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When used as a cultural label, especially within the culture, the word ''deaf'' is often written with a capital ''D'' and referred to as "big&nbsp;D Deaf" in speech and sign. When used as a label for the [[Audiology|audiological]] condition, it is written with a lower case ''d''.<ref name="padden2005">{{Cite book | last1 = Padden | first1 = Carol A. | last2 = Humphries | first2 = Tom (Tom L.) | title = Inside Deaf Culture | year = 2005 | publisher = Harvard University Press | location = Cambridge, MA|page = 1 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2B4XWIFPgowC&q=Deaf&pg=PA1 | isbn = 978-0-674-01506-7 }}</ref> [[Carl G. Croneberg]] was among the first to discuss analogies between Deaf and hearing cultures in his appendices C and D of the 1965 ''Dictionary of American Sign Language''.<ref>[[William Stokoe|Stokoe, William C.]]; [[Dorothy C. Casterline]]; [[Carl G. Croneberg]]. 1965. [https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofamer00stok A Dictionary of American Sign Language on Linguistic Principles]. Washington, D.C.: Gallaudet College Press</ref> == Background == Members of the Deaf community tend to view [[Hearing loss|deafness]] as a difference in human experience rather than a [[disability]] or [[disease]].<ref name="ladd2003">{{cite book | first=Paddy | last=Ladd | author-link=Paddy Ladd | year=2003 | title=Understanding Deaf Culture: In Search of Deafhood | publisher=Multilingual Matters | isbn=978-1-85359-545-5 | url=https://www.multilingual-matters.com/page/detail/?k=9781853595455 }}</ref><ref name="lane2011">{{cite book | first=Harlan L. | last=Lane |author2=Richard Pillard |author3=Ulf Hedberg | year=2011 | title=The People of the Eye: Deaf Ethnicity and Ancestry | publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn=978-0-19-975929-3 | page = 269 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KySGdskgT9EC&pg=PA1 }}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=International Congress of the Deaf (ICED) July 18-22, 2010 Vancouver, Canada |url=https://wfdeaf.org/news/international-congress-of-the-deaf-iced-july-18-22-2010-vancouver-canada/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409212821/https://wfdeaf.org/news/international-congress-of-the-deaf-iced-july-18-22-2010-vancouver-canada/ |archive-date=9 April 2023 |access-date=2 January 2024 |website=World Federation of the Deaf|date=July 10, 2010 }}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Moores |first=Donald F. |date=June 2010 |title=Partners in Progress: The 21st International Congress on Education of the Deaf and the Repudiation of the 1880 Congress of Milan |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/18/article/399692 |url-status=live |journal=American Annals of the Deaf |volume=155 |issue=3 |pages=309–310 |doi=10.1353/aad.2010.0016 |pmid=21138043 |issn=1543-0375 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409221601/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/49664396_Partners_in_Progress_The_21st_International_Congress_on_Education_of_the_Deaf_and_the_Repudiation_of_the_1880_Congress_of_Milan |archive-date=9 April 2023 |access-date=2 January 2024 |quote=Despite this "disability mindset", Deaf citizens positively contribute to societies that embrace diversity and creativity. They enhance their nations in areas of education, economic activity, politics, arts and literature. For Deaf people, It is an inalienable right to be acknowledged as a linguistic and cultural minority integral to every society. |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Many members take pride in their Deaf identity.<ref>Kannapell, Barbara M. 1993. [https://archive.org/details/languagechoiceid0000kann Language Choice – Identity Choice], Burtonsville, MD: Linstok Press.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1=James |first1=Susan Donaldson |last2=Huang |first2=Grace |date=12 December 2006 |title=Deaf and Proud to Use Sign Language |url=https://abcnews.go.com/Health/story?id=2719254&page=1 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151007091342/https://abcnews.go.com/Health/story?id=2719254&page=1 |archive-date=October 7, 2015 |access-date=31 August 2015 |website=ABC News }}</ref> Deaf people, in the sense of a community or culture, can then be seen as a [[Minority language|linguistic minority]], and therefore some who are a part of this community may feel misunderstood by those who do not know sign language. Another struggle that the Deaf community often faces is that educational institutions usually consist primarily of hearing people. Additionally, hearing family members may need to learn sign language in order for the deaf person to feel included and supported. Unlike some other cultures, a deaf person may join the community later in life, rather than needing to be born into it.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Nash |first1=Jeffrey E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mNa7AAAAIAAJ |title=Deafness in Society |last2=Nash |first2=Anedith |publisher=LexingtonBooks |year=1981 |isbn=9780669045901 |location=Toronto |pages=100–102}}</ref> [[File:Three views.webm|thumb|Three views on Deaf people (video in ASL)]] There are several perspectives on deaf people and Deaf culture that shape their treatment and role in society. From a medical standpoint, many encourage Deaf children to undergo surgery. Especially in the past, the medical perspective discouraged the use of sign language because they believed it would distract from development of auditory and speech skills. From a social standpoint, Deaf individuals are welcomed to participate in society in the same manner as any other individual. This view discourages the idea that those who are deaf or [[Hearing loss|hard-of-hearing]] are sick and in need of a cure. The social view also encourages making accommodations for deaf people so that they can fully participate in society. Such accommodations include the use of [[Language interpretation|interpreters]] or improved [[closed captioning]] systems. Some feel the social view fails to recognize the unique qualities of Deaf people and Deaf culture. They believe that this perspective asks Deaf people to fit and find their own way in a predominantly hearing society, instead of recognizing their own abilities and culture. Another perspective is referred to as the [[Cultural linguistics|cultural-linguistic]] view. Supporters of Deaf Culture state that this perspective appropriately recognizes Deaf people as a minority culture in the world with their own language and social norms. This standpoint is believed to promote Deaf people's right to collective space within society to pass on their language and culture to future generations.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last1=Lane |first1=Harlan |url=https://academic.oup.com/book/1449 |title=The people of the eye: deaf ethnicity and ancestry |last2=Pillard |first2=Richard |last3=Hedberg |first3=Ulf |date=1 January 2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-975929-3 |location=Oxford |publication-date=2010 |author-link=Harlan Lane |author-link2=Richard Pillard |access-date=2 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240102225459/https://academic.oup.com/book/1449 |archive-date=2 January 2024 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite book |last1=Padden |first1=Carol |url=https://archive.org/details/deafinamericavoi00padd |title=Deaf in America: voices from a culture |last2=Humphries |first2=Tom |date=1999 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-19424-3 |edition=11. printing |location=Cambridge, Mass |author-link=Carol Padden |author-link2=Tom L. Humphries}}</ref> Being involved in the Deaf community and culturally identifying as Deaf has been shown to significantly contribute to positive self-esteem in Deaf individuals.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Hamill |first1=Alexis C. |last2=Stein |first2=Catherine H. |date=September 2011 |title=Culture and empowerment in the Deaf community: An analysis of internet weblogs |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/216086902 |journal=Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology |volume=21 |issue=5 |pages=388–406 |doi=10.1002/casp.1081 |access-date=2 January 2024 |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> The community can provide support, easy social interaction, and "refuge from the grinding frustrations of the hearing world." Conversely, Deaf individuals who are not a part of the Deaf community may not have the same support in the hearing world, resulting in lower self-esteem.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Roots |first=James |url=https://archive.org/details/politicsofvisual0000root |title=Politics of Visual Language: Deafness, Language Choice, and Political Socialization |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |year=1999 |isbn=9780886293451 |pages=1–6 |access-date=2 January 2024 }}</ref> Stereotypes, lack of knowledge, and negative attitudes about Deafness cause widespread discrimination.<ref name=":2" /> This could lead to a lower education and economic status for deaf people. [[File:Deaf community 1.webm|thumb|Deaf community (video in ASL with English subtitles available)]] The community may include hearing family members of deaf people and sign-language interpreters who identify with Deaf culture. It does not automatically include all people who are deaf or hard-of-hearing.<ref name="padden1988">{{cite book |last1=Padden |first1=Carol |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FLdCuk0YekgC&pg=PA12 |title=Deaf in America: Voices from a Culture |last2=Humphries |first2=Tom |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1988 |isbn=978-0-674-19423-6 |page=134 |author-link=Carol Padden |author-link2=Tom L. Humphries |archive-url=https://archive.org/details/deafinamericavoi00padd_0 |archive-date=24 August 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref> As educator and American Sign Language interpreter Anna Mindess writes, "it is not the extent of hearing loss that defines a member of the deaf community but the individual's own sense of identity and resultant actions."<ref name="mindess2006">{{cite book |last=Mindess |first=Anna |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dQk1lt0V9foC&q=Intercultural+Communication+for+Sign+Language+Interpreters |title=Reading Between the Signs: Intercultural Communication for Sign Language Interpreters |publisher=Intercultural Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-931930-26-0 |edition=2nd |location=Boston, MA |archive-url=https://archive.org/details/readingbetweensi0000mind_i3i3 |archive-date=17 June 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> As with all social groups that a person chooses to belong to, a person is a member of the Deaf community if they identify as a member of the community and the community accept them as a member of the community.<ref name="bakpad1978">{{cite book |last1=Baker |first1=Charlotte |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X3U2uAAACAAJ |title=American Sign Language: A look at its story, structure and community |last2=Padden |first2=Carol |publisher=the University of Virginia; T. J. Publishers |year=1978 |isbn=9780932666017 |author-link2=Carol Padden |access-date=2 January 2024}}</ref> Deaf culture is recognized under Article 30, Paragraph 4 of the [[United Nations]] [[Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities]], which states that "Persons with disabilities shall be entitled, on an equal basis with others, to recognition and support of their specific cultural and linguistic identity, including sign languages and deaf culture." Deaf culture is as well recognized in the statement presented at the 21st International Conference on Education of the Deaf in 2010 in [[Vancouver|Vancouver, Canada]], where the more than 60 countries that participated in it agreed that "Despite this 'disability mindset,' Deaf citizens positively contribute to societies that embrace diversity and creativity. They enhance their nations in areas of education, economic activity, politics, arts and literature. For Deaf people, It is an inalienable right to be acknowledged as a linguistic and cultural minority integral to every society."<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3" /> In Deaf culture, "sumain" refers to people who communicate with each other using their hands.<ref name=":42">{{Cite web |date=9 January 2015 |title=A Conversation with Marla Berkowitz, ASL Senior Lecturer |url=https://cllc.osu.edu/news/conversation-marla-berkowitz-asl-senior-lecturer |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030162819/https://cllc.osu.edu/news/conversation-marla-berkowitz-asl-senior-lecturer |archive-date=30 October 2020 |access-date=October 17, 2020 |website=cllc.osu.edu}}</ref> [[Marla Berkowitz]], a Certified Deaf ASL interpreter, describes it as "a coined word from two languages – Su – your; main – hands".<ref name=":42" /> ==Acculturation== [[File:Merikartano Oulu 2006 02 12.JPG|thumb|''Merikartano'' school for deaf students in [[Oulu]], Finland (February 2006)]] [[File:Deaf culture Acquisition.webm|thumb|Acquisition of Deaf culture (video in ASL)]] [[File:Deaf Students In Baghdad.jpg|thumb|Students at a school for deaf students in [[Baghdad]], Iraq (April 2004)]] Historically, [[acculturation]] has often occurred within [[Deaf education|schools for Deaf students]] and within Deaf social clubs, both of which unite deaf people into communities with which they can identify.<ref name="ladd2003" /> Becoming Deaf culturally can occur at different times for different people, depending on the circumstances of one's life. A small proportion of deaf individuals acquire sign language and Deaf culture in infancy from Deaf parents, others acquire it through attendance at schools, and yet others may not be exposed to sign language and Deaf culture until college or a time after that.<ref name="mindess2006" /> Although up to fifty percent of deafness has genetic causes, fewer than five percent of deaf people have a deaf parent,<ref name="Mitchell2004">{{Cite journal |last1=Mitchell |first1=Ross E |last2=Karchmer |first2=Michael A |date=December 2004 |title=Chasing the Mythical Ten Percent: Parental Hearing Status of Deaf and Hard of Hearing Students in the United States |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/content/crossref/journals/sign_language_studies/v004/4.2mitchell.html |journal=Sign Language Studies |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=138–163 |doi=10.1353/sls.2004.0005 |issn=1533-6263 |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> so Deaf communities are unusual among cultural groups in that most members do not acquire their cultural identities from parents.<ref name="bauman2008">{{cite book |last=Bauman |first=Dirksen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ah32ktcvB28C |title=Open your eyes: Deaf studies talking |publisher=University of Minnesota Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-8166-4619-7 |location=Minneapolis |access-date=2 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240103003425/https://books.google.ca/books?id=Ah32ktcvB28C&source=gbs_navlinks_s |archive-date=January 3, 2024 |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref> ===Diversity=== Educator and ASL interpreter Anna Mindess notes that there is "not just one homogeneous deaf culture".<ref name="mindess2006" /> There are many distinct Deaf communities around the world, which communicate using different [[sign languages]] and exhibit different cultural norms. Deaf identity also intersects with other kinds of [[cultural identity]]. Deaf culture intersects with nationality, education, race, ethnicity, gender, class, sexual orientation, and other identity markers, leading to a culture that is at once quite small and also tremendously diverse. The extent to which people identify primarily with their deaf identity rather than their membership in other intersecting cultural groups also varies. Professor Anthony J. Aramburo found in a study titled ''The Sociolinguistic Aspects of the Black Deaf Community'' (1989) that "87 percent of black deaf people polled identified with their black culture first".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Aramburo |first=Anthony J. |chapter-url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780124580459500112 |title=The Sociolinguistics of the deaf community |publisher=Academic Press |year=1989 |isbn=978-0-12-458045-9 |editor-last=Lucas |editor-first=Ceil |editor-link=Ceil Lucas |location=San Diego |pages=113 |chapter=5 - Sociolinguistic Aspects of the Black Deaf Community |access-date=2 January 2024}}</ref><ref name="mindess2006" /> Deaf youth who belong to multiple minority groups face exceptional challenges.<ref name="Deaf Persons of Asian American, His">{{cite journal |last1=Foster |first1=S. |title=Deaf Persons of Asian American, Hispanic American, and African American Backgrounds: A Study of Intraindividual Diversity and Identity |journal=Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education |date=1 July 2003 |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=271–290 |doi=10.1093/deafed/eng015 }}</ref> Deaf Black individuals may encounter discrimination from both hearing people of the Black community and White deaf individuals.<ref name="Deaf Persons of Asian American, His"/> Though racism is not greater than audism, the intersection of race and deafness (and other identities) can increase the barriers to success and compound hardship.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Stapleton |first1=Lissa D. |title=Audism and Racism: The Hidden Curriculum Impacting Black d/Deaf College Students in the Classroom. |journal=Negro Educational Review |date=2016 |volume=67 |issue=1–4 |pages=149–168}}</ref> Therefore, it is crucial to acknowledge the intersectionality of Black Deaf students as it plays a significant role in their educational success.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Stapleton |first1=Lissa D. |title=Audism and Racism: The Hidden Curriculum Impacting Black d/Deaf College Students in the Classroom. |journal=Negro Educational Review |date=2016 |volume=67 |issue=1–4}}</ref> In his central work on Deafhood, English scholar [[Paddy Ladd|Pady Ladd]] often emphasizes a strong sense of collectivity within the Deaf community, but also correctly points out that other forms of marginalization also exist within this community, e.g. towards Deaf people from other countries. Racial discrimination is also noted: Deaf schools in the USA did not admit black students for a long time. The examples mentioned by Ladd also point to tendencies towards gender discrimination. He also points out that his analyses focus strongly on the USA and the UK, and that the situation and self-definition of d/Deaf people in other countries can differ greatly. Like other authors, however, he assumes a common core of a Deaf culture that arises from experiences as a Deaf person(s).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ladd |first=Paddy |title=Understanding deaf culture: in search of deafhood |date=2003 |publisher=Multilingual Matters |isbn=978-1-85359-546-2 |location=Clevedon, England ; Buffalo}}</ref> Research in Tanzania in the early 21st century resulted in differing analysis whether or not - or how much - the identify of deaf Tanzanians can be characterized as Deaf, pointing also to intersectional identities.<ref>LEE, J. C. (2012). They Have To See Us: An Ethnography of Deaf People in Tanzania. Unpublished dissertation, University of Colorado. https://scholar.colorado.edu/concern/graduate_thesis_or_dissertations/n009w2365</ref><ref>Rothe, A. (2020). Deaf People in Arusha (Tanzania) - Navigating through a Multilingual Education System and Expectations To “Fit in.” Unpublished master’s thesis, Universität Wien, Vienna (Austria). https://phaidra.univie.ac.at/detail/o:1392094.pdf</ref> == Education == {{Main|Deaf education}} Deaf culture is prevalent in [[K–12|K–12 schools]] for the deaf throughout the world, though higher education specifically for them is more limited. Abbé [[Charles-Michel de l'Épée]] opened the first school for the deaf in Paris called the [[Institut National de Jeunes Sourds de Paris]] ([[English language|English]]: ''National Institute for Deaf Children of Paris)'' in 1760. The American [[Thomas Gallaudet]] witnessed a demonstration of deaf teaching skills from Épée's successor [[Abbé Sicard]] and two of the school's deaf faculty members, [[Laurent Clerc]] and [[Jean Massieu]]; accompanied by Clerc, he returned to the United States, where in 1817 they founded [[American School for the Deaf]] in Hartford, Connecticut. American Sign Language (ASL) started to evolve from primarily [[French Sign Language]] (LSF), and other outside influences.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Frishberg |first=Nancy |date=September 1975 |title=Arbitrariness and Iconicity: Historical Change in American Sign Language |journal=Language |volume=51 |issue=3 |pages=696–719 |doi=10.2307/412894 |jstor=412894}}</ref> In a residential school where all the children use the same communication system (whether it is a school using sign language, [[Total communication|Total Communication]] or [[Oralism]]), students will be able to interact "normally" with other students, without having to worry about being criticized. An argument supporting inclusion, on the other hand, exposes the student to people who are not just like them, preparing them for adult life. Through interacting, children with hearing disabilities can expose themselves to other cultures which in the future may be beneficial for them when it comes to finding jobs and living on their own in a society where their disability may put them in the minority. These are some reasons why a person may or may not want to put their child in an inclusion classroom.<ref name="SmithDD2010">{{Cite book |last=Smith |first=Deborah Deutsch |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p1JwPwAACAAJ |title=Introduction to Special Education: Teaching in an Age of Opportunity |publisher=Pearson/A and B |year=2005 |isbn=9780205470334 |access-date=2 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240103003426/https://books.google.ca/books/about/Introduction_to_Special_Education.html?id=p1JwPwAACAAJ&redir_esc=y |archive-date=January 3, 2024 |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref> === United States === {{Main|Deaf education in the United States|History of deaf education in the United States}} In comparison to the general public, deaf people have lower levels of educational achievement.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal | doi=10.1111/j.1749-6632.1991.tb19592.x|title = Sociological Implications of Hearing Loss|year = 1991|last1 = Christiansen|first1 = John B.|journal = Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences|volume = 630|issue = 1|pages = 230–235|pmid = 1835330|bibcode = 1991NYASA.630..230C|s2cid = 42056798}}</ref> Advocates in [[deaf education]] believe that an improved recognition of American Sign Language (ASL) as an official language would improve education, as well as economic status. Some argue that by improving the recognition of ASL, better access to school materials, deaf teachers, interpreters, and video-telephone communication would take place.<ref name=":5" /> [[File:Chapel Hall, Gallaudet University.jpg|thumb|Gallaudet University's Chapel Hall]] Often colloquially referred to as the "Big Three" schools for the Deaf in the United States, [[California State University, Northridge|California State University at Northridge]] (CSUN), National Technical Institute for the Deaf (part of [[Rochester Institute of Technology]]), and [[Gallaudet University]] are post-secondary institutions that serve a large population of Deaf students.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Zerlentes |first=Nicholas |date=December 2019 |title=The College Choice Process of Deaf Students at a Residential School for the Deaf |url=https://scholarworks.csun.edu/bitstream/handle/10211.3/214791/Zerlentes-Nicholas-thesis-2020.pdf?sequence=1 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240103002110/https://scholarworks.csun.edu/bitstream/handle/10211.3/214791/Zerlentes-Nicholas-thesis-2020.pdf?sequence=1 |archive-date=3 January 2024 |access-date=2 January 2024}}</ref> Gallaudet University is the first and only liberal-arts college for deaf students in the world.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Who We Are |url=https://gallaudet.edu/about/ |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181203152143/https://www.gallaudet.edu/about/who-we-are |archive-date=3 December 2018 |access-date=November 29, 2018 |website=Gallaudet University}}</ref> [[File:Texas_School_for_the_Deaf_main_gate.jpg|thumb|[[Texas School for the Deaf]]]] Those who are deaf (by either state or federal standards) have access to a free and appropriate public education. If a child does qualify as being deaf or hard of hearing and receives an individualized education plan, the [[Individualized Education Program|IEP]] team must consider "the child's language and communication needs. The IEP must include opportunities for direct communication with peers and professionals. It must also include the student's academic level, and finally must include the students full range of needs"<ref>{{cite web |title=Deaf Students Education Services |url=http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/docs/hq9806.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160116005121/http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/docs/hq9806.html |archive-date=16 January 2016 |access-date=29 January 2016 |website=ed.gov}}</ref><ref name="SmithDD2010" /> In part, the [[United States Department of Education|U.S. Department of Education]] defines deafness as "a hearing impairment that is so severe that the child is impaired in processing linguistic information through hearing, with or without amplification". Hearing impairment is defined as "an impairment in hearing, whether permanent or fluctuating, that adversely affects a child's educational performance but that is not included under the definition of deafness".<ref>{{cite web|title=Regulations: Part 300 / A / 300.8 / c|url=http://idea.ed.gov/explore/view/p/%2Croot%2Cregs%2C300%2CA%2C300%252E8%2Cc%2C|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150715133544/http://idea.ed.gov/explore/view/p/%2Croot%2Cregs%2C300%2CA%2C300%252E8%2Cc%2C|archive-date=15 July 2015|access-date=9 August 2015|website=U. S. Department of Education|ref=Disability_definitions}}</ref> === Other countries === {{See also|Deaf education in Africa}} There are colleges across the globe. [[Brazil]] has several institutions, including Instituto Santa Tersinha and Escola para Crianças Surdas Rio Branco. [[China]]'s deaf universities include [[Beijing Union University]], Special Education College of Beijing University, and [[Zhengzhou University]]. Other notable universities for the deaf across the globe include Finland School for the Deaf in [[Finland]], [[Institut National de Jeunes Sourds de Paris]] in [[France]], Berlin School for the Deaf in [[Germany]], and Northwest Secondary School for the Deaf in [[South Africa]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tay |first=Phoebe |title=Deaf Education Programs around the World |url=http://deafeducationworldwide.weebly.com/deaf-education-programs-around-the-world.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181203152141/http://deafeducationworldwide.weebly.com/deaf-education-programs-around-the-world.html |archive-date=3 December 2018 |access-date=19 November 2018 |website=deafeducationworldwide.weebly.com}}</ref> ==Characteristics== {{globalize|section|US|date=January 2023}} Sign language is just one part of deaf culture. Deaf identity is also constructed around specific beliefs, values and art. ===Sign languages=== [[File:Asl-sign-language-coloring-at-coloring-pages-for-kids-boys-dotcom.svg|thumb|[[Sign language]]s are an important part of Deaf culture. The American Sign Language (ASL) alphabet is shown here.]] [[File:Drawing (sign language friend), 2008.jpg|thumb|The sign for "friend" in American Sign Language]] Members of Deaf cultures communicate via [[sign language]]s. Sign languages convey meaning through manual communication and body language instead of acoustically conveyed sound patterns. This involves the simultaneous combination of hand shapes, orientation and movement of the hands, arms or body, and facial expressions to express a speaker's thoughts. "Sign languages are based on the idea that vision is the most useful tool a deaf person has to communicate and receive information".<ref>{{cite web|date=2015-08-18|title=American Sign Language|url=https://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/american-sign-language#1|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161115163913/https://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/american-sign-language#1|archive-date=15 November 2016|access-date=17 November 2016|website=NIDCD}}</ref> There are [[List of sign languages|over 200 distinct sign languages in the world]]. These include 114 sign languages listed in the Ethnologue database and 157 more sign languages, systems, and dialects.