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<li id="toc-Invention" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Invention"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Invention</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Invention-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ongoing_developments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ongoing_developments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Ongoing developments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ongoing_developments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chemistry_and_principles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chemistry_and_principles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Chemistry and principles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chemistry_and_principles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Types" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Types</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Types-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Types subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Primary_and_secondary_batteries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_and_secondary_batteries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Primary and secondary batteries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_and_secondary_batteries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Composition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Composition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Composition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Composition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Consumer_and_industrial_grades" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consumer_and_industrial_grades"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Consumer and industrial grades</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consumer_and_industrial_grades-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Combination_and_management" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Combination_and_management"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Combination and management</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Combination_and_management-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sizes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sizes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Sizes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sizes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Comparison" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Comparison"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Comparison</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Comparison-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Performance,_capacity_and_discharge" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Performance,_capacity_and_discharge"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Performance, capacity and discharge</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Performance,_capacity_and_discharge-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lifespan_and_endurance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lifespan_and_endurance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Lifespan and endurance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lifespan_and_endurance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hazards" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hazards"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Hazards</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hazards-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legislation_and_regulation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legislation_and_regulation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Legislation and regulation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legislation_and_regulation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Electric battery</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 110 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-110" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">110 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battery" title="Battery – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Battery" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B7%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="بطارية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="بطارية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-atj mw-list-item"><a href="https://atj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patari" title="Patari – Atikamekw" lang="atj" hreflang="atj" data-title="Patari" data-language-autonym="Atikamekw" data-language-local-name="Atikamekw" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Atikamekw</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batareya" title="Batareya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Batareya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="باتری – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="باتری" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%A1%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A7%8E%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%B7" title="তড়িৎকোষ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="তড়িৎকোষ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%C4%81n-t%C3%AE" title="Tiān-tî – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Tiān-tî" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8D%D1%8F" title="Электрычная батарэя – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Электрычная батарэя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baterya" title="Baterya – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Baterya" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Батерия – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Батерия" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektri%C4%8Dna_baterija" title="Električna baterija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Električna baterija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bateria_el%C3%A8ctrica" title="Bateria elèctrica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Bateria elèctrica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrick%C3%A1_baterie" title="Elektrická baterie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Elektrická baterie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batri_(trydan)" title="Batri (trydan) – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Batri (trydan)" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batteri" title="Batteri – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Batteri" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%8A%D9%81%D8%A9_%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B6%D9%88" title="التستيفة د الضو – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="التستيفة د الضو" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>الدارجة</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batterie_(Elektrotechnik)" title="Batterie (Elektrotechnik) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Batterie (Elektrotechnik)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patarei" title="Patarei – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Patarei" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CF%80%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Μπαταρία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μπαταρία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bater%C3%ADa_(electricidad)" title="Batería (electricidad) – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Batería (electricidad)" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilo" title="Pilo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Pilo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pila" title="Pila – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Pila" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="باتری – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="باتری" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pile_%C3%A9lectrique" title="Pile électrique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Pile électrique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batterij" title="Batterij – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Batterij" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceallra" title="Ceallra – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Ceallra" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bataraidh" title="Bataraidh – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Bataraidh" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bater%C3%ADa_(electricidade)" title="Batería (electricidade) – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Batería (electricidade)" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E6%B1%A0" title="電池 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="電池" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>贛語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%B5%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%A6%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%AF%E0%AB%81%E0%AA%A4_%E0%AA%95%E0%AB%8B%E0%AA%B7" title="વિદ્યુત કોષ – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="વિદ્યુત કોષ" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ગુજરાતી</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A0%84%EC%A7%80" title="전지 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="전지" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batirin_lantarki" title="Batirin lantarki – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Batirin lantarki" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A4_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B7" title="विद्युत कोष – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="विद्युत कोष" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baterija" title="Baterija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Baterija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gor mw-list-item"><a href="https://gor.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baterai_listrik" title="Baterai listrik – Gorontalo" lang="gor" hreflang="gor" data-title="Baterai listrik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Hulontalo" data-language-local-name="Gorontalo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Hulontalo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baterai_listrik" title="Baterai listrik – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Baterai listrik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/IsiPhathanzuba" title="IsiPhathanzuba – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="IsiPhathanzuba" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiZulu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rafhla%C3%B0a" title="Rafhlaða – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Rafhlaða" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pila_(elettrotecnica)" title="Pila (elettrotecnica) – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Pila (elettrotecnica)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%9C%D7%94_%D7%97%D7%A9%D7%9E%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%AA" title="סוללה חשמלית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="סוללה חשמלית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bater%C3%A9" title="Bateré – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Bateré" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B6%E0%B3%81%E0%B2%B7%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%95%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8B%E0%B2%B6_(%E0%B2%A1%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%88%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%B2%E0%B3%8D)" title="ಶುಷ್ಕಕೋಶ (ಡ್ರೈಸೆಲ್) – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಶುಷ್ಕಕೋಶ (ಡ್ರೈಸೆಲ್)" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%90%E1%83%A2%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%90" title="ბატარეა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ბატარეა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%8F" title="Батарея – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Батарея" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betri" title="Betri – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Betri" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pil_elektrik" title="Pil elektrik – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Pil elektrik" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pil_%C3%A9lektrik" title="Pil élektrik – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Pil élektrik" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bater%C3%AE" title="Baterî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Baterî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%8F" title="Батарея – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Батарея" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accumulatrum_electricum" title="Accumulatrum electricum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Accumulatrum electricum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baterija" title="Baterija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Baterija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baterija" title="Baterija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Baterija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lektrikbatterie" title="Lektrikbatterie – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Lektrikbatterie" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bataria_(eletrotecnega)" title="Bataria (eletrotecnega) – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Bataria (eletrotecnega)" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sz%C3%A1razelem" title="Szárazelem – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Szárazelem" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Батерија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Батерија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AC%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B4%B1%E0%B4%BF" title="ബാറ്ററി – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ബാറ്ററി" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%98%E0%A4%9F" title="विद्युतघट – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="विद्युतघट" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bateri" title="Bateri – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Bateri" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Di%C3%AAng-t%C3%B9" title="Diêng-tù – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Diêng-tù" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B9" title="Батарей – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Батарей" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%98%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA%E1%80%91%E1%80%9B%E1%80%AE" title="ဘက်ထရီ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဘက်ထရီ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batterij_(elektrisch)" title="Batterij (elektrisch) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Batterij (elektrisch)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80" title="विद्युतीय ब्याट्री – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="विद्युतीय ब्याट्री" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E6%B1%A0" title="電池 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="電池" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baterii" title="Baterii – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Baterii" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrisk_batteri" title="Elektrisk batteri – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Elektrisk batteri" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrisk_batteri" title="Elektrisk batteri – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Elektrisk batteri" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pila_electrica" title="Pila electrica – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Pila electrica" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%AC%E0%AD%8D%E0%AD%9F%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%9F%E0%AD%87%E0%AC%B0%E0%AD%80" title="ବ୍ୟାଟେରୀ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ବ୍ୟାଟେରୀ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ଓଡ଼ିଆ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baatirii" title="Baatirii – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Baatirii" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektr_batareyasi" title="Elektr batareyasi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Elektr batareyasi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AC%E0%A9%88%E0%A8%9F%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%80" title="ਬੈਟਰੀ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਬੈਟਰੀ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DB%8C%D9%B9%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="بیٹری – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="بیٹری" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%DB%90%DA%9A%D9%86%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%8A_%D8%A8%D9%BC%D8%B1%DB%8D" title="برېښنایي بټرۍ – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="برېښنایي بټرۍ" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilekchrik_bachri" title="Ilekchrik bachri – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Ilekchrik bachri" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%80%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%BE%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%8B%E1%9E%90%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%98%E1%9E%A2%E1%9E%82%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%82%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%B8" title="ការប្រើប្រាស់ថ្មអគ្គិសនី – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="ការប្រើប្រាស់ថ្មអគ្គិសនី" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bateria_ogniw" title="Bateria ogniw – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Bateria ogniw" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bateria_(eletricidade)" title="Bateria (eletricidade) – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Bateria (eletricidade)" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baterie_electric%C4%83" title="Baterie electrică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Baterie electrică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinchikilla_pila" title="Pinchikilla