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id="toc-Before_unification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Anglo-Saxon_settlement_(300–500)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anglo-Saxon_settlement_(300–500)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Anglo-Saxon settlement (300–500)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anglo-Saxon_settlement_(300–500)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Origins_of_kingship_(500–600)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origins_of_kingship_(500–600)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Origins of kingship (500–600)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origins_of_kingship_(500–600)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_kingdoms_(600–871)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_kingdoms_(600–871)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Early kingdoms (600–871)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_kingdoms_(600–871)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Electing_and_deposing_kings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electing_and_deposing_kings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.1</span> <span>Electing and deposing kings</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electing_and_deposing_kings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Christian_kingship" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Christian_kingship"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.2</span> <span>Christian kingship</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Christian_kingship-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Local_administration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Local_administration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.3</span> <span>Local administration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Local_administration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alfred_the_Great_(871–899)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alfred_the_Great_(871–899)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Alfred the Great (871–899)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alfred_the_Great_(871–899)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Royal_government" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Royal_government"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Royal government</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Royal_government-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon 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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Royal_household" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Royal_household"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Royal household</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Royal_household-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Witan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Witan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Witan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Witan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Finances" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Finances"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Finances</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Finances-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Coinage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coinage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.1</span> <span>Coinage</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coinage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Royal_lands_and_taxation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Royal_lands_and_taxation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.2</span> <span>Royal lands and taxation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Royal_lands_and_taxation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Local_government" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Local_government"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Local government</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Local_government-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon 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class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Hundreds and boroughs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hundreds_and_boroughs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Church_and_state" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Church_and_state"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Church and state</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Church_and_state-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Military</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" 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In Anglo-Saxon England, helmets were symbols of royalty and were used in coronations instead of crowns.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYorke199017_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYorke199017-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="background:#8FBC8F">This article is part of the series:</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#8FBC8F"><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxons#Culture" title="Anglo-Saxons">Anglo-Saxon<br />society and culture</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:2008-05-17-SuttonHoo_crop.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/2008-05-17-SuttonHoo_crop.jpg/150px-2008-05-17-SuttonHoo_crop.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/2008-05-17-SuttonHoo_crop.jpg/225px-2008-05-17-SuttonHoo_crop.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/2008-05-17-SuttonHoo_crop.jpg/300px-2008-05-17-SuttonHoo_crop.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1168" data-file-height="925" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#8FBC8F"> <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxons" title="Anglo-Saxons">People</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain" title="Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain">Settlement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Anglo-Saxon_society" title="Women in Anglo-Saxon society">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">History</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#8FBC8F"> Language</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_English_literature" title="Old English literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_runes" title="Anglo-Saxon runes">Runes</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#8FBC8F"> Material culture</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_architecture" title="Anglo-Saxon architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_art" title="Anglo-Saxon art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burial_in_Early_Anglo-Saxon_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Burial in Early Anglo-Saxon England">Burial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coinage_in_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="Coinage in Anglo-Saxon England">Coins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_dress" title="Anglo-Saxon dress">Dress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_glass" title="Anglo-Saxon glass">Glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_weaponry" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Saxon weaponry">Weaponry</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#8FBC8F"> Power and organization</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_charters" title="Anglo-Saxon charters">Charters</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_law" title="Anglo-Saxon law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Anglo-Saxon_monarchs_and_kingdoms" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Anglo-Saxon monarchs and kingdoms">Monarchs and kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_warfare" title="Anglo-Saxon warfare">Warfare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fyrd" title="Fyrd">Military</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#8FBC8F"> Religion</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianisation_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon England">Christianisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="Christianity in Anglo-Saxon England">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_paganism" title="Anglo-Saxon paganism">Paganism</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output 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template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile vcard"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_England" title="Category:History of England">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style=""><a href="/wiki/History_of_England" title="History of England">History of <span class="fn org label">England</span></a></th> </tr><tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Atlas_Van_der_Hagen-KW1049B11_004-A_NEW_MAP_OF_THE_KINGDOME_of_ENGLAND,_Representing_the_Princedome_of_WALES,_and_other_PROVINCES,_CITIES,_MARKET_TOWNS,_with_the_ROADS_from_TOWN_to_TOWN.jpeg" class="mw-file-description" title="NEW MAP OF THE KINGDOME of ENGLAND, Representing the Princedome of WALES, and other PROVINCES, CITIES, MARKET TOWNS, with the ROADS from TOWN to TOWN (1685)"><img alt="NEW MAP OF THE KINGDOME of ENGLAND, Representing the Princedome of WALES, and other PROVINCES, CITIES, MARKET TOWNS, with the ROADS from TOWN to TOWN (1685)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Atlas_Van_der_Hagen-KW1049B11_004-A_NEW_MAP_OF_THE_KINGDOME_of_ENGLAND%2C_Representing_the_Princedome_of_WALES%2C_and_other_PROVINCES%2C_CITIES%2C_MARKET_TOWNS%2C_with_the_ROADS_from_TOWN_to_TOWN.jpeg/150px-thumbnail.jpeg" decoding="async" width="150" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Atlas_Van_der_Hagen-KW1049B11_004-A_NEW_MAP_OF_THE_KINGDOME_of_ENGLAND%2C_Representing_the_Princedome_of_WALES%2C_and_other_PROVINCES%2C_CITIES%2C_MARKET_TOWNS%2C_with_the_ROADS_from_TOWN_to_TOWN.jpeg/225px-thumbnail.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Atlas_Van_der_Hagen-KW1049B11_004-A_NEW_MAP_OF_THE_KINGDOME_of_ENGLAND%2C_Representing_the_Princedome_of_WALES%2C_and_other_PROVINCES%2C_CITIES%2C_MARKET_TOWNS%2C_with_the_ROADS_from_TOWN_to_TOWN.jpeg/300px-thumbnail.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="4774" data-file-height="5500" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_English_history" title="Timeline of English history">Timeline</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div style="text-align:left"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Britain" title="Prehistoric Britain">Prehistoric Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Britain" title="Roman Britain">Roman Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/England_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="England in the Middle Ages">Medieval period</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_England_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Economy of England in the Middle Ages">Economy in the Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sub-Roman_Britain" title="Sub-Roman Britain">Sub-Roman Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon period</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England#English_unification_.2810th_century.29" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">English unification</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/England_in_the_High_Middle_Ages" title="England in the High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Conquest" title="Norman Conquest">Norman Conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_England#Norman_England" title="History of England">Norman period</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/England_in_the_Late_Middle_Ages" title="England in the Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Death_in_England" title="Black Death in England">Black Death in England</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tudor_period" title="Tudor period">Tudor period</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_era" title="Elizabethan era">Elizabethan era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Renaissance" title="English Renaissance">English Renaissance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stuart_period" title="Stuart period">Stuart period</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_Civil_War" title="English Civil War">English Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_England" title="Commonwealth of England">Commonwealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Protectorate" title="The Protectorate">Protectorate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stuart_Restoration" title="Stuart Restoration">Restoration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glorious_Revolution" title="Glorious Revolution">Glorious Revolution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_era" title="Georgian era">Georgian era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Regency_era" title="Regency era">Regency era</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victorian_era" title="Victorian era">Victorian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwardian_era" title="Edwardian era">Edwardian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_the_First_World_War" title="History of the United Kingdom during the First World War">First World War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interwar_Britain" title="Interwar Britain">Interwar period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="United Kingdom home front during World War II">Second World War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postwar_Britain_(1945%E2%80%931979)" class="mw-redirect" title="Postwar Britain (1945–1979)">Postwar Britain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_history_of_Postwar_Britain_(1945%E2%80%931979)" class="mw-redirect" title="Social history of Postwar Britain (1945–1979)">Social history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_(1979%E2%80%93present)" title="Political history of the United Kingdom (1979–present)">Political history of the United Kingdom (1979–present)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_(1979%E2%80%93present)" title="Social history of the United Kingdom (1979–present)">Social history of the United Kingdom (1979–present)</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed plainlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_overseas_possessions" title="English overseas possessions">English overseas possessions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_society" title="English society">English society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_in_medieval_England" title="Government in medieval England">Government in medieval England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_England" title="History of education in England">History of education in England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_English" title="History of English">History of English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_monarchy_in_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="History of monarchy in the United Kingdom">History of monarchy in the United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_England#History" title="Economy of England">History of the economy of England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_England#Political_history" title="Politics of England">History of the politics of England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_England" title="List of wars involving England">Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/England_riots_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="England riots (disambiguation)">Riots</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed plainlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Polities</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">Kingdom of England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">Kingdom of Great Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Counties_of_England" title="Counties of England">By county</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Bedfordshire" title="History of Bedfordshire">Bedfordshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Berkshire" title="History of Berkshire">Berkshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Bristol" title="History of Bristol">City of Bristol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Buckinghamshire" title="History of Buckinghamshire">Buckinghamshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Cambridgeshire" title="History of Cambridgeshire">Cambridgeshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Cheshire" title="History of Cheshire">Cheshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Cornwall" title="History of Cornwall">Cornwall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Cumbria" title="History of Cumbria">Cumbria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Derbyshire" title="History of Derbyshire">Derbyshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Devon" title="History of Devon">Devon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Dorset" title="History of Dorset">Dorset</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Durham" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Durham">Durham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_East_Riding_of_Yorkshire" title="History of the East Riding of Yorkshire">East Riding of Yorkshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_East_Sussex" class="mw-redirect" title="History of East Sussex">East Sussex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Essex" title="History of Essex">Essex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Gloucestershire" title="History of Gloucestershire">Gloucestershire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Greater_London" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Greater London">Greater London</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Greater_Manchester" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Greater Manchester">Greater Manchester</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hampshire" title="History of Hampshire">Hampshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Herefordshire" title="History of Herefordshire">Herefordshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hertfordshire" title="History of Hertfordshire">Hertfordshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Isle_of_Wight" title="History of the Isle of Wight">Isle of Wight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kent" title="History of Kent">Kent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lancashire" title="History of Lancashire">Lancashire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Leicestershire" title="History of Leicestershire">Leicestershire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lincolnshire" title="History of Lincolnshire">Lincolnshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_London" title="History of London">City of London</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Merseyside" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Merseyside">Merseyside</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Norfolk" title="History of Norfolk">Norfolk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Northamptonshire" title="History of Northamptonshire">Northamptonshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Northumberland" title="History of Northumberland">Northumberland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_North_Yorkshire" class="mw-redirect" title="History of North Yorkshire">North Yorkshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nottinghamshire" title="History of Nottinghamshire">Nottinghamshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oxfordshire" title="History of Oxfordshire">Oxfordshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rutland" title="History of Rutland">Rutland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Shropshire" title="History of Shropshire">Shropshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Somerset" title="History of Somerset">Somerset</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Yorkshire" class="mw-redirect" title="History of South Yorkshire">South Yorkshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Staffordshire" title="History of Staffordshire">Staffordshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Suffolk" title="History of Suffolk">Suffolk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Surrey" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Surrey">Surrey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tyne_and_Wear" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Tyne and Wear">Tyne and Wear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Warwickshire" title="History of Warwickshire">Warwickshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_West_Midlands" title="History of the West Midlands">West Midlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_West_Sussex" class="mw-redirect" title="History of West Sussex">West Sussex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_West_Yorkshire" class="mw-redirect" title="History of West Yorkshire">West Yorkshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wiltshire" title="History of Wiltshire">Wiltshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Worcestershire" title="History of Worcestershire">Worcestershire</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/City_status_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="City status in the United Kingdom">By city or town</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Birmingham" title="History of Birmingham">Birmingham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Bournemouth" title="History of Bournemouth">Bournemouth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Brighton" title="History of Brighton">Brighton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Bristol" title="History of Bristol">Bristol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Chester" title="History of Chester">Chester</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christchurch,_Dorset" title="History of Christchurch, Dorset">Christchurch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Colchester" title="History of Colchester">Colchester</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Coventry" title="History of Coventry">Coventry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Dover" title="History of Dover">Dover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Folkestone" title="History of Folkestone">Folkestone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Leeds" title="History of Leeds">Leeds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Liverpool" title="History of Liverpool">Liverpool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_London" title="History of London">London</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Maidstone" title="History of Maidstone">Maidstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Manchester" title="History of Manchester">Manchester</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Margate" title="History of Margate">Margate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Milton_Keynes" title="History of Milton Keynes">Milton Keynes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Newcastle_upon_Tyne" title="History of Newcastle upon Tyne">Newcastle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nottingham" title="History of Nottingham">Nottingham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oxford" title="History of Oxford">Oxford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Plymouth" title="History of Plymouth">Plymouth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poole" title="History of Poole">Poole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Portsmouth" title="History of Portsmouth">Portsmouth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Reading,_Berkshire" title="History of Reading, Berkshire">Reading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rochester,_Kent" title="History of Rochester, Kent">Rochester</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Sheffield" title="History of Sheffield">Sheffield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Shrewsbury" title="History of Shrewsbury">Shrewsbury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Southampton" title="History of Southampton">Southampton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_St_Albans" title="History of St Albans">St Albans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Torquay" title="History of Torquay">Torquay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wetherby" title="History of Wetherby">Wetherby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Worcester" title="History of Worcester">Worcester</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Worthing" title="History of Worthing">Worthing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_York" title="History of York">York</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/be/Flag_of_England.svg/16px-Flag_of_England.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/be/Flag_of_England.svg/24px-Flag_of_England.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/be/Flag_of_England.svg/32px-Flag_of_England.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="480" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:England" title="Portal:England">England portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_England" title="Template:History of England"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_England" title="Template talk:History of England"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_England" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of England"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Government in Anglo-Saxon England</b> covers <a href="/wiki/English_government" class="mw-redirect" title="English government">English government</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Saxon period">Anglo-Saxon period</a> from the 5th century until the <a href="/wiki/Norman_Conquest" title="Norman Conquest">Norman Conquest</a> in 1066. See <a href="/wiki/Government_in_medieval_England" title="Government in medieval England">Government in medieval England</a> for developments after 1066. </p><p>Until the 9th century, England was divided into multiple <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_kingdoms" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Saxon kingdoms">Anglo-Saxon kingdoms</a>. Each kingdom had its own laws and customs, but all shared a common basis in the Germanic legal tradition. In the 9th century, the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Wessex" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Wessex">Kingdom of Wessex</a> absorbed the other kingdoms, creating the unified <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">Kingdom of England</a>. </p><p>The king's primary responsibilities were to defend his people, dispense justice, and maintain order. Kings had extensive powers to make laws, mint coins, levy taxes, raise armies, regulate trade, and conduct diplomacy. The <a href="/wiki/Witan" title="Witan">witan</a> or royal council advised the king, and the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Households_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Royal Households of the United Kingdom">royal household</a> provided the administrative machinery of government. </p><p>England was divided into ealdormanries led by <a href="/wiki/Ealdormen" class="mw-redirect" title="Ealdormen">ealdormen</a> (later <a href="/wiki/Earl" title="Earl">earls</a>) appointed by the king. An ealdormanry was divided into <a href="/wiki/Shire" title="Shire">shires</a>. The ealdorman enforced royal orders, presided over the <a href="/wiki/Shire_court" title="Shire court">shire court</a>, and led the local <a href="/wiki/Fyrd" title="Fyrd">fyrd</a> (army). A <a href="/wiki/Sheriff" title="Sheriff">sheriff</a> administered each shire as the ealdorman's deputy. Shires were divided into administrative units called <a href="/wiki/Hundred_(county_division)" title="Hundred (county division)">hundreds</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Before_unification">Before unification</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_in_Anglo-Saxon_England&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Before unification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anglo-Saxon_settlement_(300–500)"><span id="Anglo-Saxon_settlement_.28300.E2.80.93500.29"></span>Anglo-Saxon settlement (300–500)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_in_Anglo-Saxon_England&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Anglo-Saxon settlement (300–500)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain" title="Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain">Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain</a></div> <p>England was part of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> since the 1st century<span class="nowrap"> </span>CE. <a href="/wiki/Roman_Britain" title="Roman Britain">Roman Britain</a> was a <a href="/wiki/Civil_diocese" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil diocese">civil diocese</a> extending from the south coast up to <a href="/wiki/Hadrian%27s_Wall" title="Hadrian's Wall">Hadrian's Wall</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Antonine_Wall" title="Antonine Wall">Antonine Wall</a>. The diocese was divided into four or five <a href="/wiki/Roman_province" title="Roman province">provinces</a> and further divided into <a href="/wiki/Civitates" class="mw-redirect" title="Civitates">civitates</a> (a territorial unit roughly the size of a modern county and centered on a town).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaismith202120–21_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENaismith202120–21-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The period between 375 and 425 saw a "total collapse of <a href="/wiki/Romano-British" class="mw-redirect" title="Romano-British">Romano-British</a> civilisation".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaulkner2000175_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaulkner2000175-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Britain's security deteriorated as the <a href="/wiki/Late_Roman_army" title="Late Roman army">Roman army</a> was gradually withdrawn and redeployed to other parts of the Empire to defend against <a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">barbarian invasions</a>. After 402, no new <a href="/wiki/Roman_coins" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman coins">Roman coins</a> were issued in Britain, the military stopped being paid, and the military-based economic system collapsed. Most of the Roman army left Britain in 407 to join the revolt of <a href="/wiki/Constantine_III_(Western_Roman_emperor)" title="Constantine III (Western Roman emperor)">Constantine III</a>, and the Romano-Britons were forced to defend themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaulkner2000171–175_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaulkner2000171–175-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 409, the <a href="/wiki/Celtic_Britons" title="Celtic Britons">Britons</a> revolted and expelled the Roman authorities, marking the formal <a href="/wiki/End_of_Roman_rule_in_Britain" title="End of Roman rule in Britain">end of Roman rule</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorris202121–22_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorris202121–22-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After Roman rule, Britain experienced widespread anarchy, peasant revolt, and the rise of warlords, such as <a href="/wiki/Vortigern" title="Vortigern">Vortigern</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ambrosius_Aurelianus" title="Ambrosius Aurelianus">Ambrosius Aurelianus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaulkner2000178_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaulkner2000178-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Archaeological evidence for Anglo-Saxon-style jewellery is first found in sites dating to around 430.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHalsall2013104_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall2013104-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the 6th-century writer <a href="/wiki/Gildas" title="Gildas">Gildas</a>, the Britons hired the Saxons as <a href="/wiki/Foederati" title="Foederati">federate</a> soldiers, but the Saxons eventually seized power from the native Britons. According to <a href="/wiki/Bede" title="Bede">Bede</a>, writing <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 731</span>, the settlers came mainly from three <a href="/wiki/Germanic_tribes" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic tribes">Germanic tribes</a>: Saxons, <a href="/wiki/Angles_(tribe)" title="Angles (tribe)">Angles</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jutes" title="Jutes">Jutes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYorke19902–3_&_5_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYorke19902–3_&_5-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Eastern and southern Britain fragmented into small, independent political communities.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYorke199014_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYorke199014-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Based on archaeological evidence (such as burials and buildings), these early communities appear to have lacked any social elite. Around half the population were free, independent farmers (<a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a>: <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang"><a href="/wiki/Churl" title="Churl">ceorls</a></i></span>) who cultivated enough land to provide for a family (a unit called a <a href="/wiki/Hide_(unit)" title="Hide (unit)">hide</a>). <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Britain" title="Slavery in Britain">Slaves</a>, mostly Britons, made up the other half.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorris202149–50_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorris202149–50-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Origins_of_kingship_(500–600)"><span id="Origins_of_kingship_.28500.E2.80.93600.29"></span>Origins of kingship (500–600)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_in_Anglo-Saxon_England&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Origins of kingship (500–600)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By the end of the 6th century, the leaders of Anglo-Saxon political communities were calling themselves kings.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYorke199014_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYorke199014-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The development of kingdoms can partly be explained by the <a href="/wiki/Late_Antique_Little_Ice_Age" title="Late Antique Little Ice Age">Late Antique Little Ice Age</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Plague_of_Justinian" title="Plague of Justinian">Plague of Justinian</a>. These caused famine and other societal disruptions that may have increased violence and led previously independent farmers to submit to the rule of strong lords. The Old English word for <i>lord</i> is <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">hlaford</i></span> (<span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">loaf-guardian</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span> or <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">bread-giver</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorris202150–55_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorris202150–55-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Grander buildings and burial practices, such as the construction of <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_burial_mounds" title="Anglo-Saxon burial mounds">burial mounds</a>, also indicate the development of kingship and a social elite.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYorke19904_&_9_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYorke19904_&_9-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Germanic_kingship" title="Germanic kingship">Germanic kingship</a> provided a model for early Anglo-Saxon kings. Anglo-Saxons inherited the concept of <a href="/wiki/Sacred_kingship" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacred kingship">sacred kingship</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYorke199016_&_18_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYorke199016_&_18-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Old English word for king was <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">cyning</i></span> (<span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">son of the kin</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorris202153_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorris202153-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term implied the king was part of a "specially selected kindred, divinely called to rule over a people". Kingship was passed down through royal dynasties that all claimed descent from a deity, usually <a href="/wiki/Woden" class="mw-redirect" title="Woden">Woden</a>. After the <a href="/wiki/Christianisation_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon England">Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon England</a>, royal families linked their origins to <a href="/wiki/Biblical_genealogies" class="mw-redirect" title="Biblical genealogies">biblical genealogies</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1033199720">.mw-parser-output div.crossreference{padding-left:0}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><span role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable crossreference">(see <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_royal_genealogies" title="Anglo-Saxon royal genealogies">Anglo-Saxon royal genealogies</a>)</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoyn198413_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoyn198413-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A Germanic king's power was based on success as a warrior and the collection of land and tribute. A king employed a <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Comitatus_(warband)" title="Comitatus (warband)">comitatus</a></i></span> (armed <a href="/wiki/Retinue" title="Retinue">retinue</a>) who lived with him in his <a href="/wiki/Mead_hall" title="Mead hall">hall</a>. In addition to providing these warriors with a place to live and food, the king also gave his warriors gifts. Generosity was the mark of a good king.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYorke199016–17_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYorke199016–17-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Anglo-Saxon societies were based on <a href="/wiki/Germanic_law" title="Germanic law">Germanic law</a> and custom. Germanic tribes such as the <a href="/wiki/Ostrogoths" title="Ostrogoths">Ostrogoths</a>, <a href="/wiki/Visigoths" title="Visigoths">Visigoths</a>, <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Franks</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lombards" title="Lombards">Lombards</a> became <a href="/wiki/Romanization_(cultural)" title="Romanization (cultural)">Romanized</a> to varying degrees by the 5th century. Nevertheless, this was not true of the Anglo-Saxons, who originated from northern Germany and Denmark and had no direct contact with the Roman Empire. For this reason, <a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman law</a> only influenced Anglo-Saxon institutions after Christianisation began in the 7th century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon198012_&_15_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon198012_&_15-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nevertheless, Roman Britain did have an impact on the organisation of early Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. The kingdoms of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kent" title="Kingdom of Kent">Kent</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Lindsey" title="Kingdom of Lindsey">Lindsey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Deira" title="Deira">Deira</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bernicia" title="Bernicia">Bernicia</a> were based on old Roman <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Civitas" title="Civitas">civitas</a></i></span>. Royal administration centred on the <a href="/wiki/Royal_vill" title="Royal vill">royal vill</a> (<a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>: <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Roman_villa" title="Roman villa">villa</a></i></span>; Old English: <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">tun</i></span>), which was a residence surrounded by dependent settlements. The surrounding population delivered <a href="/wiki/Food_rent" class="mw-redirect" title="Food rent">food rent</a> to a royal vill, which would be consumed by the king and his comitatus when they visited on their regular travels through the kingdom.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYorke19908_&_14_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYorke19908_&_14-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_kingdoms_(600–871)"><span id="Early_kingdoms_.28600.E2.80.93871.29"></span>Early kingdoms (600–871)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_in_Anglo-Saxon_England&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Early kingdoms (600–871)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Britain_802.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Britain_802.jpg/220px-Britain_802.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="311" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Britain_802.jpg/330px-Britain_802.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Britain_802.jpg/440px-Britain_802.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1241" data-file-height="1755" /></a><figcaption>Anglo-Saxon kingdoms <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 802</span></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_kingdoms" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Saxon kingdoms">Anglo-Saxon kingdoms</a></div> <p>According to the <a href="/wiki/Tribal_Hidage" title="Tribal Hidage">Tribal Hidage</a>, possibly created in the time of <a href="/wiki/Wulfhere_of_Mercia" title="Wulfhere of Mercia">Wulfhere of Mercia</a> (<abbr>r.</abbr> 658–675), there were 35 people groups south of the <a href="/wiki/Humber" title="Humber">Humber</a>. Many had kings, such as <a href="/wiki/Wessex" title="Wessex">Wessex</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_East_Anglia" title="Kingdom of East Anglia">East Anglia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mercia" title="Mercia">Mercia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kent" title="Kingdom of Kent">Kent</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Magons%C3%A6te" title="Magonsæte">Magonsæte</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Lindsey" title="Kingdom of Lindsey">Lindsey</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Hwicce" title="Hwicce">Hwicce</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Essex" title="Kingdom of Essex">Essex</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sussex" title="Kingdom of Sussex">Sussex</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYorke199011_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYorke199011-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Consolidation through war and marriage meant that by the 9th century only four kingdoms remained: East Anglia, Mercia, <a href="/wiki/Northumbria" title="Northumbria">Northumbria</a>, and Wessex.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYorke2014276_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYorke2014276-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In his <i><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_History_of_the_English_People" title="Ecclesiastical History of the English People">Ecclesiastical History of the English People</a></i>, Bede lists seven kings who achieved <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Imperium" title="Imperium">imperium</a></i></span> or overlordship over England south of the Humber.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeynes201477_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeynes201477-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first four overlords were <a href="/wiki/%C3%86lle_of_Sussex" title="Ælle of Sussex">Ælle</a> of Sussex (late 5th century), <a href="/wiki/Ceawlin_of_Wessex" title="Ceawlin of Wessex">Ceawlin</a> of Wessex (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 560–592</span>), <a href="/wiki/%C3%86thelberht_of_Kent" title="Æthelberht of Kent">Æthelberht</a> of Kent (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 589–616</span>), and <a href="/wiki/R%C3%A6dwald_of_East_Anglia" title="Rædwald of East Anglia">Rædwald</a> of East Anglia (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 599–624</span>). Rædwald was followed by <a href="/wiki/Edwin_of_Northumbria" title="Edwin of Northumbria">Edwin</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 616–633</span>), <a href="/wiki/Oswald_of_Northumbria" title="Oswald of Northumbria">Oswald</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 633–642</span>), and <a href="/wiki/Oswiu" title="Oswiu">Oswiu</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 642–670</span>) of Northumbria.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYorke1990157_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYorke1990157-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The 8th century was a period of <a href="/wiki/Mercian_Supremacy" title="Mercian Supremacy">Mercian supremacy</a>, but Wessex surpassed Mercia in the 820s during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Ecgberht,_King_of_Wessex" title="Ecgberht, King of Wessex">Ecgberht</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon201615–16_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon201615–16-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_Chronicle" title="Anglo-Saxon Chronicle">Anglo-Saxon Chronicle</a></i> referred to Ecgberht as <i><a href="/wiki/Bretwalda" title="Bretwalda">bretwalda</a></i> (<span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">wide-ruler</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span> or <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">ruler of Britain</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>) and added his name to Bede's list of overlords.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeynes2014_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeynes2014-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historian <a href="/wiki/H._R._Loyn" title="H. R. Loyn">H. R. Loyn</a> remarked that "some hazy imperial ideas" were associated with the bretwaldaship, such as influence over the <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="Christianity in Anglo-Saxon England">English church</a>, military leadership against the native Britons, and receiving tribute.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoyn198425_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoyn198425-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historian <a href="/wiki/Barbara_Yorke" title="Barbara Yorke">Barbara Yorke</a> defines it as the collection of tribute from other kings.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYorke1990158_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYorke1990158-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Electing_and_deposing_kings">Electing and deposing kings</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_in_Anglo-Saxon_England&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Electing and deposing kings"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Succession did not follow strict <a href="/wiki/Primogeniture" title="Primogeniture">primogeniture</a>. When the throne became vacant, a kingdom's <a href="/wiki/Witan" title="Witan">witan</a> (secular and ecclesiastical "wise men") chose the new king from among eligible candidates of the ruling dynasty. A candidate's age, ability, popularity, and the wishes of the previous king were all factors that could influence the succession.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJolliffe196130–31_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJolliffe196130–31-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since a king was primarily a war leader, he needed to be able to lead an army. For this reason, infant sons could be bypassed in favor of the king's adult brothers. Some kings retired to <a href="/wiki/Monasteries" class="mw-redirect" title="Monasteries">monasteries</a> when they could no longer perform a military role.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon201611_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon201611-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Rites of royal <a href="/wiki/Consecration" class="mw-redirect" title="Consecration">consecration</a> developed slowly. In 787, <a href="/wiki/Ecgfrith_of_Mercia" title="Ecgfrith of Mercia">Ecgfrith</a> of Mercia became the first Anglo-Saxon king <a href="/wiki/Anointed" class="mw-redirect" title="Anointed">anointed</a> with <a href="/wiki/Chrism" title="Chrism">holy oil</a>, imitating <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_dynasty" title="Carolingian dynasty">Carolingian</a> and biblical precedents.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoyn198422_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoyn198422-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Witans could formally depose kings. <a href="/wiki/Cynewulf_of_Wessex" title="Cynewulf of Wessex">Cynewulf</a> and the West-Saxon witan deposed King <a href="/wiki/Sigeberht_of_Wessex" title="Sigeberht of Wessex">Sigeberht</a> in 757. Councils formally deposed several Northumbrian kings. In 774, King <a href="/wiki/Alhred_of_Northumbria" title="Alhred of Northumbria">Alhred</a> was deposed and replaced by <a href="/wiki/%C3%86thelred_I_of_Northumbria" title="Æthelred I of Northumbria">Æthelred I</a>, who was himself ousted in 779. Æthelred was restored as king in 790 and reigned until his murder in 796.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoyn198418–19_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoyn198418–19-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Christian_kingship">Christian kingship</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_in_Anglo-Saxon_England&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Christian kingship"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Kings played a crucial part in converting their kingdoms to Christianity. Afterward, kings continued to be involved in church affairs. Kings summoned and presided over <a href="/wiki/Synod" title="Synod">synods</a>, such as the 664 <a href="/wiki/Synod_of_Whitby" title="Synod of Whitby">Synod of Whitby</a>, where <a href="/wiki/Oswiu" title="Oswiu">Oswiu</a> of Northumbria decided that his kingdom would follow the Roman <a href="/wiki/Date_of_Easter" title="Date of Easter">date of Easter</a> instead of the Celtic date. Christianisation resulted in the production of written law codes, the earliest being Kent's <a href="/wiki/Law_of_%C3%86thelberht" title="Law of Æthelberht">Law of Æthelberht</a>. These early laws attempted to preserve the peace and prevent <a href="/wiki/Blood_feuds" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood feuds">blood feuds</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033199720"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><span role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable crossreference">(see <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_law" title="Anglo-Saxon law">Anglo-Saxon law</a>)</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon201611–13_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon201611–13-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The church itself operated according to <a href="/wiki/Jus_antiquum" title="Jus antiquum">canon law</a>, a legal system based on Roman <a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">civil law</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon198015_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon198015-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A king had the power to make law and give legal judgment with the advice of his witan. He presided in person as judge of the royal court, which could sentence freemen to death, enslavement, or impose financial penalties.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoyn198442–44_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoyn198442–44-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some instances, the witan could overturn royal decisions. In 840, for example, the Mercian witan ruled that King <a href="/wiki/Berhtwulf" class="mw-redirect" title="Berhtwulf">Berhtwulf</a> had unjustly confiscated land from <a href="/wiki/Heahbeorht" title="Heahbeorht">Heahbeorht, bishop of Worcester</a>. The bishop regained his land, and Berhtwulf gave gifts to the church as compensation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJolliffe196127_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJolliffe196127-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Local_administration">Local administration</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_in_Anglo-Saxon_England&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Local administration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the 7th and 8th centuries, kingdoms were divided into administrative units called <a href="/wiki/Regiones" title="Regiones">regiones</a>, which were themselves divided into groups of royal vills.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYorke19908_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYorke19908-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Administrative divisions had different names, such as the <a href="/wiki/Shire" title="Shire">shire</a> in Wessex, <a href="/wiki/Lathe_(county_subdivision)" title="Lathe (county subdivision)">lathe</a> in Kent, or <a href="/wiki/Rape_(county_subdivision)" title="Rape (county subdivision)">rape</a> in Sussex.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJolliffe196136_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJolliffe196136-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 8th century, the term <i><a href="/wiki/Ealdorman" title="Ealdorman">ealdorman</a></i> first appeared in the <i>Anglo-Saxon Chronicle</i>. In Wessex, these were royal officials tasked with leading the army and administering justice in a shire. In return, an ealdorman received part of the judicial fines owed to the king. He also may have been granted land for his service.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon201614_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon201614-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sometimes, ealdormen were former kings reduced to sub-king status; such was the case in Mercia's absorption of the <a href="/wiki/Hwicce" title="Hwicce">Hwicce</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoyn198427_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoyn198427-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>All free men had the right to bear arms and a duty to defend the kingdom through service in the <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang"><a href="/wiki/Fyrd" title="Fyrd">fyrd</a></i></span> (army). The army's core was the king's <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">comitatus</i></span>. Fyrd service was one of the obligations known as the <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Trinoda_necessitas" title="Trinoda necessitas">trinoda necessitas</a></i></span> ("three necessities"). The other two were equally related to military preparedness: the repair of <a href="/wiki/Burh" title="Burh">burhs</a> (fortifications) and the repair of bridges (essential for communications).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoyn198431–33_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoyn198431–33-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alfred_the_Great_(871–899)"><span id="Alfred_the_Great_.28871.E2.80.93899.29"></span>Alfred the Great (871–899)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_in_Anglo-Saxon_England&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Alfred the Great (871–899)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:England_878.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/England_878.svg/220px-England_878.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="274" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/England_878.svg/330px-England_878.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/England_878.svg/440px-England_878.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="988" data-file-height="1229" /></a><figcaption>England in 878 at the time of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Wedmore" title="Treaty of Wedmore">Treaty of Wedmore</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In the 850s, England faced a formidable threat as <a href="/wiki/Viking" class="mw-redirect" title="Viking">Viking</a> invaders, led by their <a href="/wiki/Great_Heathen_Army" title="Great Heathen Army">Great Heathen Army</a>, conquered most Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. However, under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Alfred_the_Great" title="Alfred the Great">Alfred the Great</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 871–899</span>), Wessex successfully resisted the invaders. In 886, the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Alfred_and_Guthrum" title="Treaty of Alfred and Guthrum">Treaty of Alfred and Guthrum</a> defined the boundaries of the <a href="/wiki/Danelaw" title="Danelaw">Danelaw</a>, and Alfred received the submission of all the English, including London, not under the Danelaw.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoyn198462_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoyn198462-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In response to the Viking invasions, royal government in Wessex became more sophisticated and effective.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon201619_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon201619-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alfred built over 30 <a href="/wiki/Burh" title="Burh">burhs</a> (fortifications), some of which became permanent towns.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoyn198471_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoyn198471-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each burh was allocated several hides for its maintenance and support, as illustrated in the <a href="/wiki/Burghal_Hidage" title="Burghal Hidage">Burghal Hidage</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon201620_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon201620-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Under Alfred, there were always nine or ten ealdormen. Each West Saxon shire had one ealdorman, while East and West Kent had two. The ealdormen were entrusted with crucial responsibilities, including the management of the army, fortifications, and tax collection in their respective shires. The king granted them estates and special privileges, such as the "third penny" (a third of the <a href="/wiki/Shire_court" title="Shire court">shire court</a>'s judicial profits). The royal <a href="/wiki/Reeve_(England)" title="Reeve (England)">reeves</a> (Latin: <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/praepositus" class="extiw" title="wikt:praepositus">praepositi</a></i></span>) supervised royal estates and were responsible for administering finances and manpower.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoyn198474–75_&_77_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoyn198474–75_&_77-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Alfred's heirs continued the work of reconquest. By 955, the newly forged <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">Kingdom of England</a> encompassed Mercia, the Danelaw, and Northumbria. The kingdom's boundaries ran north to the <a href="/wiki/Firth_of_Forth" title="Firth of Forth">Firth of Forth</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon198031_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon198031-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Royal_government">Royal government</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_in_Anglo-Saxon_England&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Royal government"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kingship">Kingship</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_in_Anglo-Saxon_England&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Kingship"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:EdwardConfesor.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/EdwardConfesor.jpg/220px-EdwardConfesor.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/EdwardConfesor.jpg/330px-EdwardConfesor.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/39/EdwardConfesor.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="392" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Great_Seal_of_the_Realm" title="Great Seal of the Realm">Seal</a> of Edward the Confessor</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_English_monarchy" title="History of the English monarchy">History of the English monarchy</a></div> <p>The king was answerable to God alone; however, a good king surrounded himself with wise counselors and listened to their advice. The king's inner circle (his family and royal household) helped him to govern.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarlow1997162_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarlow1997162-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kings usually legislated in consultation with a witan (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033199720"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><span role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable crossreference selfref">see <a href="#Witan">below</a></span>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon198047_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon198047-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The king's primary responsibility was to protect his people and lead them during wartime. His job was maintaining law, order, and the economy within his kingdom.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarlow1997162_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarlow1997162-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kings had extensive powers to make laws, mint coins, levy taxes, raise armies, regulate trade, and conduct diplomacy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuscroft201619_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuscroft201619-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The king appointed and removed all royal officers as he saw fit. He had the right to construct bridges and burhs. He was also responsible for the safety of foreigners, a responsibility codified in treaties concerning merchants and diplomats.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon198044_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon198044-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>"The king was the focus of justice within his realm, dealing with hard cases, failures of justice, and problematic judges."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHudson201217_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHudson201217-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Hundred_(county_division)" title="Hundred (county division)">Hundred</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shire_court" title="Shire court">shire courts</a> handled most judicial matters, but all freemen had the right to appeal to the king and his witan. By the 10th century, certain offenses were considered "pleas of the king".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoyn1984126_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoyn1984126-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There were two kinds of king's pleas: cases in which the king was a party and cases involving severe crimes reserved to the king's jurisdiction. These cases could only be tried in the presence of royal officials in the shire court.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWarren198743_&_49_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWarren198743_&_49-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Law_codes_of_Cnut" title="Law codes of Cnut">laws of Cnut</a> defined king's pleas as:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoyn1984127_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoyn1984127-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon201622_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon201622-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>violation of the royal protection (<a href="/wiki/Mund_(law)" title="Mund (law)">mund</a>)</li> <li>murder</li> <li>treason</li> <li>arson</li> <li>attacks on houses</li> <li>persistent robbery</li> <li>counterfeiting</li> <li>assault</li> <li>harbouring fugitives</li> <li>neglect of military service</li> <li>fighting</li> <li>rape</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Succession">Succession</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_in_Anglo-Saxon_England&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Succession"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>From 899 to 1016, a direct descendant of Alfred the Great of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Wessex" title="House of Wessex">House of Wessex</a> sat on the English throne. From 1016 to 1042, the Danish <a href="/wiki/House_of_Kn%C3%BDtlinga" title="House of Knýtlinga">House of Knýtlinga</a> possessed the throne. <a href="/wiki/Edward_the_Confessor" title="Edward the Confessor">Edward the Confessor</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1042–1066</span>) briefly restored the House of Wessex to power. However, he was succeeded in 1066 by <a href="/wiki/Harold_Godwinson" title="Harold Godwinson">Harold Godwinson</a> and then <a href="/wiki/William_the_Conqueror" title="William the Conqueror">William the Conqueror</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1066–1087</span>), whose Conquest of England marked the end of the Anglo-Saxon era.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoyn198481_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoyn198481-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Theoretically, an element of election was inherent in kingship. Abbot <a href="/wiki/%C3%86lfric_of_Eynsham" title="Ælfric of Eynsham">Ælfric of Eynsham</a> expressed this theory in a sermon:<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>No man can make himself king, but the people has the choice to select as king whom they please; but after he is consecrated as king, he then has dominion over the people, and they cannot shake his <a href="/wiki/Yoke#Symbolism" title="Yoke">yoke</a> from their necks.</p></blockquote> <p>In reality, the witan rarely elected kings (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033199720"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><span role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable crossreference selfref">see <a href="#Witan">§ Witan</a>, below</span>). A king normally designated a successor during his lifetime, and the witan ratified this decision. If there was no apparent heir, the witan chose the most capable member of the ruling dynasty.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon198050_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon198050-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Initially, candidates for kingship had to descend from <a href="/wiki/Cerdic_of_Wessex" title="Cerdic of Wessex">Cerdic</a>, the first West Saxon king.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoyn198484_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoyn198484-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the 10th century, only sons of kings were considered eligible for kingship and the title of <i><a href="/wiki/%C3%86theling" title="Ætheling">ætheling</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon201618_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon201618-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Beyond this, there were no strict rules for determining the next king.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoyn198490_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoyn198490-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sons usually succeeded their fathers, but older relatives could take precedence over young sons. <a href="/wiki/Edmund_I" title="Edmund I">Edmund I</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 939–946</span>) was succeeded by his brother <a href="/wiki/Eadred" title="Eadred">Eadred</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 946–955</span>) because his sons were too young. Edmund's son <a href="/wiki/Eadwig" title="Eadwig">Eadwig</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 955–959</span>) became king upon the death of his childless uncle.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoyn198490_&_92_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoyn198490_&_92-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The absence of well defined rules led to conflict whenever a king died. <a href="/wiki/%C3%86thelwold_%C3%A6theling" title="Æthelwold ætheling">Æthelwold</a>, son of <a href="/wiki/%C3%86thelred_I_of_Wessex" title="Æthelred I of Wessex">Æthelred I</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 865–871</span>) and Alfred's nephew, challenged <a href="/wiki/Edward_the_Elder" title="Edward the Elder">Edward the Elder</a>'s (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 899–924</span>) claim to the throne and allied with the Danes against Edward. Edward's death also sparked a succession crisis, as did the demise of his grandson, <a href="/wiki/Edgar,_King_of_England" title="Edgar, King of England">Edgar</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 959–975</span>). Disputes arose when kings had sons by different wives or when <a href="/wiki/Legitimacy_(family_law)" title="Legitimacy (family law)">illegitimate</a> sons vied for the throne.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon201617–18_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon201617–18-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/%C3%86lfthryth_(wife_of_Edgar)" title="Ælfthryth (wife of Edgar)">Ælfthryth</a>, Edgar's second wife, is believed to have assassinated <a href="/wiki/Edward_the_Martyr" title="Edward the Martyr">Edward the Martyr</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 975–978</span>) to pave the way for her son, <a href="/wiki/%C3%86thelred_the_Unready" title="Æthelred the Unready">Æthelred the Unready</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 978–1016</span>), to become king.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon198031_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon198031-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Coronation">Coronation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_in_Anglo-Saxon_England&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Coronation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As part of the coronation ritual, kings swore a three-part oath:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHudson201219_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHudson201219-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Firstly, that the Church of God and all Christian people keep true peace, by my command. Secondly, I forbid robbery and all unrighteous deeds by all ranks. Thirdly, I promise and order justice and mercy in all judgments, so that compassionate and merciful God, who lives and reigns, may forgive us all through his own mercy.</p></blockquote> <p>This oath, known as the <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">promissio regis</i></span>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon198040_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon198040-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was the foundation for subsequent <a href="/wiki/Coronation_charter" class="mw-redirect" title="Coronation charter">coronation charters</a> and, ultimately, <a href="/wiki/Magna_Carta" title="Magna Carta">Magna Carta</a>. Following these promises, kings were anointed with <a href="/wiki/Chrism" title="Chrism">holy oil</a>. Similar to priests, anointing bestowed upon kings a sacred status. An anointed king could not be lawfully deposed; thus, a poor ruler was seen as God's retribution for the kingdom's sins.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoyn198485–86_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoyn198485–86-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 10th century, coronations typically took place at <a href="/wiki/Coronation_Stone,_Kingston_upon_Thames" title="Coronation Stone, Kingston upon Thames">Kingston upon Thames</a>. Edward the Confessor was crowned at Winchester. In 1066, Harold Godwinson was crowned at the newly consecrated <a href="/wiki/Westminster_Abbey" title="Westminster Abbey">Westminster Abbey</a>, which remained the customary place of coronation for future kings.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoyn198492_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoyn198492-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Royal_household">Royal household</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_in_Anglo-Saxon_England&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Royal household"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Royal_Households_of_the_United_Kingdom#Anglo-Saxon_period_(871–1066)" title="Royal Households of the United Kingdom">Royal Households of the United Kingdom § Anglo-Saxon period (871–1066)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:S_416_Diploma_of_King_%C3%86thelstan_for_Wulfgar_AD_931,_written_by_%C3%86thelstan_A.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/S_416_Diploma_of_King_%C3%86thelstan_for_Wulfgar_AD_931%2C_written_by_%C3%86thelstan_A.tif/lossless-page1-220px-S_416_Diploma_of_King_%C3%86thelstan_for_Wulfgar_AD_931%2C_written_by_%C3%86thelstan_A.tif.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/S_416_Diploma_of_King_%C3%86thelstan_for_Wulfgar_AD_931%2C_written_by_%C3%86thelstan_A.tif/lossless-page1-330px-S_416_Diploma_of_King_%C3%86thelstan_for_Wulfgar_AD_931%2C_written_by_%C3%86thelstan_A.tif.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/S_416_Diploma_of_King_%C3%86thelstan_for_Wulfgar_AD_931%2C_written_by_%C3%86thelstan_A.tif/lossless-page1-440px-S_416_Diploma_of_King_%C3%86thelstan_for_Wulfgar_AD_931%2C_written_by_%C3%86thelstan_A.tif.png 2x" data-file-width="4200" data-file-height="2507" /></a><figcaption>Charter of King Æthelstan written by the royal scribe known as <a href="/wiki/%C3%86thelstan_A" title="Æthelstan A">Æthelstan A</a> in 931</figcaption></figure> <p>The royal household included the royal family, <a href="/wiki/Royal_favourite" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal favourite">royal favourites</a>, military personnel, priests, clerks, and domestic servants.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuscroft201626_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuscroft201626-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ealdormen and <a href="/wiki/Thegn" title="Thegn">thegns</a> served regularly at court.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoyn198497_&_100_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoyn198497_&_100-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thegns who served in the royal household were called "king's thegns" and enjoyed higher status than regular thegns.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon198052_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon198052-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These were also called <a href="/wiki/Staller_(title)" title="Staller (title)">stallers</a>, a Danish title that probably meant "place-holder".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarlow1997164–165_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarlow1997164–165-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most noble household members served in rotation. However, a core remained in virtually constant attendance.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoyn198497_&_100_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoyn198497_&_100-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While <a href="/wiki/Winchester" title="Winchester">Winchester</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_London" title="Anglo-Saxon London">London</a> were major cities, England had no fixed capital. The king's household and <a href="/wiki/Itinerant_court" title="Itinerant court">court were itinerant</a>, with kings constantly traversing southern England (where most royal estates were located) and occasionally venturing north. This mobile court formed the hub of Anglo-Saxon government and performed its executive functions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoyn198495–96_&_100_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoyn198495–96_&_100-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kings delegated public duties to household officers, effectively making them state officers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon198052_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon198052-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among these officers, <a href="/wiki/Chamberlain_(office)" title="Chamberlain (office)">chamberlains</a> and royal priests played pivotal roles in royal administration.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon198054_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon198054-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Edward_the_Confessor_sealed_writ.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Edward_the_Confessor_sealed_writ.jpg/220px-Edward_the_Confessor_sealed_writ.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Edward_the_Confessor_sealed_writ.jpg/330px-Edward_the_Confessor_sealed_writ.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Edward_the_Confessor_sealed_writ.jpg/440px-Edward_the_Confessor_sealed_writ.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1720" data-file-height="1340" /></a><figcaption>A sealed writ of Edward the Confessor</figcaption></figure> <p>There were always two or three chamberlains at a time. They were responsible for the royal bedchamber and the king's <a href="/wiki/Wardrobe_(government)" title="Wardrobe (government)">wardrobe</a> or dressing room. The wardrobe was also where kings stored their valuables, such as money. As a result, the chamber and wardrobe functioned as the government's finance department. The chamber received all royal revenue, including taxation, fines, and income from other sources. The chamber then paid this money out for expenses. Kings stored their treasure in multiple places for convenience. By the time of Edward the Confessor, Winchester was a permanent treasury location.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon198054_72-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon198054-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The priests in the <a href="/wiki/Royal_chapel" title="Royal chapel">royal chapel</a> provided for the household's spiritual needs. Within the chapel was a <a href="/wiki/Scriptorium" title="Scriptorium">scriptorium</a> or writing office dedicated to producing <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_charters" title="Anglo-Saxon charters">charters</a>, <a href="/wiki/Writ" title="Writ">writs</a>, royal letters, and other official documents.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoyn1984106_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoyn1984106-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Charters or "landbooks" were written in Latin and recorded royal grants of <a href="/wiki/Bookland_(law)" title="Bookland (law)">bookland</a> to the church or individuals. A writ was a brief letter from the king with instructions to an official authenticated with a <a href="/wiki/Seal_(emblem)" title="Seal (emblem)">seal</a> hanging from the document like a pendant. It was more efficient than a traditional charter.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon19804–5_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon19804–5-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the reign of Edward the Confessor, the writing office had custody of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Seal_of_the_Realm" title="Great Seal of the Realm">great seal</a> used to authenticate writs. Service in the royal chapel could be a stepping stone towards becoming a bishop.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoyn1984110_&_117_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoyn1984110_&_117-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Priests and clerks of the royal household probably had noble backgrounds.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarlow1997166_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarlow1997166-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Witan">Witan</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_in_Anglo-Saxon_England&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Witan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Witan" title="Witan">Witan</a></div> <p>Kings had to depend on the great men of the realm to maintain authority—ealdormen, thegns, bishops, and <a href="/wiki/Abbot" title="Abbot">abbots</a>. Nevertheless, kings could not monitor all of these officials, even with an itinerant court. It was much easier to summon the great men to royal councils—meetings of the witan or "wise men".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoyn1984100–101_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoyn1984100–101-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to historian <a href="/wiki/Bryce_Lyon" title="Bryce Lyon">Bryce Lyon</a>, the witan "was an <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/amoebic" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:amoebic">amoebic</a> sort of organization with no definite composition or function".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon198045_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon198045-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term referred to large gatherings of nobles and small councils of advisers in the royal household.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon198045–46_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon198045–46-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When English kings claimed overlordship over their Welsh neighbors, the <a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_in_Wales" title="List of rulers in Wales">Welsh kings</a> might also be in attendance. High-ranking churchmen were influential, but not all witans included churchmen.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoyn1984102_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoyn1984102-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Whenever the king asked a large or small group of nobles to advise him and to witness or consent to a royal action, that assembly was a witan.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon198046_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon198046-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Witans deliberated on a wide variety of business, including financial and judicial. Discussion occurred in the English language. A person refusing to appear before a witan was liable to heavy fines and even outlawry.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoyn1984105_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoyn1984105-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A witan could meet anywhere at any time. London and Winchester were common locations. Christmas, Lent, and Easter were favorite times because many nobles were at the royal court.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon198046_81-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon198046-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The king consulted a witan on significant matters. For example, the king and his advisers drafted laws and submitted them to large witans for consultation and consent. In the words of Lyon, kings "seemed to feel that to consult with men from all parts of the kingdom produced a wider sampling of opinion and gave the law more solid support".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon198046–47_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon198046–47-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Witans took part in both secular and ecclesiastical legislation. Church law, however, was drafted by the clergy, with <a href="/wiki/Catholic_laity" title="Catholic laity">lay</a> nobles merely giving consent. Witans only consented to extraordinary taxation that would burden the nobility. For example, the witan consented to the <a href="/wiki/Danegeld" title="Danegeld">Danegeld</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon198047–48_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon198047–48-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Witans discussed decisions related to war, peace, and treaties.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon198048_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon198048-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The declaration of a royal <a href="/wiki/Will_and_testament" title="Will and testament">will</a> occurred at witans. The witan consented to and witnessed the granting of <a href="/wiki/Bookland_(law)" title="Bookland (law)">bookland</a> by charter. When a king died, the witan nominally elected a new king <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033199720"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><span role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable crossreference selfref">(see <a href="#Succession">§ Succession</a>, above)</span>. When a king gained power by conquest, he was careful to gain the witan's assent.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoyn1984101–102_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoyn1984101–102-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Finances">Finances</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_in_Anglo-Saxon_England&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Finances"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Coinage">Coinage</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_in_Anglo-Saxon_England&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Coinage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Silver_penny_of_Aethelred_II_(YORYM_2000_632)_obverse.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Silver_penny_of_Aethelred_II_%28YORYM_2000_632%29_obverse.jpg/220px-Silver_penny_of_Aethelred_II_%28YORYM_2000_632%29_obverse.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="223" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Silver_penny_of_Aethelred_II_%28YORYM_2000_632%29_obverse.jpg/330px-Silver_penny_of_Aethelred_II_%28YORYM_2000_632%29_obverse.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Silver_penny_of_Aethelred_II_%28YORYM_2000_632%29_obverse.jpg/440px-Silver_penny_of_Aethelred_II_%28YORYM_2000_632%29_obverse.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1140" data-file-height="1154" /></a><figcaption>Silver penny of Æthelred the Unready <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 997</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1003</span></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Coinage_in_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="Coinage in Anglo-Saxon England">Coinage in Anglo-Saxon England</a></div> <p>The English coinage was the best in Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoyn1984122_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoyn1984122-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike France or Germany where lords and bishops minted their own coins, only the king issued coins, and foreign coins were banned.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarlow1997181_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarlow1997181-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Æthelstan ordered every burh to have a mint.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoyn1984122_87-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoyn1984122-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There were 70 mints in the time of Edward the Confessor.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon201620_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon201620-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The government kept tight control over the quality and design of the coinage. <a href="/wiki/Moneyer" title="Moneyer">Moneyers</a> were required to use official <a href="/wiki/Coin_die" class="mw-redirect" title="Coin die">coin dies</a> and faced strict penalties for producing counterfeit money.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoyn1984124–125_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoyn1984124–125-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The dies were cut in London and then distributed to the local mints.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarlow1997181_88-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarlow1997181-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Shilling" title="Shilling">Shillings</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pound_sterling" title="Pound sterling">pounds</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mark_(currency)" title="Mark (currency)">marks</a> were units of account, but the silver <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_English_penny_(c._600_%E2%80%93_1066)" title="History of the English penny (c. 600 – 1066)">penny</a> was the only coin in circulation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuscroft2016"A_Note_on_Money"_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuscroft2016"A_Note_on_Money"-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The penny's purchasing power was similar to that of a <a href="/wiki/Half_sovereign" title="Half sovereign">half sovereign</a> before <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarlow1997183_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarlow1997183-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Royal_lands_and_taxation">Royal lands and taxation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_in_Anglo-Saxon_England&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Royal lands and taxation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The king was the largest landowner having inherited a landed estate from his predecessors called the royal demesne (later called the <a href="/wiki/Crown_Estate" title="Crown Estate">Crown Estate</a>). The demesne generated income through <a href="/wiki/Food_render" title="Food render">food render</a> or money rent paid by <a href="/wiki/Tenant_farmer" title="Tenant farmer">tenants</a>. The royal demesne was divided into individual estates or <a href="/wiki/Manorialism" title="Manorialism">manors</a>. Some manors were dedicated to providing agricultural produce for the king's household. Other manors were leased to <a href="/wiki/Speculator" class="mw-redirect" title="Speculator">speculators</a> in return for money rent. Royal manors were administered for the king by <a href="/wiki/Reeve_(England)" title="Reeve (England)">reeves</a>. The sheriff "<a href="/wiki/Farm_(revenue_leasing)" title="Farm (revenue leasing)">farmed</a>" the royal revenues from his county, paid a fixed amount to the royal treasury, and kept the rest for himself.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon198044_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon198044-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarlow1997144,_151_&_186_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarlow1997144,_151_&_186-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Kings levied <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/article" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:article">geld</a>, a land tax based on hidage. There were different kinds of geld. After Viking attacks resumed in the 980s, English kings used <a href="/wiki/Danegeld" title="Danegeld">Danegeld</a> to fund tribute payments until England's conquest by Danish prince <a href="/wiki/Cnut" title="Cnut">Cnut the Great</a>. The heregeld paid soldiers and sailors. The heregeld was abolished in 1049 by Edward the Confessor, who placed responsibility for naval defense on the <a href="/wiki/Cinque_Ports" title="Cinque Ports">Cinque Ports</a> in return for special privileges. Geld continued to be levied annually at a regular rate of 2 shillings per hide for the rest of the Anglo-Saxon period.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoyn1984119–121_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoyn1984119–121-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The king could exempt or grant to others the following rights:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon198044_49-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon198044-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Collection of the <a href="/wiki/Heriot" title="Heriot">heriot</a> (inheritance tax)</li> <li>Collection of tolls and dues at markets, ports, roads, and waterways</li> <li>Right to <a href="/wiki/Treasure_trove" title="Treasure trove">treasure troves</a> and to salvage shipwrecks</li> <li>Royal monopoly on mines and saltworks</li> <li>Fines paid in criminal and civil cases and for <a href="/wiki/Breach_of_the_peace" title="Breach of the peace">breach of the peace</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Local_government">Local government</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_in_Anglo-Saxon_England&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Local government"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_law" title="Anglo-Saxon law">Anglo-Saxon law</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ealdormanries_and_earldoms">Ealdormanries and earldoms</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_in_Anglo-Saxon_England&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Ealdormanries and earldoms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Earldoms_of_Anglo-Saxon_England.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Earldoms_of_Anglo-Saxon_England.svg/220px-Earldoms_of_Anglo-Saxon_England.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="263" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Earldoms_of_Anglo-Saxon_England.svg/330px-Earldoms_of_Anglo-Saxon_England.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Earldoms_of_Anglo-Saxon_England.svg/440px-Earldoms_of_Anglo-Saxon_England.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="398" data-file-height="475" /></a><figcaption>Earldoms of Anglo-Saxon England</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Ealdorman" title="Ealdorman">ealdorman</a> was an official appointed by the king to administer a <a href="/wiki/Shire" title="Shire">shire</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen2017103_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen2017103-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and he could be removed at the will of the king. The ealdorman commanded the shire's <a href="/wiki/Fyrd" title="Fyrd">fyrd</a> (army), co-presided with the <a href="/wiki/Bishop" title="Bishop">bishop</a> over the <a href="/wiki/Shire_court" title="Shire court">shire court</a>, and enforced royal orders. He had a right to the "third penny": one-third of the income from the shire court and one-third of the revenue from tolls and dues levied in the boroughs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPowellWallis19686_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPowellWallis19686-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon198062–63_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon198062–63-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Originally, the ealdorman governed a single shire. Starting with Edward the Elder, it became customary for one ealdorman to administer three or four shires together as an ealdormanry.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon198062–63_98-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon198062–63-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 965, there were only two or three ealdormen in Wessex, four or five in Mercia, and one in Northumbria.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoyn198477_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoyn198477-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The boundaries of the ealdormanries are unknown, and they may not have covered the entire kingdom. It is possible that the king kept some areas under his personal jurisdiction.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPowellWallis19686_97-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPowellWallis19686-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During Cnut's reign, the ealdorman's name was changed to <a href="/wiki/Earl" title="Earl">earl</a> (related to Old English <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">eorl</i></span> and Scandinavian <span title="Old Norse-language text"><i lang="non"><a href="/wiki/Jarl" title="Jarl">jarl</a></i></span>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPowellWallis19686_97-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPowellWallis19686-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon198063_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon198063-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cnut's realm, the <a href="/wiki/North_Sea_Empire" title="North Sea Empire">North Sea Empire</a>, extended beyond England, and he was forced to delegate <a href="/wiki/Viceregal" class="mw-redirect" title="Viceregal">viceregal</a> power to his earls.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoyn1984133_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoyn1984133-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cnut kept Wessex for himself and divided the rest of England into three earldoms: <a href="/wiki/Earl_of_East_Anglia" title="Earl of East Anglia">East Anglia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Earl_of_Mercia" title="Earl of Mercia">Mercia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Earl_of_Northumbria" title="Earl of Northumbria">Northumbria</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPowellWallis19687_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPowellWallis19687-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later, the <a href="/wiki/Earl_of_Wessex" title="Earl of Wessex">earldom of Wessex</a> was granted to <a href="/wiki/Godwin,_Earl_of_Wessex" title="Godwin, Earl of Wessex">Godwin</a>. These four earldoms remained the principal ones through the reign of Edward the Confessor.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuscroft201628_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuscroft201628-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the reign of Edward the Confessor, the earls were still royal officers governing their earldoms in the king's name. However, they were developing more autonomy and becoming a threat to royal power.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen2017168_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen2017168-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon198063_100-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon198063-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Three great aristocratic families emerged: the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Godwin" title="House of Godwin">Godwins</a> of Wessex, <a href="/wiki/Leofric_of_Mercia" class="mw-redirect" title="Leofric of Mercia">Leofric of Mercia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Siward_of_Northumbria" class="mw-redirect" title="Siward of Northumbria">Siward of Northumbria</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoyn1984133_101-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoyn1984133-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earldoms of Wessex and Mercia were hereditary by this time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen2017168_104-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen2017168-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, Edward deliberately broke the hereditary succession to Northumbria when Earl Siward died in 1055. He ignored the claims of Siward's son <a href="/wiki/Waltheof,_Earl_of_Northumbria" title="Waltheof, Earl of Northumbria">Waltheof</a> and appointed <a href="/wiki/Tostig_Godwinson" title="Tostig Godwinson">Tostig</a> as earl.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPowellWallis19687_102-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPowellWallis19687-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earldom of East Anglia appears to have been used as a training ground for new earls.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen2017168_104-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen2017168-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Shires">Shires</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_in_Anglo-Saxon_England&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Shires"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Shire" title="Shire">Shire</a></div> <p>As the ealdorman's jurisdiction expanded, he delegated more responsibility to his <a href="/wiki/Reeve_(England)" title="Reeve (England)">reeves</a>. The office of <a href="/wiki/Sheriff" title="Sheriff">sheriff</a> or "shire reeve" developed by the middle of the 10th century. By 1066, the sheriff was in charge of local government. He was the shire's chief military, financial, and judicial officer. The king relied on him to supervise royal estates and collect taxes and other revenue. He presided over the <a href="/wiki/Shire_court" title="Shire court">shire court</a>, publicized royal pronouncements, enforced royal commands, and pursued criminals. Deputy reeves assisted him. The king appointed and dismissed sheriffs as he pleased.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon198063–65_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon198063–65-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The shire court met twice a year around Easter and <a href="/wiki/Michaelmas" title="Michaelmas">Michaelmas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoyn1984139_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoyn1984139-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was an administrative and judicial body with jurisdiction over criminal, civil, and ecclesiastical cases.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon198066_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon198066-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The sheriff (or sometimes the earl)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuscroft201636_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuscroft201636-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the bishop presided, but there was no judge in the modern sense (<a href="/wiki/Royal_justice" title="Royal justice">royal justices</a> would not sit in shire courts until the reign of <a href="/wiki/Henry_I_of_England" title="Henry I of England">Henry I</a>). The local aristocracy controlled the court. The suitors of the court (bishops, earls, and thegns) declared the law and decided what proof of innocence or guilt to accept (such as <a href="/wiki/Trial_by_ordeal" title="Trial by ordeal">ordeal</a> or <a href="/wiki/Compurgation" title="Compurgation">compurgation</a>). The shire court handled administrative business, such as arrangements for collecting geld.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoyn1984138–139_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoyn1984138–139-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon198066_107-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon198066-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hundreds_and_boroughs">Hundreds and boroughs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_in_Anglo-Saxon_England&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Hundreds and boroughs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Sometime in the 10th century, kings divided shires into <a href="/wiki/Hundred_(county_division)" title="Hundred (county division)">hundreds</a> or wapentakes. Initially, the hundred was an administrative district comprising a hundred hides headquartered at a <a href="/wiki/Royal_vill" title="Royal vill">royal vill</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon198067_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon198067-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The hundred court met once a month. It handled routine judicial business, civil as well as criminal. It had jurisdiction over land ownership, <a href="/wiki/Tort" title="Tort">tort</a>, and ecclesiastical cases. People could appeal their cases to the shire court or to the king.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoyn1984143_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoyn1984143-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The sheriff presided two or three times a year, and a subordinate <a href="/wiki/Reeve_(England)" title="Reeve (England)">reeve</a> presided at other times. Any landowning freeman could attend the hundred court. However, thegns controlled the court. As suitors to the court, the thegns (or their <a href="/wiki/Bailiff" title="Bailiff">bailiffs</a>) were responsible for declaring the law, deciding what form of proof to accept, and assisting with the court's administrative functions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon198068_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon198068-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kings granted lords, bishops, and monasteries jurisdiction over some hundreds. In these private hundreds, the lord controlled the hundred court and received the profits of justice. The <a href="/wiki/Abbey_of_Bury_St_Edmunds" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbey of Bury St Edmunds">abbey of Bury St Edmunds</a>, for example, controlled over eight hundreds in Suffolk.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuscroft201637_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuscroft201637-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The sheriff ensured that all men belonged to <a href="/wiki/Tithing" title="Tithing">tithings</a>. The tithing was a method of self-policing. The men of a tithing were responsible for bringing an accused person to court. If the accused escaped, the tithing was fined.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoyn1984146–147_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoyn1984146–147-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most people in Anglo-Saxon England lived in small agricultural communities under the control of a lord. These communities were called tuns, <a href="/wiki/Township_(England)" title="Township (England)">townships</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vill" title="Vill">vills</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Manorialism" title="Manorialism">manors</a>. The king could grant ecclesiastical and lay lords the right of <a href="/wiki/Sac_and_soc" class="mw-redirect" title="Sac and soc">sac and soc</a> ("cause and suit"), <a href="/wiki/Toll_and_team" title="Toll and team">toll and team</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Infangenetheof" class="mw-redirect" title="Infangenetheof">infangenetheof</a> over their estates. By the 11th century, most lords possessed these rights.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon198074–79_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon198074–79-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>England experienced a revival of commerce and trade in the 10th and 11th centuries. Kings gave towns <a href="/wiki/Ancient_borough" title="Ancient borough">borough</a> status in order to facilitate trade. Boroughs had courts (burghmoots, portmanmoots, or <a href="/wiki/Husting" title="Husting">hustings</a>) to provide adequate witnesses for commercial deals. London's <a href="/wiki/Court_of_Husting" class="mw-redirect" title="Court of Husting">Court of Husting</a> had the power of a shire court, and the city was subdivided into <a href="/wiki/Wards_of_the_City_of_London" title="Wards of the City of London">wards</a>. The merchants <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033199720"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><span role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable crossreference">(see <a href="/wiki/Burgess_(title)" title="Burgess (title)">Burgess (title)</a>)</span> who lived in boroughs gained rights not available to rural peasants. These included freedom of movement, which was necessary for trade, and freedom from service to a lord. An early form of <a href="/wiki/Burgage_tenure" class="mw-redirect" title="Burgage tenure">burgage tenure</a> already existed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaker201910_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaker201910-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoyn1984148–151_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoyn1984148–151-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon198069_&_72–73_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon198069_&_72–73-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Portreeve" title="Portreeve">portreeve</a> was an important town officer.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERichardsonSayles196338_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichardsonSayles196338-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition to the regular divisions of a shire, there also existed special jurisdictions called <a href="/wiki/Liberty_(division)" title="Liberty (division)">liberties</a> where the sheriff had limited power and where dues owed to the king were granted to local lords. Some of these, such as the <a href="/wiki/Soke_of_Peterborough" title="Soke of Peterborough">Soke of Peterborough</a>, survived into modern times as local authorities.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWarren198729_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWarren198729-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Church_and_state">Church and state</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_in_Anglo-Saxon_England&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Church and state"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="Christianity in Anglo-Saxon England">Christianity in Anglo-Saxon England</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Corhampton_church_inside.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Corhampton_church_inside.jpg/220px-Corhampton_church_inside.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Corhampton_church_inside.jpg/330px-Corhampton_church_inside.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Corhampton_church_inside.jpg/440px-Corhampton_church_inside.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1871" data-file-height="2343" /></a><figcaption>Anglo-Saxon <a href="/wiki/Corhampton_Church" title="Corhampton Church">Corhampton Church</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The English monarchy and the English church were mutually reinforcing institutions. Through coronation, the church provided the king with divine sanction and, in return, the church expected to receive royal protection.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuscroft201641_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuscroft201641-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The church exercised significant influence over royal administration. The king relied on literate clergy to staff his household and help him govern. <a href="/wiki/Bishop" title="Bishop">Bishops</a> and <a href="/wiki/Abbot" title="Abbot">abbots</a> advised the king in the witan and helped shape royal law codes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoyn1984154–155_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoyn1984154–155-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nevertheless, the king exercised significant control over the church. He appointed bishops (or at least approved their nomination by <a href="/wiki/Cathedral_chapter" title="Cathedral chapter">cathedral chapters</a>) and abbots, who were as much political figures as they were spiritual leaders. Bishops and abbots controlled large estates belonging to their <a href="/wiki/Diocese" title="Diocese">dioceses</a> or <a href="/wiki/List_of_monastic_houses_in_England" title="List of monastic houses in England">monasteries</a>, so they were wealthy magnates in their own right. Just like <a href="/wiki/Catholic_laity" title="Catholic laity">lay</a> lords, they were responsible for the administrative, judicial, and military concerns of their lands. Some bishops actively took part in fighting, such as the warrior bishop <a href="/wiki/Leofgar_of_Hereford" title="Leofgar of Hereford">Leofgar of Hereford</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuscroft201641_121-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuscroft201641-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoyn1984154–155_122-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoyn1984154–155-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Military">Military</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_in_Anglo-Saxon_England&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Military"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Fyrd" title="Fyrd">Fyrd</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_warfare" title="Anglo-Saxon warfare">Anglo-Saxon warfare</a></div> <p>In the Anglo-Saxon period, England had no <a href="/wiki/Standing_army" title="Standing army">standing army</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuscroft201631_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuscroft201631-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, kings and nobles kept household bodyguards. Since the time of Æthelred the Unready, these included Scandinavian mercenaries called <a href="/wiki/Housecarl" title="Housecarl">housecarls</a>. The king's retinue would have also included household thegns and <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">cnihtas</i></span> (Old English for "<a href="/wiki/Knight" title="Knight">knights</a>").<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarlow1997170_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarlow1997170-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Kings could reinforce these household troops in different ways. Holders of <a href="/wiki/Bookland_(law)" title="Bookland (law)">bookland</a> were obligated to provide a certain number of men based on the number of hides they owned, and all free men were obligated to perform military service in the fyrd.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuscroft201631_123-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuscroft201631-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When called on by the king, shires would supply a certain number of men to the fyrd. It is known that Berkshire owed one soldier for every five hides of land, and it has been estimated that a full national army could have been as large as 14,000 men.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarlow1997171_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarlow1997171-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Burh" title="Burh">burhs</a> or <a href="/wiki/Ancient_borough" title="Ancient borough">boroughs</a> played an important role in defending the countryside. Every hide owed one man for burh service, either in maintenance or garrison duty. It is likely that earls and sheriffs would lead troops on campaign, while the bishop would supervise the defence of his diocese.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarlow1997173_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarlow1997173-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Edward the Confessor maintained a small fleet manned by foreign mercenaries, probably Vikings. It had 14 ships in 1050. In addition, the <a href="/wiki/Cinque_Ports" title="Cinque Ports">Cinque Ports</a> provided a certain amount of ships in return for judicial rights.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarlow1997170–171_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarlow1997170–171-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_in_Anglo-Saxon_England&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_in_Anglo-Saxon_England&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">This would be worth around £39.09 in 2017 currency.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_in_Anglo-Saxon_England&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYorke199017-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYorke199017_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFYorke1990">Yorke 1990</a>, p. 17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENaismith202120–21-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaismith202120–21_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNaismith2021">Naismith 2021</a>, pp. 20–21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaulkner2000175-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaulkner2000175_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFaulkner2000">Faulkner 2000</a>, p. 175.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaulkner2000171–175-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaulkner2000171–175_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFaulkner2000">Faulkner 2000</a>, pp. 171–175.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorris202121–22-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorris202121–22_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMorris2021">Morris 2021</a>, pp. 21–22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaulkner2000178-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaulkner2000178_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFaulkner2000">Faulkner 2000</a>, p. 178.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall2013104-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHalsall2013104_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHalsall2013">Halsall 2013</a>, p. 104.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYorke19902–3_&_5-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYorke19902–3_&_5_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFYorke1990">Yorke 1990</a>, pp. 2–3 & 5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYorke199014-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYorke199014_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYorke199014_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFYorke1990">Yorke 1990</a>, p. 14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorris202149–50-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorris202149–50_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMorris2021">Morris 2021</a>, pp. 49–50.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorris202150–55-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorris202150–55_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMorris2021">Morris 2021</a>, pp. 50–55.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYorke19904_&_9-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYorke19904_&_9_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFYorke1990">Yorke 1990</a>, pp. 4 & 9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYorke199016_&_18-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYorke199016_&_18_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFYorke1990">Yorke 1990</a>, pp. 16 & 18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorris202153-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorris202153_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMorris2021">Morris 2021</a>, p. 53.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoyn198413-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoyn198413_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLoyn1984">Loyn 1984</a>, p. 13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYorke199016–17-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYorke199016–17_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFYorke1990">Yorke 1990</a>, pp. 16–17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon198012_&_15-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon198012_&_15_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLyon1980">Lyon 1980</a>, pp. 12 & 15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYorke19908_&_14-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYorke19908_&_14_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFYorke1990">Yorke 1990</a>, pp. 8 & 14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYorke199011-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYorke199011_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFYorke1990">Yorke 1990</a>, p. 11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYorke2014276-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYorke2014276_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFYorke2014">Yorke 2014</a>, p. 276.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeynes201477-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeynes201477_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKeynes2014">Keynes 2014</a>, p. 77.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYorke1990157-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYorke1990157_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFYorke1990">Yorke 1990</a>, p. 157.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon201615–16-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon201615–16_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLyon2016">Lyon 2016</a>, pp. 15–16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeynes2014-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeynes2014_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKeynes2014">Keynes 2014</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoyn198425-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoyn198425_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLoyn1984">Loyn 1984</a>, p. 25.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYorke1990158-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYorke1990158_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFYorke1990">Yorke 1990</a>, p. 158.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJolliffe196130–31-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJolliffe196130–31_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJolliffe1961">Jolliffe 1961</a>, pp. 30–31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon201611-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon201611_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLyon2016">Lyon 2016</a>, p. 11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoyn198422-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoyn198422_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLoyn1984">Loyn 1984</a>, p. 22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoyn198418–19-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoyn198418–19_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLoyn1984">Loyn 1984</a>, pp. 18–19.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon201611–13-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon201611–13_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLyon2016">Lyon 2016</a>, pp. 11–13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon198015-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon198015_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLyon1980">Lyon 1980</a>, p. 15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoyn198442–44-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoyn198442–44_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLoyn1984">Loyn 1984</a>, pp. 42–44.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJolliffe196127-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJolliffe196127_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJolliffe1961">Jolliffe 1961</a>, p. 27.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYorke19908-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYorke19908_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFYorke1990">Yorke 1990</a>, p. 8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJolliffe196136-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJolliffe196136_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJolliffe1961">Jolliffe 1961</a>, p. 36.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon201614-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon201614_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLyon2016">Lyon 2016</a>, p. 14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoyn198427-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoyn198427_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLoyn1984">Loyn 1984</a>, p. 27.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoyn198431–33-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoyn198431–33_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLoyn1984">Loyn 1984</a>, pp. 31–33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoyn198462-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoyn198462_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLoyn1984">Loyn 1984</a>, p. 62.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon201619-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon201619_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLyon2016">Lyon 2016</a>, p. 19.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoyn198471-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoyn198471_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLoyn1984">Loyn 1984</a>, p. 71.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon201620-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon201620_43-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon201620_43-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLyon2016">Lyon 2016</a>, p. 20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoyn198474–75_&_77-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoyn198474–75_&_77_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLoyn1984">Loyn 1984</a>, p. 74–75 & 77.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon198031-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon198031_45-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon198031_45-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLyon1980">Lyon 1980</a>, p. 31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarlow1997162-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarlow1997162_46-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarlow1997162_46-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBarlow1997">Barlow 1997</a>, p. 162.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon198047-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon198047_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLyon1980">Lyon 1980</a>, p. 47.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuscroft201619-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuscroft201619_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHuscroft2016">Huscroft 2016</a>, p. 19.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon198044-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon198044_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon198044_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon198044_49-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLyon1980">Lyon 1980</a>, p. 44.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHudson201217-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHudson201217_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHudson2012">Hudson 2012</a>, p. 17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoyn1984126-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoyn1984126_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLoyn1984">Loyn 1984</a>, p. 126.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWarren198743_&_49-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWarren198743_&_49_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWarren1987">Warren 1987</a>, pp. 43 & 49.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoyn1984127-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoyn1984127_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLoyn1984">Loyn 1984</a>, p. 127.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon201622-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon201622_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLyon2016">Lyon 2016</a>, p. 22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoyn198481-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoyn198481_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLoyn1984">Loyn 1984</a>, p. 81.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThorpe1844">Thorpe (1844</a>, p. 213) quoted in <a href="#CITEREFLoyn1984">Loyn (1984</a>, p. 84)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon198050-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon198050_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLyon1980">Lyon 1980</a>, p. 50.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoyn198484-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoyn198484_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLoyn1984">Loyn 1984</a>, p. 84.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon201618-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon201618_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLyon2016">Lyon 2016</a>, p. 18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoyn198490-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoyn198490_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLoyn1984">Loyn 1984</a>, p. 90.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoyn198490_&_92-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoyn198490_&_92_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLoyn1984">Loyn 1984</a>, pp. 90 & 92.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon201617–18-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon201617–18_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLyon2016">Lyon 2016</a>, pp. 17–18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHudson201219-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHudson201219_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHudson2012">Hudson 2012</a>, p. 19.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon198040-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon198040_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLyon1980">Lyon 1980</a>, p. 40.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoyn198485–86-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoyn198485–86_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLoyn1984">Loyn 1984</a>, pp. 85–86.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoyn198492-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoyn198492_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLoyn1984">Loyn 1984</a>, p. 92.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuscroft201626-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuscroft201626_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHuscroft2016">Huscroft 2016</a>, p. 26.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoyn198497_&_100-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoyn198497_&_100_68-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoyn198497_&_100_68-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLoyn1984">Loyn 1984</a>, pp. 97 & 100.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon198052-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a 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href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERichardsonSayles196338_119-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRichardsonSayles1963">Richardson & Sayles 1963</a>, p. 38.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWarren198729-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWarren198729_120-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWarren1987">Warren 1987</a>, p. 29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuscroft201641-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuscroft201641_121-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuscroft201641_121-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHuscroft2016">Huscroft 2016</a>, p. 41.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoyn1984154–155-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoyn1984154–155_122-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoyn1984154–155_122-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLoyn1984">Loyn 1984</a>, pp. 154–155.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuscroft201631-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuscroft201631_123-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuscroft201631_123-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHuscroft2016">Huscroft 2016</a>, p. 31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarlow1997170-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarlow1997170_124-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBarlow1997">Barlow 1997</a>, p. 170.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarlow1997171-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarlow1997171_125-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBarlow1997">Barlow 1997</a>, p. 171.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarlow1997173-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarlow1997173_126-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBarlow1997">Barlow 1997</a>, p. 173.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarlow1997170–171-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarlow1997170–171_127-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBarlow1997">Barlow 1997</a>, pp. 170–171.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_in_Anglo-Saxon_England&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaker2019" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Baker_(legal_historian)" title="John Baker (legal historian)">Baker, John</a> (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bPqNDwAAQBAJ"><i>An Introduction to English Legal History</i></a> (5th ed.). Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-254074-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-254074-4"><bdi>978-0-19-254074-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+English+Legal+History&rft.edition=5th&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-0-19-254074-4&rft.aulast=Baker&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbPqNDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGovernment+in+Anglo-Saxon+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarlow1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Frank_Barlow_(historian)" title="Frank Barlow (historian)">Barlow, Frank</a> (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wyqFAwAAQBAJ"><i>Edward the Confessor</i></a> (New ed.). Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-07156-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-07156-6"><bdi>978-0-300-07156-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Edward+the+Confessor&rft.edition=New&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-300-07156-6&rft.aulast=Barlow&rft.aufirst=Frank&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwyqFAwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGovernment+in+Anglo-Saxon+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFaulkner2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Neil_Faulkner_(archaeologist)" title="Neil Faulkner (archaeologist)">Faulkner, Neil</a> (2000). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/declinefallofrom0000faul"><i>The Decline and Fall of Roman Britain</i></a></span>. Tempus. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0752414585" title="Special:BookSources/0752414585"><bdi>0752414585</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Decline+and+Fall+of+Roman+Britain&rft.pub=Tempus&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0752414585&rft.aulast=Faulkner&rft.aufirst=Neil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdeclinefallofrom0000faul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGovernment+in+Anglo-Saxon+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreen2017" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Judith_Green_(historian)" title="Judith Green (historian)">Green, Judith A.</a> (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xEzODgAAQBAJ"><i>Forging the Kingdom: Power in English Society, 973–1189</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521193597" title="Special:BookSources/9780521193597"><bdi>9780521193597</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Forging+the+Kingdom%3A+Power+in+English+Society%2C+973%E2%80%931189&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9780521193597&rft.aulast=Green&rft.aufirst=Judith+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxEzODgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGovernment+in+Anglo-Saxon+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHalsall2013" class="citation book cs1">Halsall, Guy (2013). <i>Worlds of Arthur: Facts & Fictions of the Dark Ages</i>. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-870084-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-870084-5"><bdi>978-0-19-870084-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Worlds+of+Arthur%3A+Facts+%26+Fictions+of+the+Dark+Ages&rft.place=Oxford%2C+UK&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-19-870084-5&rft.aulast=Halsall&rft.aufirst=Guy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGovernment+in+Anglo-Saxon+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHudson2012" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Hudson_(historian)" title="John Hudson (historian)">Hudson, John</a> (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2hO-2QeHPZYC"><i>The Oxford History of the Laws of England: 871-1216</i></a>. Vol. 2. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780198260301.001.0001">10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198260301.001.0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780198260301" title="Special:BookSources/9780198260301"><bdi>9780198260301</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+History+of+the+Laws+of+England%3A+871-1216&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780198260301.001.0001&rft.isbn=9780198260301&rft.aulast=Hudson&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2hO-2QeHPZYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGovernment+in+Anglo-Saxon+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuscroft2016" class="citation book cs1">Huscroft, Richard (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tKNYCwAAQBAJ"><i>Ruling England, 1042–1217</i></a> (2nd ed.). Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1138786554" title="Special:BookSources/978-1138786554"><bdi>978-1138786554</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ruling+England%2C+1042%E2%80%931217&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1138786554&rft.aulast=Huscroft&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtKNYCwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGovernment+in+Anglo-Saxon+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJolliffe1961" class="citation book cs1">Jolliffe, J. E. A. (1961). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/constitutionalhi0000joll"><i>The Constitutional History of Medieval England from the English Settlement to 1485</i></a></span> (4th ed.). Adams and Charles Black.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Constitutional+History+of+Medieval+England+from+the+English+Settlement+to+1485&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Adams+and+Charles+Black&rft.date=1961&rft.aulast=Jolliffe&rft.aufirst=J.+E.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fconstitutionalhi0000joll&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGovernment+in+Anglo-Saxon+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeynes2014" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Simon_Keynes" title="Simon Keynes">Keynes, Simon</a> (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tZkzAQAAQBAJ">"<i>Bretwalda</i> or <i>Brytenwalda</i>"</a>. In Lapidge, Michael; Blair, John; Keynes, Simon; Scragg, Donald (eds.). <i>Wiley Blackwell Encyclopedia of Anglo-Saxon England</i> (2nd ed.). Wiley Blackwell. pp. <span class="nowrap">76–</span>77. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781118316061">10.1002/9781118316061</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/11693%2F51269">11693/51269</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780470656327" title="Special:BookSources/9780470656327"><bdi>9780470656327</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Bretwalda+or+Brytenwalda&rft.btitle=Wiley+Blackwell+Encyclopedia+of+Anglo-Saxon+England&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E76-%3C%2Fspan%3E77&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Wiley+Blackwell&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F11693%2F51269&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9781118316061&rft.isbn=9780470656327&rft.aulast=Keynes&rft.aufirst=Simon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtZkzAQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGovernment+in+Anglo-Saxon+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLoyn1984" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/H._R._Loyn" title="H. R. Loyn">Loyn, H. R.</a> (1984). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/governanceofangl0000loyn"><i>The Governance of Anglo-Saxon England, 500–1087</i></a></span>. Governance of England. Vol. 1. Stanford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780804712170" title="Special:BookSources/9780804712170"><bdi>9780804712170</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Governance+of+Anglo-Saxon+England%2C+500%E2%80%931087&rft.series=Governance+of+England&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=9780804712170&rft.aulast=Loyn&rft.aufirst=H.+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgovernanceofangl0000loyn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGovernment+in+Anglo-Saxon+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLyon1980" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bryce_Lyon" title="Bryce Lyon">Lyon, Bryce</a> (1980). <i>A Constitutional and Legal History of Medieval England</i> (2nd ed.). W. W. Norton & Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-95132-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-393-95132-4"><bdi>0-393-95132-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Constitutional+and+Legal+History+of+Medieval+England&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=0-393-95132-4&rft.aulast=Lyon&rft.aufirst=Bryce&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGovernment+in+Anglo-Saxon+England" class="Z3988"></span> 1st edition available at the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/constitutionalle0000bryc">Internet Archive</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLyon2016" class="citation book cs1">Lyon, Ann (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9a1TDAAAQBAJ"><i>Constitutional History of the UK</i></a> (2nd ed.). Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-20398-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-20398-8"><bdi>978-1-317-20398-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Constitutional+History+of+the+UK&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-317-20398-8&rft.aulast=Lyon&rft.aufirst=Ann&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9a1TDAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGovernment+in+Anglo-Saxon+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorris2021" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Marc_Morris_(historian)" title="Marc Morris (historian)">Morris, Marc</a> (2021). <i>The Anglo-Saxons: A History of the Beginnings of England: 400–1066</i>. Pegasus Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-64313-312-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-64313-312-6"><bdi>978-1-64313-312-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Anglo-Saxons%3A+A+History+of+the+Beginnings+of+England%3A+400%E2%80%931066&rft.pub=Pegasus+Books&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-1-64313-312-6&rft.aulast=Morris&rft.aufirst=Marc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGovernment+in+Anglo-Saxon+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNaismith2021" class="citation book cs1">Naismith, Rory (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/Early_Medieval_Britain_c_500_1000/rW8yEAAAQBAJ"><i>Early Medieval Britain, c. 500–1000</i></a>. Cambridge History of Britain. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781108341547" title="Special:BookSources/9781108341547"><bdi>9781108341547</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Medieval+Britain%2C+c.+500%E2%80%931000&rft.series=Cambridge+History+of+Britain&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=9781108341547&rft.aulast=Naismith&rft.aufirst=Rory&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2Fbooks%2Fedition%2FEarly_Medieval_Britain_c_500_1000%2FrW8yEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGovernment+in+Anglo-Saxon+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPowellWallis1968" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Enoch_Powell" title="Enoch Powell">Powell, J. Enoch</a>; Wallis, Keith (1968). "Witenagemot". <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/houseoflordsinmi0000powe"><i>The House of Lords in the Middle Ages: A History of the English House of Lords to 1540</i></a></span>. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. pp. <span class="nowrap">1–</span>11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0297761056" title="Special:BookSources/0297761056"><bdi>0297761056</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Witenagemot&rft.btitle=The+House+of+Lords+in+the+Middle+Ages%3A+A+History+of+the+English+House+of+Lords+to+1540&rft.place=London&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E11&rft.pub=Weidenfeld+%26+Nicolson&rft.date=1968&rft.isbn=0297761056&rft.aulast=Powell&rft.aufirst=J.+Enoch&rft.au=Wallis%2C+Keith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhouseoflordsinmi0000powe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGovernment+in+Anglo-Saxon+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichardsonSayles1963" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Henry_Gerald_Richardson" title="Henry Gerald Richardson">Richardson, H. G.</a>; <a href="/wiki/G._O._Sayles" title="G. O. Sayles">Sayles, G. O.</a> (1963). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/governanceofmedi0000unse"><i>The Governance of Mediaeval England from the Conquest to Magna Carta</i></a></span>. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85224-102-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85224-102-8"><bdi>978-0-85224-102-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Governance+of+Mediaeval+England+from+the+Conquest+to+Magna+Carta&rft.place=Edinburgh&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=1963&rft.isbn=978-0-85224-102-8&rft.aulast=Richardson&rft.aufirst=H.+G.&rft.au=Sayles%2C+G.+O.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgovernanceofmedi0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGovernment+in+Anglo-Saxon+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThorpe1844" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Thorpe" title="Benjamin Thorpe">Thorpe, Benjamin</a>, ed. (1844). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/homiliesofanglos01aelfuoft"><i>The Homilies of the Anglo-Saxon Church. The first part, containing the Sermones Catholici, or Homilies of Ælfric</i></a>. Vol. 1. London: Richard and John E. Taylor for the <a href="/wiki/Aelfric_Society" title="Aelfric Society">Aelfric Society</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Homilies+of+the+Anglo-Saxon+Church.+The+first+part%2C+containing+the+Sermones+Catholici%2C+or+Homilies+of+%C3%86lfric&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Richard+and+John+E.+Taylor+for+the+Aelfric+Society&rft.date=1844&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhomiliesofanglos01aelfuoft&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGovernment+in+Anglo-Saxon+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWarren1987" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/W._L._Warren" title="W. L. Warren">Warren, W. L.</a> (1987). "The Anglo-Saxon Legacy". <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/governanceofnorm0000warr_y8g2"><i>The Governance of Norman and Angevin England, 1086–1272</i></a></span>. The Governance of England. Vol. 2. Stanford, CA, US: Stanford University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">25–</span>55. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8047-1307-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-8047-1307-3"><bdi>0-8047-1307-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Anglo-Saxon+Legacy&rft.btitle=The+Governance+of+Norman+and+Angevin+England%2C+1086%E2%80%931272&rft.place=Stanford%2C+CA%2C+US&rft.series=The+Governance+of+England&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E25-%3C%2Fspan%3E55&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=0-8047-1307-3&rft.aulast=Warren&rft.aufirst=W.+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgovernanceofnorm0000warr_y8g2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGovernment+in+Anglo-Saxon+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYorke1990" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Yorke" title="Barbara Yorke">Yorke, Barbara</a> (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SOuGAgAAQBAJ"><i>Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England</i></a>. B. A. Seaby. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-16639-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-16639-X"><bdi>0-415-16639-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kings+and+Kingdoms+of+Early+Anglo-Saxon+England&rft.pub=B.+A.+Seaby&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=0-415-16639-X&rft.aulast=Yorke&rft.aufirst=Barbara&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSOuGAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGovernment+in+Anglo-Saxon+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYorke2014" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Yorke" title="Barbara Yorke">Yorke, Barbara</a> (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tZkzAQAAQBAJ">"Kings and Kingship"</a>. In Lapidge, Michael; Blair, John; Keynes, Simon; Scragg, Donald (eds.). <i>Wiley Blackwell Encyclopedia of Anglo-Saxon England</i> (2nd ed.). Wiley Blackwell. pp. <span class="nowrap">276–</span>277. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781118316061">10.1002/9781118316061</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/11693%2F51269">11693/51269</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780470656327" title="Special:BookSources/9780470656327"><bdi>9780470656327</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Kings+and+Kingship&rft.btitle=Wiley+Blackwell+Encyclopedia+of+Anglo-Saxon+England&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E276-%3C%2Fspan%3E277&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Wiley+Blackwell&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F11693%2F51269&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9781118316061&rft.isbn=9780470656327&rft.aulast=Yorke&rft.aufirst=Barbara&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtZkzAQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGovernment+in+Anglo-Saxon+England" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_in_Anglo-Saxon_England&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCampbell2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_Campbell_(historian)" title="James Campbell (historian)">Campbell, James</a> (2000). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/anglosaxonstate0000camp"><i>The Anglo-Saxon State</i></a></span>. London and New York: Hambledon and London. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1852851767" title="Special:BookSources/1852851767"><bdi>1852851767</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Anglo-Saxon+State&rft.place=London+and+New+York&rft.pub=Hambledon+and+London&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=1852851767&rft.aulast=Campbell&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fanglosaxonstate0000camp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGovernment+in+Anglo-Saxon+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLarson1904" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Laurence_M._Larson" title="Laurence M. Larson">Larson, Laurence Marcellus</a> (1904). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=g-ZPAAAAMAAJ"><i>The King's Household in England Before the Norman Conquest</i></a>. Madison, Wisconsin, US: University of Wisconsin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7222-2854-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7222-2854-8"><bdi>978-0-7222-2854-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+King%27s+Household+in+England+Before+the+Norman+Conquest&rft.place=Madison%2C+Wisconsin%2C+US&rft.pub=University+of+Wisconsin&rft.date=1904&rft.isbn=978-0-7222-2854-8&rft.aulast=Larson&rft.aufirst=Laurence+Marcellus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dg-ZPAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGovernment+in+Anglo-Saxon+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoach2013" class="citation book cs1">Roach, Levi (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vbb1AAAAQBAJ"><i>Kingship and Consent in Anglo-Saxon England, 871–978: Assemblies and the State in the Early Middle Ages</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Studies_in_Medieval_Life_and_Thought" title="Cambridge Studies in Medieval Life and Thought">Cambridge Studies in Medieval Life and Thought</a>: 4th Series. Vol. 92. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9781139567756">10.1017/CBO9781139567756</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1316648520" title="Special:BookSources/978-1316648520"><bdi>978-1316648520</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kingship+and+Consent+in+Anglo-Saxon+England%2C+871%E2%80%93978%3A+Assemblies+and+the+State+in+the+Early+Middle+Ages&rft.series=Cambridge+Studies+in+Medieval+Life+and+Thought%3A+4th+Series&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FCBO9781139567756&rft.isbn=978-1316648520&rft.aulast=Roach&rft.aufirst=Levi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dvbb1AAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGovernment+in+Anglo-Saxon+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRabin2014" class="citation book cs1">Rabin, Andrew, ed. (2014). <i>The Political Writings of Archbishop Wulfstan of York</i> (Annotated ed.). Manchester University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0719089756" title="Special:BookSources/978-0719089756"><bdi>978-0719089756</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Political+Writings+of+Archbishop+Wulfstan+of+York&rft.edition=Annotated&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0719089756&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGovernment+in+Anglo-Saxon+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWallace-Hadrill1971" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/J._M._Wallace-Hadrill" title="J. M. Wallace-Hadrill">Wallace-Hadrill, J. M.</a> (1971). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/earlygermanickin0000wall"><i>Early Germanic Kingship in England and on the Continent</i></a></span>. Oxford: Clarendon Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780198214915" title="Special:BookSources/9780198214915"><bdi>9780198214915</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Germanic+Kingship+in+England+and+on+the+Continent&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1971&rft.isbn=9780198214915&rft.aulast=Wallace-Hadrill&rft.aufirst=J.+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fearlygermanickin0000wall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGovernment+in+Anglo-Saxon+England" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhite1925" class="citation book cs1">White, Albert Beebe (1925). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nrIaAQAAMAAJ"><i>The Making of the English Constitution, 449-1485</i></a> (2nd revised ed.). New York & London: G. P. Putnam & Sons.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Making+of+the+English+Constitution%2C+449-1485&rft.place=New+York+%26+London&rft.edition=2nd+revised&rft.pub=G.+P.+Putnam+%26+Sons&rft.date=1925&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=Albert+Beebe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnrIaAQAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGovernment+in+Anglo-Saxon+England" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output 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style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Kingdom_of_England" title="Template:Kingdom of England"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Kingdom_of_England" title="Template talk:Kingdom of England"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Kingdom_of_England" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Kingdom of England"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Kingdom_of_England436" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">Kingdom of England</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_England" title="History of England">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_English_history" title="Timeline of English history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon England</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heptarchy" title="Heptarchy">Heptarchy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">Kingdom of England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Conquest" title="Norman Conquest">Norman Conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Norman_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Norman England">Anglo-Normans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Anarchy" title="The Anarchy">The Anarchy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angevin_Empire" title="Angevin Empire">Angevin Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/England_in_the_Late_Middle_Ages" title="England in the Late Middle Ages">England in the Late Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_England_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Economy of England in the Middle Ages">Economy in the Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Roses" title="Wars of the Roses">Wars of the Roses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tudor_period" title="Tudor period">Tudor period</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_Reformation" title="English Reformation">English Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_era" title="Elizabethan era">Elizabethan era</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Renaissance" title="English Renaissance">English Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stuart_period" title="Stuart period">Stuart period</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Union_of_the_Crowns" title="Union of the Crowns">Union of the Crowns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunpowder_Plot" title="Gunpowder Plot">Gunpowder Plot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacobean_era" title="Jacobean era">Jacobean era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Civil_War" title="English Civil War">Civil War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interregnum_(England)" title="Interregnum (England)">Interregnum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_England" title="Commonwealth of England">Commonwealth of England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Protectorate" title="The Protectorate">The Protectorate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stuart_Restoration" title="Stuart Restoration">The Restoration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Popish_Plot" title="Popish Plot">Popish Plot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusion_Crisis" title="Exclusion Crisis">Exclusion Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glorious_Revolution" title="Glorious Revolution">Glorious Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acts_of_Union_1707" title="Acts of Union 1707">Union with Scotland</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_overseas_possessions" title="English overseas possessions">Overseas possessions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crown_colony" title="Crown colony">Crown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proprietary_colony" title="Proprietary colony">Proprietary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_protectorate" title="British protectorate">Protectorate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_England" title="Maritime history of England">Maritime history</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dynasty" title="Dynasty">Royal Houses</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Wessex" title="House of Wessex">Wessex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Kn%C3%BDtlinga" title="House of Knýtlinga">Knýtlinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Normandy" title="House of Normandy">Normandy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angevin_kings_of_England" title="Angevin kings of England">Angevin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Plantagenet" title="House of Plantagenet">Plantagenet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Lancaster" title="House of Lancaster">Lancaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_York" title="House of York">York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Tudor" title="House of Tudor">Tudor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Stuart" title="House of Stuart">Stuart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Orange-Nassau" title="House of Orange-Nassau">Orange-Nassau</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_England" title="Politics of England">Politics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/English_law" title="English law">Law</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Witan" title="Witan">Witan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curia_regis" title="Curia regis">Curia regis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnum_Concilium" title="Magnum Concilium">Magnum Concilium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_England" title="Parliament of England">Parliament</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Lords_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="House of Lords of England">House of Lords</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_England" title="House of Commons of England">House of Commons</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King%27s_Secretary" title="King's Secretary">King's Secretary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_English_monarchy" title="History of the English monarchy">Monarchy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_Council_of_State" title="English Council of State">Council of State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord_Protector" title="Lord Protector">Lord Protector</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peerage_of_England" title="Peerage of England">Peerage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privy_Council_of_England" title="Privy Council of England">Privy Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_English_ministries" title="List of English ministries">Ministries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secretary_of_State_(England)" title="Secretary of State (England)">Secretary of State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governance_of_England" title="Governance of England">Governance</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_in_medieval_England" title="Government in medieval England">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_government" title="Elizabethan government">Elizabethan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Star_Chamber" title="Star Chamber">Star Chamber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whiggism" title="Whiggism">Whigs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tory" title="Tory">Tories</a></li></ul> <ul><li>Acts of Parliament:</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England,_1225%E2%80%931267" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England, 1225–1267">1225–1267</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England,_1275%E2%80%931307" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England, 1275–1307">1275–1307</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England,_1308%E2%80%931325" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England, 1308–1325">1308–1325</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statutes_of_uncertain_date" title="Statutes of uncertain date"><i>Temp. incert.</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England,_1327%E2%80%931376" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England, 1327–1376">1327–1376</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England,_1377%E2%80%931397" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England, 1377–1397">1377–1397</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England,_1399%E2%80%931411" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England, 1399–1411">1399–1411</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England,_1413%E2%80%931421" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England, 1413–1421">1413–1421</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England,_1422%E2%80%931460" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England, 1422–1460">1422–1460</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1461" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1461">1461</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1463" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1463">1463</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1464" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1464">1464</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1467" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1467">1467</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1468" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1468">1468</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1472" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1472">1472</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1474" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1474">1474</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1477" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1477">1477</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1482" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1482">1482</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1483" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1483">1483</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1485" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1485">1485</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1487" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1487">1487</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1488" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1488">1488</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1491" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1491">1491</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1495" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1495">1495</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1496" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1496">1496</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1503" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1503">1503</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1509" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1509">1509</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1511" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1511">1511</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1512" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1512">1512</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1513" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1513">1513</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1514" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1514">1514</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1515" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1515">1515</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1523" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1523">1523</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1529" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1529">1529</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1530" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1530">1530</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1531" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1531">1531</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1532" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1532">1532</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1533" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1533">1533</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1534" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1534">1534</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1535" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1535">1535</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1536" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1536">1536</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1539" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1539">1539</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1540" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1540">1540</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1541" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1541">1541</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1542" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1542">1542</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1543" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1543">1543</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1545" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1545">1545</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1546" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1546">1546</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1547" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1547">1547</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1548" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1548">1548</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1549" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1549">1549</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1551" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1551">1551</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1553" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1553">1553</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1554" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1554">1554</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1555" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1555">1555</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1557" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1557">1557</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1558" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1558">1558</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1562" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1562">1562</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1566" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1566">1566</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1571" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1571">1571</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1572" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1572">1572</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1575" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1575">1575</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1580" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1580">1580</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1584" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1584">1584</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1586" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1586">1586</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1588" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1588">1588</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1592" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1592">1592</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1597" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1597">1597</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1601" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1601">1601</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1603" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1603">1603</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1605" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1605">1605</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1606" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1606">1606</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1609" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1609">1609</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1620" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1620">1620</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1623" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1623">1623</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1625" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1625">1625</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1627" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1627">1627</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1640" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1640">1640</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_ordinances_and_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England,_1642%E2%80%931660" title="List of ordinances and acts of the Parliament of England, 1642–1660">1642–1660</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1660" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1660">1660</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1661" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1661">1661</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1662" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1662">1662</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1663" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1663">1663</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1664" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1664">1664</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1665" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1665">1665</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1666" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1666">1666</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1667" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1667">1667</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1670" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1670">1670</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1672" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1672">1672</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1675" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1675">1675</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1677" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1677">1677</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1678" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1678">1678</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1679" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1679">1679</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1680" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1680">1680</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1685" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1685">1685</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1688" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1688">1688</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1689" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1689">1689</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1690" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1690">1690</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1691" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1691">1691</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1692" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1692">1692</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1693" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1693">1693</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1694" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1694">1694</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1695" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1695">1695</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1696" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1696">1696</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1697" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1697">1697</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1698" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1698">1698</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1700" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1700">1700</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1701" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1701">1701</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1702" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1702">1702</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1703" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1703">1703</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1704" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1704">1704</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1705" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1705">1705</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1706" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1706">1706</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Military_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Military of England">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_military_organization" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Saxon military organization">Anglo-Saxon military</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_warfare" title="Anglo-Saxon warfare">Warfare</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Army" title="English Army">English Army</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Model_Army" title="New Model Army">New Model Army</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ship_names_of_the_Royal_Navy" title="List of ship names of the Royal Navy">Ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Royal_Navy_(before_1707)" title="History of the Royal Navy (before 1707)">History</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_England" title="Geography of England">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historic_counties_of_England" title="Historic counties of England">Counties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_England" title="List of islands of England">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_places_in_England" title="List of places in England">Places</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_towns_in_England" title="List of towns in England">Towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_castles_in_England" title="List of castles in England">Castles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_palaces#England" title="List of palaces">Palaces</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_England" title="Demographics of England">Demographics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_language_in_England" title="English language in England">English language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_people" title="English people">English people</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_English_people" title="List of English people">list</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_England" title="Culture of England">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_England" title="Religion in England">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_cuisine" title="English cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_folklore" title="English folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morris_dance" title="Morris dance">Morris dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Country_dance" title="Country dance">Country dance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_England" title="Architecture of England">Architecture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_architecture" title="Anglo-Saxon architecture">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Gothic_architecture" title="English Gothic architecture">English Gothic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tudor_architecture" title="Tudor architecture">Tudor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_architecture" title="Elizabethan architecture">Elizabethan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacobean_architecture" title="Jacobean architecture">Jacobean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Anne_style_architecture" title="Queen Anne style architecture">Queen Anne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_architecture" title="Georgian architecture">Georgian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/National_symbols_of_England" title="National symbols of England">Symbols</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_England" title="Flag of England">National flag</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_English_flags" title="List of English flags">list</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_heraldry" title="English heraldry">Heraldry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_England" title="Coat of arms of England">Coat of arms</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/College_of_Arms" title="College of Arms">College of Arms</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_badges_of_England" title="Royal badges of England">Royal badges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_supporters_of_England" title="Royal supporters of England">Royal supporters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_standards_of_England" title="Royal standards of England">Royal standards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_Jewels_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom">Crown Jewels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tudor_rose" title="Tudor rose">Tudor rose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oak" title="Oak">Oak tree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_George" title="Saint George">St George</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saint_George%27s_Day_in_England" title="Saint George's Day in England">St George's Day</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved 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1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-api-ext.codfw.main-786d8bd985-qhtkj","timestamp":"20250214041311","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Government in Anglo-Saxon England","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Government_in_Anglo-Saxon_England","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q122423514","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q122423514","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, 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