<ref>{{cite web |last=Harrington |first=Thomas |title=Sign language of the world by name |url=http://libguides.gallaudet.edu/content.php?pid=114804&sid=991940 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141118191101/http://libguides.gallaudet.edu/content.php?pid=114804&sid=991940 |archive-date=18 November 2014 |access-date=24 July 2012 |website=libguides.gallaudet.edu |publisher=Gallaudet University Library}}</ref> While the [[United Kingdom]] and the [[United States]] are both predominantly [[English language|English]] speaking, the predominant signed languages used in these countries differ markedly. Due to the origins of deaf education in the United States, American Sign Language is most closely related to [[French Sign Language]]. ===Values and beliefs=== * A positive attitude toward deafness is typical in Deaf cultural groups. Deafness is not generally considered a condition that needs to be fixed.<ref name="mindess2006" /> * The term "Deaf Gain" is used by Deaf people, to re-frame the perceived losses of Deafness and "hearing loss" to highlight the benefits of being deaf. According to deaf scientist [[Michele Cooke]], it describes the benefits that Deaf people provide the larger community.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cooke |first=Michele L. |date=2018 |title=What is my Deaf way of science? |url=https://www.umass.edu/magazine/fall-2018/what-my-deaf-way-science |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200518004834/https://www.umass.edu/magazine/fall-2018/what-my-deaf-way-science |archive-date=18 May 2020 |access-date=9 April 2020 |website=UMass Magazine |language=}}</ref> * Culturally, Deaf people value the use of natural sign languages that exhibit their own grammatical conventions, such as American Sign Language and [[British Sign Language]], over signed versions of English or other oral languages. Spoken English, written English and [[Signing Exact English|signed English]] are three different symbolic systems for expressing the same language.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gannon |first=Jack R |url=https://archive.org/details/deafheritagenarr0000gann/page/378 |title=Deaf Heritage–A Narrative History of Deaf America |publisher=National Association of the Deaf |year=1981 |isbn=978-0-913072-38-7 |location=Silver Spring, MD |pages=[https://archive.org/details/deafheritagenarr0000gann/page/378 378] |author-link=Jack R. Gannon}}</ref> * Deaf communities strongly oppose discrimination against deaf people. * Deaf culture in the United States tends to be collectivist rather than individualist; culturally Deaf people value the group.<ref name="mindess2006" /> * The use of a sign language is central to Deaf cultural identity. Oralist approaches to educating deaf children thereby pose a threat to the continued existence of Deaf culture. Some members of Deaf communities may also oppose technological innovations like [[cochlear implant]]s for the same reason. * Sign language was developed to enable the Deaf person to be closer to god.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-09-11 |title=The Societal Shaping of Deaf Technological Advancements |url=https://atomicacademia.com/articles/the-societal-shaping-of-deaf-technological-advancements.117/ |access-date=2024-09-11 |website=Atomic Academia |language=en-GB |doi=10.62594/aapj0007}}</ref> === Cochlear implants === A cochlear implant is not to be mistaken for a [[hearing aid]], which makes noises and sounds louder for the user to hear. Instead, cochlear implants bypass the outer ear and target the inner ear where the [[Cochlear nerve|auditory nerve]] fibers are stimulated.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1038/s41598-020-72235-9|title = Electrophysiological assessment of temporal envelope processing in cochlear implant users|year = 2020|last1 = Gransier|first1 = Robin|last2 = Carlyon|first2 = Robert P.|last3 = Wouters|first3 = Jan|journal = Scientific Reports|volume = 10|issue = 1|page = 15406|pmid = 32958791|pmc = 7506023|bibcode = 2020NatSR..1015406G}}</ref> To do this, noises and sounds are transformed into electrical energy which is translated as audio information by the nerve which is then sent to the brain.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |last=Ouellette |first=Alicia |date=April 2011 |title=Hearing The Deaf: Cochlear Implants, The Deaf Community, and Bioethical Analysis |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228218468 |access-date=2 January 2024 |website=ResearchGate}}</ref> An external microphone captures outside sound, a transmitter processes these sounds and sends them to a receiver embedded under the skin in the skull, and the receiver transforms these sounds into electrical impulses which stimulate the auditory nerve.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.3109/14992027.2010.531294|title = Experiences of the use of FOX, an intelligent agent, for programming cochlear implant sound processors in new users|year = 2011|last1 = Vaerenberg|first1 = Bart|last2 = Govaerts|first2 = Paul J.|last3 = De Ceulaer|first3 = Geert|last4 = Daemers|first4 = Kristin|last5 = Schauwers|first5 = Karen|journal = International Journal of Audiology|volume = 50|issue = 1|pages = 50–58|pmid = 21091083|s2cid = 4673683}}</ref>[[File:Cochlear-implant-external-part.jpg|thumb|Cochlear Implant: A surgically implanted device used by Deaf and hard-of-hearing individuals to experience representations of sound<ref name=":12"/>]]The [[medical model of disability]] can be aligned with technological advancements in cochlear implants. This is due to the fact that cochlear implants can be perceived to "cure" deafness or fix an individual's hearing,<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1111/1467-8519.00275|title = Reconsidering Cochlear Implants: The Lessons of Martha's Vineyard|year = 2002|last1 = Levy|first1 = Neil|journal = Bioethics|volume = 16|issue = 2|pages = 134–153|pmid = 12083155}}</ref> when in reality those who are Deaf may not feel a need to be cured or fixed. This idea is seen in many children's books, where improved quality of life is only seen after characters obtain cochlear implants.<ref name=":03">{{Cite journal |last=Rana |first=Marion |date=2 January 2017 |title="Why Would I Want to Hear?": Cochlear Implants in Young Adult Fiction |url=https://www.liverpooluniversitypress.co.uk/doi/10.3828/jlcds.2017.5#:~:text=The%20main%20finding%20is%20that,without%20implying%20(dis)approval. |journal=Journal of Literary & Cultural Disability Studies |volume=11 |issue=1 |doi=10.3828/jlcds.2017.5 |via=Liverpool University Press}}</ref> This idea that deafness is a physiological issue that resides only within the individual and therefore should be physiologically fixed or solved counters the teachings and beliefs within Deaf culture.<ref name=":12" /> Often people feel as though children should make the decision if they want a cochlear implant for themselves as opposed to someone else, like their parents or caregivers, making it for them. Although ethical, this idea poses a problem since the success rate of cochlear implants is at its highest when implanted at early childhood;<ref name=":22">{{Cite journal | doi=10.2307/3528607|jstor=3528607|title=Deaf Culture, Cochlear Implants, and Elective Disability|last1=Tucker|first1=Bonnie Poitras|journal=The Hastings Center Report|year=1998|volume=28|issue=4|pages=6–14|pmid=9762533}}</ref> in other words, when the child is not able to make rather large decisions, like this one, for themselves.<ref name=":03" /> These critics argue forcing cochlear implants on children should be reduced and the assumption that cochlear implants offer the best quality of life for Deaf individuals should be countered. One way of doing this would be to expose children of young ages to Deaf culture and the Deaf community early on, as well as teach them American Sign Language.<ref name=":12" /> Cochlear implants have been controversial around the Deaf community ever since they first were made available to the public.<ref name=":03" /> Those who oppose cochlear implants even refer to it as "cultural genocide," as it lessens the prevalence and importance of Deaf culture.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Zimmerman |first=Adam B. |date=2009 |title=Do You Hear the People Sing: Balancing Parental Authority and a Child's Right to Thrive: The Cochlear Implant Debate |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265035323 |journal=Journal of Health & Biomedical Law |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=309–330 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240103060254/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265035323_Do_You_Hear_the_People_Sing_Balancing_Parental_Authority_and_a_Child%27s_Right_to_Thrive_The_Cochlear_Implant_Debate |archive-date=January 3, 2024 |access-date= |via=ResearchGate |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref><ref name=":12" /> People are against cochlear implants for a variety of reasons, including: there is value to being Deaf, being Deaf is not an illness and does not require a cure, the Deaf are not lesser than the hearing, etc. Cochlear implants also have a variety of risks associated with them, like costliness, effectiveness, and surgical requirement. Alternative solutions proposed by cochlear opponents are centered around the [[social model of disability]], where instead of fixing the actual hearing of the individual, reform and accommodations can be made in society, education, and more to better allow the individual to be integrated into society as would any other.<ref name=":12" /> Alternatively, those who support cochlear implants do not necessarily oppose Deaf culture. Culture itself is not a simple concept, but rather it has high levels of complexity and power; due to this nature, culture is not to be applied narrowly to a group of individuals. The Deaf community is composed of highly diverse Deaf individuals, and to impose narrow culture onto a group full of heterogeneous members would be rather questionable.<ref name=":22" /> There is room for deviation and hybridization of values and beliefs in Deaf culture as society and technology evolves. Even if they are proud of their Deaf identity, many deaf individuals wish they knew what their voices sounded like, and wish they could pick up the phone and have a conversation with ease without the need for a third-party device or interpreter.<ref name=":22" /> So, instead of looking at cochlear implants as identity stripping, many Deaf parents of Deaf children see cochlear implants as a way to give their children more than what they have; to offer them the pleasure of being able to hear.<ref name=":22" /> It has also been proven that cochlear implants help to provide opportunities for success, and help individuals to feel more connected to the world. Though most Deaf individuals agree that choosing to use a cochlear implant is a difficult decision, many say that resistance to cochlear implants has decreased since 1990, the year when it was first approved for children. By building more evidence of the benefits and limitations of cochlear implants, both Deaf and hearing individuals can be properly educated on the impact of cochlear implants, and thus unrealistic expectations and controversies can be resolved.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1093/deafed/enq044|title=Exploring Perspectives on Cochlear Implants and Language Acquisition within the Deaf Community|year=2011|last1=Gale|first1=E.|journal=Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education|volume=16|pages=121–139|pmid=20881008|doi-access=free}}</ref> ===Behavioral patterns=== * Culturally Deaf people have rules of etiquette for getting attention, walking through signed conversations, leave-taking, and otherwise politely negotiating a signing environment. * Deaf people also keep each other informed of what is going on in one's environment. It is common to provide detailed information when leaving early or arriving late; withholding such information may be considered rude.<ref name="mindess2006" /> * Deaf people may be more direct or blunt than their hearing counterparts.<ref name="mindess2006" /> * When giving introductions, Deaf people typically try to find common ground; since the Deaf community is relatively small, Deaf people usually have other Deaf people in common.<ref name="mindess2006" /> * Deaf people may also consider time differently. Showing up early to large-scale events, such as lectures, is typical. This may be motivated by the need to get a seat that provides the best visual clarity for the Deaf person. ===Importance of technology=== * Like all other people, Deaf individuals rely on technology for communication significantly. In the United States, [[video relay service]]s and an array of freestanding and software-driven video phones are often used by deaf people to conduct telephonic communication with hearing and deaf businesses, family and friends. Devices such as the teletype (known as a [[Telecommunications device for the deaf|TTY]], an electronic device used for communication over a telephone line) are far less common, but are used by some deaf people who are without access to high-speed Internet or have a preference for these methods for their telephonic communication. * Technology is even important in face-to-face social situations. For example, when deaf people meet a hearing person who does not know sign language, they often communicate via the notepad on their cell phones. Here, technology takes the place of a human sense, allowing deaf individuals to successfully communicate with different cultures. * Social media tends to be of great importance to deaf individuals. Networking sites allow deaf people to find each other and to remain in contact. Many deaf people have deaf friends throughout the entire country that they met or maintain contact with through online communities. Because of the relatively small size of the deaf community, compared to other communities, the stigma of meeting others online does not exist. * Closed Captioning must be available on a television in order for a deaf person to fully appreciate the audio portion of the broadcast. Conflicts arise when establishments such as restaurants, airlines, or fitness centers fail to accommodate deaf people by turning on Closed Captioning. Movie theaters are increasingly compliant with providing visual access to first-run movies through stand-alone devices, glasses and open caption technology which allow deaf people to attend movies as they are released.<ref>{{cite web |last=Rood |first=Rachel |date=May 12, 2013 |title=New Closed-Captioning Glasses Help Deaf Go Out to the Movies : All Tech Considered |url=https://www.npr.org/blogs/alltechconsidered/2013/05/12/183218751/new-closed-captioning-glasses-help-deaf-go-out-to-the-movies |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518005619/https://www.npr.org/sections/alltechconsidered/2013/05/12/183218751/new-closed-captioning-glasses-help-deaf-go-out-to-the-movies |archive-date=18 May 2015 |access-date=2015-04-12 |website=NPR |publisher=}}</ref> * Alert systems such as fire alarms and alarm clocks must appeal to different senses in order for a deaf individual to notice the alert. Objects such as vibrating pillows and flashing lights often take the place of the noise-based alarms. * Lack of understanding about technological accessibility for the deaf causes conflict and injustice for the deaf community. For example, a significant number of deaf individuals in the UK admit that they are dissatisfied with their banks because of their heavy reliance on telephone banking and lack of assistance to deaf and hard-of-hearing individuals.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.actiononhearingloss.org.uk/news-and-events/all-regions/press-releases/banks-face-massive-payouts-to-deaf-customers.aspx|title = Banks face massive payouts to deaf customers|publisher = Action on Hearing Loss / RNID|date = 2012-02-21|access-date = 2015-04-12|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130604102110/http://www.actiononhearingloss.org.uk/news-and-events/all-regions/press-releases/banks-face-massive-payouts-to-deaf-customers.aspx?jse=1|archive-date = 2013-06-04}}</ref> * Architecture that is conducive to signed communication minimizes visual obstructions and may include such things as automatic sliding doors to free up the hands for continuous conversation.<ref>{{cite thesis|last=Tsymbal |first=Karina |year=2010 |title=Deaf Space and the Visual World – Buildings That Speak: An Elementary School For The Deaf |hdl=1903/11295 |publisher=University of Maryland |type=MArch}}</ref> ===Literary traditions and the arts=== {{Main|American Sign Language literature}} A strong tradition of poetry and storytelling exists in American Sign Language and other sign languages. Some prominent performers in the United States include [[Clayton Valli]], [[Ben Bahan]], [[Ella Mae Lentz]], Manny Hernandez, [[CJ Jones]], Debbie Rennie, Patrick Graybill, Peter Cook, and many others. Their works are now increasingly available on video.<ref name="bauman2006">{{cite book | first=Dirksen | last=Bauman | year=2006 | title=Signing the Body Poetic: Essays in American Sign Language Literature | publisher=University of California Press |editor= Jennifer Nelson |editor2=Heidi Rose | isbn=978-0-520-22975-4}}</ref> [[File:Literacy and arts 3.webm|thumb|Literacy traditions and arts (video in ASL)]] Culturally Deaf people have also represented themselves in the dominant written languages of their nations.<ref name="krentz2000">{{cite book | first=Christopher | last=Krentz | year=2000 | title=A Mighty Change: An Anthology of Deaf American Writing 1816–1864 | publisher=Gallaudet University Press | isbn=978-1-56368-101-1 | url-access=registration | url=https://archive.org/details/mightychangeanth0000unse }}</ref> Deaf artists such as [[Betty G. Miller]] and [[Chuck Baird]] have produced visual artwork that conveys a Deaf worldview.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sonnenstrahl |first=Deborah |year=2002 |title=Deaf Artists in America: Colonial to Contemporary |publisher=DawnSignPress |isbn=978-1-58121-050-7}}</ref> [[Douglas Tilden]] was a famous Deaf sculptor who produced many different sculptures in his lifetime.<ref>{{cite web|title=Douglas Tilden facts and information |publisher=Deafness.answers.com |url=http://www.deafness.answers.com/celebrities/douglas-tilden-facts-and-information |access-date=2015-04-17 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150404104124/http://deafness.answers.com/celebrities/douglas-tilden-facts-and-information |archive-date=2015-04-04 }}</ref> Some Deaf artists belong to an art movement called [[De'VIA]], which stands for Deaf View Image Art. Organizations such as the [[Deaf Professional Arts Network]] or D-PAN are dedicated to promoting professional development and access to the entertainment, visual and media arts fields for individuals who are deaf or hard-of-hearing.<ref>{{cite web |title=''Ability Magazine: Sean Forbes&nbsp;– Not Hard to Hear"'' (2011) |url=http://abilitymagazine.com/Sean-Forbes.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121004100107/http://abilitymagazine.com/Sean-Forbes.html |archive-date=2012-10-04 |access-date=2012-04-04 |website=Ability Magazine |publisher=}}</ref> [[Daily Moth]] was established by Alex Abenchuchan in 2017 to make the news accessible for Deaf ASL users.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dailymoth.com/|title=thedailymoth|website=thedailymoth|language=en|access-date=2018-03-08}}</ref> ===History=== {{For|detailed deaf history | Deaf history}} In the United States, the Cobbs School, a deaf school in Virginia, was established in 1815. This school lasted only one and half years due to financial setbacks.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The deaf history reader|date=2007|publisher=Gallaudet University Press|others=Van Cleve, John V.|isbn=9781563683596|location=Washington, DC|oclc=122715372}}</ref> American Deaf Community recounts the story of [[Laurent Clerc]], a deaf educator, coming to the United States from [[France]] in 1817 to help found the first permanent school for deaf children in the country now named [[American School for the Deaf]] in [[Hartford, Connecticut]].<ref name="krentz2000" /> American School is the first official school for the deaf.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Through Deaf Eyes . Deaf Life . The First Permanent School {{!}} PBS |url=http://www.pbs.org/weta/throughdeafeyes/deaflife/first_school.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180309054131/http://www.pbs.org/weta/throughdeafeyes/deaflife/first_school.html |archive-date=2018-03-09 |access-date=2018-03-08 |website=www.pbs.org}}</ref> Another well-known event is the 1880 [[Second International Congress on Education of the Deaf]] in [[Milan|Milan, Italy]], where hearing educators voted to embrace oral education and remove sign language from the classroom.<ref name="baynton1996">{{cite book | first=Douglas | last=Baynton | year=1996 | title=Forbidden Signs: American Culture and the Campaign against Sign Language | publisher=University of Chicago Press | isbn=978-0-226-03964-0}}</ref> This effort resulted in pressure around the world to abandon sign language in favor of the oral approach exclusively. The intent of the [[oralism|oralist]] method was to teach deaf children to speak and [[lip reading|lip read]] with limited or no use of sign language in the classroom in order to make it easier for deaf children to integrate into hearing communities, but the benefits of learning in such an environment are disputed. The Milan conference recommendations were repudiated in Hamburg a century later,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Brill |first=Richard G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eHHaAAAAMAAJ |title=International congresses on education of the deaf, an analytical history, 1878-1980 |publisher=Gallaudet College Press |year=1984 |isbn=0913580872 |location=Washington, D.C. |access-date=2 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240103060252/https://books.google.ca/books/about/International_Congresses_on_Education_of.html?id=eHHaAAAAMAAJ&redir_esc=y |archive-date=January 3, 2024 |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref> and sign languages in education came back into vogue after the publication of Stokoe's linguistic analyses of ASL. ===Shared institutions=== [[File:ArtClassStateSchooloftheDeafDelavanWisconsin.jpg|thumb|right|Women's art class at State School of the Deaf, Delavan, Wisconsin, c. 1880]] Deaf culture revolves around such institutions as residential schools for deaf students, universities for deaf students (including [[Gallaudet University]] and the [[National Technical Institute for the Deaf]]), deaf clubs, deaf athletic leagues, communal homes (such as The Home for Aged and Infirm Deaf-Mutes, founded by [[Jane Middleton]], in New York City), deaf social organizations (such as the Deaf Professional Happy Hour), deaf religious groups, [[Deaf theatre|deaf theaters]], and an array of conferences and festivals, such as the Deaf Way II Conference and Festival and the [[World Federation of the Deaf]] conferences. Deaf clubs, popular in the 1940s and 1950s, were also an important part of deaf culture. During this time there were very few places that deaf people could call their own– places run by deaf people for deaf people. Films were made from the Los Angeles Club for the Deaf and included styles of performances such as [[Vaudeville|Vaudeville show]] and short comedy skills. These films survived through the 1940s. Wolf Bragg, a popular Deaf club performer through 1930 is known for interpreting sign language into "[[The Monkey's Paw]]" and [[Auf Wiedersehen (song)|Auf Weidersehen]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Padden |first1=Carol A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7Oi7AAAAIAAJ |title=Inside Deaf Culture |last2=Humphries |first2=Tom L. |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2005 |isbn=9780674015067 |author-link=Carol Padden |author-link2=Tom L. Humphries |access-date=2 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240103060253/https://books.google.ca/books/about/Inside_Deaf_Culture.html?id=7Oi7AAAAIAAJ&source=kp_book_description&redir_esc=y |archive-date=January 3, 2024 |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref> Deaf clubs were the solution to this need. Money was made by selling alcohol and hosting card games. Sometimes these ventures were so successful that the building used by the club was able to be purchased. The main attraction of these clubs was that they provided a place that deaf people could go to be around other deaf people, sometimes sharing stories, hosting parties, comedians, and plays. Many of today's common ABC stories were first seen at deaf clubs. The clubs were found in all of the major cities, New York City being home to at least 12. These clubs were an important break from their usually solitary day spent at factory jobs.<ref name=bauman2008 /> In the 1960s, deaf clubs began their quick and drastic decline. Today there are only a few spread-out deaf clubs found in the United States and their attendance is commonly small with a tendency to the elderly. This sudden decline is often attributed to the rise of technology like the TTY and [[closed captioning]] for personal TVs. With other options available for entertainment and communication, the need for deaf clubs grew smaller. It was no longer the only option for getting in touch with other members of the deaf community.<ref name=bauman2008 /> Others attribute the decline of deaf clubs to the end of [[World War&nbsp;II]] and a change in the job market. During WWII there was high demand for factory laborers and a promise of high pay. Many deaf Americans left their homes to move to bigger cities with the hope of obtaining a factory job. This huge influx of workers into new cities created the need for deaf clubs. When World War&nbsp;II ended and the civil rights movement progressed, the federal government started offering more jobs to deaf men and women. People began switching from manufacturing jobs to service jobs, moving away from solitary work with set hours. Today, deaf clubs are rare, but deaf advocacy centers and other deaf organizations have become widespread and popular.<ref name=bauman2008 /> ====African-American==== [[National Black Deaf Advocates]] was established in 1982 "to promote the leadership development, economic and educational opportunities, social equality, and to safeguard the general health and welfare of Black deaf and hard-of-hearing people."<ref>{{cite web |title=About Us |url=http://www.nbda.org/content/about-us |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231012054930/https://www.nbda.org/about-us/ |archive-date=12 October 2023 |access-date=2015-04-12 |website=National Black Deaf Advocates}}</ref> ====LGBT==== There are several major institutions supporting the Deaf [[queer]] community in the United States. The Rainbow Alliance of the Deaf (RAD), previously named National Rainbow Society of the Deaf (NRSD), is a [[Nonprofit organization|nonprofit]] established in America in 1977 to, "establish and maintain a society of Deaf [[LGBT]]". The RAD hosts an annual conference "to encourage and promote the educational, economical, and social welfare of Deaf LGBTQ individuals. RAD now has chapters in the United States and Canada.<ref>{{cite web |url = https://www.deafrad.org/purpose.html |title = Purpose |website = Rainbow Alliance of the Deaf |access-date = 2015-09-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140913083126/https://www.deafrad.org/purpose.html |archive-date=13 September 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=HISTORY OF RAINBOW ALLIANCE OF THE DEAF |url=https://www.deafrad.org/history |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230924075743/https://www.deafrad.org/history |archive-date=24 September 2023 |access-date=2 January 2024 |website=deafrad.org}}</ref> The [[Drago Renteria#Deaf Queer Resource Center|Deaf Queer Resource Center (DQRC)]], was founded in 1995 founded by [[Drago Renteria]] and began as a website connects people to resources nationally. The DQRC is now a nonprofit that provides "peer support, support groups, information and referrals, educational workshops, work to increase visibility, educate on accessibility and preserve Deaf LGBT history."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Morandi |first=Jessica |date=2021-02-25 |title=How SF's Deaf Queer Resource Center Is Filling Gaps in Accessibility, Especially During COVID-19 |url=https://www.horizonsfoundation.org/how-sfs-deaf-queer-resource-center-is-filling-gaps-in-accessibility-especially-during-covid-19/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221103161648/https://www.horizonsfoundation.org/how-sfs-deaf-queer-resource-center-is-filling-gaps-in-accessibility-especially-during-covid-19/ |archive-date=2022-11-03 |access-date=2022-11-03 |website=Horizons Foundation}}</ref> Support and community groups for people with intersectional LGBGTQ+ identities in the Deaf, [[Deafblindness|DeafBlind]], DeafDisabled and Hard of Hearing communities using ASL are held regionally and virtually.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |last= |date=2021-10-01 |title=Online Communities For Deaf LGBTQ+ Individuals |url=https://www.csd.org/stories/online-groups-for-the-deaf-lgbtqia-community/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221127031523/https://csd.org/stories/online-groups-for-the-deaf-lgbtqia-community/ |archive-date=2022-11-27 |access-date=2022-11-27 |website=Communication Service for the Deaf (CSD)}}</ref> Queer ASL is an educational platform taught virtually by Deaf queer instructors focused on educating queer and trans people in a safe space.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jourian |first=T.J. |date=2022-03-22 |title=Learning About Queer and Trans Disability During Deaf History Month {{!}} BestColleges |url=https://www.bestcolleges.com/blog/queer-trans-disability-deaf-history-month/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221127025858/https://www.bestcolleges.com/blog/queer-trans-disability-deaf-history-month/ |archive-date=2022-11-27 |access-date=2022-11-27 |website=www.bestcolleges.com}}</ref> Deaf queer events include Rainbow Alliance of the Deaf conferences, the Deaf Lesbian Festival, and [[Deaf Queer Men Only]]. Internationally, institutions include the Hong Kong Bauhinias Deaf Club, Deaf LGBTW in Fukoaka, Tohoku, Tokyo, and Osaka,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Yamamoto |first=Fuyumi |date=2017 |title=Developing & Supporting Japanese Deaf LGBTQ Individuals and Communities |url=https://copenhagen2021.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/Presentation-Fuyumi-Yamamoto_compressed.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221103161648/https://copenhagen2021.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/Presentation-Fuyumi-Yamamoto_compressed.pdf |archive-date=November 3, 2022 |access-date=November 3, 2022 |website=WorldPride and EuroGames in Copenhagen and Malmö August 2021}}</ref> Pinoy Deaf Rainbow in the Philippines, Deaf Rainbow NSW in Australia, Deaf Rainbow UK, Rainbow International Deaf at Israel, and the Greenbow LGBT Society of Ireland.<ref name=":6" /><ref>{{cite web |last=Gianoulis |first=Tina |title=Deaf Culture |url=http://www.glbtqarchive.com/ssh/deaf_culture_S.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150928061908/http://www.glbtqarchive.com/ssh/deaf_culture_S.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-28 |access-date=2015-09-26 |website=glbtqarchive.com |publisher=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Other LGBT Organisations |url=http://www.lgbtdiversity.com/organisations.aspx?title=other_lgbt_organisations |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150408181400/http://www.lgbtdiversity.com/organisations.aspx?title=other_lgbt_organisations |archive-date=2015-04-08 |access-date=2015-04-12 |publisher=LGBT Diversity}}</ref> ====Religious==== [[File:A chapel for the deaf in Austria - Gehörlosenkapelle in Loimanns, Österreich.jpg|thumb|Chapel for deaf people in [[Loimanns]], [[Lower Austria]], built in 1979]] There are deaf churches (where sign language is the main language), deaf synagogues, deaf Jewish community centers, and the [[Hebrew Seminary of the Deaf]] in Illinois.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hebrewseminary.org |title=Hebrew Seminary – A Rabbinical School for Deaf and Hearing |access-date=2015-04-12 |archive-date=May 17, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140517101127/http://hebrewseminary.org/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=LwxzAwAAQBAJ&pg=RA2-PR64 |chapter=Judaism |title = Encyclopedia of Disability Volume 5 |pages=997–998 |publisher=Sage Publications |access-date = 2015-04-12|year = 2006|isbn = 978-0-7619-2565-1|editor-last = Albrecht|editor-first = Gary L.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://ohsoez.com/churches/churchtitle.htm |title=Churches for Deaf |publisher=Ohsoez.com |access-date=2015-04-12 |archive-date=April 20, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150420065827/http://www.ohsoez.com/churches/churchtitle.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=DeFiglio |first=Pam |title=Hebrew Seminary of the Deaf |work=Patch |url=http://skokie.patch.com/listings/hebrew-seminary-of-the-deaf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130911205820/http://skokie.patch.com/listings/hebrew-seminary-of-the-deaf |archive-date=2013-09-11}}</ref> In 2011 [[Conservative Judaism|the Conservative Movement]] unanimously passed the rabbinic responsa, "The Status of the Heresh [one who is deaf] and of Sign Language", by the [[Committee on Jewish Law and Standards]] (CJLS).<ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://www.jwi.org/page.aspx?pid=3312#sthash.YCGDTeU8.43imcFtO.dpbs |title=Hearing the Needs of the Jewish Deaf |last=Tomchin |first=Susan |date=April 2012 |journal=Jewish Women International |access-date=September 26, 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150928060733/http://www.jwi.org/page.aspx?pid=3312 |archive-date=September 28, 2015 }}</ref> This responsa declared that, among other things, "The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards rules that the deaf who communicate via sign language and do not speak are no longer to be considered mentally incapacitated. Jews who are deaf are responsible for observing [[mitzvot]]. Our communities, synagogues, schools, and camps must strive to be welcoming and accessible, and inclusive. Sign language may be used in matters of personal status and may be used in rituals. A deaf person called to the Torah who does not speak may recite the berakhot via sign language. A deaf person may serve as a [[hazzan|shaliah tzibbur]] in sign language in a [[minyan]] whose medium of communication is sign language."<ref>{{cite web |last=Laird |first=Grant Jr. |date=2011-06-20 |title=JDRC Salutes Conservative Judaism's Ruling to Include Deaf Jews as Equals |url=http://deafnetwork.com/wordpress/blog/2011/06/20/jdrc-salutes-conservative-judaisms-ruling-to-include-deaf-jews-as-equals/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518082131/https://deafnetwork.com/wordpress/blog/2011/06/20/jdrc-salutes-conservative-judaisms-ruling-to-include-deaf-jews-as-equals/ |archive-date=18 May 2015 |access-date=2015-04-12 |website=Deafnetwork.com |publisher=}}</ref> ====Women's==== There are 15 chapters of [[Deaf Women United]] throughout the United States; its mission is, "to promote the lives of Deaf women through empowerment, enrichment, and networking."<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.dwu.org/#!about_us/csgz|title = About Us|access-date = September 26, 2015|website = Deaf Women United}}</ref> There is also [[Pink Wings of Hope]], an American breast cancer support group for deaf and hard-of-hearing women.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://pink.deafinc.org/|title = Pink Wings of Hope|publisher = DEAF, Inc.|date = 2009-10-11|access-date = 2015-09-26}}</ref> ===Libraries=== The library at [[Gallaudet University]], the only deaf liberal arts university in the United States, was founded in 1876. The library's collection has grown from a small number of reference books to the world's largest collection of deaf-related materials, with over 234,000 books and thousands of other materials in different formats. The collection is so large that the library had to create a hybrid classification system based on the [[Dewey Decimal Classification System]] in order to make cataloging and location within the library easier for both library staff and users. The library also houses the university's archives, which holds some of the oldest deaf-related books and documents in the world.<ref name=harringt>{{cite book |title=The Deaf collection at the Gallaudet University Library. Education Libraries, 22(3) |first=T.R. |last=Harrington |year=1998 |pages=5–12 }}</ref><ref name="galludetlibrary">{{cite web|url=https://libguides.gallaudet.edu/c.php?g=774015&p=5552727|title=Collections|website=[[Gallaudet University]]|access-date=August 14, 2021|archive-url=https://archive.today/20210815015414/https://libguides.gallaudet.edu/c.php?g=774015&p=5552727|archive-date=August 15, 2021|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[American Library Association]], also founded in 1876,<ref>{{cite web |title=History |url=http://www.ala.org/aboutala/history |website=American Library Association |date=June 9, 2008 |access-date=February 27, 2022}}</ref> has stated that disabled people belong to a minority that is often overlooked and underrepresented by people in the library, and the Deaf community belongs in this minority group.<ref name=ala7>{{cite web|url=http://www.ala.org/ascla/asclaissues/libraryservices |title=Library services for people with disabilities policy |publisher=[[American Library Association]] |date=2012 |access-date=August 14, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150711210553/http://www.ala.org/ascla/asclaissues/libraryservices |archive-date=July 11, 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> The ALA's [[Library Bill of Rights]] preamble states that "all libraries are forums for information and ideas" and as such libraries need to remove the physical and technological barriers which in turn would allow persons with disabilities full access to the resources available.<ref name=ala8>{{cite web|url=http://www.ala.org/advocacy/intfreedom/librarybill/interpretations/servicespeopledisabilities |title=Library Bill Of Rights |access-date=August 14, 2021 |website=[[American Library Association]] |date=February 2, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427023936/http://www.ala.org/advocacy/intfreedom/librarybill/interpretations/servicespeopledisabilities |archive-date=April 27, 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> One notable American activist in the library community working toward accessibility for the deaf was [[Alice Lougee Hagemeyer]], herself deaf.<ref name="Hagemeyer">{{cite web|url=http://www.gallaudet.edu/about/history-and-traditions/alice-hagemeyer|title=Visionary Leader - January 2014: Alice Lougee Hagemeyer|date=January 2014|website=[[Gallaudet University]]|access-date=August 14, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180706191355/http://www.gallaudet.edu/about/history-and-traditions/alice-hagemeyer|archive-date=July 6, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="deafpeople1">{{cite web|url=http://www.deafpeople.com/dp_of_month/hagemeyer.html |title=Deaf Person of the Month |publisher=Deafpeople.com |access-date=August 14, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210526140911/http://www.deafpeople.com/dp_of_month/hagemeyer.html|archive-date=May 26, 2021|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1974 she created Deaf Awareness Week, later called Deaf Heritage Week, in which programs about deaf culture are held in libraries. In 1980 she founded the unit now known as the Library Service to People who are Deaf or Hard of Hearing Forum, which is a unit within the American Library Association.<ref name="tumblr1">{{cite web|url=http://womenoflibraryhistory.tumblr.com/post/113253914938/alice-lougee-hagemeyer |author=Lisa Petriello|title=Women of Library History; Alice Lougee Hagemeyer |publisher=Womenoflibraryhistory.tumblr.com |date=2015-03-10 |accessdate=2015-11-12}}{{PD-notice}}</ref> Australian librarian Karen McQuigg stated in 2003 that "even ten years ago, when I was involved in a project looking at what public libraries could offer the deaf, it seemed as if the gap between the requirements of this group and what public libraries could offer was too great for public libraries to be able to serve them effectively."<ref>{{cite journal|last = McQuigg|date = August 2003|title = Are the deaf a disabled group, or a linguistic minority? Issues for librarians in Victoria's public libraries|journal = Australian Library Journal|volume = 52 |issue = 4|url = http://alia.org.au/publishing/alj/52.4/full.text/mcquigg.html|first = Karen|pages = 367–377|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20040531090722/http://www.alia.org.au/publishing/alj/52.4/full.text/mcquigg.html|archive-date = May 31, 2004|doi = 10.1080/00049670.2003.10721582|doi-access = free}}</ref> In 2006 the American Library Association and the (American) National Association of the Deaf declared that they would recognize March 13 to April 15 as National Deaf History Month.<ref name="AHagemeyer">{{cite web|url=http://historytrendsanddeafeducation.pbworks.com/w/page/18570477/Alice%20Hagemeyer |title=historytrendsanddeafeducation / Alice Hagemeyer|author=Ellen Perlow |publisher=Historytrendsanddeafeducation.pbworks.com |date= |accessdate=2015-11-12}}</ref><ref name="tumblr1"/> New guidelines from library organizations such as [[International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions]] (IFLA) and the ALA were written in order to help libraries make their information more accessible to people with disabilities, and in some cases, specifically the Deaf community. IFLA's ''Guidelines for Library Services to Deaf People'' is one such set of guidelines, and it was published to inform libraries of the services that should be provided for Deaf patrons. Most of the guidelines pertain to ensuring that Deaf patrons have equal access to all available library services. Other guidelines include training library staff to provide services for the Deaf community, availability of text telephones or TTYs not only to assist patrons with reference questions but also for making outside calls, using the most recent technology in order to communicate more effectively with Deaf patrons, including closed captioning services for any television services, and developing a collection that would interest the members of the Deaf community.<ref>Day, J. M. (2000). Guidelines for library services to deaf people (Report no. 62). The Hague: International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions.</ref> Over the years, library services have begun to evolve in order to accommodate the needs and desires of local Deaf communities. For example, at the Queens Borough Public Library (QBPL) in New York, the staff implemented new and innovative ideas in order to involve the community and library staff with the Deaf people in their community. The QBPL hired a deaf librarian, Lori Stambler-Dunsmore, to train the library staff about Deaf culture, to teach sign language classes for family members and people who are involved with deaf people, and to teach literacy classes for Deaf patrons. In working with the library, Stambler-Dunsmore was able to help the community reach out to its deaf neighbors, and helped other deaf people become more active in their outside community.<ref>Hollander, P. (1995). Deaf-advocacy at Queens Borough PL. American Libraries, 26(6), 560–562.</ref> ===Services=== The library at [[Gallaudet University]], the only Deaf liberal arts university in the world, was founded in 1876. The library's collection has grown from a small number of reference books to the world's largest collection of deaf-related materials with over 234,000 books and thousands of other materials in different formats. The library created a hybrid classification system based on an extension of the [[Dewey decimal system]] because traditional Dewey was not fine-grained enough to handle thousands of books in relatively small classification areas such as [[audiology]] or Deaf communication.<ref name="Harrington-1998" />{{rp|9}} The library also houses the university's archives, which holds some of the oldest deaf-related books and documents in the world.<ref name="Harrington-1998">{{Cite journal | doi=10.26443/el.v22i3.131|title=The Deaf Collection at the Gallaudet University Library|year=2017|last1=Harrington|first1=Thomas R.|journal=Education Libraries|volume=22|issue=3|page=5|doi-access=free}}</ref> In Nashville, Tennessee, Sandy Cohen manages the Library Services for the Deaf and Hard of Hearing (LSDHH). The program was created in 1979 in response to information accessibility issues for the Deaf in the Nashville area. Originally, the only service provided was the news via a teletypewriter or TTY, but today, the program has expanded to serving the entire state of Tennessee by providing all different types of information and material on deafness, Deaf culture, and information for family members of Deaf people, as well as a historical and reference collection.<ref>Cohen, S. (2006). Have you heard about the Library Services for the Deaf & Hard of Hearing? Tennessee Libraries, 56(1), 51–56.</ref> ==See also== {{Portal|Society}} * [[Audism]] * [[Deaf culture in the United States]] * [[Deaf flag]] * [[Deaf mental health care]] * [[Language deprivation in deaf and hard of hearing children]] * [[List of Deaf films]] * [[Sign name]] *''[[U výčepu]]'', a Czech sign language comedy play ==References== {{Reflist|30em}} ==Further reading== * Berbrier, Mitch. "Being Deaf has little to do with one's ears": Boundary work in the Deaf culture movement. ''Perspectives on Social Problems'', 10, 79–100. * Cartwright, Brenda E. ''Encounters with Reality: 1001 (Deaf) interpreters scenarios'' * Christiansen, John B. (2003) ''Deaf President Now! The 1988 Revolution at Gallaudet University'', Gallaudet University Press * Holcomb, T. K. (2013). ''Introduction to American Deaf Culture.'' New York, USA: Oxford University Press. * [[Paddy Ladd|Ladd, P]]. (2003). ''Understanding Deaf Culture. In Search of Deafhood'', Toronto: Multilingual Matters. * Lane, Harlan (1993). ''The Mask of Benevolence'', New York: Random House. * Lane, Harlan. (1984) ''When the Mind Hears: A History of the Deaf'', New York: Vintage. * Lane, Harlan, Hoffmeister, Robert, & Bahan, Ben (1996). ''A Journey into the Deaf-World'', San Diego, CA: DawnSignPress. * Luczak, Raymond (1993). ''Eyes of Desire: A Deaf Gay & Lesbian Reader''. * Moore, Matthew S. & Levitan, Linda (2003). ''For Hearing People Only, Answers to Some of the Most Commonly Asked Questions About the Deaf Community, its Culture, and the "Deaf Reality"'', Rochester, New York: Deaf Life Press. * Padden, Carol A. (1980). The deaf community and the culture of Deaf people. In: C. Baker & R. Battison (eds.) ''Sign Language and the Deaf Community'', Silver Spring(EEUU): National Association of the Deaf. * Padden, Carol A. (1996). "From the cultural to the bicultural: the modern Deaf community", in Parasnis I, ed. ''Cultural and Language Diversity and the Deaf Experience'', Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press * Padden, Carol A. & Humphries, Tom L. (1988). ''Deaf in America: Voices from a Culture'', Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. * Padden, Carol A. & Humphries, Tom L. (2005). ''Inside Deaf Culture'', {{ISBN|978-0-674-01506-7}}. * [[Oliver Sacks|Sacks, Oliver W]]. (1989). ''[[Seeing Voices|Seeing Voices: A Journey Into The World Of The Deaf]]'', {{ISBN|978-0-520-06083-8}}. * Spradley, Thomas and Spradley, James (1985). ''Deaf Like Me'', Gallaudet University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-930323-11-0}}. * Van Cleve, John Vickrey & Crouch, Barry A. (1989). ''A Place of Their Own: Creating the Deaf Community in America'', {{ISBN|978-0-930323-49-3}}. ==External links== * {{cite web |author=Edward Dolnick |url=http://gallyprotest.org/atlantic_monthly.pdf |title=Deafness as Culture |date=1993 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181004224125/http://gallyprotest.org/atlantic_monthly.pdf |archive-date=2018-10-04}} * [http://wallsmirrors.blogspot.com/2006/05/deafness-is-not-disability-argumentum.html "Deafness is not a disability" (argumentum ad consequentiam)] Article discussing the controversy. * [http://www.unm.edu/~wilcox/UNM/Courses_files/Identity%20Politics%20Gone%20Wild.pdf Identity Politics Gone Wild, by Charlotte Allen]. ''Weekly Standard'', 2 April 2007 * ''[https://gaislandora.wrlc.org/islandora/object/gaislandora:90 The Silent Worker]&nbsp;''– a popular national newspaper among the deaf population of the United States during the end of the 1890s through the end of the first quarter of the 20th century. * [http://www.nad.org/ National Association of the Deaf]. 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