pila – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Pinchikilla pila" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%8F_(%D1%8D%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0)" title="Батарея (электротехника) – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Батарея (электротехника)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bateria" title="Bateria – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Bateria" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battar%C3%ACa_(accumulaturi)" title="Battarìa (accumulaturi) – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Battarìa (accumulaturi)" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B6%E0%B7%90%E0%B6%A7%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%92" title="බැටරි – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="බැටරි" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battery" title="Battery – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Battery" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baterija_(elektrika)" title="Baterija (elektrika) – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Baterija (elektrika)" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cu mw-list-item"><a href="https://cu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%94%D1%80%D1%97%D1%A5" title="Батєрїѥ – Church Slavic" lang="cu" hreflang="cu" data-title="Батєрїѥ" data-language-autonym="Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ" data-language-local-name="Church Slavic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="باتری – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="باتری" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Батерија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Батерија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baterija" title="Baterija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Baterija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batr%C3%A9" title="Batré – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Batré" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paristo" title="Paristo – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Paristo" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batteri" title="Batteri – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Batteri" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baterya" title="Baterya – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Baterya" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="மின்கலம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மின்கலம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AC%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%9F%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%80" title="బ్యాటరీ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="బ్యాటరీ" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%95%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B5%E0%B9%88" title="แบตเตอรี่ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="แบตเตอรี่" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pil" title="Pil – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Pil" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%8F_(%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0)" title="Батарея (електрика) – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Батарея (електрика)" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DB%8C%D9%B9%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="بیٹری – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="بیٹری" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bat%C3%A8ria_(ch%C3%ACmega)" title="Batèria (chìmega) – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Batèria (chìmega)" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pin_%C4%91i%E1%BB%87n" title="Pin điện – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Pin điện" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-guc mw-list-item"><a href="https://guc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wateriia" title="Wateriia – Wayuu" lang="guc" hreflang="guc" data-title="Wateriia" data-language-autonym="Wayuunaiki" data-language-local-name="Wayuu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Wayuunaiki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E6%B1%A0" title="電池 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="電池" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bateriya" title="Bateriya – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Bateriya" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%B5%E6%B1%A0" title="电池 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="电池" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%90%D7%98%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%A2" title="באטעריע – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="באטעריע" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E6%B1%A0" title="電池 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="電池" 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.infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><caption class="infobox-title">Battery</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Batteries.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Batteries.jpg/250px-Batteries.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/Batteries.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="214" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Various cells and batteries (top left to bottom right): two <a href="/wiki/AA_battery" title="AA battery">AA</a>, one <a href="/wiki/D_battery" title="D battery">D</a>, one handheld <a href="/wiki/Ham_radio" class="mw-redirect" title="Ham radio">ham radio</a> battery, two <a href="/wiki/9-volt_battery" class="mw-redirect" title="9-volt battery">9-volt</a> (PP3), two <a href="/wiki/AAA_battery" title="AAA battery">AAA</a>, one <a href="/wiki/C_battery" title="C battery">C</a>, one <a href="/wiki/Camcorder" title="Camcorder">camcorder</a> battery, one <a href="/wiki/Cordless_phone" class="mw-redirect" title="Cordless phone">cordless phone</a> battery</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Type</th><td class="infobox-data">Power source</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><span class="nowrap">Working principle<span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span></span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Electrochemical_reactions" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrochemical reactions">Electrochemical reactions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electromotive_force" title="Electromotive force">Electromotive force</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><span class="nowrap">First production </span></th><td class="infobox-data">1800s</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header"><a href="/wiki/Electronic_symbol" title="Electronic symbol">Electronic symbol</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:IEEE_315_Fundamental_Items_Symbols_(90).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/IEEE_315_Fundamental_Items_Symbols_%2890%29.svg/150px-IEEE_315_Fundamental_Items_Symbols_%2890%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/IEEE_315_Fundamental_Items_Symbols_%2890%29.svg/225px-IEEE_315_Fundamental_Items_Symbols_%2890%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/IEEE_315_Fundamental_Items_Symbols_%2890%29.svg/300px-IEEE_315_Fundamental_Items_Symbols_%2890%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></a></span><br />The <a href="/wiki/Electronic_symbol" title="Electronic symbol">symbol</a> for a battery in a <a href="/wiki/Circuit_diagram" title="Circuit diagram">circuit diagram</a>. It originated as a schematic drawing of the earliest type of battery, a <a href="/wiki/Voltaic_pile" title="Voltaic pile">voltaic pile</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> <p>An <b>electric battery</b> is a source of <a href="/wiki/Electric_power" title="Electric power">electric power</a> consisting of one or more <a href="/wiki/Electrochemical_cell" title="Electrochemical cell">electrochemical cells</a> with external connections<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for powering <a href="/wiki/Electricity" title="Electricity">electrical</a> devices. When a battery is supplying power, its positive terminal is the <a href="/wiki/Cathode" title="Cathode">cathode</a> and its negative terminal is the <a href="/wiki/Anode" title="Anode">anode</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Pauling1988_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pauling1988-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The terminal marked negative is the source of electrons. When a battery is connected to an external electric load, those negatively charged electrons flow through the circuit and reach to the positive terminal, thus cause a <a href="/wiki/Redox" title="Redox">redox</a> reaction by attracting positively charged ions, cations. Thus converts high-energy reactants to lower-energy products, and the <a href="/wiki/Gibbs_free_energy" title="Gibbs free energy">free-energy</a> difference is delivered to the external circuit as electrical energy. Historically the term "battery" specifically referred to a device composed of multiple cells; however, the usage has evolved to include devices composed of a single cell.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Primary_battery" title="Primary battery">Primary</a> (single-use or "disposable") batteries are used once and <a href="/wiki/Disposable_product" title="Disposable product">discarded</a>, as the <a href="/wiki/Electrode" title="Electrode">electrode</a> materials are irreversibly changed during discharge; a common example is the <a href="/wiki/Alkaline_battery" title="Alkaline battery">alkaline battery</a> used for <a href="/wiki/Flashlight" title="Flashlight">flashlights</a> and a multitude of portable electronic devices. <a href="/wiki/Rechargeable_battery" title="Rechargeable battery">Secondary (rechargeable) batteries</a> can be discharged and recharged multiple times using an applied electric current; the original composition of the electrodes can be restored by reverse current. Examples include the <a href="/wiki/Lead%E2%80%93acid_battery" title="Lead–acid battery">lead–acid batteries</a> used in vehicles and <a href="/wiki/Lithium-ion" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithium-ion">lithium-ion</a> batteries used for portable electronics such as <a href="/wiki/Laptop" title="Laptop">laptops</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mobile_phone" title="Mobile phone">mobile phones</a>. </p><p>Batteries come in many shapes and sizes, from miniature cells used to power <a href="/wiki/Hearing_aid" title="Hearing aid">hearing aids</a> and wristwatches to, at the largest extreme, huge battery banks the size of rooms that provide standby or emergency power for <a href="/wiki/Telephone_exchange" title="Telephone exchange">telephone exchanges</a> and computer <a href="/wiki/Data_center" title="Data center">data centers</a>. Batteries have much lower <a href="/wiki/Specific_energy" title="Specific energy">specific energy</a> (energy per unit mass) than common <a href="/wiki/Fuel" title="Fuel">fuels</a> such as gasoline. In automobiles, this is somewhat offset by the higher efficiency of electric motors in converting electrical energy to mechanical work, compared to combustion engines. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <span class="anonymous-show"><span class="plainlinks"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AElectric_battery&preload=Template%3ASubmit+an+edit+request%2Fpreload&action=edit&section=new&editintro=Template%3AEdit+protected%2Feditintro&preloadtitle=Protected+edit+request+on+22+November+2024&preloadparams%5B%5D=edit+fully-protected&preloadparams%5B%5D=Electric+battery">making an edit request</a></span></span><span class="user-show"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Electric_battery&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a> </span>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">February 2022</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_battery" title="History of the battery">History of the battery</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Invention">Invention</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:392px;max-width:392px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:157px;max-width:157px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:328px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pila_di_Volta.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Pila_di_Volta.jpg/155px-Pila_di_Volta.jpg" decoding="async" width="155" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Pila_di_Volta.jpg/233px-Pila_di_Volta.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Pila_di_Volta.jpg/310px-Pila_di_Volta.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="2128" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">A <a href="/wiki/Voltaic_pile" title="Voltaic pile">voltaic pile</a>, the first battery</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:231px;max-width:231px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:328px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:La_pile_de_Volta_(Le_Petit_journal).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/La_pile_de_Volta_%28Le_Petit_journal%29.jpg/229px-La_pile_de_Volta_%28Le_Petit_journal%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="229" height="328" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/La_pile_de_Volta_%28Le_Petit_journal%29.jpg/344px-La_pile_de_Volta_%28Le_Petit_journal%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/La_pile_de_Volta_%28Le_Petit_journal%29.jpg/458px-La_pile_de_Volta_%28Le_Petit_journal%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3444" data-file-height="4939" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Italian physicist <a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Volta" title="Alessandro Volta">Alessandro Volta</a> demonstrating his pile to French emperor <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoleon Bonaparte">Napoleon Bonaparte</a></div></div></div></div></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a> first used the term "battery" in 1749 when he was doing experiments with electricity using a set of linked <a href="/wiki/Leyden_jar" title="Leyden jar">Leyden jar</a> capacitors.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Franklin grouped a number of the jars into what he described as a "battery", using the military term for weapons functioning together.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By multiplying the number of holding vessels, a stronger charge could be stored, and more power would be available on discharge. </p><p>Italian physicist <a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Volta" title="Alessandro Volta">Alessandro Volta</a> built and described the first electrochemical battery, the <a href="/wiki/Voltaic_pile" title="Voltaic pile">voltaic pile</a>, in 1800.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was a stack of copper and zinc plates, separated by brine-soaked paper disks, that could produce a steady current for a considerable length of time. Volta did not understand that the voltage was due to chemical reactions. He thought that his cells were an inexhaustible source of energy,<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and that the associated corrosion effects at the electrodes were a mere nuisance, rather than an unavoidable consequence of their operation, as <a href="/wiki/Michael_Faraday" title="Michael Faraday">Michael Faraday</a> showed in 1834.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although early batteries were of great value for experimental purposes,<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in practice their voltages fluctuated and they could not provide a large current for a sustained period. The <a href="/wiki/Daniell_cell" title="Daniell cell">Daniell cell</a>, invented in 1836 by British chemist <a href="/wiki/John_Frederic_Daniell" title="John Frederic Daniell">John Frederic Daniell</a>, was the first practical source of <a href="/wiki/Electricity" title="Electricity">electricity</a>, becoming an industry standard and seeing widespread adoption as a power source for <a href="/wiki/Electrical_telegraph" title="Electrical telegraph">electrical telegraph</a> networks.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It consisted of a copper pot filled with a <a href="/wiki/Copper_sulfate" title="Copper sulfate">copper sulfate</a> solution, in which was immersed an unglazed <a href="/wiki/Earthenware" title="Earthenware">earthenware</a> container filled with <a href="/wiki/Sulfuric_acid" title="Sulfuric acid">sulfuric acid</a> and a zinc electrode.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>These wet cells used liquid electrolytes, which were prone to leakage and spillage if not handled correctly. Many used glass jars to hold their components, which made them fragile and potentially dangerous. These characteristics made wet cells unsuitable for portable appliances. Near the end of the nineteenth century, the invention of <a href="/wiki/Dry_cell" title="Dry cell">dry cell batteries</a>, which replaced the liquid electrolyte with a paste, made portable electrical devices practical.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Vacuum_tube_battery" title="Vacuum tube battery">Batteries in vacuum tube devices</a> historically used a wet cell for the "A" battery (to provide power to the filament) and a dry cell for the "B" battery (to provide the plate voltage).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ongoing_developments">Ongoing developments</h3></div> <p>Between 2010 and 2018, annual battery demand grew by 30%, reaching a total of 180 <a href="/wiki/GWh" class="mw-redirect" title="GWh">GWh</a> in 2018. Conservatively, the growth rate is expected to be maintained at an estimated 25%, culminating in demand reaching 2600 GWh in 2030. In addition, cost reductions are expected to further increase the demand to as much as 3562 GWh.<sup id="cite_ref-WEFGBA2019_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WEFGBA2019-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Important reasons for this high rate of growth of the electric battery industry include the electrification of transport, and large-scale deployment in electricity grids, supported by <a href="/wiki/Decarbonization" class="mw-redirect" title="Decarbonization">decarbonization</a> initiatives.<sup id="cite_ref-WEFGBA2019_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WEFGBA2019-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Distributed electric batteries, such as those used in <a href="/wiki/Battery_electric_vehicles" class="mw-redirect" title="Battery electric vehicles">battery electric vehicles</a> (<a href="/wiki/Vehicle-to-grid" title="Vehicle-to-grid">vehicle-to-grid</a>), and in <a href="/wiki/Home_energy_storage" title="Home energy storage">home energy storage</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Smart_metering" class="mw-redirect" title="Smart metering">smart metering</a> and that are connected to <a href="/wiki/Smart_grid" title="Smart grid">smart grids</a> for <a href="/wiki/Demand_response" title="Demand response">demand response</a>, are active participants in smart power supply grids.<sup id="cite_ref-Pierluigi2014_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pierluigi2014-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> New methods of reuse, such as echelon use of partly-used batteries, add to the overall utility of electric batteries, reduce energy storage costs, and also reduce pollution/emission impacts due to longer lives. In echelon use of batteries, <a href="/wiki/Vehicle_electric_batteries" class="mw-redirect" title="Vehicle electric batteries">vehicle electric batteries</a> that have their battery capacity reduced to less than 80%, usually after service of 5–8 years, are repurposed for use as backup supply or for renewable energy storage systems.<sup id="cite_ref-Echelon_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Echelon-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Grid scale energy storage envisages the large-scale use of batteries to <a href="/wiki/Battery_storage_power_station" class="mw-redirect" title="Battery storage power station">collect and store energy</a> from the grid or a power plant and then discharge that energy at a later time to provide electricity or other grid services when needed. Grid scale energy storage (either turnkey or distributed) are important components of smart power supply grids.<sup id="cite_ref-NREL2019_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NREL2019-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Chemistry_and_principles">Chemistry and principles</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Electrochemical_cell" title="Electrochemical cell">Electrochemical cell</a> and <a href="/wiki/Voltaic_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Voltaic cell">Voltaic cell</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ElectrochemCell.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/ElectrochemCell.png/220px-ElectrochemCell.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/ElectrochemCell.png/330px-ElectrochemCell.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/ElectrochemCell.png/440px-ElectrochemCell.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="384" /></a><figcaption>A voltaic cell for demonstration purposes. In this example the two half-cells are linked by a <a href="/wiki/Salt_bridge" title="Salt bridge">salt bridge</a> that permits the transfer of ions.</figcaption></figure> <p>Batteries convert <a href="/wiki/Chemical_energy" title="Chemical energy">chemical energy</a> directly to <a href="/wiki/Electrical_energy" title="Electrical energy">electrical energy</a>. In many cases, the electrical energy released is the difference in the cohesive<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or bond energies of the metals, oxides, or molecules undergoing the electrochemical reaction. For instance, energy can be stored in Zn or Li, which are high-energy metals because they are not stabilized by d-electron bonding, unlike <a href="/wiki/Transition_metals" class="mw-redirect" title="Transition metals">transition metals</a>. Batteries are designed so that the energetically favorable <a href="/wiki/Redox" title="Redox">redox</a> reaction can occur only when electrons move through the external part of the circuit. </p><p>A battery consists of some number of <a href="/wiki/Voltaic_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Voltaic cell">voltaic cells</a>. Each cell consists of two <a href="/wiki/Half-cell" title="Half-cell">half-cells</a> connected in series by a conductive <a href="/wiki/Electrolyte" title="Electrolyte">electrolyte</a> containing metal <i>cations</i>. One half-cell includes electrolyte and the negative electrode, the electrode to which <a href="/wiki/Ion#Anions_and_cations" title="Ion">anions</a> (negatively charged ions) migrate; the other half-cell includes electrolyte and the positive electrode, to which <a href="/wiki/Ion#Anions_and_cations" title="Ion">cations</a> (positively charged <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ions</a>) migrate. Cations are reduced (electrons are added) at the cathode, while metal atoms are oxidized (electrons are removed) at the anode.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some cells use different electrolytes for each half-cell; then a separator is used to prevent mixing of the electrolytes while allowing ions to flow between half-cells to complete the electrical circuit. </p><p>Each half-cell has an <a href="/wiki/Electromotive_force" title="Electromotive force">electromotive force</a> (<i>emf</i>, measured in volts) relative to a <a href="/wiki/Standard_hydrogen_electrode" title="Standard hydrogen electrode">standard</a>. The net emf of the cell is the difference between the emfs of its half-cells.<sup id="cite_ref-Saslow_338_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Saslow_338-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, if the electrodes have emfs <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\mathcal {E}}_{1}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">E</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\mathcal {E}}_{1}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/850b84881ce9a2b237b4691fca2c0f58a4ebc2f9" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.282ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\mathcal {E}}_{1}}"></span> and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\mathcal {E}}_{2}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">E</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\mathcal {E}}_{2}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/061586472976f75059c82f1b13a0887434372b44" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.282ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\mathcal {E}}_{2}}"></span>, then the net emf is <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\mathcal {E}}_{2}-{\mathcal {E}}_{1}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">E</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">E</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\mathcal {E}}_{2}-{\mathcal {E}}_{1}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b2d1013a8687c092a959a92cb82a30eabced6fcc" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:7.404ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\mathcal {E}}_{2}-{\mathcal {E}}_{1}}"></span>; in other words, the net emf is the difference between the <a href="/wiki/Reduction_potential" title="Reduction potential">reduction potentials</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Half-reaction" title="Half-reaction">half-reactions</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The electrical driving force or <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \displaystyle {\Delta V_{bat}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">Δ</mi> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>b</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </mstyle> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \displaystyle {\Delta V_{bat}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/d9cf1b0dd328077e33e07613c0cd46e6f728fa9d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:5.692ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \displaystyle {\Delta V_{bat}}}"></span> across the <a href="/wiki/Battery_terminal" title="Battery terminal">terminals</a> of a cell is known as the <i>terminal voltage (difference)</i> and is measured in <a href="/wiki/Volt" title="Volt">volts</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pse943_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pse943-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The terminal voltage of a cell that is neither charging nor discharging is called the <a href="/wiki/Open-circuit_voltage" title="Open-circuit voltage">open-circuit voltage</a> and equals the emf of the cell. Because of internal resistance,<sup id="cite_ref-pse976_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pse976-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the terminal voltage of a cell that is discharging is smaller in magnitude than the open-circuit voltage and the terminal voltage of a cell that is charging exceeds the open-circuit voltage.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An ideal cell has negligible internal resistance, so it would maintain a constant terminal voltage of <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\mathcal {E}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">E</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\mathcal {E}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9c298ed828ff778065aeb5f0f305097f55bb9ae0" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.311ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\mathcal {E}}}"></span> until exhausted, then dropping to zero. If such a cell maintained 1.5 volts and produced a charge of one <a href="/wiki/Coulomb" title="Coulomb">coulomb</a> then on complete discharge it would have performed 1.5 <a href="/wiki/Joule" title="Joule">joules</a> of work.<sup id="cite_ref-pse943_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pse943-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In actual cells, the internal resistance increases under discharge<sup id="cite_ref-pse976_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pse976-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the open-circuit voltage also decreases under discharge. If the voltage and resistance are plotted against time, the resulting graphs typically are a curve; the shape of the curve varies according to the chemistry and internal arrangement employed. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Voltage" title="Voltage">voltage</a> developed across a cell's terminals depends on the energy release of the chemical reactions of its electrodes and electrolyte. <a href="/wiki/Alkaline_battery" title="Alkaline battery">Alkaline</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zinc%E2%80%93carbon_battery" title="Zinc–carbon battery">zinc–carbon</a> cells have different chemistries, but approximately the same emf of 1.5 volts; likewise <a href="/wiki/Nickel%E2%80%93cadmium_battery" title="Nickel–cadmium battery">NiCd</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nickel%E2%80%93metal_hydride_battery" title="Nickel–metal hydride battery">NiMH</a> cells have different chemistries, but approximately the same emf of 1.2 volts.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The high electrochemical potential changes in the reactions of <a href="/wiki/Lithium" title="Lithium">lithium</a> compounds give lithium cells emfs of 3 volts or more.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Almost any liquid or moist object that has enough ions to be electrically conductive can serve as the electrolyte for a cell. As a novelty or science demonstration, it is possible to insert two electrodes made of different metals into a <a href="/wiki/Lemon_battery" title="Lemon battery">lemon</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> potato,<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> etc. and generate small amounts of electricity. </p><p>A voltaic pile can be made from two coins (such as a nickel and a <a href="/wiki/Penny" title="Penny">penny</a>) and a piece of <a href="/wiki/Paper_towel" title="Paper towel">paper towel</a> dipped in <a href="/wiki/Saline_water" title="Saline water">salt water</a>. Such a pile generates a very low voltage but, when many are stacked in <a href="/wiki/Series_circuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Series circuit">series</a>, they can replace normal batteries for a short time.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Battery_nomenclature" title="Battery nomenclature">Battery nomenclature</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_battery_types" title="List of battery types">List of battery types</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_and_secondary_batteries">Primary and secondary batteries</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Batteries_comparison_4,5_D_C_AA_AAA_AAAA_A23_9V_CR2032_LR44_matchstick-vertical.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Batteries_comparison_4%2C5_D_C_AA_AAA_AAAA_A23_9V_CR2032_LR44_matchstick-vertical.jpeg/170px-Batteries_comparison_4%2C5_D_C_AA_AAA_AAAA_A23_9V_CR2032_LR44_matchstick-vertical.jpeg" decoding="async" width="170" height="665" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Batteries_comparison_4%2C5_D_C_AA_AAA_AAAA_A23_9V_CR2032_LR44_matchstick-vertical.jpeg/255px-Batteries_comparison_4%2C5_D_C_AA_AAA_AAAA_A23_9V_CR2032_LR44_matchstick-vertical.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Batteries_comparison_4%2C5_D_C_AA_AAA_AAAA_A23_9V_CR2032_LR44_matchstick-vertical.jpeg/340px-Batteries_comparison_4%2C5_D_C_AA_AAA_AAAA_A23_9V_CR2032_LR44_matchstick-vertical.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="1076" data-file-height="4212" /></a><figcaption>From top to bottom: a large 4.5-volt <i><a href="/wiki/3R12" class="mw-redirect" title="3R12">3R12</a></i> battery, a <i><a href="/wiki/D_battery" title="D battery">D Cell</a></i>, a <i><a href="/wiki/C_battery" title="C battery">C cell</a></i>, an <i><a href="/wiki/AA_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="AA cell">AA cell</a></i>, an <i><a href="/wiki/AAA_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="AAA cell">AAA cell</a></i>, an <i><a href="/wiki/AAAA_battery" title="AAAA battery">AAAA cell</a></i>, an <i><a href="/wiki/A23_battery" title="A23 battery">A23 battery</a></i>, a 9-volt <i><a href="/wiki/PP3_battery" class="mw-redirect" title="PP3 battery">PP3 battery</a></i>, and a pair of <a href="/wiki/Button_cell" title="Button cell">button cells</a> (CR2032 and LR44)</figcaption></figure> <p>Batteries are classified into primary and secondary forms: </p> <ul><li><i>Primary</i> batteries are designed to be used until exhausted of energy then discarded. Their chemical reactions are generally not reversible, so they cannot be recharged. When the supply of reactants in the battery is exhausted, the battery stops producing current and is useless.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i>Secondary</i> batteries can be recharged; that is, they can have their chemical reactions reversed by applying <a href="/wiki/Electric_current" title="Electric current">electric current</a> to the cell. This regenerates the original chemical reactants, so they can be used, recharged, and used again multiple times.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Some types of primary batteries used, for example, for <a href="/wiki/Telegraphy" title="Telegraphy">telegraph</a> circuits, were restored to operation by replacing the electrodes.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Secondary batteries are not indefinitely rechargeable due to dissipation of the active materials, loss of electrolyte and internal corrosion. </p><p>Primary batteries, or <a href="/wiki/Primary_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Primary cell">primary cells</a>, can produce current immediately on assembly. These are most commonly used in portable devices that have low current drain, are used only intermittently, or are used well away from an alternative power source, such as in alarm and communication circuits where other electric power is only intermittently available. Disposable primary cells cannot be reliably recharged, since the chemical reactions are not easily reversible and active materials may not return to their original forms. Battery manufacturers recommend against attempting to recharge primary cells.<sup id="cite_ref-durcar_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-durcar-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In general, these have higher <a href="/wiki/Energy_densities" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy densities">energy densities</a> than rechargeable batteries,<sup id="cite_ref-enralk_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-enralk-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but disposable batteries do not fare well under high-drain applications with <a href="/wiki/Electrical_load" title="Electrical load">loads</a> under 75 <a href="/wiki/Ohm" title="Ohm">ohms</a> (75 Ω). Common types of disposable batteries include <a href="/wiki/Zinc%E2%80%93carbon_batteries" class="mw-redirect" title="Zinc–carbon batteries">zinc–carbon batteries</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alkaline_batteries" class="mw-redirect" title="Alkaline batteries">alkaline batteries</a>. </p><p>Secondary batteries, also known as <i>secondary cells</i>, or <i><a href="/wiki/Rechargeable_batteries" class="mw-redirect" title="Rechargeable batteries">rechargeable batteries</a></i>, must be charged before first use; they are usually assembled with active materials in the discharged state. Rechargeable batteries are (re)charged by applying electric current, which reverses the chemical reactions that occur during discharge/use. Devices to supply the appropriate current are called chargers. The oldest form of rechargeable battery is the <a href="/wiki/Lead%E2%80%93acid_battery" title="Lead–acid battery">lead–acid battery</a>, which are widely used in <a href="/wiki/Automotive" class="mw-redirect" title="Automotive">automotive</a> and <a href="/wiki/Boating" title="Boating">boating</a> applications. This technology contains liquid electrolyte in an unsealed container, requiring that the battery be kept upright and the area be well ventilated to ensure safe dispersal of the <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> gas it produces during <a href="/wiki/Overcharging_(battery)" class="mw-redirect" title="Overcharging (battery)">overcharging</a>. The lead–acid battery is relatively heavy for the amount of electrical energy it can supply. Its low manufacturing cost and its high surge current levels make it common where its capacity (over approximately 10 Ah) is more important than weight and handling issues. A common application is the modern <a href="/wiki/Car_battery" class="mw-redirect" title="Car battery">car battery</a>, which can, in general, deliver a peak current of 450 <a href="/wiki/Ampere" title="Ampere">amperes</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Composition">Composition</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dry_cell_(PSF).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Dry_cell_%28PSF%29.png/170px-Dry_cell_%28PSF%29.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="246" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Dry_cell_%28PSF%29.png/255px-Dry_cell_%28PSF%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Dry_cell_%28PSF%29.png/340px-Dry_cell_%28PSF%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1914" data-file-height="2773" /></a><figcaption>Line art drawing of a dry cell: 1. brass cap, 2. plastic seal, 3. expansion space, 4. porous cardboard, 5. zinc can, 6. carbon rod, 7. chemical mixture</figcaption></figure> <p>Many types of electrochemical cells have been produced, with varying chemical processes and designs, including <a href="/wiki/Galvanic_cell" title="Galvanic cell">galvanic cells</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electrolytic_cell" title="Electrolytic cell">electrolytic cells</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fuel_cell" title="Fuel cell">fuel cells</a>, <a href="/wiki/Flow_battery" title="Flow battery">flow cells</a> and voltaic piles.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><span class="anchor" id="Wet_cell"></span> A <i>wet cell</i> battery has a liquid <a href="/wiki/Electrolyte" title="Electrolyte">electrolyte</a>. Other names are <i>flooded cell</i>, since the liquid covers all internal parts or <i>vented cell</i>, since gases produced during operation can escape to the air. Wet cells were a precursor to dry cells and are commonly used as a learning tool for <a href="/wiki/Electrochemistry" title="Electrochemistry">electrochemistry</a>. They can be built with common laboratory supplies, such as <a href="/wiki/Beaker_(glassware)" class="mw-redirect" title="Beaker (glassware)">beakers</a>, for demonstrations of how electrochemical cells work. A particular type of wet cell known as a <a href="/wiki/Concentration_cell" title="Concentration cell">concentration cell</a> is important in understanding <a href="/wiki/Corrosion" title="Corrosion">corrosion</a>. Wet cells may be <a href="/wiki/Primary_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Primary cell">primary cells</a> (non-rechargeable) or <a href="/wiki/Secondary_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Secondary cell">secondary cells</a> (rechargeable). Originally, all practical primary batteries such as the <a href="/wiki/Daniell_cell" title="Daniell cell">Daniell cell</a> were built as open-top glass jar wet cells. Other primary wet cells are the <a href="/wiki/Leclanche_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Leclanche cell">Leclanche cell</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grove_cell" title="Grove cell">Grove cell</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bunsen_cell" title="Bunsen cell">Bunsen cell</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chromic_acid_cell" title="Chromic acid cell">Chromic acid cell</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clark_cell" title="Clark cell">Clark cell</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Weston_cell" title="Weston cell">Weston cell</a>. The Leclanche cell chemistry was adapted to the first dry cells. Wet cells are still used in <a href="/wiki/Car_battery" class="mw-redirect" title="Car battery">automobile batteries</a> and in industry for standby power for <a href="/wiki/Switchgear" title="Switchgear">switchgear</a>, telecommunication or large <a href="/wiki/Uninterruptible_power_supply" title="Uninterruptible power supply">uninterruptible power supplies</a>, but in many places batteries with <a href="/wiki/Gel_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Gel cell">gel cells</a> have been used instead. These applications commonly use lead–acid or <a href="/wiki/Nickel%E2%80%93cadmium_battery_(vented_cell_type)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nickel–cadmium battery (vented cell type)">nickel–cadmium</a> cells. <a href="/wiki/Molten_salt_battery" class="mw-redirect" title="Molten salt battery">Molten salt batteries</a> are primary or secondary batteries that use a molten salt as electrolyte. They operate at high temperatures and must be well insulated to retain heat. </p><p>A <i><a href="/wiki/Dry_cell" title="Dry cell">dry cell</a></i> uses a paste electrolyte, with only enough moisture to allow current to flow. Unlike a wet cell, a dry cell can operate in any orientation without spilling, as it contains no free liquid, making it suitable for portable equipment. By comparison, the first wet cells were typically fragile glass containers with lead rods hanging from the open top and needed careful handling to avoid spillage. Lead–acid batteries did not achieve the safety and portability of the dry cell until the development of the <a href="/wiki/Gel_battery" class="mw-redirect" title="Gel battery">gel battery</a>. A common dry cell is the <a href="/wiki/Zinc%E2%80%93carbon_battery" title="Zinc–carbon battery">zinc–carbon battery</a>, sometimes called the dry <a href="/wiki/Leclanch%C3%A9_cell" title="Leclanché cell">Leclanché cell</a>, with a nominal voltage of 1.5 <a href="/wiki/Volt" title="Volt">volts</a>, the same as the <a href="/wiki/Alkaline_battery" title="Alkaline battery">alkaline battery</a> (since both use the same <a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">zinc</a>–<a href="/wiki/Manganese_dioxide" title="Manganese dioxide">manganese dioxide</a> combination). A standard dry cell comprises a <a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">zinc</a> anode, usually in the form of a cylindrical pot, with a <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a> cathode in the form of a central rod. The electrolyte is <a href="/wiki/Ammonium_chloride" title="Ammonium chloride">ammonium chloride</a> in the form of a paste next to the zinc anode. The remaining space between the electrolyte and carbon cathode is taken up by a second paste consisting of ammonium chloride and manganese dioxide, the latter acting as a <a href="/wiki/Depolariser" class="mw-redirect" title="Depolariser">depolariser</a>. In some designs, the ammonium chloride is replaced by <a href="/wiki/Zinc_chloride" title="Zinc chloride">zinc chloride</a>. </p><p>A <a href="/wiki/Reserve_battery" title="Reserve battery">reserve battery</a> can be stored unassembled (unactivated and supplying no power) for a long period (perhaps years). When the battery is needed, then it is assembled (e.g., by adding electrolyte); once assembled, the battery is charged and ready to work. For example, a battery for an electronic artillery <a href="/wiki/Fuze" title="Fuze">fuze</a> might be activated by the impact of firing a gun. The acceleration breaks a capsule of electrolyte that activates the battery and powers the fuze's circuits. Reserve batteries are usually designed for a short service life (seconds or minutes) after long storage (years). A <a href="/wiki/Water-activated_battery" title="Water-activated battery">water-activated battery</a> for oceanographic instruments or military applications becomes activated on immersion in water. </p><p>On 28 February 2017, the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Texas" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Texas">University of Texas</a> at Austin issued a press release about a new type of <a href="/wiki/Solid-state_battery" title="Solid-state battery">solid-state battery</a>, developed by a team led by lithium-ion battery inventor <a href="/wiki/John_Goodenough" class="mw-redirect" title="John Goodenough">John Goodenough</a>, "that could lead to safer, faster-charging, longer-lasting rechargeable batteries for handheld mobile devices, electric cars and stationary energy storage".<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The solid-state battery is also said to have "three times the energy density", increasing its useful life in electric vehicles, for example. It should also be more ecologically sound since the technology uses less expensive, earth-friendly materials such as sodium extracted from seawater. They also have much longer life.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Sony" title="Sony">Sony</a> has developed a <a href="/wiki/Biological_battery" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological battery">biological battery</a> that generates electricity from sugar in a way that is similar to the processes observed in living organisms. The battery generates electricity through the use of enzymes that break down carbohydrates.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The sealed <a href="/wiki/Valve_regulated_lead%E2%80%93acid_battery" class="mw-redirect" title="Valve regulated lead–acid battery">valve regulated lead–acid battery</a> (VRLA battery) is popular in the automotive industry as a replacement for the lead–acid wet cell. The VRLA battery uses an immobilized <a href="/wiki/Sulfuric_acid" title="Sulfuric acid">sulfuric acid</a> electrolyte, reducing the chance of leakage and extending <a href="/wiki/Shelf_life" title="Shelf life">shelf life</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> VRLA batteries immobilize the electrolyte. The two types are: </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Gel_batteries" class="mw-redirect" title="Gel batteries">Gel batteries</a></i> (or "gel cell") use a semi-solid electrolyte.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Absorbed_Glass_Mat" class="mw-redirect" title="Absorbed Glass Mat">Absorbed Glass Mat</a></i> (AGM) batteries absorb the electrolyte in a special fiberglass matting.</li></ul> <p>Other portable rechargeable batteries include several sealed "dry cell" types, that are useful in applications such as mobile phones and <a href="/wiki/Laptop" title="Laptop">laptop computers</a>. Cells of this type (in order of increasing <a href="/wiki/Power_density" title="Power density">power density</a> and cost) include <a href="/wiki/Nickel%E2%80%93cadmium_battery" title="Nickel–cadmium battery">nickel–cadmium</a> (NiCd), <a href="/wiki/Nickel%E2%80%93zinc_battery" title="Nickel–zinc battery">nickel–zinc</a> (NiZn), <a href="/wiki/Nickel%E2%80%93metal_hydride_battery" title="Nickel–metal hydride battery">nickel–metal hydride</a> (NiMH), and <a href="/wiki/Lithium-ion_battery" title="Lithium-ion battery">lithium-ion</a> (Li-ion) cells. Li-ion has by far the highest share of the dry cell rechargeable market. NiMH has replaced NiCd in most applications due to its higher capacity, but NiCd remains in use in <a href="/wiki/Power_tool" title="Power tool">power tools</a>, <a href="/wiki/Two-way_radio" title="Two-way radio">two-way radios</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Medical_equipment" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical equipment">medical equipment</a>. </p><p>In the 2000s, developments include batteries with embedded electronics such as <a href="/wiki/USBCELL" class="mw-redirect" title="USBCELL">USBCELL</a>, which allows charging an AA battery through a <a href="/wiki/USB" title="USB">USB</a> connector, <a href="/wiki/Nanoball_batteries" title="Nanoball batteries">nanoball batteries</a> that allow for a discharge rate about 100x greater than current batteries, and <a href="/wiki/Smart_battery" title="Smart battery">smart battery</a> packs with state-of-charge monitors and battery protection circuits that prevent damage on over-discharge. <a href="/wiki/Low_self-discharge_NiMH_battery" class="mw-redirect" title="Low self-discharge NiMH battery">Low self-discharge</a> (LSD) allows secondary cells to be charged prior to shipping. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Lithium%E2%80%93sulfur_batteries" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithium–sulfur batteries">Lithium–sulfur batteries</a> were used on the longest and highest solar-powered flight.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consumer_and_industrial_grades">Consumer and industrial grades</h3></div> <p>Batteries of all types are manufactured in consumer and industrial grades. Costlier industrial-grade batteries may use chemistries that provide higher power-to-size ratio, have lower self-discharge and hence longer life when not in use, more resistance to leakage and, for example, ability to handle the high temperature and humidity associated with medical autoclave sterilization.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Combination_and_management">Combination and management</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <span class="anonymous-show"><span class="plainlinks"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AElectric_battery&preload=Template%3ASubmit+an+edit+request%2Fpreload&action=edit&section=new&editintro=Template%3AEdit+protected%2Feditintro&preloadtitle=Protected+edit+request+on+22+November+2024&preloadparams%5B%5D=edit+fully-protected&preloadparams%5B%5D=Electric+battery">making an edit request</a></span></span><span class="user-show"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Electric_battery&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a> </span>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">February 2022</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Standard-format batteries are inserted into <a href="/wiki/Battery_holder" title="Battery holder">battery holder</a> in the device that uses them. When a device does not uses standard-format batteries, they are typically combined into a custom <a href="/wiki/Battery_pack" title="Battery pack">battery pack</a> which holds multiple batteries in addition to features such as a <a href="/wiki/Battery_management_system" title="Battery management system">battery management system</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battery_isolator" title="Battery isolator">battery isolator</a> which ensure that the batteries within are charged and discharged evenly. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sizes">Sizes</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_battery_sizes" title="List of battery sizes">List of battery sizes</a></div> <p>Primary batteries readily available to consumers range from tiny <a href="/wiki/Button_cell" title="Button cell">button cells</a> used for electric watches, to the No. 6 cell used for signal circuits or other long duration applications. Secondary cells are made in very large sizes; very large batteries can power a <a href="/wiki/Submarine" title="Submarine">submarine</a> or stabilize an <a href="/wiki/Electrical_grid" title="Electrical grid">electrical grid</a> and help level out peak loads. </p><p>As of 2017<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Electric_battery&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>, the world's largest battery was built in South Australia by <a href="/wiki/Tesla,_Inc." title="Tesla, Inc.">Tesla</a>. It can store 129 MWh.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A battery in <a href="/wiki/Hebei_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Hebei Province">Hebei Province</a>, China, which can store 36 MWh of electricity was built in 2013 at a cost of $500 million.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another large battery, composed of <a href="/wiki/Nickel%E2%80%93cadmium_battery" title="Nickel–cadmium battery">Ni–Cd</a> cells, was in <a href="/wiki/Fairbanks,_Alaska" title="Fairbanks, Alaska">Fairbanks, Alaska</a>. It covered 2,000 square metres (22,000 sq ft)—bigger than a football pitch—and weighed 1,300 tonnes. It was manufactured by <a href="/wiki/ABB_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="ABB Group">ABB</a> to provide backup power in the event of a blackout. The battery can provide 40 MW of power for up to seven minutes.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Sodium%E2%80%93sulfur_batteries" class="mw-redirect" title="Sodium–sulfur batteries">Sodium–sulfur batteries</a> have been used to store <a href="/wiki/Wind_power" title="Wind power">wind power</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 4.4 MWh battery system that can deliver 11 MW for 25 minutes stabilizes the output of the Auwahi wind farm in Hawaii.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Comparison">Comparison</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Electric_battery" title="Special:EditPage/Electric battery">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Electric+battery%22">"Electric battery"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Electric+battery%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Electric+battery%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Electric+battery%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Electric+battery%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Electric+battery%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_commercial_battery_types" title="Comparison of commercial battery types">Comparison of commercial battery types</a></div> <p>Many important cell properties, such as voltage, energy density, flammability, available cell constructions, operating temperature range and shelf life, are dictated by battery chemistry.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <caption>Primary batteries </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Chemistry </th> <th>Anode (−) </th> <th>Cathode (+) </th> <th>Max. voltage, theoretical (V) </th> <th>Nominal voltage, practical (V) </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Specific_energy" title="Specific energy">Specific energy</a> (kJ/kg) </th> <th>Elaboration </th> <th>Shelf life at 25 °C, 80% capacity (months) </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Zinc%E2%80%93carbon_battery" title="Zinc–carbon battery">Zinc–carbon</a> </td> <td>Zn </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">C</a></td> <td>1.6 </td> <td>1.2 </td> <td>130 </td> <td>Inexpensive. </td> <td>18 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Zinc%E2%80%93chloride_battery" class="mw-redirect" title="Zinc–chloride battery">Zinc–chloride</a> </td> <td>Zn </td> <td>C </td> <td>1.5 </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>Also known as "heavy-duty", inexpensive. </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Alkaline_battery" title="Alkaline battery">Alkaline</a> (zinc–manganese dioxide) </td> <td>Zn </td> <td>MnO<sub>2</sub> </td> <td>1.5 </td> <td>1.15 </td> <td>400–590 </td> <td>Moderate energy density. Good for high- and low-drain uses. </td> <td>30 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Nickel_oxyhydroxide_battery" title="Nickel oxyhydroxide battery">Nickel oxyhydroxide</a> (zinc–manganese dioxide/nickel oxyhydroxide) </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>1.7 </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>Moderate energy density. Good for high drain uses.</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Lithium_battery" title="Lithium battery">Lithium</a> (lithium–copper oxide) Li–CuO </td> <td>Li </td> <td>CuO </td> <td>1.7 </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>No longer manufactured. Replaced by silver oxide (<a href="/wiki/International_Electrotechnical_Commission" title="International Electrotechnical Commission">IEC</a>-type "SR") batteries. </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Lithium_battery" title="Lithium battery">Lithium</a> (lithium–iron disulfide) LiFeS<sub>2</sub> </td> <td>Li </td> <td>FeS<sub>2</sub> </td> <td>1.8 </td> <td>1.5 </td> <td>1070 </td> <td>Expensive. Used in 'plus' or 'extra' batteries. </td> <td>337<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Lithium_battery" title="Lithium battery">Lithium</a> (lithium–manganese dioxide) LiMnO<sub>2</sub> </td> <td>Li </td> <td>MnO<sub>2</sub> </td> <td>3.0 </td> <td> </td> <td>830–1010 </td> <td>Expensive. Used only in high-drain devices or for long shelf-life due to very low rate of self-discharge. 'Lithium' alone usually refers to this type of chemistry. </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Lithium_battery" title="Lithium battery">Lithium</a> (lithium–carbon fluoride) Li–(CF)<sub>n</sub> </td> <td>Li </td> <td>(CF)<sub>n</sub> </td> <td>3.6 </td> <td>3.0 </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>120 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Lithium_battery" title="Lithium battery">Lithium</a> (lithium–chromium oxide) Li–CrO<sub>2</sub> </td> <td>Li </td> <td>CrO<sub>2</sub> </td> <td>3.8 </td> <td>3.0 </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>108 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Lithium" title="Lithium">Lithium</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lithium%E2%80%93silicon_battery" title="Lithium–silicon battery">lithium-silicon</a>) </td> <td>Li<sub>22</sub>Si<sub>5</sub> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Mercury_battery" title="Mercury battery">Mercury oxide</a> </td> <td>Zn </td> <td>HgO </td> <td>1.34 </td> <td>1.2 </td> <td> </td> <td>High-drain and constant voltage. Banned in most countries because of health concerns. </td> <td>36 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Zinc%E2%80%93air_battery" title="Zinc–air battery">Zinc–air</a> </td> <td>Zn </td> <td>O<sub>2</sub> </td> <td>1.6 </td> <td>1.1 </td> <td>1590<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>Used mostly in hearing aids. </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Zamboni_pile" title="Zamboni pile">Zamboni pile</a> </td> <td>Zn </td> <td>Ag or Au </td> <td> </td> <td>0.8 </td> <td> </td> <td>Very long life. Very low (nanoamp, nA) current </td> <td>>2,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Silver_oxide_battery" title="Silver oxide battery">Silver oxide</a> (silver–zinc) </td> <td>Zn </td> <td>Ag<sub>2</sub>O </td> <td>1.85 </td> <td>1.5 </td> <td>470 </td> <td>Very expensive. Used only commercially in 'button' cells. </td> <td>30 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Magnesium_battery" title="Magnesium battery">Magnesium</a> </td> <td>Mg </td> <td>MnO<sub>2</sub> </td> <td>2.0 </td> <td>1.5 </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>40 </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <caption>Secondary batteries </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Chemistry </th> <th>Cell voltage </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Specific_energy" title="Specific energy">Specific energy</a> (kJ/kg) </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Energy_density" title="Energy density">Energy density</a> (kJ/liter) </th> <th>Comments </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Nickel%E2%80%93cadmium_battery" title="Nickel–cadmium battery">NiCd</a> </td> <td>1.2 </td> <td>140 </td> <td> </td> <td>Inexpensive. High-/low-drain, moderate energy density. Can withstand very high discharge rates with virtually no loss of capacity. Moderate rate of self-discharge. Environmental hazard due to Cadmium, use now virtually prohibited in Europe. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Lead%E2%80%93acid_battery" title="Lead–acid battery">Lead–acid</a> </td> <td>2.1 </td> <td>140 </td> <td> </td> <td>Moderately expensive. Moderate energy density. Moderate rate of self-discharge. Higher discharge rates result in considerable loss of capacity. Environmental hazard due to Lead. Common use: automobile batteries </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Nickel%E2%80%93metal_hydride_battery" title="Nickel–metal hydride battery">NiMH</a> </td> <td>1.2 </td> <td>360 </td> <td> </td> <td>Inexpensive. Performs better than alkaline batteries in higher drain devices. Traditional chemistry has high energy density, but also a high rate of self-discharge. Newer chemistry has <a href="/wiki/Low_self-discharge_NiMH_battery" class="mw-redirect" title="Low self-discharge NiMH battery">low self-discharge rate</a>, but also a ~25% lower energy density. <br />Used in some cars. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Nickel%E2%80%93zinc_battery" title="Nickel–zinc battery">NiZn</a> </td> <td>1.6 </td> <td>360 </td> <td> </td> <td>Moderately inexpensive. High drain device suitable. Low self-discharge rate. Voltage closer to alkaline primary cells than other secondary cells. No toxic components. Newly introduced to the market (2009). Has not yet established a track record. Limited size availability. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Silver_oxide_battery" title="Silver oxide battery">AgZn</a> </td> <td>1.86 1.5 </td> <td>460 </td> <td> </td> <td>Smaller volume than equivalent Li-ion. Extremely expensive due to silver. Very high energy density. Very high drain capable. For many years considered obsolete due to high silver prices. Cell suffers from oxidation if unused. Reactions are not fully understood. Terminal voltage very stable but suddenly drops to 1.5 volts at 70–80% charge (believed to be due to presence of both argentous and argentic oxide in positive plate; one is consumed first). Has been used in lieu of primary battery (moon buggy). Is being developed once again as a replacement for Li-ion. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Lithium_iron_phosphate_battery" title="Lithium iron phosphate battery">LiFePO<sub>4</sub></a> </td> <td>3.3 3.0</td> <td>360 </td> <td>790 </td> <td>Lithium–Iron–Phosphate chemistry. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Lithium-ion_battery" title="Lithium-ion battery">Lithium ion</a> </td> <td>3.6 </td> <td>460 </td> <td> </td> <td>Very expensive. Very high energy density. Not usually available in "common" battery sizes. <a href="/wiki/Lithium_polymer_battery" title="Lithium polymer battery">Lithium polymer battery</a> is common in laptop computers, digital cameras, camcorders, and cellphones. Very low rate of self-discharge. Terminal voltage varies from 4.2 to 3.0 volts during discharge. Volatile: Chance of explosion if short-circuited, allowed to overheat, or not manufactured with rigorous quality standards. </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Performance,_capacity_and_discharge"><span id="Performance.2C_capacity_and_discharge"></span>Performance, capacity and discharge<span class="anchor" id="Capacity_and_discharge"></span></h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Battery_checker.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Battery_checker.jpg/170px-Battery_checker.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="224" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Battery_checker.jpg/255px-Battery_checker.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Battery_checker.jpg/340px-Battery_checker.jpg 2x" data-file-width="841" data-file-height="1109" /></a><figcaption>A device to check battery voltage</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/State_of_charge" title="State of charge">State of charge</a>, <a href="/wiki/Depth_of_discharge" title="Depth of discharge">Depth of discharge</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Trickle_charging" title="Trickle charging">Trickle charging</a></div> <p>A battery's characteristics may vary over load cycle, over <a href="/wiki/Charge_cycle" title="Charge cycle">charge cycle</a>, and over lifetime due to many factors including internal chemistry, <a href="/wiki/Electric_current" title="Electric current">current</a> drain, and temperature. At low temperatures, a battery cannot deliver as much power. As such, in cold climates, some car owners install battery warmers, which are small electric heating pads that keep the car battery warm. </p><p>A battery's <i>capacity</i> is the amount of <a href="/wiki/Electric_charge" title="Electric charge">electric charge</a> it can deliver at a voltage that does not drop below the specified terminal voltage. The more electrode material contained in the cell the greater its capacity. A small cell has less capacity than a larger cell with the same chemistry, although they develop the same open-circuit voltage.<sup id="cite_ref-aappc_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aappc-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Capacity is usually stated in <a href="/wiki/Ampere-hours" class="mw-redirect" title="Ampere-hours">ampere-hours</a> (A·h) (mAh for small batteries). The rated capacity of a battery is usually expressed as the product of 20 hours multiplied by the current that a new battery can consistently supply for 20 hours at 20 °C (68 °F), while remaining above a specified terminal voltage per cell. For example, a battery rated at 100 A·h can deliver 5 A over a 20-hour period at <a href="/wiki/Room_temperature" title="Room temperature">room temperature</a>. The fraction of the stored charge that a battery can deliver depends on multiple factors, including battery chemistry, the rate at which the charge is delivered (current), the required terminal voltage, the storage period, ambient temperature and other factors.<sup id="cite_ref-aappc_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aappc-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The higher the discharge rate, the lower the capacity.<sup id="cite_ref-techlib_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-techlib-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The relationship between current, discharge time and capacity for a lead acid battery is approximated (over a typical range of current values) by <a href="/wiki/Peukert%27s_law" title="Peukert's law">Peukert's law</a>: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle t={\frac {Q_{P}}{I^{k}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>t</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>Q</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>P</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msup> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> </mrow> </msup> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle t={\frac {Q_{P}}{I^{k}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/3ac48ab7c3c1176daac8247131047cae1331773b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.171ex; width:8.079ex; height:5.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle t={\frac {Q_{P}}{I^{k}}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>where </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle Q_{P}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>Q</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>P</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle Q_{P}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/cda1f8faf0acf27f1a4eacd6745045db83441868" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.305ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle Q_{P}}"></span> is the capacity when discharged at a rate of 1 amp.</dd> <dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle I}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>I</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle I}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/535ea7fc4134a31cbe2251d9d3511374bc41be9f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.172ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle I}"></span> is the current drawn from battery (<a href="/wiki/Amperes" class="mw-redirect" title="Amperes">A</a>).</dd> <dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle t}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>t</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle t}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/65658b7b223af9e1acc877d848888ecdb4466560" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.84ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle t}"></span> is the amount of time (in hours) that a battery can sustain.</dd> <dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle k}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>k</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle k}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c3c9a2c7b599b37105512c5d570edc034056dd40" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.211ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle k}"></span> is a constant around 1.3.</dd></dl> <p>Charged batteries (rechargeable or disposable) lose charge by internal self-discharge over time although not discharged, due to the presence of generally irreversible <i>side reactions</i> that consume charge carriers without producing current. The rate of self-discharge depends upon battery chemistry and construction, typically from months to years for significant loss. When batteries are recharged, additional side reactions reduce capacity for subsequent discharges. After enough recharges, in essence all capacity is lost and the battery stops producing power. Internal energy losses and limitations on the rate that ions pass through the electrolyte cause battery <a href="/wiki/Efficient_energy_use" title="Efficient energy use">efficiency</a> to vary. Above a minimum threshold, discharging at a low rate delivers more of the battery's capacity than at a higher rate. Installing batteries with varying A·h ratings changes operating time, but not device operation unless load limits are exceeded. High-drain loads such as <a href="/wiki/Digital_camera" title="Digital camera">digital cameras</a> can reduce total capacity of rechargeable or disposable batteries. For example, a battery rated at 2 A·h for a 10- or 20-hour discharge would not sustain a current of 1 A for a full two hours as its stated capacity suggests. </p><p><span class="anchor" id="C_rate"></span>The <a href="/wiki/Battery_charger#C-rate" title="Battery charger">C-rate</a> is a measure of the rate at which a battery is being charged or discharged. It is defined as the current through the battery divided by the theoretical current draw under which the battery would deliver its nominal rated capacity in one hour.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has the units <a href="/wiki/Hour" title="Hour">h</a><sup>−1</sup>. Because of internal resistance loss and the chemical processes inside the cells, a battery rarely delivers nameplate rated capacity in only one hour. Typically, maximum capacity is found at a low C-rate, and charging or discharging at a higher C-rate reduces the usable life and capacity of a battery. Manufacturers often publish datasheets with graphs showing capacity versus C-rate curves. C-rate is also used as a rating on batteries to indicate the maximum current that a battery can safely deliver in a circuit. Standards for rechargeable batteries generally rate the capacity and charge cycles over a 4-hour (0.25C), 8 hour (0.125C) or longer discharge time. Types intended for special purposes, such as in a computer <a href="/wiki/Uninterruptible_power_supply" title="Uninterruptible power supply">uninterruptible power supply</a>, may be rated by manufacturers for discharge periods much less than one hour (1C) but may suffer from limited cycle life. </p><p>In 2009 experimental <a href="/wiki/Lithium_iron_phosphate_battery" title="Lithium iron phosphate battery">lithium iron phosphate (<span class="chemf nowrap">LiFePO<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">4</sub></span></span></span>) battery technology</a> provided the fastest charging and energy delivery, discharging all its energy into a load in 10 to 20 seconds.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2024 a prototype battery for electric cars that could charge from 10% to 80% in five minutes was demonstrated,<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and a Chinese company claimed that car batteries it had introduced charged 10% to 80% in 10.5 minutes—the fastest batteries available—compared to <a href="/wiki/Tesla,_Inc." title="Tesla, Inc.">Tesla's</a> 15 minutes to half-charge.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Lifespan_and_endurance">Lifespan and endurance</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2011-04-04_18-35-26_267.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/2011-04-04_18-35-26_267.jpg/220px-2011-04-04_18-35-26_267.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="317" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/2011-04-04_18-35-26_267.jpg/330px-2011-04-04_18-35-26_267.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/2011-04-04_18-35-26_267.jpg/440px-2011-04-04_18-35-26_267.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1724" data-file-height="2488" /></a><figcaption>An analog camcorder [lithium ion] battery </figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/State_of_health" title="State of health">State of health</a></div> <p>Battery life (or lifetime) has two meanings for rechargeable batteries but only one for non-chargeables. It can be used to describe the length of time a device can run on a fully charged battery—this is also unambiguously termed "endurance".<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For a rechargeable battery it may also be used for the number of charge/discharge cycles possible before the cells fail to operate satisfactorily—this is also termed "lifespan".<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term <i>shelf life</i> is used to describe how long a battery will retain its performance between manufacture and use. Available capacity of all batteries drops with decreasing temperature. In contrast to most of today's batteries, the <a href="/wiki/Zamboni_pile" title="Zamboni pile">Zamboni pile</a>, invented in 1812, offers a very long service life without refurbishment or recharge, although it can supply very little current (nanoamps). The <a href="/wiki/Oxford_Electric_Bell" title="Oxford Electric Bell">Oxford Electric Bell</a> has been ringing almost continuously since 1840 on its original pair of batteries, thought to be Zamboni piles.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Disposable batteries typically lose 8–20% of their original charge per year when stored at room temperature (20–30 °C).<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is known as the "self-discharge" rate, and is due to non-current-producing "side" chemical reactions that occur within the cell even when no load is applied. The rate of side reactions is reduced for batteries stored at lower temperatures, although some can be damaged by freezing and storing in a fridge will not meaningfully prolong shelf life and risks damaging condensation.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Old rechargeable batteries self-discharge more rapidly than disposable alkaline batteries, especially nickel-based batteries; a freshly charged nickel cadmium (NiCd) battery loses 10% of its charge in the first 24 hours, and thereafter discharges at a rate of about 10% a month. However, newer <a href="/wiki/Low_self-discharge_NiMH_battery" class="mw-redirect" title="Low self-discharge NiMH battery">low self-discharge nickel–metal hydride (NiMH) batteries</a> and modern lithium designs display a lower self-discharge rate (but still higher than for primary batteries). </p><p>The active material on the battery plates changes chemical composition on each charge and discharge cycle; active material may be lost due to physical changes of volume, further limiting the number of times the battery can be recharged. Most nickel-based batteries are partially discharged when purchased, and must be charged before first use.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Newer NiMH batteries are ready to be used when purchased, and have only 15% discharge in a year.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some deterioration occurs on each charge–discharge cycle. Degradation usually occurs because electrolyte migrates away from the electrodes or because active material detaches from the electrodes. Low-capacity NiMH batteries (1,700–2,000 mA·h) can be charged some 1,000 times, whereas high-capacity NiMH batteries (above 2,500 mA·h) last about 500 cycles.<sup id="cite_ref-tomdistr_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tomdistr-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> NiCd batteries tend to be rated for 1,000 cycles before their internal resistance permanently increases beyond usable values. Fast charging increases component changes, shortening battery lifespan.<sup id="cite_ref-tomdistr_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tomdistr-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If a charger cannot detect when the battery is fully charged then overcharging is likely, damaging it.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>NiCd cells, if used in a particular repetitive manner, may show a decrease in capacity called "<a href="/wiki/Memory_effect" title="Memory effect">memory effect</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The effect can be avoided with simple practices. NiMH cells, although similar in chemistry, suffer less from memory effect.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Automotive_battery" title="Automotive battery">Automotive</a> <a href="/wiki/Lead%E2%80%93acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Lead–acid">lead–acid</a> rechargeable batteries must endure stress due to vibration, shock, and temperature range. Because of these stresses and <a href="/wiki/Lead%E2%80%93acid_battery#Sulfation" title="Lead–acid battery">sulfation</a> of their lead plates, few automotive batteries last beyond six years of regular use.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Automotive starting <small>(<a href="/wiki/Automotive_battery" title="Automotive battery">SLI</a>: <i>Starting, Lighting, Ignition</i>)</small> batteries have many thin plates to maximize current. In general, the thicker the plates the longer the life. They are typically discharged only slightly before recharge. "Deep-cycle" lead–acid batteries such as those used in electric golf carts have much thicker plates to extend longevity.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The main benefit of the lead–acid battery is its low cost; its main drawbacks are large size and weight for a given capacity and voltage. Lead–acid batteries should never be discharged to below 20% of their capacity,<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> because internal resistance will cause heat and damage when they are recharged. Deep-cycle lead–acid systems often use a low-charge warning light or a low-charge power cut-off switch to prevent the type of damage that will shorten the battery's life.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Battery life can be extended by storing the batteries at a low temperature, as in a <a href="/wiki/Refrigerator" title="Refrigerator">refrigerator</a> or <a href="/wiki/Freezer" class="mw-redirect" title="Freezer">freezer</a>, which slows the side reactions. Such storage can extend the life of alkaline batteries by about 5%; rechargeable batteries can hold their charge much longer, depending upon type.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To reach their maximum voltage, batteries must be returned to room temperature; discharging an alkaline battery at 250 mA at 0 °C is only half as efficient as at 20 °C.<sup id="cite_ref-enralk_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-enralk-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alkaline battery manufacturers such as <a href="/wiki/Duracell" title="Duracell">Duracell</a> do not recommend refrigerating batteries.<sup id="cite_ref-durcar_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-durcar-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Hazards">Hazards</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Electric_battery" title="Special:EditPage/Electric battery">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2017</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Lithium-ion_battery#Safety" title="Lithium-ion battery">Lithium-ion battery § Safety</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Battery_leakage" title="Battery leakage">Battery leakage</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BATTERY_EXPLOSION_IN_TEST_CELL_-_NARA_-_17443202.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/BATTERY_EXPLOSION_IN_TEST_CELL_-_NARA_-_17443202.jpg/220px-BATTERY_EXPLOSION_IN_TEST_CELL_-_NARA_-_17443202.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="279" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/BATTERY_EXPLOSION_IN_TEST_CELL_-_NARA_-_17443202.jpg/330px-BATTERY_EXPLOSION_IN_TEST_CELL_-_NARA_-_17443202.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/BATTERY_EXPLOSION_IN_TEST_CELL_-_NARA_-_17443202.jpg/440px-BATTERY_EXPLOSION_IN_TEST_CELL_-_NARA_-_17443202.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4906" data-file-height="6214" /></a><figcaption>Battery after explosion</figcaption></figure> <p>A battery explosion is generally caused by misuse or malfunction, such as attempting to recharge a primary (non-rechargeable) battery, or a <a href="/wiki/Short_circuit" title="Short circuit">short circuit</a>. </p><p>When a battery is recharged at an excessive rate, an explosive gas mixture of <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> may be produced faster than it can escape from within the battery (e.g. through a built-in vent), leading to pressure build-up and eventual bursting of the battery case. In extreme cases, battery chemicals may spray violently from the casing and cause injury. An expert summary of the problem indicates that this type uses "liquid electrolytes to transport lithium ions between the anode and the cathode. If a battery cell is charged too quickly, it can cause a short circuit, leading to explosions and fires".<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Car batteries are most likely to explode when a short circuit generates very large currents. Such batteries produce <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a>, which is very explosive, when they are overcharged (because of <a href="/wiki/Electrolysis" title="Electrolysis">electrolysis</a> of the water in the electrolyte). During normal use, the amount of overcharging is usually very small and generates little hydrogen, which dissipates quickly. However, when "jump starting" a car, the high current can cause the rapid release of large volumes of hydrogen, which can be ignited explosively by a nearby spark, e.g. when disconnecting a <a href="/wiki/Jumper_cable" title="Jumper cable">jumper cable</a>. </p><p>Overcharging (attempting to charge a battery beyond its electrical capacity) can also lead to a battery explosion, in addition to <a href="/wiki/Battery_leakage" title="Battery leakage">leakage</a> or irreversible damage. It may also cause damage to the charger or device in which the overcharged battery is later used. </p><p>Disposing of a battery via incineration may cause an explosion as steam builds up within the sealed case. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LeakedBattery_2701a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/LeakedBattery_2701a.jpg/220px-LeakedBattery_2701a.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/LeakedBattery_2701a.jpg/330px-LeakedBattery_2701a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/LeakedBattery_2701a.jpg/440px-LeakedBattery_2701a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2800" data-file-height="1803" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Battery_leakage" title="Battery leakage">Leak</a>-damaged alkaline battery</figcaption></figure> <p>Many battery chemicals are corrosive, poisonous or both. If <a href="/wiki/Battery_leakage" title="Battery leakage">leakage</a> occurs, either spontaneously or through accident, the chemicals released may be dangerous. For example, disposable batteries often use a zinc "can" both as a reactant and as the container to hold the other reagents. If this kind of battery is over-discharged, the reagents can emerge through the cardboard and plastic that form the remainder of the container. The active chemical leakage can then damage or disable the equipment that the batteries power. For this reason, many electronic device manufacturers recommend removing the batteries from devices that will not be used for extended periods of time. </p><p>Many types of batteries employ toxic materials such as lead, <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">mercury</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cadmium" title="Cadmium">cadmium</a> as an electrode or electrolyte. When each battery reaches end of life it must be disposed of to prevent environmental damage.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Batteries are one form of <a href="/wiki/Electronic_waste" title="Electronic waste">electronic waste</a> (e-waste). <a href="/wiki/E-waste_recycling" class="mw-redirect" title="E-waste recycling">E-waste recycling</a> services recover toxic substances, which can then be used for new batteries.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Of the nearly three billion batteries purchased annually in the United States, about 179,000 tons end up in landfills across the country.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Lithium_battery#Health_issues_on_ingestion" title="Lithium battery">Lithium battery § Health issues on ingestion</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Button_cell#Accidental_ingestion" title="Button cell">Button cell § Accidental ingestion</a></div> <p>Batteries may be harmful or fatal if <a href="/wiki/Swallowing" title="Swallowing">swallowed</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Small <a href="/wiki/Button_cell" title="Button cell">button cells</a> can be swallowed, in particular by young children. While in the digestive tract, the battery's electrical discharge may lead to tissue damage;<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> such damage is occasionally serious and can lead to death. Ingested disk batteries do not usually cause problems unless they become lodged in the <a href="/wiki/Gastrointestinal_tract" title="Gastrointestinal tract">gastrointestinal tract</a>. The most common place for disk batteries to become lodged is the esophagus, resulting in clinical <a href="/wiki/Sequelae" class="mw-redirect" title="Sequelae">sequelae</a>. Batteries that successfully traverse the esophagus are unlikely to lodge elsewhere. The likelihood that a disk battery will lodge in the esophagus is a function of the patient's age and battery size. Older children do not have problems with batteries smaller than 21–23 mm. Liquefaction necrosis may occur because sodium hydroxide is generated by the current produced by the battery (usually at the anode). Perforation has occurred as rapidly as 6 hours after ingestion.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some battery manufactures have added a bad taste to batteries to discourage swallowing.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legislation_and_regulation">Legislation and regulation</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <span class="anonymous-show"><span class="plainlinks"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AElectric_battery&preload=Template%3ASubmit+an+edit+request%2Fpreload&action=edit&section=new&editintro=Template%3AEdit+protected%2Feditintro&preloadtitle=Protected+edit+request+on+22+November+2024&preloadparams%5B%5D=edit+fully-protected&preloadparams%5B%5D=Electric+battery">making an edit request</a></span></span><span class="user-show"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Electric_battery&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a> </span>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">February 2022</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Battery_regulations_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Battery regulations in the United Kingdom">Battery regulations in the United Kingdom</a></div> <p>Legislation around electric batteries includes such topics as safe disposal and recycling. </p><p>In the United States, the <a href="/wiki/Mercury-Containing_and_Rechargeable_Battery_Management_Act" title="Mercury-Containing and Rechargeable Battery Management Act">Mercury-Containing and Rechargeable Battery Management Act</a> of 1996 banned the sale of mercury-containing batteries, enacted uniform labeling requirements for rechargeable batteries and required that rechargeable batteries be easily removable.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> California and New York City prohibit the disposal of rechargeable batteries in solid waste.<sup id="cite_ref-C2R_NY_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-C2R_NY-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-RCBRA2006_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RCBRA2006-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The rechargeable battery industry operates nationwide recycling programs in the United States and Canada, with dropoff points at local retailers.<sup id="cite_ref-rbrc_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rbrc-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Battery_Directive" title="Battery Directive">Battery Directive</a> of the European Union has similar requirements, in addition to requiring increased recycling of batteries and promoting research on improved <a href="/wiki/Battery_recycling" title="Battery recycling">battery recycling</a> methods.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In accordance with this directive all batteries to be sold within the EU must be marked with the "collection symbol" (a crossed-out wheeled bin). This must cover at least 3% of the surface of prismatic batteries and 1.5% of the surface of cylindrical batteries. All packaging must be marked likewise.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In response to reported accidents and failures, occasionally ignition or explosion, recalls of devices using lithium-ion batteries have become more common in recent years.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 9 December 2022, the <a href="/wiki/European_Parliament" title="European Parliament">European Parliament</a> reached an agreement to force, from 2026, manufacturers to design all electrical appliances sold in the EU (and not used predominantly in wet conditions) so that consumers can easily remove and replace batteries themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Crystal_energy.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Crystal_energy.svg/29px-Crystal_energy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="29" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Crystal_energy.svg/44px-Crystal_energy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Crystal_energy.svg/59px-Crystal_energy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="124" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Energy" title="Portal:Energy">Energy portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wind-turbine-icon.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Wind-turbine-icon.svg/28px-Wind-turbine-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Wind-turbine-icon.svg/42px-Wind-turbine-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Wind-turbine-icon.svg/56px-Wind-turbine-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Renewable_energy" title="Portal:Renewable energy">Renewable energy portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_ksim.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Nuvola_apps_ksim.png/28px-Nuvola_apps_ksim.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Nuvola_apps_ksim.png/42px-Nuvola_apps_ksim.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Nuvola_apps_ksim.png/56px-Nuvola_apps_ksim.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Electronics" title="Portal:Electronics">Electronics portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battery_simulator" title="Battery simulator">Battery simulator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanowire_battery" title="Nanowire battery">Nanowire battery</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Search_for_the_Super_Battery" title="Search for the Super Battery">Search for the Super Battery</a></i></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFCrompton2000" class="citation book cs1">Crompton, T. R. (20 March 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QmVR7qiB5AUC&q=battery%20one%20or%20more%20cells&pg=PA11"><i>Battery Reference Book</i></a> (third ed.). Newnes. p. Glossary 3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-049995-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-049995-6"><bdi>978-0-08-049995-6</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 March</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Battery+Reference+Book&rft.pages=Glossary+3&rft.edition=third&rft.pub=Newnes&rft.date=2000-03-20&rft.isbn=978-0-08-049995-6&rft.aulast=Crompton&rft.aufirst=T.+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQmVR7qiB5AUC%26q%3Dbattery%2520one%2520or%2520more%2520cells%26pg%3DPA11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectric+battery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pauling1988-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Pauling1988_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPauling1988" class="citation book cs1">Pauling, Linus (1988). "15: Oxidation-Reduction Reactions; Electrolysis". <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/generalchemistry00paul_0"><i>General Chemistry</i></a></span>. New York: Dover Publications, Inc. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/generalchemistry00paul_0/page/539">539</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-65622-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-486-65622-9"><bdi>978-0-486-65622-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=15%3A+Oxidation-Reduction+Reactions%3B+Electrolysis&rft.btitle=General+Chemistry&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=539&rft.pub=Dover+Publications%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-486-65622-9&rft.aulast=Pauling&rft.aufirst=Linus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgeneralchemistry00paul_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectric+battery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPistoia2005" class="citation book cs1">Pistoia, Gianfranco (25 January 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XMe1EnEMuMEC&q=battery%20two%20or%20more%20cells&pg=PA1"><i>Batteries for Portable Devices</i></a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 March</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Batteries+for+Portable+Devices&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2005-01-25&rft.isbn=978-0-08-045556-3&rft.aulast=Pistoia&rft.aufirst=Gianfranco&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXMe1EnEMuMEC%26q%3Dbattery%2520two%2520or%2520more%2520cells%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectric+battery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://phys.org/news/2015-04-history-batteries.html">"The history and development of batteries"</a>. 30 April 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+history+and+development+of+batteries&rft.date=2015-04-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphys.org%2Fnews%2F2015-04-history-batteries.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectric+battery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.benfranklin300.org/frankliniana/result.php?id=72&sec=0">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Electrical battery" of Leyden jars - The Benjamin Franklin Tercentenary"</a>. <i>www.benfranklin300.org</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.benfranklin300.org&rft.atitle=%22Electrical+battery%22+of+Leyden+jars+-+The+Benjamin+Franklin+Tercentenary&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.benfranklin300.org%2Ffrankliniana%2Fresult.php%3Fid%3D72%26sec%3D0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectric+battery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120712220408/http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/bl_Alessandro_Volta.htm">Bellis, Mary. Biography of Alessandro Volta, Inventor of the Battery. <i>About.com</i>. Retrieved 7 August 2008</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stinner, Arthur. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://home.cc.umanitoba.ca/~stinner/stinner/pdfs/2007-alessandro.pdf">Alessandro Volta and Luigi Galvani</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080910203520/http://home.cc.umanitoba.ca/~stinner/stinner/pdfs/2007-alessandro.pdf">Archived</a> 10 September 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (PDF). Retrieved 11 August 2008.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190222020750/http://www.ideafinder.com/history/inventions/battery.htm">Fascinating facts about the invention of the Electric Battery by Alessandro Volta in 1800. <i>The Great Idea Finder</i>. Retrieved 11 August 2008</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">for instance, in the discovery of <a href="/wiki/Hans_Christian_%C3%98rsted#Electromagnetism" title="Hans Christian Ørsted">electromagnetism</a> in 1820</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mpoweruk.com/history.htm#daniell">Battery History, Technology, Applications and Development</a>. <i>MPower Solutions Ltd</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 December</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Der+Spiegel&rft.atitle=Neue+EU-Regeln%3A+Jeder+soll+Handy-Akkus+selbst+tauschen+k%C3%B6nnen&rft.date=2022-12-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.spiegel.de%2Fwirtschaft%2Fneue-eu-regeln-jeder-soll-handy-akkus-tauschen-koennen-a-06ae1024-8fbf-44c5-a420-70be35c1a401&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectric+battery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDingrando2007" class="citation book cs1">Dingrando, Laurel; et al. (2007). <i>Chemistry: Matter and Change</i>. 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San Francisco: Pearson Education. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8053-8960-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8053-8960-9"><bdi>978-0-8053-8960-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Physics+for+Scientists+and+Engineers%3A+A+Strategic+Approach&rft.place=San+Francisco&rft.pub=Pearson+Education&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-8053-8960-9&rft.aulast=Knight&rft.aufirst=Randall+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fphysicsforscien200knig&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectric+battery" class="Z3988"></span> Chs. 28–31 (pp. 879–995) contain information on electric potential.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLindenThomas_B._Reddy2001" class="citation book cs1">Linden, David; Thomas B. Reddy (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/handbookofbatter0000unse"><i>Handbook of Batteries</i></a>. New York: McGraw-Hill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-135978-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-135978-8"><bdi>978-0-07-135978-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Batteries&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-07-135978-8&rft.aulast=Linden&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Thomas+B.+Reddy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhandbookofbatter0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectric+battery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaslow2002" class="citation book cs1">Saslow, Wayne M. (2002). <i>Electricity, Magnetism, and Light</i>. Toronto: Thomson Learning. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-619455-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-619455-5"><bdi>978-0-12-619455-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Electricity%2C+Magnetism%2C+and+Light&rft.place=Toronto&rft.pub=Thomson+Learning&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-12-619455-5&rft.aulast=Saslow&rft.aufirst=Wayne+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectric+battery" class="Z3988"></span> Chs. 8–9 (pp. 336–418) have more information on batteries.</li> <li>Turner, James Morton. <i>Charged: A History of Batteries and Lessons for a Clean Energy Future</i> (University of Washington Press, 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=58799">online review</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Electric_batteries" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Electric batteries">Electric batteries</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131022104620/http://electrochem.cwru.edu/encycl/art-b02-batt-nonr.htm">Non-rechargeable batteries</a> (archived 22 October 2013)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/battery.htm">HowStuffWorks: How batteries work</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://depts.washington.edu/matseed/batteries/MSE/classification.html">Other Battery Cell Types</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.doitpoms.ac.uk/tlplib/batteries/index.php">DoITPoMS Teaching and Learning Package- "Batteries"</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl 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.mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Battery_sizes" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Battery_sizes" title="Template:Battery sizes"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Battery_sizes" title="Template talk:Battery sizes"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Battery_sizes" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Battery sizes"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Battery_sizes" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_battery_sizes" title="List of battery sizes">Battery sizes</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Electrochemical_cell" title="Electrochemical cell">Single-cell</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AAAA_battery" title="AAAA battery">AAAA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AAA_battery" title="AAA battery">AAA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AA_battery" title="AA battery">AA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C_battery" title="C battery">C</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D_battery" title="D battery">D</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N_battery" title="N battery">N</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Button_cell" title="Button cell">Button cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/18650_battery" title="18650 battery">18650</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Battery_pack" title="Battery pack">Multiple-cell</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nine-volt_battery" title="Nine-volt battery">Nine-volt (PP3)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lantern_battery" title="Lantern battery">Lantern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A23_battery" title="A23 battery">A23</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A27_battery" title="A27 battery">A27</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CR-V3_battery" title="CR-V3 battery">CR-V3</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Electrochemical_cells" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Galvanic_cells" title="Template:Galvanic cells"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Galvanic_cells" title="Template talk:Galvanic cells"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Galvanic_cells" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Galvanic cells"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Electrochemical_cells" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Electrochemical_cell" title="Electrochemical cell">Electrochemical cells</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galvanic_cell" title="Galvanic cell">Galvanic cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concentration_cell" title="Concentration cell">Concentration cell</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Electric battery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flow_battery" title="Flow battery">Flow battery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trough_battery" title="Trough battery">Trough battery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuel_cell" title="Fuel cell">Fuel cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermogalvanic_cell" title="Thermogalvanic cell">Thermogalvanic cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaic_pile" title="Voltaic pile">Voltaic pile</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Galvanic_Cell.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Galvanic cell"><img alt="Galvanic cell" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Galvanic_Cell.svg/150px-Galvanic_Cell.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Galvanic_Cell.svg/225px-Galvanic_Cell.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Galvanic_Cell.svg/300px-Galvanic_Cell.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="376" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Primary_battery" title="Primary battery">Primary cell</a><br /><span class="nobold">(non-rechargeable)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alkaline_battery" title="Alkaline battery">Alkaline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aluminium%E2%80%93air_battery" title="Aluminium–air battery">Aluminium–air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bunsen_cell" title="Bunsen cell">Bunsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromic_acid_cell" title="Chromic acid cell">Chromic acid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clark_cell" title="Clark cell">Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniell_cell" title="Daniell cell">Daniell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dry_cell" title="Dry cell">Dry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edison%E2%80%93Lalande_cell" title="Edison–Lalande cell">Edison–Lalande</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grove_cell" title="Grove cell">Grove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leclanch%C3%A9_cell" title="Leclanché cell">Leclanché</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium_metal_battery" title="Lithium metal battery">Lithium metal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium%E2%80%93air_battery" title="Lithium–air battery">Lithium–air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercury_battery" title="Mercury battery">Mercury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metal%E2%80%93air_electrochemical_cell" title="Metal–air electrochemical cell">Metal–air electrochemical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nickel_oxyhydroxide_battery" title="Nickel oxyhydroxide battery">Nickel oxyhydroxide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silicon%E2%80%93air_battery" title="Silicon–air battery">Silicon–air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silver_oxide_battery" title="Silver oxide battery">Silver oxide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weston_cell" title="Weston cell">Weston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zamboni_pile" title="Zamboni pile">Zamboni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zinc%E2%80%93air_battery" title="Zinc–air battery">Zinc–air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zinc%E2%80%93carbon_battery" title="Zinc–carbon battery">Zinc–carbon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Rechargeable_battery" title="Rechargeable battery">Secondary cell</a><br /><span class="nobold">(rechargeable)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_battery" title="Automotive battery">Automotive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead%E2%80%93acid_battery" title="Lead–acid battery">Lead–acid</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/VRLA_battery" title="VRLA battery">gel–VRLA</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium%E2%80%93air_battery" title="Lithium–air battery">Lithium–air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium-ion_battery" title="Lithium-ion battery">Lithium ion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dual_carbon_battery" title="Dual carbon battery">Dual carbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium_iron_phosphate_battery" title="Lithium iron phosphate battery">Lithium–iron–phosphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium_polymer_battery" title="Lithium polymer battery">Lithium–polymer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium%E2%80%93sulfur_battery" title="Lithium–sulfur battery">Lithium–sulfur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium-titanate_battery" title="Lithium-titanate battery">Lithium–titanate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metal%E2%80%93air_electrochemical_cell" title="Metal–air electrochemical cell">Metal–air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molten-salt_battery" title="Molten-salt battery">Molten salt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanopore_battery" title="Nanopore battery">Nanopore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanowire_battery" title="Nanowire battery">Nanowire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nickel%E2%80%93cadmium_battery" title="Nickel–cadmium battery">Nickel–cadmium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nickel%E2%80%93hydrogen_battery" title="Nickel–hydrogen battery">Nickel–hydrogen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nickel%E2%80%93iron_battery" title="Nickel–iron battery">Nickel–iron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nickel%E2%80%93lithium_battery" title="Nickel–lithium battery">Nickel–lithium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nickel%E2%80%93metal_hydride_battery" title="Nickel–metal hydride battery">Nickel–metal hydride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nickel%E2%80%93zinc_battery" title="Nickel–zinc battery">Nickel–zinc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polysulfide%E2%80%93bromide_battery" title="Polysulfide–bromide battery">Polysulfide–bromide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potassium-ion_battery" title="Potassium-ion battery">Potassium ion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rechargeable_alkaline_battery" title="Rechargeable alkaline battery">Rechargeable alkaline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silver%E2%80%93cadmium_battery" title="Silver–cadmium battery">Silver–cadmium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silver_zinc_battery" title="Silver zinc battery">Silver–zinc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodium-ion_battery" title="Sodium-ion battery">Sodium ion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodium%E2%80%93sulfur_battery" title="Sodium–sulfur battery">Sodium–sulfur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solid-state_battery" title="Solid-state battery">Solid state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vanadium_redox_battery" title="Vanadium redox battery">Vanadium redox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zinc%E2%80%93bromine_battery" title="Zinc–bromine battery">Zinc–bromine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zinc%E2%80%93cerium_battery" title="Zinc–cerium battery">Zinc–cerium</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Other cell</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_battery" title="Atomic battery">Atomic battery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuel_cell" title="Fuel cell">Fuel cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_cell" title="Solar cell">Solar cell</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cell parts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anode" title="Anode">Anode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Binder_(material)" title="Binder (material)">Binder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catalysis" title="Catalysis">Catalyst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cathode" title="Cathode">Cathode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrode" title="Electrode">Electrode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrolyte" title="Electrolyte">Electrolyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Half-cell" title="Half-cell">Half-cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">Ions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_bridge" title="Salt bridge">Salt bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semipermeable_membrane" title="Semipermeable membrane">Semipermeable membrane</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Energy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Energy_footer" title="Template:Energy footer"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Energy_footer" title="Template talk:Energy footer"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Energy_footer" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Energy footer"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Energy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">Energy</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_energy" title="History of energy">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_energy_articles" title="Index of energy articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_energy" title="Outline of energy">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fundamental <br />concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_energy" title="Conservation of energy">Conservation of energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">Energetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">Energy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Units_of_energy" title="Units of energy">Units</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_condition" title="Energy condition">Energy condition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_level" title="Energy level">Energy level</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_system" title="Energy system">Energy system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_transformation" title="Energy transformation">Energy transformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_transition" title="Energy transition">Energy transition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass" title="Mass">Mass</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Negative_mass" title="Negative mass">Negative mass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass%E2%80%93energy_equivalence" title="Mass–energy equivalence">Mass–energy equivalence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_(physics)" title="Power (physics)">Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">Thermodynamics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enthalpy" title="Enthalpy">Enthalpy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entropic_force" title="Entropic force">Entropic force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entropy" title="Entropy">Entropy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exergy" title="Exergy">Exergy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_entropy" title="Free entropy">Free entropy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_capacity" title="Heat capacity">Heat capacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_transfer" title="Heat transfer">Heat transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irreversible_process" title="Irreversible process">Irreversible process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isolated_system" title="Isolated system">Isolated system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laws_of_thermodynamics" title="Laws of thermodynamics">Laws of thermodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negentropy" title="Negentropy">Negentropy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_thermodynamics" title="Quantum thermodynamics">Quantum thermodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_equilibrium" title="Thermal equilibrium">Thermal equilibrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_reservoir" title="Thermal reservoir">Thermal reservoir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_equilibrium" title="Thermodynamic equilibrium">Thermodynamic equilibrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_free_energy" title="Thermodynamic free energy">Thermodynamic free energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_potential" title="Thermodynamic potential">Thermodynamic potential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_state" title="Thermodynamic state">Thermodynamic state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_system" title="Thermodynamic system">Thermodynamic system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_temperature" title="Thermodynamic temperature">Thermodynamic temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volume_(thermodynamics)" title="Volume (thermodynamics)">Volume (thermodynamics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Work_(physics)" title="Work (physics)">Work</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Binding_energy" title="Binding energy">Binding</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_binding_energy" title="Nuclear binding energy">Nuclear</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_energy" title="Chemical energy">Chemical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_energy" title="Dark energy">Dark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elastic_energy" title="Elastic energy">Elastic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_potential_energy" title="Electric potential energy">Electric potential energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_energy" title="Electrical energy">Electrical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_energy" title="Gravitational energy">Gravitational</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_binding_energy" title="Gravitational binding energy">Binding</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interatomic_potential" title="Interatomic potential">Interatomic potential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_energy" title="Internal energy">Internal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ionization_energy" title="Ionization energy">Ionization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinetic_energy" title="Kinetic energy">Kinetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_energy" title="Magnetic energy">Magnetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanical_energy" title="Mechanical energy">Mechanical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_energy" title="Negative energy">Negative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phantom_energy" title="Phantom energy">Phantom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potential_energy" title="Potential energy">Potential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_chromodynamics_binding_energy" title="Quantum chromodynamics binding energy">Quantum chromodynamics binding energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_fluctuation" title="Quantum fluctuation">Quantum fluctuation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_potential" title="Quantum potential">Quantum potential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintessence_(physics)" title="Quintessence (physics)">Quintessence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiant_energy" title="Radiant energy">Radiant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rest_energy" class="mw-redirect" title="Rest energy">Rest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sound_energy" title="Sound energy">Sound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_energy" title="Surface energy">Surface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_energy" title="Thermal energy">Thermal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vacuum_energy" title="Vacuum energy">Vacuum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zero-point_energy" title="Zero-point energy">Zero-point</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Energy_carrier" title="Energy carrier">Energy carriers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Battery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capacitor" title="Capacitor">Capacitor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electricity" title="Electricity">Electricity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enthalpy" title="Enthalpy">Enthalpy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuel" title="Fuel">Fuel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">Fossil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuel_oil" title="Fuel oil">Oil</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat" title="Heat">Heat</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latent_heat" title="Latent heat">Latent heat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">Hydrogen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_fuel" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen fuel">Hydrogen fuel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanical_wave" title="Mechanical wave">Mechanical wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation" title="Radiation">Radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sound_wave" class="mw-redirect" title="Sound wave">Sound wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Work_(physics)" title="Work (physics)">Work</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Primary_energy" title="Primary energy">Primary energy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioenergy" title="Bioenergy">Bioenergy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">Fossil fuel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">Coal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">Natural gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum">Petroleum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_energy" title="Geothermal energy">Geothermal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_energy" title="Gravitational energy">Gravitational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydropower" title="Hydropower">Hydropower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_energy" title="Marine energy">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fuel" title="Nuclear fuel">Nuclear fuel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_uranium" title="Natural uranium">Natural uranium</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiant_energy" title="Radiant energy">Radiant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_energy" title="Solar energy">Solar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_power" title="Wind power">Wind</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Energy_system" title="Energy system">Energy system</a><br />components</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">Biomass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_power" title="Electric power">Electric power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electricity_delivery" title="Electricity delivery">Electricity delivery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_engineering" title="Energy engineering">Energy engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_power_station" title="Fossil fuel power station">Fossil fuel power station</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cogeneration" title="Cogeneration">Cogeneration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_gasification_combined_cycle" title="Integrated gasification combined cycle">Integrated gasification combined cycle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power" title="Geothermal power">Geothermal power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydropower" title="Hydropower">Hydropower</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hydroelectricity" title="Hydroelectricity">Hydroelectricity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_power" title="Tidal power">Tidal power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_farm" class="mw-redirect" title="Wave farm">Wave farm</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">Nuclear power</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_plant" title="Nuclear power plant">Nuclear power plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioisotope_thermoelectric_generator" title="Radioisotope thermoelectric generator">Radioisotope thermoelectric generator</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_refinery" title="Oil refinery">Oil refinery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power" title="Solar power">Solar power</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Concentrated_solar_power" title="Concentrated solar power">Concentrated solar power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_system" title="Photovoltaic system">Photovoltaic system</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_thermal_energy" title="Solar thermal energy">Solar thermal energy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_furnace" title="Solar furnace">Solar furnace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_tower" title="Solar power tower">Solar power tower</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_power" title="Wind power">Wind power</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airborne_wind_energy" title="Airborne wind energy">Airborne wind energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_farm" title="Wind farm">Wind farm</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Use and<br /><a href="/wiki/Energy_supply" title="Energy supply">supply</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Efficient_energy_use" title="Efficient energy use">Efficient energy use</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Energy_efficiency_in_agriculture" title="Energy efficiency in agriculture">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_usage_effectiveness" title="Power usage effectiveness">Computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_efficiency_in_transport" title="Energy efficiency in transport">Transport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_conservation" title="Energy conservation">Energy conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_consumption" title="Energy consumption">Energy consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_policy" title="Energy policy">Energy policy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Energy_development" title="Energy development">Energy development</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_security" title="Energy security">Energy security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_storage" title="Energy storage">Energy storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">Renewable energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_energy" title="Sustainable energy">Sustainable energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_energy_supply_and_consumption" title="World energy supply and consumption">World energy supply and consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Africa" title="Energy in Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy in Asia">Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Australia" title="Energy in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_policy_of_Canada" title="Energy policy of Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Europe" title="Energy in Europe">Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Mexico" title="Energy in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_South_America" title="Energy in South America">South America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_the_United_States" title="Energy in the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Misc.</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_footprint" title="Carbon footprint">Carbon footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_democracy" title="Energy democracy">Energy democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_recovery" title="Energy recovery">Energy recovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_recycling" title="Energy recycling">Energy recycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jevons_paradox" title="Jevons paradox">Jevons paradox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste-to-energy" title="Waste-to-energy">Waste-to-energy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Waste-to-energy_plant" title="Waste-to-energy plant">Waste-to-energy plant</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" 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