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id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox" style="width:22em;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color: #ffddaa;">Grebo</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Geographic<br />distribution</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Liberia" title="Liberia">Liberia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ivory_Coast" title="Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Linguistic classification</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Niger%E2%80%93Congo_languages" title="Niger–Congo languages">Niger–Congo</a>?<ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:15px;padding-left:0"><li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic-Congo_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlantic-Congo languages">Atlantic-Congo</a><ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:5px;padding-left:0"><li><a href="/wiki/Kru_languages" title="Kru languages">Kru</a><ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:5px;padding-left:0"><li>Western Kru<ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:5px;padding-left:0"><li><b>Grebo</b></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></td></tr><tr class="plainlist"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Subdivisions</th><td class="infobox-data"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glio-Oubi" class="mw-redirect" title="Glio-Oubi">Glio-Oubi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krumen_language" title="Krumen language">Krumen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grebo_language" title="Grebo language">Grebo proper</a></li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: #ffddaa;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><samp><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/greb1257">greb1257</a></code></samp></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Grebo</b> is a <a href="/wiki/Dialect_cluster" class="mw-redirect" title="Dialect cluster">dialect cluster</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Kru_languages" title="Kru languages">Kru languages</a>, spoken by the <a href="/wiki/Grebo_people" title="Grebo people">Grebo people</a> of present-day <a href="/wiki/Liberia" title="Liberia">Liberia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Krumen_people" title="Krumen people">Krumen</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ivory_Coast" title="Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast</a> in West Africa. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition">Definition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Grebo_languages&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first African tribal group contacted by European explorers and Americo-Liberian colonists reaching the area of <a href="/wiki/Cape_Palmas" title="Cape Palmas">Cape Palmas</a> were the <b>Seaside Grebo</b>, or <b>Glebo.</b><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The colonists came to refer to their language as <i>Grebo</i>. In the absence of other qualification, the term <i>Grebo language</i> refers to the <i>Glebo</i> speech variety. </p><p>Considerable ambiguity and imprecision continue to exist with respect to the scholarly use of the term <b>Grebo</b>; it is not always clear precisely which variety it is intended to denote. If it is being used as a group term, it is not always clear what is to be included in the group. This imprecision results from several factors: </p> <ul><li>The incompleteness of the data;</li> <li>Lack of rigor in the classification methodology; and</li> <li>The speech area involved is a <a href="/wiki/Language_continuum" class="mw-redirect" title="Language continuum">language continuum</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethnologue_classification"><i>Ethnologue</i> classification</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Grebo_languages&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Ethnologue classification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Ethnologue</i> subdivides the Grebo branch of Western Kru into nine coded languages based on the needs of literacy, several consisting of divergent dialects with strong ethnocentric identities. </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glio-Oubi" class="mw-redirect" title="Glio-Oubi">Glio-Oubi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krumen_language" title="Krumen language">Krumen</a> (3 languages in Côte d'Ivoire)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grebo_language" title="Grebo language">Grebo proper</a> (5 languages)</li></ul> <p>Any of the twenty-five or more dialects in the group is likely to be called (a variety of) <i>Grebo.</i> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Multilingualism">Multilingualism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Grebo_languages&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Multilingualism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A degree of <a href="/wiki/Multilingualism" title="Multilingualism">bilingualism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Dialect" title="Dialect">bidialectalism</a> is normal in such a context, but so is the commonly observed thrust for autonomy. Factors such as <a href="/wiki/Exogamy" title="Exogamy">exogamy</a> and the needs of commerce foster intercommunication strategies. Because of the emphasis on the need for communication, the degree of inter-intelligibility of the varieties appears to be less than if they were considered in isolation. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Diglossia" title="Diglossia">Diglossia</a> (extended or not), often with Liberian (Pidgin) English, provides an additional dimension to the complexity described above. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Grebo_languages&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Classified as a dialect of Southern Grebo by <a href="/wiki/ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a>.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Grebo_languages&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Innes, Gordon. 1966. <i>An Introduction to Grebo.</i> London: Luzac.</li> <li>Innes, