is no evidence that William adopted or kept the Anglo-Saxon ship mustering system, known as the scipfyrd ("ship <a href="/wiki/Fyrd" title="Fyrd">levy</a>"). Hardly noted after 1066, it appears that the Normans let the scipfyrd languish so that by 1086, when <a href="/wiki/Domesday_Book" title="Domesday Book">Domesday Book</a> was completed, it had apparently ceased to exist.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodger199738–39-16">[16]</a> According to the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_Chronicle" title="Anglo-Saxon Chronicle">Anglo-Saxon Chronicle</a>, in 1068, <a href="/wiki/Harold_Godwinson" title="Harold Godwinson">Harold Godwinson</a>'s sons <a href="/wiki/Godwin,_son_of_Harold_Godwinson" title="Godwin, son of Harold Godwinson">Godwin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Edmund,_son_of_Harold_Godwinson" title="Edmund, son of Harold Godwinson">Edmund</a> conducted a "raiding-ship army" which came from Ireland, raiding across the region and to the townships of <a href="/wiki/Bristol" title="Bristol">Bristol</a> and <a href="/wiki/Somerset" title="Somerset">Somerset</a>. In the following year of 1069, they returned with a bigger fleet which they sailed up the River Taw before being beaten back by a local earl near <a href="/wiki/Devon" title="Devon">Devon</a>. However, this made explicitly clear that the newly conquered England under Norman rule, in effect, ceded the Irish Sea to the Irish, the Vikings of Dublin, and other Norwegians.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStanton2015225–226-17">[17]</a> Besides ceding away the Irish Sea, the Normans also ceded the North Sea, a major area where Nordic peoples travelled. In 1069, this lack of naval presence in the North Sea allowed for the invasion and ravaging of England by Jarl Osborn (brother of <a href="/wiki/Sweyn_II_of_Denmark" title="Sweyn II of Denmark">King Svein Estridsson</a>) and his sons <a href="/wiki/Harald_III_of_Denmark" class="mw-redirect" title="Harald III of Denmark">Harald</a>, <a href="/wiki/Canute_IV_of_Denmark" title="Canute IV of Denmark">Cnut</a>, and Bjorn. In addition to the ravaging of the English townships of <a href="/wiki/Dover" title="Dover">Dover</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sandwich,_Kent" title="Sandwich, Kent">Sandwich</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ipswich" title="Ipswich">Ipswich</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Norwich" title="Norwich">Norwich</a>, the Danes connected with the aetheling (<a href="/wiki/Crown_prince" title="Crown prince">crown prince</a>) Edgar and rebels in Northumbria. William chased Edgar and the rebels to Scotland, but could not defeat the Danes, causing him to resort to the old Anglo-Saxon practice of paying them off.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESwanton2000202–204-18">[18]</a> Though William the Conqueror caused a massive decline in English naval practices, he did occasionally assemble small fleets of ships, but only for limited activities. Most of these limited actions also did not involve direct combat at sea. An example of this was when the rebellious Anglo-Saxon <a href="/wiki/Morcar" title="Morcar">Earl Morcar</a> and his ally Bishop <a href="/wiki/%C3%86thelwine_(bishop_of_Durham)" title="Æthelwine (bishop of Durham)">Æthelwine</a> of Durham sought refuge on the <a href="/wiki/Isle_of_Ely" title="Isle of Ely">Isle of Ely</a> in 1071. According to <a href="/wiki/Florence_of_Worcester" title="Florence of Worcester">Florence of Worcester</a> reported, "The king [William the Conqueror] hearing of this, blocked up every outlet on the eastern side by means of boatmen [butescarls], and caused a bridge two miles long to be constructed on the western side." The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle also confirms these events. Though William used ships for blockading purposes and for important strategic engagements, his infrequent use of an established navy promoted a damaging practice of infrequent maritime operations, which his successors would practice on a frequent basis.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStanton2015226-19">[19]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="House_of_Anjou_(1154–1216)">House of Anjou (1154–1216)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Royal_Navy_(before_1707)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: House of Anjou (1154–1216)">edit</a>]</div> In 1141 <a href="/wiki/Henry_II_of_England" title="Henry II of England">Henry II</a> invaded Ireland while a fleet of 167 ships sailed from <a href="/wiki/Dartmouth,_Devon" title="Dartmouth, Devon">Dartmouth</a> on a crusade to capture <a href="/wiki/Lisbon" title="Lisbon">Lisbon</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Moors" title="Moors">Moors</a>. A further fleet was raised for the <a href="/wiki/Third_Crusade" title="Third Crusade">Third Crusade</a> in 1190. The <a href="/wiki/Normans" title="Normans">Norman</a> kings had a regular need for cross-Channel transport and raised a naval force in 1155, with the <a href="/wiki/Cinque_Ports" title="Cinque Ports">Cinque Ports</a> required to provide a total of 57 ships crewed by 21 sailors apiece. However, with the loss of Normandy by <a href="/wiki/John_of_England#Dispute_with_Arthur" class="mw-redirect" title="John of England">King John</a> (who even so had a fleet of 500 sail in an attempt to regain it), this had to become a force capable of preventing invasion and protecting traffic to and from <a href="/wiki/Gascony" title="Gascony">Gascony</a>. In the first years of the 13th century <a href="/wiki/William_de_Wrotham" class="mw-redirect" title="William de Wrotham">William de Wrotham</a> appears in the records as the clerk of a force of <a href="/wiki/Galley" title="Galley">galleys</a> to be used against <a href="/wiki/Philip_Augustus_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Philip Augustus of France">Philip Augustus of France</a>. In 1206 <a href="/wiki/John_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="John of England">King John</a> ordered 54 royal galleys to be constructed and between 1207 and 1211 £5000 was spent on the royal fleet. The fleet also started to have an offensive capability, as in 1213 when ships commanded by the <a href="/wiki/Earl_of_Salisbury" title="Earl of Salisbury">Earl of Salisbury</a> raided <a href="/wiki/Damme" title="Damme">Damme</a> in <a href="/wiki/Flanders" title="Flanders">Flanders</a>, where they burned many ships of the French fleet.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrooks1930-20">[20]</a> When <a href="/wiki/John,_King_of_England" title="John, King of England">King John</a>'s campaign to recover Normandy from the French was at a breaking point, the northern barons of England began to rise in revolt. Forced by the insurrection, John signed <a href="/wiki/Magna_Carta" title="Magna Carta">Magna Carta</a> on 15 June 1215, in hopes of satisfying the barons to buy time for <a href="/wiki/Pope_Innocent_III" title="Pope Innocent III">Pope Innocent III</a> to excommunicate the rebellious barons and condemn Magna Carta. From this, the barons revolted, commencing the <a href="/wiki/First_Barons%27_War" title="First Barons' War">First Barons' War</a> with the capture of <a href="/wiki/Rochester_Castle" title="Rochester Castle">Rochester Castle</a>. Grasping, however, that they (the barons) were outmatched by royalists and King John, the barons decided to turn to France for assistance. Realising the baron's intentions, John attempted to assemble a Navy, to prevent the arrival of the French.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiles1849308,_329,_334–339,_&_340–341-21">[21]</a> France, who saw this as a fortunate opportunity, decided to assist the barons, with <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_France" title="Philip II of France">Phillip II</a>'s (King of France) son <a href="/wiki/Louis_VIII_of_France" title="Louis VIII of France">Dauphin Louis</a>, later known as Louis VIII of France, to invade England. With John unable to swiftly build up his navy, due to the adopting of infrequent maritime operations from William the Conqueror, the French Navy under Louis invaded and landed at Sandwich unopposed in April 1216.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiles1849308,_329,_334–339,_&_340–341-21">[21]</a> With Louis near London, John fled to <a href="/wiki/Winchester" title="Winchester">Winchester</a>, where he would stay until his death on 19 October 1216, having his nine-year-old son <a href="/wiki/Henry_III_of_England" title="Henry III of England">Henry III</a> as heir to the throne.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichel1840172–177-22">[22]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Late_Medieval_England">Late Medieval England</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Royal_Navy_(before_1707)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Late Medieval England">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="House_of_Plantagenet_(1216–1399)">House of Plantagenet (1216–1399)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Royal_Navy_(before_1707)&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: House of Plantagenet (1216–1399)">edit</a>]</div> Paradoxically, John's death turned the tide against Louis and the rebellion in England and spurred the development of the English navy. <a href="/wiki/William_Marshal,_1st_Earl_of_Pembroke" title="William Marshal, 1st Earl of Pembroke">William Marshal</a>, who became regent to the son of the recently deceased English king, began to regain support for the royalist cause through a regimen of compromise. Among his priorities were the <a href="/wiki/Cinque_Ports" title="Cinque Ports">Cinque Ports</a>, which had a substantial number of ships. Louis was then obliged to return to France to gather reinforcements and more ships of his own. Though he succeeded, English vessels began to <a href="/wiki/Blockade" title="Blockade">blockade</a> and harass French shipping, trade, and blockaded multiple French-controlled English ports.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichel1840183–185-23">[23]</a> By mid-1217, English royalists began to gain the advantage over the rebellious Barons and their French allies. Again needing more troops, Louis requested from his wife <a href="/wiki/Blanche_of_Castile" title="Blanche of Castile">Blanche of Castile</a> to assemble more troops for him. Up to the task, Blanche assisted in gathering forces for her husband, with a massive French force being assembled by August 1217 at the port of Calais. At the head of the French transports was <a href="/wiki/Eustace_the_Monk" title="Eustace the Monk">Eustace the Monk</a>, Louis's best naval commander, who had previously helped Louis escape several English blockades including the one in <a href="/wiki/Winchelsea" title="Winchelsea">Winchelsea</a> in January 1217.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStanton2015232-24">[24]</a> <a href="/wiki/Hubert_de_Burgh" class="mw-redirect" title="Hubert de Burgh">Hubert de Burgh</a> took command of the English forces raised in response, prompting the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sandwich_(1217)" title="Battle of Sandwich (1217)">1217 Battle of Sandwich</a> in the Downs. For the first time in northern waters a decisive naval battle was fought on the open sea. The battle was dominated by the English, with French losing almost all of their ships and many officers including Eustace the Monk. William Marshal was then able to isolate Louis in London, compelling him to renounce his claim to the English throne and force him to return to France.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichel1840198–205-25">[25]</a> Later in the 13th century, ships begin to be mentioned regularly as support for various campaigns under <a href="/wiki/Edward_I_of_England" title="Edward I of England">Edward I</a>, most notably in <a href="/wiki/Luke_de_Tany" title="Luke de Tany">Luke de Tany</a>'s capture of <a href="/wiki/Anglesey" title="Anglesey">Anglesey</a> in 1282. <a href="/wiki/Edward_II_of_England" title="Edward II of England">Edward II</a> attempted to blockade Scotland, but this was ineffective. Naval expenses were considerable, with twenty 120-oared galleys being ordered in 1294 because of a fear of French invasion. In 1224 the first <a href="/wiki/Lord_High_Admiral_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord High Admiral of England">admiral of England</a> is recorded in <a href="/wiki/Charter" title="Charter">charters</a>: <a href="/wiki/Henry_III_of_England" title="Henry III of England">Henry III</a> granted the office to <a href="/w/index.php?title=Richard_de_Lucy_(admiral)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Richard de Lucy (admiral) (page does not exist)">Sir Richard de Lucy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHall1809[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidx3M9AAAAIAAJpgPR7_vii–viii]-26">[26]</a> Other men were granted the same office but styled differently: in 1264, "<a href="/w/index.php?title=Thomas_de_Multon_(admiral)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Thomas de Multon (admiral) (page does not exist)">Thomas de Moleton</a>" as "Captain and Keeper of the Seas and Maritime Regions" (<a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: capitaneus et custos maris et partium maritimarum).<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarsden1907470-28">[28]</a> <a href="/wiki/William_de_Leybourne" title="William de Leybourne">Sir William de Leybourne</a> was noted as "Captain of the Sailors and Mariners of the Kingdom" (Capitaneus Nautarum & Marinellorum de Regno) in 1294,<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> "admiral of our navy of England" (<a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>: amiral de nostre navie d'Engleterre) in 1295,<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> and "Admiral of the Sea of the King of England" (Amiral de la Mer du... Roy d'Engleterre) in 1297.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarsden1907470-28">[28]</a> These offices were granted by Edward I. In 1321 Sir Richard de Leyburn was granted the title Admiral of England, Wales and Ireland by Edward II and in 1360 <a href="/wiki/John_de_Beauchamp,_1st_Baron_Beauchamp_de_Warwick" class="mw-redirect" title="John de Beauchamp, 1st Baron Beauchamp de Warwick">Sir John de Beauchamp</a>, as High Admiral of England was appointed by <a href="/wiki/Edward_III_of_England" title="Edward III of England">Edward III</a>. Although each of these held the title of Admiralis Angliae, the civil jurisdiction of their offices was never used, nor did they officially receive <a href="/wiki/Letters_patent" title="Letters patent">letters patent</a> from the monarch.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHall1809[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidx3M9AAAAIAAJpgPR7_vii–viii]-26">[26]</a> In 1321 Sir John de Beauchamp was also appointed <a href="/wiki/Admiral_of_the_South,_North_and_West" title="Admiral of the South, North and West">Admiral of the South, North and West</a>, effectively the English Navy's first <a href="/wiki/Admiral_of_the_Fleet_(Royal_Navy)" title="Admiral of the Fleet (Royal Navy)">Admiral of the Fleet</a>.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> The first Admiral to be granted a patent by the monarch was <a href="/wiki/Richard_FitzAlan,_10th_Earl_of_Arundel" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard FitzAlan, 10th Earl of Arundel">Richard FitzAlan, 10th Earl of Arundel</a> as <a href="/wiki/Lord_High_Admiral_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Lord High Admiral of the United Kingdom">High Admiral of England, Ireland and Aquitaine</a> given by <a href="/wiki/King_Richard_II" class="mw-redirect" title="King Richard II">King Richard II</a> in 1385.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChatterton1909[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid0PsyBgAAQBAJpgPA166_128]-33">[33]</a> In the early 13th century English admirals tended to be knights or barons, and their role was essentially administrative, not operational. In 1294 Edward I divided the English Navy into three geographical 'admiralties' each assigned a fleet and each of them administered by an admiral:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodger1997134-34">[34]</a> they were the <a href="/wiki/Admiral_of_the_North" title="Admiral of the North">Admiral of the Northern Fleet</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Admiral_of_the_West" title="Admiral of the West">Admiral of the Western Fleet</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Admiral_of_the_South" title="Admiral of the South">Admiral of the Southern Fleet</a>; they were each responsible for managing and enforcing admiralty jurisdiction in their respective areas and raising and administering the ships. It also allowed Edward I to mount expeditions to Brittany, Flanders or Scotland with greater ease.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodger1997134-34">[34]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BattleofSluys.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/BattleofSluys.jpeg/220px-BattleofSluys.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/BattleofSluys.jpeg/330px-BattleofSluys.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/BattleofSluys.jpeg/440px-BattleofSluys.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="1665" data-file-height="1560" /></a><figcaption>The English and French navies at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sluys" title="Battle of Sluys">Battle of Sluys</a> in 1340</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a> (1337–1453) included frequent cross-Channel raids, frequently unopposed due to the lack of effective communications and the limitations of naval organisation. The navy was used for reconnaissance as well as for attacks on merchantmen and warships. Prize ships and cargoes were shared out. The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sluys" title="Battle of Sluys">Battle of Sluys</a> in 1340 was a significant English victory, with <a href="/wiki/Edward_III_of_England" title="Edward III of England">Edward III of England</a>'s 160 ships (mostly hired merchant vessels) assaulting a French force in the <a href="/wiki/Zwyn" class="mw-redirect" title="Zwyn">Zwyn</a> estuary and capturing 180 French ships in hand-to-hand combat. <a href="/wiki/Les_Espagnols_sur_Mer" class="mw-redirect" title="Les Espagnols sur Mer">Les Espagnols sur Mer</a>, fought in the Channel off <a href="/wiki/Winchelsea" title="Winchelsea">Winchelsea</a> in 1350, is possibly the first major battle in the open sea in English history; the English captured 14 Spanish ships. The 14th century also saw the creation of the post of <a href="/wiki/Clerk_of_the_Acts" title="Clerk of the Acts">Clerk of the King's Ships</a>, who appears from 1344 on as in charge of some 34 royal vessels. At one point in the mid-14th century Edward III's navy had some 700 ships in service overall.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECushway2011-35">[35]</a> In 1364 the Northern and Western admiralties and fleets were combined commanded by the <a href="/wiki/Admiral_of_the_North_and_West" title="Admiral of the North and West">Admiral of the North and West</a>, and remained so on an ad hoc basis until 1414.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolas1847529-36">[36]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Houses_of_Lancaster_and_York_(1399–1485)">Houses of Lancaster and York (1399–1485)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Royal_Navy_(before_1707)&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Houses of Lancaster and York (1399–1485)">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Henry_V_of_England" title="Henry V of England">Henry V of England</a> revived the navy, building a number of <a href="/wiki/Balinger" title="Balinger">balingers</a> and "<a href="/wiki/Great_ship" class="mw-redirect" title="Great ship">great ships</a>", increasing the fleet from six in 1413 to 39 in 1417/8. These included the 1,400-ton <a href="/wiki/Grace_Dieu_(ship)" title="Grace Dieu (ship)">Grace Dieu</a> (which still exists, buried in the <a href="/wiki/River_Hamble" title="River Hamble">Hamble</a> estuary), and won victories in the Channel, reaching a high point in 1417 when the French fleet was destroyed. An invasion of France took place in 1415 which led to the capture of <a href="/wiki/Harfleur" title="Harfleur">Harfleur</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Agincourt" title="Battle of Agincourt">victory at Agincourt</a>. A second invasion, beginning in 1419, led to the conquest of the Channel coast of France, almost eliminating any seaborne threat to England and enabling the running down of Henry's naval forces.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner2006322-37">[37]</a> Dealing with the matter of naval administration during the 15th century the most significant development was the establishment of the first Admiralty of England. This was brought about in 1412 when the remaining geographic 'admiralties' (the <a href="/wiki/Admiral_of_the_North" title="Admiral of the North">Northern Admiralty</a> and <a href="/wiki/Admiral_of_the_West" title="Admiral of the West">Western Admiralty</a>) were abolished and their functions were unified under a single administrative and operational command, the Admiralty Office, later called the <a href="/wiki/Admiralty_in_the_16th_century" title="Admiralty in the 16th century">Admiralty and Marine Affairs Office</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoades_&_al.20168-38">[38]</a> There was no significant new construction until the 1480s, by which time ships mounted guns regularly. The Regent of 1487 had 225 "serpentines", an early type of cannon. <a href="/wiki/Henry_VII_of_England" title="Henry VII of England">Henry VII</a> deserves a large share of credit for the establishment of a standing navy. Although there is no evidence for a conscious change of policy, Henry soon embarked on a programme of building larger ships than previously. He also invested in dockyards, and commissioned the oldest surviving <a href="/wiki/Dry_dock" title="Dry dock">dry dock</a> in 1495 at <a href="/wiki/HMNB_Portsmouth" title="HMNB Portsmouth">Portsmouth</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENelson200136-39">[39]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_Modern_England">Early Modern England</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Royal_Navy_(before_1707)&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Early Modern England">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="House_of_Tudor,_1485–1603">House of Tudor, 1485–1603</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Royal_Navy_(before_1707)&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: House of Tudor, 1485–1603">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tudor_navy" title="Tudor navy">Tudor navy</a></div> The fleet began to increase in size under <a href="/wiki/Henry_VIII_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry VIII of England">Henry VIII</a>, from five ships in 1509 to thirty in 1514, including the <a href="/wiki/Great_Harry" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Harry">Henri Grâce à Dieu</a> or "Great Harry" of 1500 tons and the <a href="/wiki/Mary_Rose" title="Mary Rose">Mary Rose</a> of 600 tons. Most of the fleet was laid up after 1525 but, because of the break with the Catholic Church, 27 new ships, as well as forts and blockhouses, were built with money from the sale of the monasteries. A detailed and largely accurate contemporary document, the <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Roll" title="Anthony Roll">Anthony Roll</a>, was written in 1540. It gave a nearly complete account of the English navy, which contained roughly 50 ships, including <a href="/wiki/Carrack" title="Carrack">carracks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Galley" title="Galley">galleys</a>, <a href="/wiki/Galleass" title="Galleass">galleasses</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pinnace_(ship%27s_boat)" title="Pinnace (ship's boat)">pinnaces</a>. The carracks included famous vessels such as the <a href="/wiki/Mary_Rose" title="Mary Rose">Mary Rose</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Peter_Pomegranate" title="Peter Pomegranate">Peter Pomegranate</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Great_Harry" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Harry">Henry Grâce à Dieu</a>.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> In 1544 <a href="/wiki/Boulogne-sur-Mer" title="Boulogne-sur-Mer">Boulogne</a> was captured. The <a href="/wiki/French_navy" class="mw-redirect" title="French navy">French navy</a> raided the <a href="/wiki/Isle_of_Wight" title="Isle of Wight">Isle of Wight</a> and was then fought off in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Solent" title="Battle of the Solent">Battle of the Solent</a> in 1545, before which Mary Rose sank.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> In the year following the battle, <a href="/wiki/Henry_VIII_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry VIII of England">Henry VIII</a> ordered the creation of a standing "Navy Royal",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChilds2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidnwLSAwAAQBAJpgPA298_298]-1">[1]</a> a major expansion of the fleet, and the origin of the modern institution. For the first time, it had its own secretariat, dockyards and a permanent core of purpose-built warships, emerged during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Henry_VIII_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry VIII of England">Henry VIII</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodger1997221–237-42">[42]</a> In 1546, to support the <a href="/wiki/Admiralty_and_Marine_Affairs_Office" class="mw-redirect" title="Admiralty and Marine Affairs Office">Admiralty and Marine Affairs Office</a> in the civil administration of the Royal Navy, Henry VIII established a second organisation, the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_the_Marine" class="mw-redirect" title="Council of the Marine">Office of the Council of the Marine</a>. This consisted of the Chief Officers of the Admiralty who acted as advisers to the Lord Admiral of England. In 1576 it moved to <a href="/wiki/Deptford" title="Deptford">Deptford</a> Strand, where it became part of the <a href="/wiki/Navy_Office_(Royal_Navy)" title="Navy Office (Royal Navy)">Navy Office</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodger1997221–238-43">[43]</a> In the 1550s English gentlemen opposed to the Catholicism of <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain" title="Philip II of Spain">Philip</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mary_I_of_England" title="Mary I of England">Mary</a> took refuge in France and were active in the English Channel as <a href="/wiki/Privateer" title="Privateer">privateers</a> under <a href="/wiki/Letter_of_marque" title="Letter of marque">letters of marque</a> from the French king. Six of their vessels were captured off Plymouth in July 1556.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoades_&_al.2013-44">[44]</a> In 1580 Spanish and Portuguese troops were sent to Ireland, but were defeated by an English army and naval force.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoyne_&_al.1841[httpswwwlibraryirelandcomSceneryIrelandIV-22php_Ch._IV,_§22]-45">[45]</a> <table style="margin: 0 auto;"> <tbody><tr> <td><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AnthonyRoll-1_Great_Harry.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/AnthonyRoll-1_Great_Harry.jpg/220px-AnthonyRoll-1_Great_Harry.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/AnthonyRoll-1_Great_Harry.jpg/330px-AnthonyRoll-1_Great_Harry.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/AnthonyRoll-1_Great_Harry.jpg/440px-AnthonyRoll-1_Great_Harry.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4721" data-file-height="3656" /></a><figcaption>Henry Grâce à Dieu, from the <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Roll" title="Anthony Roll">Anthony Roll</a>.</figcaption></figure> </td> <td><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AnthonyRoll-3_Peter.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/AnthonyRoll-3_Peter.jpg/220px-AnthonyRoll-3_Peter.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/AnthonyRoll-3_Peter.jpg/330px-AnthonyRoll-3_Peter.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/AnthonyRoll-3_Peter.jpg/440px-AnthonyRoll-3_Peter.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4015" data-file-height="2831" /></a><figcaption>"Peter Pomegranate" sister ship of the "Mary Rose"</figcaption></figure> </td> <td><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AnthonyRoll-2_Mary_Rose.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/AnthonyRoll-2_Mary_Rose.jpg/220px-AnthonyRoll-2_Mary_Rose.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/AnthonyRoll-2_Mary_Rose.jpg/330px-AnthonyRoll-2_Mary_Rose.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/AnthonyRoll-2_Mary_Rose.jpg/440px-AnthonyRoll-2_Mary_Rose.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4013" data-file-height="2757" /></a><figcaption>Mary Rose, from the <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Roll" title="Anthony Roll">Anthony Roll</a></figcaption></figure> </td> <td><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AnthonyRoll-27_Salamander.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A small four-masted sailing vessel with a small lizard-like sculpture in its bow." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/AnthonyRoll-27_Salamander.jpg/220px-AnthonyRoll-27_Salamander.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/AnthonyRoll-27_Salamander.jpg/330px-AnthonyRoll-27_Salamander.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/AnthonyRoll-27_Salamander.jpg/440px-AnthonyRoll-27_Salamander.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4013" data-file-height="2829" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Salamander_of_Leith" title="Salamander of Leith">Salamander</a>, a galleass captured from the Scots and one of only three ships in the Anthony Roll which has an identifiable <a href="/wiki/Figurehead_(object)" title="Figurehead (object)">figurehead</a>.</figcaption></figure> </td> <td><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AnthonyRoll-30_Galley_Subtle.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A colourful image of a one-masted vessel propelled by a large group of rowers. Toward the back of the ship a man is holding a raised baton, urging the rowers on." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/AnthonyRoll-30_Galley_Subtle.jpg/220px-AnthonyRoll-30_Galley_Subtle.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/AnthonyRoll-30_Galley_Subtle.jpg/330px-AnthonyRoll-30_Galley_Subtle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/AnthonyRoll-30_Galley_Subtle.jpg/440px-AnthonyRoll-30_Galley_Subtle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4016" data-file-height="2520" /></a><figcaption>The Galley Subtle, a Mediterranean-type <a href="/wiki/Galley" title="Galley">galley</a> which formed the centrepiece of the three combined rolls and the illustration that displays the highest artistic quality.</figcaption></figure> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spanish_Armada_(1588)_and_English_Armada_(1589)">Spanish Armada (1588) and English Armada (1589)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Royal_Navy_(before_1707)&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Spanish Armada (1588) and English Armada (1589)">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Francis_Drake,_por_un_artista_an%C3%B3nimo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Francis_Drake%2C_por_un_artista_an%C3%B3nimo.jpg/170px-Francis_Drake%2C_por_un_artista_an%C3%B3nimo.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="278" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Francis_Drake%2C_por_un_artista_an%C3%B3nimo.jpg/255px-Francis_Drake%2C_por_un_artista_an%C3%B3nimo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Francis_Drake%2C_por_un_artista_an%C3%B3nimo.jpg/340px-Francis_Drake%2C_por_un_artista_an%C3%B3nimo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1028" data-file-height="1682" /></a><figcaption>Sir <a href="/wiki/Francis_Drake" title="Francis Drake">Francis Drake</a></figcaption></figure> While Henry VIII had launched the Royal Navy, his successors Edward VI and Mary I had neglected it, and it was little more than a system of coastal defence. Elizabeth made naval strength a high priority.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoades_&_al.2013-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECorbett1898-46">[46]</a> She risked war with Spain by supporting the "<a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_Sea_Dogs" title="Elizabethan Sea Dogs">Sea Dogs</a>", such as John Hawkins and Francis Drake, who preyed on the Spanish merchant ships carrying gold and silver from the New World. The Navy yards were leaders in technical innovation, and the captains devised new tactics. <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Parker_(historian)" title="Geoffrey Parker (historian)">Geoffrey Parker</a> argued that the full-rigged ship was one of the greatest technological advances of the century, and permanently transformed naval warfare. In 1573 English shipwrights introduced designs, first demonstrated on the Dreadnaught, that allowed the ships to sail faster and manoeuvre better and permitted heavier guns.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker1996-47">[47]</a> Whereas before warships had tried to grapple with each other so that soldiers could board the enemy ship, now they stood off and fired broadsides that would sink the enemy vessel.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodger1997312_&_316-48">[48]</a> Under <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_I_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Elizabeth I of England">Elizabeth I</a> England became involved in a war with the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a>, at the time Europe's superpower and the leading naval power. Spain threatened England with invasion to restore Catholicism in England, at a time when England supported Dutch rebels, and raided Spanish commerce and colonies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodger1997238–253,_281–286,_&_292–296-49">[49]</a> In 1588, <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain" title="Philip II of Spain">Philip II of Spain</a> sent the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Armada" title="Spanish Armada">Spanish Armada</a> against England to end English support for Dutch rebels, to stop English <a href="/wiki/Privateer" title="Privateer">corsair</a> activity and to depose the Protestant Elizabeth I and restore Catholicism to England. Preparations, under the command of the Marqués de Santa Cruz, began in 1586 but were seriously delayed by a <a href="/wiki/Singeing_the_King_of_Spain%27s_Beard" title="Singeing the King of Spain's Beard">surprise attack on Cádiz</a> by <a href="/wiki/Francis_Drake" title="Francis Drake">Sir Francis Drake</a> in 1587. By the time the expedition was ready Santa Cruz had died, and command was given to the <a href="/wiki/Alonso_P%C3%A9rez_de_Guzm%C3%A1n,_7th_Duke_of_Medina_Sidonia" class="mw-redirect" title="Alonso Pérez de Guzmán, 7th Duke of Medina Sidonia">Duke of Medina Sedonia</a>. The Armada consisted of 130 ships, including transports and merchantmen, and carried about 30,000 men. It was to go to Flanders and from there convoy, the army of the <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Farnese,_Duke_of_Parma" title="Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma">Duke of Parma</a>, to invade England. It set out from <a href="/wiki/Lisbon" title="Lisbon">Lisbon</a> in May 1588 but was forced into <a href="/wiki/A_Coru%C3%B1a" title="A Coruña">A Coruña</a> by storms and did not set sail again until July.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:English_Ships_and_the_Spanish_Armada,_August_1588_RMG_BHC0262.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/English_Ships_and_the_Spanish_Armada%2C_August_1588_RMG_BHC0262.jpg/220px-English_Ships_and_the_Spanish_Armada%2C_August_1588_RMG_BHC0262.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/English_Ships_and_the_Spanish_Armada%2C_August_1588_RMG_BHC0262.jpg/330px-English_Ships_and_the_Spanish_Armada%2C_August_1588_RMG_BHC0262.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/English_Ships_and_the_Spanish_Armada%2C_August_1588_RMG_BHC0262.jpg/440px-English_Ships_and_the_Spanish_Armada%2C_August_1588_RMG_BHC0262.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7200" data-file-height="5634" /></a><figcaption>A late <a href="/wiki/16th_century" title="16th century">16th-century</a> painting of the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Armada" title="Spanish Armada">Spanish Armada</a> in battle with English warships</figcaption></figure> The Armada was first sighted by the English off <a href="/wiki/Lizard_Point,_Cornwall" title="Lizard Point, Cornwall">Lizard Point</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Cornwall" title="Cornwall">Cornwall</a>, on 19 July, and the first engagement took place off <a href="/wiki/Plymouth" title="Plymouth">Plymouth</a> on 21 July. In four hours the Spanish fired 720 <a href="/wiki/Round_shot" title="Round shot">round shot</a> and the English 2,000 rounds, but little real damage was done to either side.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClodfelter201719-51">[51]</a> In fighting off <a href="/wiki/Portland_Bill" title="Portland Bill">Portland Bill</a> on 23 July, some 5,000 shots were discharged by the rival fleets. Spanish casualties were about 50 killed and 70 wounded.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClodfelter201720-52">[52]</a> After another engagement off the <a href="/wiki/Isle_of_Wight" title="Isle of Wight">Isle of Wight</a> on 24 July, in which the Armada lost another 50 men slain, Medina Sedonia steered for <a href="/wiki/Calais" title="Calais">Calais</a> to replenish his empty powder and shot stocks from Parma's ammunition depots. Parma, however, blockaded in <a href="/wiki/Bruges" title="Bruges">Bruges</a> by 60 Dutch ships, was unable to come to the Armada's assistance. After an indecisive engagement with the English off <a href="/wiki/Gravelines" title="Gravelines">Gravelines</a>, the Armada ran out of ammunition. The Spanish had expended 125,000 cannonballs against the English. Consequently, the Spanish commander decided to retreat to Spain by going north around Scotland and Ireland. The Spanish ships were dispersed by storms; their provisions gave out, and many of those who landed in Ireland were killed by English troops. Only about half the fleet reached home. An <a href="/wiki/English_Armada" title="English Armada">English Armada</a> sent to destroy the port at A Coruña and land in Lisbon in 1589 was itself defeated with 40 ships sunk and 15,000 men lost.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFernández_Duro197251-53">[53]</a> The Spanish victory marked a revival of <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain" title="Philip II of Spain">Philip II</a>'s naval power through the next decade.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElliott2000351-54">[54]</a> In October 1596, <a href="/wiki/2nd_Spanish_Armada" title="2nd Spanish Armada">another Armada</a> left Lisbon. The invasion fleet numbered 126 ships and carried 9,000 Spaniards and 3,000 Portuguese. The Royal Navy was unprepared, but England was saved by stormy seas that wrecked 72 ships and drowned 3,000 sailors and soldiers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClodfelter201721-55">[55]</a> The following year, in October 1597, yet <a href="/wiki/3rd_Spanish_Armada" title="3rd Spanish Armada">another Armada</a> was sent out, but this also was blown back.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETenace2003882-56">[56]</a> The destruction of the Spanish Armada marked the high point of Elizabeth's reign, but the loss of the English Armada (or Counter Armada) the following year discouraged further joint stock adventures on such a scale.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWernham2020[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidUOcJEAAAQBAJpgPT24_24]-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner2002242-58">[58]</a> Technically, the Spanish Armada failed because Spain's over-complex strategy required coordination between the invasion fleet and the Spanish army on shore. But the poor design of the Spanish cannons meant they were much slower in reloading in a close-range battle, allowing England to take control. Spain and France still had stronger fleets, but England was catching up.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker198826–33-59">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHutchinson2013-60">[60]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Medieval_and_Early_Modern_Scotland">Medieval and Early Modern Scotland</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Royal_Navy_(before_1707)&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Medieval and Early Modern Scotland">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Royal_Scots_Navy" title="Royal Scots Navy">Royal Scots Navy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Scottish_Red_Ensign.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Scottish_Red_Ensign.svg/220px-Scottish_Red_Ensign.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Scottish_Red_Ensign.svg/330px-Scottish_Red_Ensign.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Scottish_Red_Ensign.svg/440px-Scottish_Red_Ensign.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Red_Ensign" title="Red Ensign">Scottish Red Ensign</a>, flown by ships of the Royal Scots Navy</figcaption></figure> The Royal Scots Navy (or Old Scots Navy) was the <a href="/wiki/Navy" title="Navy">navy</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Scotland" title="Kingdom of Scotland">Kingdom of Scotland</a> until its merger with the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">Kingdom of England</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a> in 1707 as a consequence of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Union" title="Treaty of Union">Treaty of Union</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Acts_of_Union_1707" title="Acts of Union 1707">Acts of Union</a> that ratified it. From 1603 until 1707, the Royal Scots Navy and England's Royal Navy were organised as one force, though not formally merged.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWinfield2009xviii-61">[61]</a> There are mentions in medieval records of fleets commanded by Scottish kings including <a href="/wiki/William_the_Lion" title="William the Lion">William the Lion</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETytler1829309–310-62">[62]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alexander_II_of_Scotland" title="Alexander II of Scotland">Alexander II</a>. The latter took personal command of a large naval force which sailed from the Firth of Clyde and anchored off the island of Kerrera in 1249, intended to transport his army in a campaign against the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Isles" title="Kingdom of the Isles">Kingdom of the Isles</a>, but he died before the campaign could begin.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHunter2011106–111-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacquarrie2004147-64">[64]</a> <a href="/wiki/Viking" class="mw-redirect" title="Viking">Viking</a> naval power was disrupted by conflicts between the Scandinavian kingdoms but entered a period of resurgence in the 13th century when Norwegian kings began to build some of the largest ships seen in Northern European waters. These included king <a href="/wiki/Hakon_Hakonsson" class="mw-redirect" title="Hakon Hakonsson">Hakon Hakonsson</a>'s Kristsúðin, built at Bergen from 1262–63, which was 260 feet (79 m) long, of 37 rooms.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodger199774–75-65">[65]</a> In 1263 Hakon responded to <a href="/wiki/Alexander_III_of_Scotland" title="Alexander III of Scotland">Alexander III</a>'s designs on the Hebrides by personally leading a major fleet of forty vessels, including the Kristsúðin, to the islands, where they were boosted by local allies to as many as 200 ships.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter2008157-66">[66]</a> Records indicate that Alexander had several large oared ships built at <a href="/wiki/Ayr" title="Ayr">Ayr</a>, but he avoided a sea battle.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETytler1829309–310-62">[62]</a> Defeat on land at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Largs" title="Battle of Largs">Battle of Largs</a> and winter storms forced the Norwegian fleet to return home, leaving the Scottish crown as the major power in the region and leading to the ceding of the Western Isles to Alexander in 1266.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacquarrie2004153-67">[67]</a> English naval power was vital to King <a href="/wiki/Edward_I_of_England" title="Edward I of England">Edward I</a>'s successful campaigns in Scotland from 1296, using largely merchant ships from England, Ireland and his allies in the Islands to transport and supply his armies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodger199774–90-68">[68]</a> Part of the reason for <a href="/wiki/Robert_I_of_Scotland" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert I of Scotland">Robert I</a>'s success was his ability to call on naval forces from the Islands. As a result of the expulsion of the Flemings from England in 1303, he gained the support of a major naval power in the North Sea.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodger199774–90-68">[68]</a> The development of naval power allowed Robert to successfully defeat English attempts to capture him in the Highlands and Islands and to blockade major English controlled fortresses at Perth and Stirling, the last forcing King <a href="/wiki/Edward_II_of_England" title="Edward II of England">Edward II</a> to attempt the relief that resulted at English defeat at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bannockburn" title="Battle of Bannockburn">Bannockburn</a> in 1314.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodger199774–90-68">[68]</a> Scottish naval forces allowed invasions of the <a href="/wiki/Isle_of_Man" title="Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a> in 1313 and 1317 and Ireland in 1315. They were also crucial in the blockade of <a href="/wiki/Berwick-upon-Tweed" title="Berwick-upon-Tweed">Berwick</a>, which led to its fall in 1318.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodger199774–90-68">[68]</a> After the establishment of Scottish independence, King <a href="/wiki/Robert_the_Bruce" title="Robert the Bruce">Robert I</a> turned his attention to building up a Scottish naval capacity. This was largely focused on the west coast, with the Exchequer Rolls of 1326 recording the feudal duties of his vassals in that region to aid him with their vessels and crews. Towards the end of his reign, he supervised the building of at least one royal <a href="/wiki/Man-of-war" title="Man-of-war">man-of-war</a> near his palace at <a href="/wiki/Cardross,_Argyll_and_Bute" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardross, Argyll and Bute">Cardross</a> on the <a href="/wiki/River_Clyde" title="River Clyde">River Clyde</a>. In the late 14th century naval warfare with England was conducted largely by hired Scots, Flemish and French merchantmen and privateers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrant1913i–xii-69">[69]</a> King <a href="/wiki/James_I_of_Scotland" title="James I of Scotland">James I of Scotland</a> (1394–1437, reigned 1406–1437), took a greater interest in naval power. After his return to Scotland in 1424, he established a shipbuilding yard at <a href="/wiki/Leith" title="Leith">Leith</a>, a house for marine stores, and a workshop. King's ships were built and equipped there to be used for trade as well as war, one of which accompanied him on his expedition to the Islands in 1429. The office of <a href="/wiki/Lord_High_Admiral_of_Scotland" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord High Admiral of Scotland">Lord High Admiral</a> was probably founded in this period.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrant1913i–xii-69">[69]</a> It would soon become a hereditary office, in the control of the <a href="/wiki/Earls_of_Bothwell" class="mw-redirect" title="Earls of Bothwell">Earls of Bothwell</a> in the 15th and 16th centuries and the <a href="/wiki/Earls_of_Lennox" class="mw-redirect" title="Earls of Lennox">Earls of Lennox</a> in the 17th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMurdoch201010-70">[70]</a> King <a href="/wiki/James_II_of_Scotland" title="James II of Scotland">James II</a> (1430–1460, reigned 1437–1460) is known to have purchased a <a href="/wiki/Caravel" title="Caravel">caravel</a> by 1449.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodger2004166–167-71">[71]</a> Around 1476 the Scottish merchant John Barton received <a href="/wiki/Letters_of_marque" class="mw-redirect" title="Letters of marque">letters of marque</a> that allowed him to gain compensation for the capture of his vessels by the Portuguese by capturing ships under their colours. These letters would be repeated to his three sons John, <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Barton_(privateer)" title="Andrew Barton (privateer)">Andrew</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Barton_of_Over_Barnton" title="Robert Barton of Over Barnton">Robert</a>, who would play a major part in the Scottish naval effort into the 16th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStatham201119–20-72">[72]</a> In his struggles with his nobles in 1488 <a href="/wiki/James_III_of_Scotland" title="James III of Scotland">James III</a> (r. 1451–88) received assistance from his two warships the Flower and the King's Carvel also known as the Yellow Carvel, commanded by <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Wood_of_Largo" title="Andrew Wood of Largo">Andrew Wood of Largo</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrant1913i–xii-69">[69]</a> After the king's death Wood served his son <a href="/wiki/James_IV_of_Scotland" title="James IV of Scotland">James IV</a> (r. 1488–1513), defeating an English incursion into the <a href="/wiki/River_Forth" title="River Forth">Forth</a> by five English ships in 1489 and three more heavily armed English ships off the mouth of the <a href="/wiki/River_Tay" title="River Tay">River Tay</a> the next year.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETranter2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXehBsBLGMTsCpgPT124_124]-73">[73]</a> James IV put the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Scots_Navy" title="Royal Scots Navy">Royal Scots Navy</a> on a new footing, founding a harbour at <a href="/wiki/Newhaven,_Edinburgh" title="Newhaven, Edinburgh">Newhaven</a> in May 1504, and two years later ordering the construction of a dockyard at the Pools of <a href="/wiki/Airth" title="Airth">Airth</a>. The upper reaches of the Forth were protected by new fortifications on <a href="/wiki/Inchgarvie" title="Inchgarvie">Inchgarvie</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacdougall1997235-74">[74]</a> Scottish ships had some success against privateers, accompanied the king in his expeditions in the islands and intervened in conflicts in <a href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Baltic_Sea" title="Baltic Sea">Baltic Sea</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrant1913i–xii-69">[69]</a> Expeditions to the Highlands to Islands to curb the power of the <a href="/wiki/Clan_Donald" title="Clan Donald">MacDonald</a> <a href="/wiki/Lord_of_the_Isles" title="Lord of the Isles">Lord of the Isles</a> were largely ineffective until in 1504 the king accompanied a squadron under Wood heavily armed with artillery, which battered the MacDonald strongholds into submission. Since some of these island fortresses could only be attacked from seaward, naval historian <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_A._M._Rodger" title="Nicholas A. M. Rodger">N.A.M. Rodger</a> has suggested this may have marked the end of medieval naval warfare in the <a href="/wiki/British_Isles" title="British Isles">British Isles</a>, ushering in a new tradition of <a href="/wiki/Naval_artillery_in_the_Age_of_Sail" title="Naval artillery in the Age of Sail">artillery warfare</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodger2004166–167-71">[71]</a> The king acquired a total of 38 ships for the Royal Scottish Navy, including <a href="/wiki/Scottish_warship_Margaret" title="Scottish warship Margaret">Margaret</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Carrack" title="Carrack">carrack</a> Michael or <a href="/wiki/Great_Michael" title="Great Michael">Great Michael</a>, the largest warship of its time (1511).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmout199245-75">[75]</a> The latter, built at great expense at Newhaven and launched in 1511, was 240 feet (73 m) in length, weighed 1,000 tons, had 24 cannon, and was, at that time, the largest ship in <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmout199245-75">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMurdoch201033–34-76">[76]</a> It marked a shift in design as it was crafted specifically to carry a main armament of heavy artillery.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodger2004166–167-71">[71]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:An_English_Ship_in_Action_with_Barbary_Vessels_RMG_BHC0893.tiff" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/An_English_Ship_in_Action_with_Barbary_Vessels_RMG_BHC0893.tiff/lossy-page1-220px-An_English_Ship_in_Action_with_Barbary_Vessels_RMG_BHC0893.tiff.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="122" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/An_English_Ship_in_Action_with_Barbary_Vessels_RMG_BHC0893.tiff/lossy-page1-330px-An_English_Ship_in_Action_with_Barbary_Vessels_RMG_BHC0893.tiff.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/An_English_Ship_in_Action_with_Barbary_Vessels_RMG_BHC0893.tiff/lossy-page1-440px-An_English_Ship_in_Action_with_Barbary_Vessels_RMG_BHC0893.tiff.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7200" data-file-height="3998" /></a><figcaption>An English ship battles with a <a href="/wiki/Barbary_pirates" title="Barbary pirates">Barbary ship</a> and two galleys in <a href="/wiki/Tripoli,_Libya" title="Tripoli, Libya">Tripoli</a> in 1676</figcaption></figure> During the Rough Wooing, the attempt to force a marriage between James V's heir <a href="/wiki/Mary,_Queen_of_Scots" title="Mary, Queen of Scots">Mary, Queen of Scots</a> and <a href="/wiki/Henry_VIII_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry VIII of England">Henry VIII</a>'s son, the future <a href="/wiki/Edward_VI" title="Edward VI">Edward VI</a>, in 1542, Mary Willoughby, Lion, and Salamander under the command of John Barton, son of Robert Barton, attacked merchants and fishermen off <a href="/wiki/Whitby" title="Whitby">Whitby</a>. They later blockaded a London merchant ship called Antony of Bruges in a creek on the coast of Brittany.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMerriman2000181-77">[77]</a> In 1544, Edinburgh was attacked by an <a href="/wiki/Burning_of_Edinburgh_(1544)" class="mw-redirect" title="Burning of Edinburgh (1544)">English marine force and burnt</a>. Salamander and the Scottish-built Unicorn were captured at Leith. The Scots still had two royal naval vessels and numerous smaller private vessels.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMurdoch201050-78">[78]</a> When, as a result of the series of international treaties, Charles V declared war upon Scotland in 1544, the Scots were able to engage in a highly profitable campaign of privateering that lasted six years and the gains of which probably outweighed the losses in trade with the Low Countries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDawson2007181–182-79">[79]</a> The Scots operated in the <a href="/wiki/West_Indies" title="West Indies">West Indies</a> from the 1540s, joining the French in the capture of <a href="/wiki/Borburata" title="Borburata">Burburuta</a> in 1567.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMurdoch2010172-80">[80]</a> English and Scottish naval warfare and privateering broke out sporadically in the 1550s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodger1997197-81">[81]</a> When Anglo-Scottish relations deteriorated again in 1557 as part of a wider <a href="/wiki/Italian_War_of_1551%E2%80%9359" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian War of 1551–59">war between Spain and France</a>, small ships called 'shallops' were noted between Leith and France, passing as fishermen, but bringing munitions and money. Private merchant ships were rigged at Leith, Aberdeen and <a href="/wiki/Dundee" title="Dundee">Dundee</a> as men-of-war, and the regent Mary of Guise claimed English prizes, one over 200 tons, for her fleet.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrype182281-82">[82]</a> The re-fitted Mary Willoughby sailed with 11 other ships against Scotland in August 1557, landing troops and six field guns on <a href="/wiki/Orkney" title="Orkney">Orkney</a> to attack the <a href="/wiki/Kirkwall_Castle" title="Kirkwall Castle">Kirkwall Castle</a>, <a href="/wiki/St_Magnus_Cathedral" title="St Magnus Cathedral">St Magnus Cathedral</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Bishop%27s_Palace,_Kirkwall" title="Bishop's Palace, Kirkwall">Bishop's Palace</a>. The English were repulsed by a Scottish force numbering 3000, and the English vice-admiral <a href="/wiki/John_Clere_(c._1511%E2%80%9357)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Clere (c. 1511–57)">Sir John Clere</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ormesby_St_Margaret_with_Scratby" title="Ormesby St Margaret with Scratby">Ormesby</a> was killed, but none of the English ships were lost.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrype182267–69_&_86–87-83">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Reformation" title="Scottish Reformation">Scottish Reformation</a> in 1560 established a government that was friendly to England and this resulted in less military necessity to maintain a fleet of great ships. With the <a href="/wiki/Union_of_the_Crowns" title="Union of the Crowns">Union of the Crowns</a> in 1603, the incentive to rebuild a separate royal fleet for Scotland diminished further since James VI now controlled the powerful English <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a>, which could send ships north to defend Scottish interests, and which now opened its ranks to Scottish officers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWills200227–28-85">[85]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="After_Union_of_the_Crowns,_1603–1707">After Union of the Crowns, 1603–1707</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Royal_Navy_(before_1707)&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: After Union of the Crowns, 1603–1707">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sovereign_of_the_Seas.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Sovereign_of_the_Seas.jpg/220px-Sovereign_of_the_Seas.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Sovereign_of_the_Seas.jpg/330px-Sovereign_of_the_Seas.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Sovereign_of_the_Seas.jpg/440px-Sovereign_of_the_Seas.jpg 2x" data-file-width="772" data-file-height="531" /></a><figcaption>Sovereign of the Seas</figcaption></figure> After 1603 the English and Scottish fleets were organised together under <a href="/wiki/James_I_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="James I of England">James I</a> but the efficiency of the Navy declined gradually, while corruption grew until brought under control in an inquiry of 1618. James concluded a peace with Spain and privateering was outlawed. Notable construction in the early 17th century included the 1,200-ton <a href="/wiki/English_ship_Prince_Royal_(1610)" title="English ship Prince Royal (1610)">HMS Prince Royal</a>, the first <a href="/wiki/Three-decker" title="Three-decker">three-decker</a>, and <a href="/wiki/HMS_Sovereign_of_the_Seas" title="HMS Sovereign of the Seas">HMS Sovereign of the Seas</a> in 1637, designed by <a href="/wiki/Phineas_Pett" title="Phineas Pett">Phineas Pett</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELavery2003158-86">[86]</a> During the early 17th century, England's relative naval power deteriorated, and there were increasing raids by <a href="/wiki/Barbary_corsairs" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbary corsairs">Barbary corsairs</a> on ships and English coastal communities to capture people as <a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world" title="History of slavery in the Muslim world">slaves</a>, which the Navy had little success in countering.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodger1997349–363-87">[87]</a> <a href="/wiki/Charles_I_of_England" title="Charles I of England">Charles I</a> undertook a major programme of warship building, creating a small force of powerful ships, but his methods of fundraising to finance the fleet contributed to the outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/English_Civil_War" title="English Civil War">English Civil War</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodger1997379–394_&_482-88">[88]</a> However, by the end of the century the Royal Navy completed the transition from a semi-amateur Navy Royal fighting in conjunction with private vessels into a fully professional institution. Its financial provisions were gradually regularised, it came to rely on dedicated warships only, and it developed a professional officer corps with a defined career structure, superseding an earlier mix of "gentlemen" (upper-class soldiers) and "tarpaulins" (professional seamen, who generally served on merchant or fishing vessels in peacetime).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodger1997395–398-89">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodger200433–55_&_95–122-90">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOllard1984Ch._16-91">[91]</a> Operations under <a href="/wiki/James_I_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="James I of England">James I</a> did not go well, with expeditions against Algerian pirates in 1620/1, <a href="/wiki/Cadiz" class="mw-redirect" title="Cadiz">Cadiz</a> in 1625, and <a href="/wiki/La_Rochelle" title="La Rochelle">La Rochelle</a> in 1627/8 being expensive failures.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFissel1991126–127-92">[92]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Charles_I_(1625–1649)">Charles I (1625–1649)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Royal_Navy_(before_1707)&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Charles I (1625–1649)">edit</a>]</div> In the 1620s, Scotland found herself fighting a naval war as England's ally, first <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Spanish_War_(1625)" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Spanish War (1625)">against Spain</a> and then also <a href="/wiki/Anglo-French_War_(1627%E2%80%931629)" title="Anglo-French War (1627–1629)">against France</a>, while simultaneously embroiled in undeclared North Sea commitments in the <a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War#Danish_intervention_(1625–1629)" title="Thirty Years' War">Danish intervention in the Thirty Years' War</a>. In 1626 a squadron of three ships was bought and equipped, at a cost of least £5,200 sterling, to guard against privateers operating out of Spanish-controlled <a href="/wiki/Dunkirk" title="Dunkirk">Dunkirk</a> and other ships were armed in preparation for potential action.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMurdoch201033–4-93">[93]</a> The acting High Admiral <a href="/wiki/John_Gordon,_1st_Viscount_of_Kenmure" title="John Gordon, 1st Viscount of Kenmure">John Gordon of Lochinvar</a> organised as many as three <a href="/wiki/Letter_of_marque" title="Letter of marque">marque fleets</a> of privateers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMurdoch2010169-94">[94]</a> It was probably one of Lochinvar's marque fleets that was sent to support the English Royal Navy in defending Irish waters in 1626.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMurdoch2010168-95">[95]</a> The manufacture and design of naval guns was improved by <a href="/wiki/John_Browne_(King%27s_Gunfounder)" title="John Browne (King's Gunfounder)">John Browne</a> in 1625.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOppenheim1894481-96">[96]</a> In 1627, the Royal Scots Navy and accompanying contingents of burgh privateers participated in the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Saint-Martin-de-R%C3%A9_(1627)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Saint-Martin-de-Ré (1627)">major expedition to Biscay</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManning2006118-97">[97]</a> The Scots also returned to the West Indies, with Lochinvar taking French prizes and founding the colony of Charles Island on <a href="/wiki/Floreana_Island" title="Floreana Island">Floreana</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Galapagos_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Galapagos Islands">Galapagos Islands</a> off <a href="/wiki/Ecuador" title="Ecuador">Ecuador</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMurdoch2010172-80">[80]</a> In 1629, two squadrons of privateers led by Lochinvar and William Lord Alexander, sailed for Canada, taking part in the campaign that resulted in the capture of <a href="/wiki/Quebec" title="Quebec">Quebec</a> from the French, which was handed back after the subsequent peace.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMurdoch2010174-98">[98]</a> <a href="/wiki/Charles_I_of_England" title="Charles I of England">Charles I</a> levied "ship money" from 1634 and this unpopular tax was one of the main causes of the first <a href="/wiki/English_Civil_War" title="English Civil War">English Civil War</a> from 1642–45. At the beginning of the war the navy, then consisting of 35 vessels, sided with <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_England" title="Parliament of England">Parliament</a>. During the war the royalist side used a number of small ships to blockade ports and for supplying their own armies. These were afterwards combined into a single force. Charles had surrendered to the Scots and conspired with them to invade England during the second <a href="/wiki/English_Civil_War" title="English Civil War">English Civil War</a> of 1648–51. In 1648 part of the Parliamentary fleet mutinied and joined the Royalist side. However, the Royalist fleet was driven to Spain and destroyed during the <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_England" title="Commonwealth of England">Commonwealth</a> period by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Blake_(admiral)" title="Robert Blake (admiral)">Robert Blake</a>.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Commonwealth_(1649–1660)">Commonwealth (1649–1660)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Royal_Navy_(before_1707)&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Commonwealth (1649–1660)">edit</a>]</div> The Interregnum saw a considerable expansion in the strength of the navy, both in number of ships and in internal importance within English policy. The execution of Charles I forced the rapid expansion of the navy, by multiplying England's actual and potential enemies, and many vessels were constructed from the 1650s onward under a reformed institution.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_England" title="Commonwealth of England">Commonwealth of England</a> (as a <a href="/wiki/Republic" title="Republic">republic</a>), officially removed or changed most names and symbols (including heraldry) associated with royalty and/or the <a href="/wiki/High_church" title="High church">high church</a>. This affected the Commonwealth Navy. As early as 1646, vessels were renamed, including Liberty (ex-Charles), Resolution (ex-Royal Prince), and George (ex-St George); new vessels were often given names associated with institutions or individual officials, including President, Speaker, Fairfax (after <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Fairfax" title="Thomas Fairfax">Thomas Fairfax</a>), Monck (<a href="/wiki/George_Monck,_1st_Duke_of_Albemarle" title="George Monck, 1st Duke of Albemarle">George Monck</a>) and Richard (<a href="/wiki/Richard_Cromwell" title="Richard Cromwell">Richard Cromwell</a>), or <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_English_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of the English Civil War">Parliamentary victories in the civil war</a>, such as Worcester, Bristol, Gainsborough, Preston, Langport, Newbury, Martson Moor, Nantwich, Colchester, and Naseby.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarratt2006-101">[101]</a> (The prefix "<a href="/wiki/English_ship" class="mw-redirect" title="English ship">English ship</a>" has normally been used of naval vessels before the late 17th century; "<a href="/wiki/Her_Majesty%27s_Ship" class="mw-redirect" title="Her Majesty's Ship">His Majesty's Ship</a>" was not official usage at the time.) The new regime, isolated and threatened from all sides, dramatically expanded the Commonwealth Navy, which became the most powerful in the world.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodger20042–3,_216–217,_&_607-102">[102]</a> The Commonwealth's introduction of <a href="/wiki/Navigation_Acts" title="Navigation Acts">Navigation Acts</a>, providing that all merchant shipping to and from England or her colonies should be carried out by English ships, led to war with the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodger20046–8-103">[103]</a> In the early stages of this <a href="/wiki/First_Anglo-Dutch_War" title="First Anglo-Dutch War">First Anglo-Dutch War</a> (1652–1654), the superiority of the large, heavily armed English ships was offset by superior Dutch tactical organisation and the fighting was inconclusive.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodger2004pp._12–16-104">[104]</a> English tactical improvements resulted in a series of crushing victories in 1653 at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Portland" title="Battle of Portland">Portland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Gabbard" title="Battle of the Gabbard">the Gabbard</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Scheveningen" title="Battle of Scheveningen">Scheveningen</a>, bringing peace on favourable terms.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodger200416–18-105">[105]</a> This was the first war fought largely, on the English side, by purpose-built, state-owned warships. It was followed by a <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Spanish_War_(1654-1660)" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Spanish War (1654-1660)">war with Spain</a>, which saw the English conquest of <a href="/wiki/Jamaica" title="Jamaica">Jamaica</a> in 1655 and successful attacks on Spanish treasure fleets in <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cadiz_(1656)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Cadiz (1656)">1656</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Santa_Cruz_de_Tenerife_(1657)" title="Battle of Santa Cruz de Tenerife (1657)">1657</a>, but also the devastation of English merchant shipping by the <a href="/wiki/Dunkirkers" title="Dunkirkers">privateers of Dunkirk</a>, until their home port was captured by Anglo-French forces in 1658.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Vliet1996150–165-106">[106]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Battle_of_Scheveningen_(Slag_bij_Ter_Heijde)(Jan_Abrahamsz._Beerstraten).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Battle_of_Scheveningen_%28Slag_bij_Ter_Heijde%29%28Jan_Abrahamsz._Beerstraten%29.jpg/220px-Battle_of_Scheveningen_%28Slag_bij_Ter_Heijde%29%28Jan_Abrahamsz._Beerstraten%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Battle_of_Scheveningen_%28Slag_bij_Ter_Heijde%29%28Jan_Abrahamsz._Beerstraten%29.jpg/330px-Battle_of_Scheveningen_%28Slag_bij_Ter_Heijde%29%28Jan_Abrahamsz._Beerstraten%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Battle_of_Scheveningen_%28Slag_bij_Ter_Heijde%29%28Jan_Abrahamsz._Beerstraten%29.jpg/440px-Battle_of_Scheveningen_%28Slag_bij_Ter_Heijde%29%28Jan_Abrahamsz._Beerstraten%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5950" data-file-height="3680" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Scheveningen" title="Battle of Scheveningen">Battle of Scheveningen</a>, 10 August 1653</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Restoration_(1660–1688)">Restoration (1660–1688)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Royal_Navy_(before_1707)&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Restoration (1660–1688)">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Stuart_Restoration" title="Stuart Restoration">The Restoration</a> of the English monarchy occurred in May 1660, and <a href="/wiki/Charles_II_of_England" title="Charles II of England">Charles II</a> assumed the throne. The Restoration Monarchy inherited this large navy and continued the same policy of expansion, focusing on large ships in order to provide a strong defence under Charles II.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies1992[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidysC9rOCxGhgCpgPA14_14-38]-107">[107]</a> At the start of the <a href="/wiki/English_Restoration" class="mw-redirect" title="English Restoration">Restoration</a>, Parliament listed forty ships of the Royal Navy (not of the Summer's Guard) with a complement of 3,695 sailors.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> One of his first acts was to officially name the Royal Navy, The prefix <a href="/wiki/Her_Majesty%27s_Ship" class="mw-redirect" title="Her Majesty's Ship">HMS</a> was also officially attached to its vessels for the first time. Nevertheless, the navy remained a national institution, rather than the personal possession of the reigning monarch, as it had been before the civil war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDerrick1806[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid3CoVAAAAQAAJpgPA82_82]-109">[109]</a> The administration of the navy was greatly improved by Sir <a href="/wiki/William_Coventry" title="William Coventry">William Coventry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Pepys" title="Samuel Pepys">Samuel Pepys</a>, both of whom began their service in 1660 with the <a href="/wiki/English_Restoration" class="mw-redirect" title="English Restoration">Restoration</a>. While it was Pepys's diary that made him the most famous of all naval bureaucrats, his nearly thirty years of administration were crucial in replacing the ad hoc processes of years past with regular programmes of supply, construction, pay, and so forth. He was responsible for introduction of the "Navy List" which fixed the order of promotion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodger2001-110">[110]</a> In 1664 the English captured <a href="/wiki/New_Amsterdam" title="New Amsterdam">New Amsterdam</a> (later New York City) resulting in the <a href="/wiki/Second_Anglo-Dutch_War" title="Second Anglo-Dutch War">Second Dutch War</a> (1665–1667). In 1666 the <a href="/wiki/Four_Days_Battle" class="mw-redirect" title="Four Days Battle">Four Days Battle</a> was a defeat for the English but the Dutch fleet was crushed a month later off <a href="/wiki/Orfordness" class="mw-redirect" title="Orfordness">Orfordness</a>. In 1667 the Dutch mounted the <a href="/wiki/Raid_on_the_Medway" title="Raid on the Medway">Raid on the Medway</a>, breaking into <a href="/wiki/Chatham_Dockyard" title="Chatham Dockyard">Chatham Dockyard</a> and capturing or burning many of the Navy's largest ships at their moorings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodger200476–7-111">[111]</a> The English were also defeated at Solebay in 1672. The experience of large-scale battle was instructive to the Navy; the <a href="/wiki/Articles_of_War_(Royal_Navy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Articles of War (Royal Navy)">Articles of War</a> regularising the conduct of officers and seaman, and the "Fighting Instructions" establishing the <a href="/wiki/Line_of_battle" title="Line of battle">line of battle</a>, both date from this period.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> The influence and reforms of Samuel Pepys, the Chief Secretary to the <a href="/wiki/British_Admiralty" class="mw-redirect" title="British Admiralty">Admiralty</a> under both <a href="/wiki/Charles_II_of_England" title="Charles II of England">King Charles II</a> and subsequently <a href="/wiki/James_II_of_England" title="James II of England">King James II</a>, were important in the early professionalisation of the Royal Navy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOllard1984Ch._16-91">[91]</a> As a result of their defeat in the First Anglo-Dutch War, the Dutch transformed their navy, largely abandoning the use of militarised merchantmen and establishing a fleet composed mainly of heavily armed, purpose-built warships, as the English had done previously. Consequently, the <a href="/wiki/Second_Anglo-Dutch_War" title="Second Anglo-Dutch War">Second Anglo-Dutch War</a> (1665–1667) was a closely fought struggle between evenly matched opponents, with English victory at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lowestoft" title="Battle of Lowestoft">Lowestoft</a> (1665) countered by Dutch triumph in the epic <a href="/wiki/Four_Days%27_Battle" title="Four Days' Battle">Four Days' Battle</a> (1666).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodger200467–76-113">[113]</a> The deadlock was broken not by combat but by the superiority of Dutch public finance, as in 1667 Charles II was forced to lay up the fleet in port for lack of money to keep it at sea while negotiating for peace. Disaster followed as the Dutch fleet mounted the <a href="/wiki/Raid_on_the_Medway" title="Raid on the Medway">Raid on the Medway</a>, breaking into <a href="/wiki/Chatham_Dockyard" title="Chatham Dockyard">Chatham Dockyard</a> and capturing or burning many of the Navy's largest ships at their moorings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodger200476–77-114">[114]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Third_Anglo-Dutch_War" title="Third Anglo-Dutch War">Third Anglo-Dutch War</a> (1672–1674), Charles II allied with <a href="/wiki/Louis_XIV_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis XIV of France">Louis XIV of France</a> against the Dutch, but the combined Anglo-French fleet was fought to a standstill in a series of inconclusive battles, while the French invasion by land was warded off.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodger200480–85-115">[115]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Het_verbranden_van_de_Engelse_vloot_voor_Chatham_-_The_Dutch_burn_down_the_English_fleet_before_Chatham_-_June_20_1667_(Peter_van_de_Velde).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Het_verbranden_van_de_Engelse_vloot_voor_Chatham_-_The_Dutch_burn_down_the_English_fleet_before_Chatham_-_June_20_1667_%28Peter_van_de_Velde%29.jpg/220px-Het_verbranden_van_de_Engelse_vloot_voor_Chatham_-_The_Dutch_burn_down_the_English_fleet_before_Chatham_-_June_20_1667_%28Peter_van_de_Velde%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Het_verbranden_van_de_Engelse_vloot_voor_Chatham_-_The_Dutch_burn_down_the_English_fleet_before_Chatham_-_June_20_1667_%28Peter_van_de_Velde%29.jpg/330px-Het_verbranden_van_de_Engelse_vloot_voor_Chatham_-_The_Dutch_burn_down_the_English_fleet_before_Chatham_-_June_20_1667_%28Peter_van_de_Velde%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Het_verbranden_van_de_Engelse_vloot_voor_Chatham_-_The_Dutch_burn_down_the_English_fleet_before_Chatham_-_June_20_1667_%28Peter_van_de_Velde%29.jpg/440px-Het_verbranden_van_de_Engelse_vloot_voor_Chatham_-_The_Dutch_burn_down_the_English_fleet_before_Chatham_-_June_20_1667_%28Peter_van_de_Velde%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7458" data-file-height="4946" /></a><figcaption>The Dutch <a href="/wiki/Raid_on_the_Medway" title="Raid on the Medway">Raid on the Medway</a> in 1667 during the Second Anglo-Dutch War</figcaption></figure> During the 1670s and 1680s, the English Royal Navy succeeded in permanently ending the threat to English shipping from the Barbary corsairs, inflicting defeats which induced the Barbary states to conclude long-lasting peace treaties.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodger200488–91-116">[116]</a> Following the <a href="/wiki/Glorious_Revolution" title="Glorious Revolution">Glorious Revolution</a> of 1688, England joined the European coalition against Louis XIV in the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Grand_Alliance" class="mw-redirect" title="War of the Grand Alliance">War of the Grand Alliance</a> (1688–1697). Louis' recent shipbuilding programme had given France the largest navy in Europe. A combined Anglo-Dutch fleet was defeated at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Beachy_Head_(1690)" title="Battle of Beachy Head (1690)">Beachy Head</a> (1690), but victory at <a href="/wiki/Battles_of_Barfleur_and_La_Hogue" class="mw-redirect" title="Battles of Barfleur and La Hogue">Barfleur-La Hogue</a> (1692) was a turning-point, marking the end of France's brief pre-eminence at sea and the beginning of an enduring English, later British, supremacy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodger2004142–152_&_607–608-117">[117]</a> In 1683 the "Victualling Board" was set up which fixed the ration scales. In 1655 Blake routed the <a href="/wiki/Barbary_pirate" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbary pirate">Barbary pirates</a> and started a campaign against the Spanish in the Caribbean, capturing Jamaica.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoward2002134-118">[118]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Battle_of_Barfleur,_19_May_1692_RMG_BHC0332.tiff" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/The_Battle_of_Barfleur%2C_19_May_1692_RMG_BHC0332.tiff/lossy-page1-220px-The_Battle_of_Barfleur%2C_19_May_1692_RMG_BHC0332.tiff.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/The_Battle_of_Barfleur%2C_19_May_1692_RMG_BHC0332.tiff/lossy-page1-330px-The_Battle_of_Barfleur%2C_19_May_1692_RMG_BHC0332.tiff.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/The_Battle_of_Barfleur%2C_19_May_1692_RMG_BHC0332.tiff/lossy-page1-440px-The_Battle_of_Barfleur%2C_19_May_1692_RMG_BHC0332.tiff.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4714" data-file-height="2976" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Barfleur" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Barfleur">Battle of Barfleur</a> in 1692</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Glorious_Revolution_1688–1707">Glorious Revolution 1688–1707</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Royal_Navy_(before_1707)&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Glorious Revolution 1688–1707">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Glorious_Revolution" title="Glorious Revolution">Glorious Revolution</a> of 1688 rearranged the political map of Europe, and led to a series of wars with France that lasted well over a century. This was the classic <a href="/wiki/Age_of_sail" class="mw-redirect" title="Age of sail">age of sail</a>; while the ships themselves evolved in only minor ways, technique and tactics were honed to a high degree, and the battles of the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a> entailed feats that would have been impossible for the fleets of the 17th century. Because of parliamentary opposition, <a href="/wiki/James_II_of_England" title="James II of England">James II</a> fled the country. The landing of <a href="/wiki/William_III_of_England" title="William III of England">William III</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Glorious_Revolution" title="Glorious Revolution">Glorious Revolution</a> itself was a gigantic effort involving 100 warships and 400 transports carrying 11,000 infantry and 4,000 horses. The English or Scottish fleets failed to intecept the Dutch invasion fleet and <a href="/wiki/Louis_XIV_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis XIV of France">Louis XIV</a> declared war on the Dutch just days later, a conflict which became known as the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Grand_Alliance" class="mw-redirect" title="War of the Grand Alliance">War of the Grand Alliance</a>. The English defeat at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Beachy_Head_(1690)" title="Battle of Beachy Head (1690)">Battle of Beachy Head</a> of 1690 led to an improved version of the Fighting Instructions, and subsequent operations against French ports proved more successful, leading to decisive victory at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_La_Hougue" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of La Hougue">La Hougue</a> in 1692.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPemsel197759-119">[119]</a> By 1697 the English Royal Navy had 323 warships, while Scotland was still dependent on merchantman and privateers. In the 1690s, two separate schemes for larger naval forces were put in motion. As usual, the larger part was played by the merchant community rather than the government. The first was the <a href="/wiki/Darien_Scheme" class="mw-redirect" title="Darien Scheme">Darien Scheme</a> to found a Scottish colony in Spanish controlled America. It was undertaken by the <a href="/wiki/Company_of_Scotland" title="Company of Scotland">Company of Scotland</a>, who created a fleet of five ships, including Caledonia and St Andrew, all built or chartered in Holland and Hamburg. It sailed to the <a href="/wiki/Isthmus_of_Darien" class="mw-redirect" title="Isthmus of Darien">Isthmus of Darien</a> in 1698, but the venture failed and only one ship returned to Scotland.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacInnes_&_al.2006349-120">[120]</a> In the same period, it was decided to establish a professional navy for the protection of commerce in home waters during the <a href="/wiki/Nine_Years%27_War" title="Nine Years' War">Nine Years' War</a> (1688–1697) with France, with three purpose-built warships bought from English shipbuilders in 1696. These were Royal William, a 32-gun <a href="/wiki/Fifth_rate" class="mw-redirect" title="Fifth rate">fifth rate</a> and two smaller ships, Royal Mary and Dumbarton Castle, each of 24 guns, generally described as frigates.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrant191348-121">[121]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cape_Passaro_1718.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Cape_Passaro_1718.jpg/220px-Cape_Passaro_1718.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Cape_Passaro_1718.jpg/330px-Cape_Passaro_1718.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Cape_Passaro_1718.jpg/440px-Cape_Passaro_1718.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1226" data-file-height="906" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cape_Passaro" title="Battle of Cape Passaro">Battle of Cape Passaro</a>, 11 August 1718</figcaption></figure> Naval operations in the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession" title="War of the Spanish Succession">War of the Spanish Succession</a> (1702–13) were with the Dutch against the Spanish and French. They were at first focused on the acquisition of a Mediterranean base, culminating in an alliance with Portugal and the 1704 capture of <a href="/wiki/Gibraltar" title="Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a>.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Major_battles_of_the_English/Royal_Navy">Major battles of the English/Royal Navy</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Royal_Navy_(before_1707)&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Major battles of the English/Royal Navy">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li>1213 <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Damme" title="Battle of Damme">Battle of Damme</a></li> <li>1337 <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cadzand" title="Battle of Cadzand">Battle of Cadzand</a></li> <li>1338 <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Arnemuiden" title="Battle of Arnemuiden">Battle of Arnemuiden</a></li> <li>1340 <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sluys" title="Battle of Sluys">Battle of Sluys</a></li> <li>1342 <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Brest_(1342)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Brest (1342)">Battle of Brest</a></li> <li>1350 <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Les_Espagnols_sur_Mer" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Les Espagnols sur Mer">Battle of Winchelsea</a></li> <li>1372 <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_La_Rochelle" title="Battle of La Rochelle">Battle of La Rochelle</a></li> <li>1387 <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Margate" title="Battle of Margate">Battle of Margate</a></li> <li>1512 <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Saint-Mathieu" title="Battle of Saint-Mathieu">Battle of Saint-Mathieu</a></li> <li>1545 <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Solent" title="Battle of the Solent">Battle of the Solent</a></li> <li>1585–1604 <a href="/wiki/Anglo%E2%80%93Spanish_War_(1585)" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo–Spanish War (1585)">Anglo–Spanish War (1585)</a></li> <li>1625 <a href="/wiki/C%C3%A1diz_Expedition_(1625)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cádiz Expedition (1625)">Cádiz Expedition (1625)</a></li> <li>1627–1629 <a href="/wiki/Anglo-French_War_(1627%E2%80%931629)" title="Anglo-French War (1627–1629)">Anglo-French War (1627–1629)</a></li> <li>1652–1654 <a href="/wiki/First_Anglo%E2%80%93Dutch_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First Anglo–Dutch War">First Anglo–Dutch War</a></li> <li>1654–1660 <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Spanish_War_(1654)" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Spanish War (1654)">Anglo-Spanish War (1654)</a></li> <li>1665–1667 <a href="/wiki/Second_Anglo-Dutch_War" title="Second Anglo-Dutch War">Second Anglo-Dutch War</a></li> <li>1672–1674 <a href="/wiki/Third_Anglo-Dutch_War" title="Third Anglo-Dutch War">Third Anglo-Dutch War</a></li> <li>1688–1697 <a href="/wiki/Nine_Years%27_War" title="Nine Years' War">Nine Years' War</a></li> <li>1701–1713 <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession" title="War of the Spanish Succession">War of the Spanish Succession</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Royal_Navy_(before_1707)&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Articles_of_War_(Royal_Navy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Articles of War (Royal Navy)">Articles of War (Royal Navy)</a> superseded by the <a href="/wiki/Armed_Forces_Act_2006" title="Armed Forces Act 2006">Armed Forces Act 2006</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Royal_Marines" title="History of the Royal Marines">History of the Royal Marines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Royal_Naval_Reserve" title="History of the Royal Naval Reserve">History of the Royal Naval Reserve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ships_and_sailors_of_the_Royal_Navy" title="List of ships and sailors of the Royal Navy">List of ships and sailors of the Royal Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Maritime history of the United Kingdom">Maritime history of the United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Naval history">Naval history</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Royal_Navy_(before_1707)&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Royal_Navy_(before_1707)&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <style 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Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7486-2022-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-7486-2022-2"><bdi>0-7486-2022-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Robert+Bruce+and+the+Community+of+the+Realm+of+Scotland&rft.place=Edinburgh&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-7486-2022-2&rft.aulast=Barrow&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey+Wallis+Steuart&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Royal+Navy+%28before+1707%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoxer1974" class="citation cs2">Boxer, Charles Ralph (1974), The Anglo-Dutch Wars of the 17th Century, London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Anglo-Dutch+Wars+of+the+17th+Century&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Her+Majesty%27s+Stationery+Office&rft.date=1974&rft.aulast=Boxer&rft.aufirst=Charles+Ralph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Royal+Navy+%28before+1707%29" class="Z3988">.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrooks2000" class="citation book cs1">Brooks, David (2000). Gladstone Centenary Essays: Gladstone's Fourth Administration, 1892–1894. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0853239352" title="Special:BookSources/978-0853239352"><bdi>978-0853239352</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gladstone+Centenary+Essays%3A+Gladstone%27s+Fourth+Administration%2C+1892%E2%80%931894&rft.place=Liverpool&rft.pub=Liverpool+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0853239352&rft.aulast=Brooks&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Royal+Navy+%28before+1707%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrooks1930" class="citation journal cs1">Brooks, Frederick William (1930). "The Battle of Damme, 1213". Mariner's Mirror. 16 (3): 264–71. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00253359.1930.10655564">10.1080/00253359.1930.10655564</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mariner%27s+Mirror&rft.atitle=The+Battle+of+Damme%2C+1213&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=264-71&rft.date=1930&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00253359.1930.10655564&rft.aulast=Brooks&rft.aufirst=Frederick+William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Royal+Navy+%28before+1707%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChatterton1909" class="citation book cs1">Chatterton, Edward Keble (1909). Sailing Ships: The Story of Their Development from the Earliest Times to the Present Day.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sailing+Ships%3A+The+Story+of+Their+Development+from+the+Earliest+Times+to+the+Present+Day&rft.date=1909&rft.aulast=Chatterton&rft.aufirst=Edward+Keble&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Royal+Navy+%28before+1707%29" class="Z3988">.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChilds2009" class="citation book cs1">Childs, David (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nwLSAwAAQBAJ">Tudor Sea Power: The Foundation of Greatness</a>. Seaforth Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781473819924" title="Special:BookSources/9781473819924"><bdi>9781473819924</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tudor+Sea+Power%3A+The+Foundation+of+Greatness&rft.pub=Seaforth+Publishing&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9781473819924&rft.aulast=Childs&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnwLSAwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Royal+Navy+%28before+1707%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClodfelter2017" class="citation cs2">Clodfelter, Michael (2017), Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Encyclopedia of Casualty and Other Figures, 1492–2015 (4th ed.), <a href="/wiki/Jefferson,_North_Carolina" title="Jefferson, North Carolina">Jefferson</a>: McFarland, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0786474707" title="Special:BookSources/978-0786474707"><bdi>978-0786474707</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Warfare+and+Armed+Conflicts%3A+A+Statistical+Encyclopedia+of+Casualty+and+Other+Figures%2C+1492%E2%80%932015&rft.place=Jefferson&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=McFarland&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0786474707&rft.aulast=Clodfelter&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Royal+Navy+%28before+1707%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCorbett1898" class="citation cs2">Corbett, Julian S. Corbett (1898), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/drakeandtudorna01corbgoog">"Drake and the Tudor Navy, with a History of the Rise of England as a Maritime Power"</a>, The Geographical Journal, I (5), New York, B. 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The Cromwellian Protectorate. <a href="/wiki/Manchester,_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Manchester, England">Manchester</a>: Manchester University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-4317-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-4317-8"><bdi>978-0-7190-4317-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cromwellian+Protectorate&rft.place=Manchester&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-7190-4317-8&rft.aulast=Coward&rft.aufirst=Barry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Royal+Navy+%28before+1707%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoyne_&_al.1841" class="citation cs2">Coyne, J. Stirling; et al. (1841), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.libraryireland.com/SceneryIreland/IV-22.php">The Scenery and Antiquities of Ireland</a>, vol. 1</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Scenery+and+Antiquities+of+Ireland&rft.date=1841&rft.aulast=Coyne&rft.aufirst=J.+Stirling&rft.au=N.P.+Willis&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.libraryireland.com%2FSceneryIreland%2FIV-22.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Royal+Navy+%28before+1707%29" class="Z3988">.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCushway2011" class="citation cs2">Cushway, Graham Cushway (2011), Edward III and the War at Sea: The English Navy, 1327–1377', Boydell Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Edward+III+and+the+War+at+Sea%3A+The+English+Navy%2C+1327%E2%80%931377%27&rft.pub=Boydell+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Cushway&rft.aufirst=Graham+Cushway&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Royal+Navy+%28before+1707%29" class="Z3988">.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavies1992" class="citation book cs1">Davies, David (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ysC9rOCxGhgC">Parameters of British Naval Power</a>. Exeter: University of Exeter Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85989-385-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85989-385-5"><bdi>978-0-85989-385-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Parameters+of+British+Naval+Power&rft.place=Exeter&rft.pub=University+of+Exeter+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-85989-385-5&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DysC9rOCxGhgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Royal+Navy+%28before+1707%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDawson2007" class="citation cs2">Dawson, Jane E.A. (2007), Scotland Re-Formed, 1488–1587, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0748614554" title="Special:BookSources/978-0748614554"><bdi>978-0748614554</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Scotland+Re-Formed%2C+1488%E2%80%931587&rft.place=Edinburgh&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0748614554&rft.aulast=Dawson&rft.aufirst=Jane+E.A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Royal+Navy+%28before+1707%29" class="Z3988">.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDerrick1806" class="citation cs2">Derrick, Charles (1806), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3CoVAAAAQAAJ">Memoirs of the Rise and Progress of the Royal Navy</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Memoirs+of+the+Rise+and+Progress+of+the+Royal+Navy&rft.date=1806&rft.aulast=Derrick&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3CoVAAAAQAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Royal+Navy+%28before+1707%29" class="Z3988">.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElliott2000" class="citation book cs1">Elliott, John H. 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Harbottle's Dictionary of Battles (second ed.). Granada. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-246-11103-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-246-11103-8"><bdi>0-246-11103-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Harbottle%27s+Dictionary+of+Battles&rft.edition=second&rft.pub=Granada&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=0-246-11103-8&rft.aulast=Harbottle&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Benfield&rft.au=Bruce%2C+George&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Royal+Navy+%28before+1707%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeathcote2002" class="citation book cs1">Heathcote, Tony (2002). The British Admirals of the Fleet 1734–1995. Barnsley: Pen & Sword. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85052-835-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-85052-835-6"><bdi>0-85052-835-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+British+Admirals+of+the+Fleet+1734%E2%80%931995&rft.place=Barnsley&rft.pub=Pen+%26+Sword&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-85052-835-6&rft.aulast=Heathcote&rft.aufirst=Tony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Royal+Navy+%28before+1707%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHelm1963" class="citation book cs1">Helm, Peter J. (1963). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lf_RAAAAMAAJ">Alfred the Great</a>. Hale. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9787800603488" title="Special:BookSources/9787800603488"><bdi>9787800603488</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alfred+the+Great&rft.pub=Hale&rft.date=1963&rft.isbn=9787800603488&rft.aulast=Helm&rft.aufirst=Peter+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dlf_RAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Royal+Navy+%28before+1707%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerwig1980" class="citation book cs1">Herwig, Holger H. (1980). Luxury Fleet, The Imperial German Navy 1888–1918. London: Ashfield Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-948660-03-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-948660-03-1"><bdi>0-948660-03-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Luxury+Fleet%2C+The+Imperial+German+Navy+1888%E2%80%931918&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Ashfield+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=0-948660-03-1&rft.aulast=Herwig&rft.aufirst=Holger+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Royal+Navy+%28before+1707%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHunter2011" class="citation cs2">Hunter, James (2011), Last of the Free: A History of the Highlands and Islands of Scotland, London: Random House, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78057-006-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78057-006-8"><bdi>978-1-78057-006-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Last+of+the+Free%3A+A+History+of+the+Highlands+and+Islands+of+Scotland&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-78057-006-8&rft.aulast=Hunter&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Royal+Navy+%28before+1707%29" class="Z3988">.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHutchinson2013" class="citation cs2">Hutchinson, Robert (2013), The Spanish Armada: A History, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Spanish+Armada%3A+A+History&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Weidenfeld+%26+Nicolson&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Hutchinson&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Royal+Navy+%28before+1707%29" class="Z3988">.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKennedy1989" class="citation book cs1">Kennedy, Paul (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/risefallofgreatp00paul">The Rise and Fall of Great Powers</a>. London: Fontana. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0049090194" title="Special:BookSources/978-0049090194"><bdi>978-0049090194</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+and+Fall+of+Great+Powers&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Fontana&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0049090194&rft.aulast=Kennedy&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frisefallofgreatp00paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Royal+Navy+%28before+1707%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLavery2003" class="citation book cs1">Lavery, Brian (2003). The Ship of the Line, Volume 1: The Development of the Battlefleet 1650–1850. Conway Maritime Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85177-252-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-85177-252-8"><bdi>0-85177-252-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ship+of+the+Line%2C+Volume+1%3A+The+Development+of+the+Battlefleet+1650%E2%80%931850&rft.pub=Conway+Maritime+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-85177-252-8&rft.aulast=Lavery&rft.aufirst=Brian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Royal+Navy+%28before+1707%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLoades_&_al.2013" class="citation cs2">Loades, David; et al., eds. 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(2016), Elizabethan Naval Administration, Abingdon: Routledge, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781317145035" title="Special:BookSources/9781317145035"><bdi>9781317145035</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Elizabethan+Naval+Administration&rft.place=Abingdon&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9781317145035&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Royal+Navy+%28before+1707%29" class="Z3988">.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLyon1996" class="citation book cs1">Lyon, David (1996). The First Destroyers. Chatham Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55750-271-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-55750-271-4"><bdi>1-55750-271-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+First+Destroyers&rft.pub=Chatham+Publishing&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=1-55750-271-4&rft.aulast=Lyon&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Royal+Navy+%28before+1707%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacInnes_&_al.2006" class="citation cs2">MacInnes, A.I.; et al., eds. 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Culloden Moor 1746: The Death of the Jacobite Cause. Campaign Series. Vol. 106. Osprey Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84176-412-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-84176-412-4"><bdi>1-84176-412-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Culloden+Moor+1746%3A+The+Death+of+the+Jacobite+Cause&rft.series=Campaign+Series&rft.pub=Osprey+Publishing&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=1-84176-412-4&rft.aulast=Reid&rft.aufirst=Stuart&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Royal+Navy+%28before+1707%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRodger1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_A._M._Rodger" title="Nicholas A. M. Rodger">Rodger, Nicholas Andrew Martin</a> (1997). The Safeguard of the Sea, 660–1649. 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Christopher (1992), Scotland and the Sea, Edinburgh: Rowman and Littlefield, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85976-338-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-85976-338-2"><bdi>0-85976-338-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Scotland+and+the+Sea&rft.place=Edinburgh&rft.pub=Rowman+and+Littlefield&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-85976-338-2&rft.aulast=Smout&rft.aufirst=T.+Christopher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Royal+Navy+%28before+1707%29" class="Z3988">.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSondhaus2001" class="citation book cs1">Sondhaus, Lawrence (2001). Naval Warfare, 1815–1914. New York: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415214780" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415214780"><bdi>978-0415214780</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Naval+Warfare%2C+1815%E2%80%931914&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0415214780&rft.aulast=Sondhaus&rft.aufirst=Lawrence&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Royal+Navy+%28before+1707%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStanton2015" class="citation cs2">Stanton, Charles (2015), Medieval Maritime Warfare, Barnsley: Pen & Sword Maritime</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+Maritime+Warfare&rft.place=Barnsley&rft.pub=Pen+%26+Sword+Maritime&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Stanton&rft.aufirst=Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Royal+Navy+%28before+1707%29" class="Z3988">.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStatham2011" class="citation cs2">Statham, E.P. (2011), Privateers and Privateering, <a href="/wiki/Cambridge,_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambridge, England">Cambridge</a>: Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1108026291" title="Special:BookSources/978-1108026291"><bdi>978-1108026291</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Privateers+and+Privateering&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1108026291&rft.aulast=Statham&rft.aufirst=E.P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Royal+Navy+%28before+1707%29" class="Z3988">.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStrype1822" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-long-vol">Strype, John (1822), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=upwNAAAAQAAJ">Ecclesiastical Memorials</a>, vol. 3, part 2, Oxford</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ecclesiastical+Memorials&rft.place=Oxford&rft.date=1822&rft.aulast=Strype&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DupwNAAAAQAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Royal+Navy+%28before+1707%29" class="Z3988">.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSwanton2000" class="citation book cs1">Swanton, Michael (2000). Anglo-Saxon Chronicles. Phoenix Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-842120034" title="Special:BookSources/1-842120034"><bdi>1-842120034</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Anglo-Saxon+Chronicles&rft.pub=Phoenix+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=1-842120034&rft.aulast=Swanton&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Royal+Navy+%28before+1707%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTenace2003" class="citation journal cs1">Tenace, Edward (2003). "A Strategy of Reaction: The Armadas of 1596 and 1597 and the Spanish Struggle for European Hegemony". English Historical Review. 118 (478): 882. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fehr%2F118.478.855">10.1093/ehr/118.478.855</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=English+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=A+Strategy+of+Reaction%3A+The+Armadas+of+1596+and+1597+and+the+Spanish+Struggle+for+European+Hegemony&rft.volume=118&rft.issue=478&rft.pages=882&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fehr%2F118.478.855&rft.aulast=Tenace&rft.aufirst=Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Royal+Navy+%28before+1707%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTranter2012" class="citation cs2">Tranter, Nigel G. (2012), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XehBsBLGMTsC">The Story of Scotland</a>, Neil Wilson, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1906476687" title="Special:BookSources/978-1906476687"><bdi>978-1906476687</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Story+of+Scotland&rft.pub=Neil+Wilson&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1906476687&rft.aulast=Tranter&rft.aufirst=Nigel+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXehBsBLGMTsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Royal+Navy+%28before+1707%29" class="Z3988">.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTytler1829" class="citation cs2">Tytler, Patrick Fraser (1829), History of Scotland, vol. 2, London: Black</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Scotland&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Black&rft.date=1829&rft.aulast=Tytler&rft.aufirst=Patrick+Fraser&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Royal+Navy+%28before+1707%29" class="Z3988">.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVan_Vliet1996" class="citation cs2">Van Vliet, Adri P. (1996), "The Influence of Dunkirk Privateering on the North Sea (Herring) Fishery during the Years 1580–1650", The North Sea and Culture (1550–1800), Leiden</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Influence+of+Dunkirk+Privateering+on+the+North+Sea+%28Herring%29+Fishery+during+the+Years+1580%E2%80%931650&rft.btitle=The+North+Sea+and+Culture+%281550%E2%80%931800%29&rft.place=Leiden&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Van+Vliet&rft.aufirst=Adri+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Royal+Navy+%28before+1707%29" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Citation" title="Template:Citation">citation</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWagner2002" class="citation book cs1">Wagner, John A. (2002). Historical Dictionary of the Elizabethan World: Britain, Ireland, Europe, and America. New York: Checkmark Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Dictionary+of+the+Elizabethan+World%3A+Britain%2C+Ireland%2C+Europe%2C+and+America&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Checkmark+Books&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Wagner&rft.aufirst=John+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Royal+Navy+%28before+1707%29" class="Z3988">.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWagner2006" class="citation book cs1">Wagner, John A. (2006). Encyclopedia of the Hundred Years War. Greenwood Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-32736-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-32736-0"><bdi>978-0-313-32736-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Hundred+Years+War&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-313-32736-0&rft.aulast=Wagner&rft.aufirst=John+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Royal+Navy+%28before+1707%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWernham2020" class="citation book cs1">Wernham, Richard Bruce (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UOcJEAAAQBAJ">Expedition of Sir John Norris and Sir Francis Drake to Spain and Portugal, 1589</a>. Abingdon: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-000-34165-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-000-34165-2"><bdi>978-1-000-34165-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Expedition+of+Sir+John+Norris+and+Sir+Francis+Drake+to+Spain+and+Portugal%2C+1589&rft.place=Abingdon&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1-000-34165-2&rft.aulast=Wernham&rft.aufirst=Richard+Bruce&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUOcJEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Royal+Navy+%28before+1707%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWills2002" class="citation book cs1">Wills, Rebecca (2002). The Jacobites and Russia, 1715–1750. Dundurn. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1862321426" title="Special:BookSources/1862321426"><bdi>1862321426</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Jacobites+and+Russia%2C+1715%E2%80%931750&rft.pub=Dundurn&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=1862321426&rft.aulast=Wills&rft.aufirst=Rebecca&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Royal+Navy+%28before+1707%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWinfield2009" class="citation book cs1">Winfield, Rif (2009). British Warships in the Age of Sail 1603–1714: Design, Construction, Careers and Fates. Seaforth. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1848320406" title="Special:BookSources/978-1848320406"><bdi>978-1848320406</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=British+Warships+in+the+Age+of+Sail+1603%E2%80%931714%3A+Design%2C+Construction%2C+Careers+and+Fates&rft.pub=Seaforth&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1848320406&rft.aulast=Winfield&rft.aufirst=Rif&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Royal+Navy+%28before+1707%29" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Royal_Navy_(before_1707)&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.royal-navy.org/">Royal Navy History</a>, extensive source for Royal Navy History with photos and documents. (Broken Link)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.royalnavy.mod.uk/history">Royal Navy - Royal Navy History</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080702185556/http://www.pbenyon.plus.com/Naval_History/Index.html">A Naval History of Great Britain</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/documentsonline/adm196.asp">Download service records of officers who joined the Royal Navy between 1756–1917 from The National Archives</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/documentsonline/seamenswills.asp">Download wills made by seamen of the Royal Navy between 1786- 1882 from The National Archives.</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/documentsonline/royal-navy-service.asp">The service registers of Royal Naval Seamen 1873 – 1923</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldwar1atsea.net">Royal Navy in World War 1, Campaigns, Battles, Warship losses</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.naval-history.net/">Naval-History.Net</a>, Naval History of the 20th Century, World Wars 1, 2, post-war and Falklands War – navies, ships, ship losses, casualties</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xr9YAAAAMAAJ&dq=HMS+Cerberus+in+American+Revolution&pg=PA52">American Vessels captured by the British During the American Revolution and the War of 1812</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output 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.navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="His_Majesty&#039;s_Naval_Service" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible 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scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy_Surface_Fleet" title="Royal Navy Surface Fleet">Surface fleet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fleet_Air_Arm" title="Fleet Air Arm">Fleet Air Arm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy_Submarine_Service" title="Royal Navy Submarine Service">Submarine Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy_Medical_Service" title="Royal Navy Medical Service">Royal Navy Medical Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Alexandra%27s_Royal_Naval_Nursing_Service" title="Queen Alexandra's Royal Naval Nursing Service">Nursing Service (QARNNS)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy_Chaplaincy_Service" title="Royal Navy Chaplaincy Service">Chaplaincy Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy_Police" title="Royal Navy Police">Navy Police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_Careers_Service" title="Naval Careers Service">Naval Careers Service</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Royal_Marines" title="Royal Marines">Royal Marines</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_Commando_Force" title="United Kingdom Commando Force">UK Commando Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Marines_Band_Service" title="Royal Marines Band Service">Royal Marines Band Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Marines_Reserve" title="Royal Marines Reserve">Royal Marines Reserve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Marines_Police" title="Royal Marines Police">Royal Marines Police</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Royal_Naval_Reserve" title="Royal Naval Reserve">Royal Naval Reserve</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Calliope_(shore_establishment)" title="HMS Calliope (shore establishment)">HMS Calliope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Cambria_(shore_establishment)" title="HMS Cambria (shore establishment)">HMS Cambria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carlton_Barracks" title="Carlton Barracks">HMS Ceres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Dalriada" title="HMS Dalriada">HMS Dalriada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Eaglet_(shore_establishment)" title="HMS Eaglet (shore establishment)">HMS Eaglet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Ferret_(1982_shore_establishment)" title="HMS Ferret (1982 shore establishment)">HMS Ferret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Flying_Fox_(shore_establishment)" title="HMS Flying Fox (shore establishment)">HMS Flying Fox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Forward_(1984_shore_establishment)" title="HMS Forward (1984 shore establishment)">HMS Forward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thiepval_Barracks" title="Thiepval Barracks">HMS Hibernia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMS_King_Alfred_(1994_shore_establishment)" title="HMS King Alfred (1994 shore establishment)">HMS King Alfred</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMS_President_(shore_establishment)" title="HMS President (shore establishment)">HMS President</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Scotia_(shore_establishment)" title="HMS Scotia (shore establishment)">HMS Scotia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Sherwood_(shore_establishment)" title="HMS Sherwood (shore establishment)">HMS Sherwood</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=HMS_Vivid_(1957_shore_establishment)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="HMS Vivid (1957 shore establishment) (page does not exist)">HMS Vivid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Wildfire_(2000_shore_establishment)" title="HMS Wildfire (2000 shore establishment)">HMS Wildfire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Special forces</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Special_Boat_Service" title="Special Boat Service">Special Boat Service</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History and future</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Admiralty_in_the_16th_century" title="Admiralty in the 16th century">Admiralty in the 16th century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Admiralty_in_the_17th_century" title="Admiralty in the 17th century">Admiralty in the 17th century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Admiralty_in_the_18th_century" title="Admiralty in the 18th century">Admiralty in the 18th century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Customs_and_traditions_of_the_Royal_Navy" title="Customs and traditions of the Royal Navy">Customs and traditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fleets_and_major_commands_of_the_Royal_Navy" title="List of fleets and major commands of the Royal Navy">Historic forces and commands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future_of_the_Royal_Navy" title="Future of the Royal Navy">Future of the Royal Navy</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History of the Royal Navy (before 1707)</a> (<a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Royal_Navy_(after_1707)" title="History of the Royal Navy (after 1707)">after 1707</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Royal_Marines" title="History of the Royal Marines">History of the Royal Marines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Maritime_Museum" title="National Maritime Museum">National Maritime Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_the_Royal_Navy" title="National Museum of the Royal Navy">National Museum of the Royal Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_Historical_Branch" title="Naval Historical Branch">Naval Historical Branch</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Operating forces</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fleet_Commander" title="Fleet Commander">Fleet Commander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commander_United_Kingdom_Strike_Force" title="Commander United Kingdom Strike Force">Commander United Kingdom Strike Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commander_Operations_(Royal_Navy)" title="Commander Operations (Royal Navy)">Commander Operations</a></li> <li>Surface Flotilla</li> <li>Submarine Flotilla</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_Commando_Force" title="United Kingdom Commando Force">UK Commando Force</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fleet</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_active_Royal_Navy_ships" title="List of active Royal Navy ships">List of active Royal Navy ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Royal_Fleet_Auxiliary_ship_names" title="List of Royal Fleet Auxiliary ship names">Royal Fleet Auxiliary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standing_Royal_Navy_deployments" title="Standing Royal Navy deployments">Standing Royal Navy deployments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fleets_and_major_commands_of_the_Royal_Navy" title="List of fleets and major commands of the Royal Navy">List of fleets and major commands of the Royal Navy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ships</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_aircraft_carriers_of_the_Royal_Navy" title="List of aircraft carriers of the Royal Navy">Aircraft carriers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_escort_carriers_of_the_Royal_Navy" title="List of escort carriers of the Royal Navy">Escort carriers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_seaplane_carriers_of_the_Royal_Navy" title="List of seaplane carriers of the Royal Navy">Seaplane carriers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_amphibious_warfare_ships_of_the_Royal_Navy" title="List of amphibious warfare ships of the Royal Navy">Amphibious warfare ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_battlecruisers_of_the_Royal_Navy" title="List of battlecruisers of the Royal Navy">Battlecruisers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_dreadnought_battleships_of_the_Royal_Navy" title="List of dreadnought battleships of the Royal Navy">Battleships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pre-dreadnought_battleships_of_the_Royal_Navy" title="List of pre-dreadnought battleships of the Royal Navy">Pre-dreadnought battleships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_bomb_vessels_of_the_Royal_Navy" title="List of bomb vessels of the Royal Navy">Bomb vessels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_corvette_and_sloop_classes_of_the_Royal_Navy" title="List of corvette and sloop classes of the Royal Navy">Corvette and sloop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cruiser_classes_of_the_Royal_Navy" title="List of cruiser classes of the Royal Navy">Cruisers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_destroyer_classes_of_the_Royal_Navy" title="List of destroyer classes of the Royal Navy">Destroyers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fireships_of_the_Royal_Navy" title="List of fireships of the Royal Navy">Fireships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_frigate_classes_of_the_Royal_Navy" title="List of frigate classes of the Royal Navy">Frigates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_gun-brigs_of_the_Royal_Navy" title="List of gun-brigs of the Royal Navy">Gun-brigs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_gunboat_and_gunvessel_classes_of_the_Royal_Navy" title="List of gunboat and gunvessel classes of the Royal Navy">Gunboat and gunvessels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_hospitals_and_hospital_ships_of_the_Royal_Navy" title="List of hospitals and hospital ships of the Royal Navy">Hospital ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ironclads_of_the_Royal_Navy" title="List of ironclads of the Royal Navy">Ironclads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mine_countermeasure_vessels_of_the_Royal_Navy" title="List of mine countermeasure vessels of the Royal Navy">Mine countermeasure vessels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monitors_of_the_Royal_Navy" title="List of monitors of the Royal Navy">Monitors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ironclads_of_the_Royal_Navy" title="List of ironclads of the Royal Navy">Ironclads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_patrol_vessels_of_the_Royal_Navy" title="List of patrol vessels of the Royal Navy">Patrol vessels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_royal_yachts_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of royal yachts of the United Kingdom">Royal yachts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ships_of_the_line_of_the_Royal_Navy" title="List of ships of the line of the Royal Navy">Ships of the line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_submarine_classes_of_the_Royal_Navy" title="List of submarine classes of the Royal Navy">Submarines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_support_ships_of_the_Royal_Navy" title="List of support ships of the Royal Navy">Support ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_survey_vessels_of_the_Royal_Navy" title="List of survey vessels of the Royal Navy">Survey vessels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_active_Royal_Marines_military_watercraft" title="List of active Royal Marines military watercraft">Royal Marines Boats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ship_names_of_the_Royal_Navy" title="List of ship names of the Royal Navy">Historic ships names</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Administration</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Defence_Council_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Defence Council of the United Kingdom">Defence Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Admiralty_Board" title="Admiralty Board">Admiralty Board</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navy_Board_(1964%E2%80%93present)" title="Navy Board (1964–present)">Navy Board</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navy_Command_(Royal_Navy)" title="Navy Command (Royal Navy)">Navy Command</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Senior officers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assistant_Chief_of_the_Naval_Staff_(Aviation,_Amphibious_Capability_%26_Carriers)" title="Assistant Chief of the Naval Staff (Aviation, Amphibious Capability & Carriers)">Assistant Chief of Naval Staff (Aviation, Amphibious Capability & Carriers)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assistant_Chief_of_the_Naval_Staff_(United_Kingdom)" title="Assistant Chief of the Naval Staff (United Kingdom)">Assistant Chief of Naval Staff (Capability)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_Secretary" title="Naval Secretary">Director People & Training</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assistant_Chief_of_the_Naval_Staff_(United_Kingdom)" title="Assistant Chief of the Naval Staff (United Kingdom)">Assistant Chief of Naval Staff (Policy)</a></li> <li>Director Naval Support</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commander_Fleet_Operational_Sea_Training" class="mw-redirect" title="Commander Fleet Operational Sea Training">Commander Fleet Operational Sea Training</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy_Chaplaincy_Service#Chaplains_of_the_Fleet" title="Royal Navy Chaplaincy Service">Chaplain of the Fleet</a></li> <li>Director General Ships</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commandant_General_Royal_Marines" title="Commandant General Royal Marines">Commandant General Royal Marines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commander_Operations_(Royal_Navy)" title="Commander Operations (Royal Navy)">Commander Operations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commander_United_Kingdom_Strike_Force" title="Commander United Kingdom Strike Force">Commander United Kingdom Strike Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commander_Littoral_Strike_Group" title="Commander Littoral Strike Group">Commander Littoral Strike Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commander_United_Kingdom_Carrier_Strike_Group" title="Commander United Kingdom Carrier Strike Group">Commander United Kingdom Carrier Strike Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_Staff_Directorate" title="Naval Staff Directorate">Commodore, Naval Staff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Fleet_Auxiliary#List_of_Commodores_Royal_Fleet_Auxiliary" title="Royal Fleet Auxiliary">Commodore RFA and Deputy Director Royal Navy Afloat Support</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commander_Maritime_Reserves" class="mw-redirect" title="Commander Maritime Reserves">Commander Maritime Reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_Secretary" title="Naval Secretary">Naval Secretary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fleet_Air_Arm" title="Fleet Air Arm">Rear-Admiral, Fleet Air Arm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commodore_Submarine_Service" title="Commodore Submarine Service">Commodore Submarine Flotilla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commander_United_Kingdom_Maritime_Forces_and_Rear_Admiral_Surface_Ships" class="mw-redirect" title="Commander United Kingdom Maritime Forces and Rear Admiral Surface Ships">Commodore Surface Flotilla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_serving_senior_officers_of_the_Royal_Navy" title="List of serving senior officers of the Royal Navy">Serving senior officers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_serving_senior_officers_of_the_Royal_Marines" title="List of serving senior officers of the Royal Marines">Serving senior Royal Marines officers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Personnel and training</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Admiralty_Interview_Board" title="Admiralty Interview Board">Admiralty Interview Board</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Britannia_Royal_Naval_College" title="Britannia Royal Naval College">Britannia Royal Naval College</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commando_Training_Centre_Royal_Marines" title="Commando Training Centre Royal Marines">Commando Training Centre Royal Marines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defence_Academy_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Defence Academy of the United Kingdom">Defence Academy of the United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Raleigh_(shore_establishment)" title="HMS Raleigh (shore establishment)">HMS Raleigh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Sultan_(shore_establishment)" title="HMS Sultan (shore establishment)">HMS Sultan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Corps_of_Naval_Constructors" title="Royal Corps of Naval Constructors">Royal Corps of Naval Constructors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_Royal_Naval_Unit" title="University Royal Naval Unit">University Royal Naval Unit</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Equipment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uniforms_of_the_Royal_Navy" title="Uniforms of the Royal Navy">Uniforms of the Royal Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniforms_of_the_Royal_Marines" title="Uniforms of the Royal Marines">Uniforms of the Royal Marines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy_officer_rank_insignia" title="Royal Navy officer rank insignia">Officer rank insignia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy_other_rank_insignia" title="Royal Navy other rank insignia">Ratings rank insignia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy_cutlasses" title="Royal Navy cutlasses">Cutlasses</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Former leadership</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Lord_of_the_Admiralty" title="First Lord of the Admiralty">First Lord of the Admiralty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Admiralty_War_Staff" title="Admiralty War Staff">Chief of the Admiralty War Staff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Admiral_of_the_Fleet_(Royal_Navy)" title="Admiral of the Fleet (Royal Navy)">Admirals of the Fleet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commander-in-Chief_Fleet" title="Commander-in-Chief Fleet">Commander-in-Chief Fleet</a></li> <li>Commander-in-Chief, <a href="/wiki/Naval_Home_Command" title="Naval Home Command">Naval Home Command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deputy_First_Sea_Lord" title="Deputy First Sea Lord">Deputy First Sea Lord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deputy_Chief_of_the_Naval_Staff_(United_Kingdom)" title="Deputy Chief of the Naval Staff (United Kingdom)">Deputy Chief of the Naval Staff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Sea_Lord" class="mw-redirect" title="Third Sea Lord">Third Sea Lord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Sea_Lord" title="Fourth Sea Lord">Fourth Sea Lord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Sea_Lord" title="Fifth Sea Lord">Fifth Sea Lord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice_Chief_of_the_Naval_Staff_(United_Kingdom)" title="Vice Chief of the Naval Staff (United Kingdom)">Vice Chief of the Naval Staff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judge_Advocate_of_the_Fleet" title="Judge Advocate of the Fleet">Judge Advocate of the Fleet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" 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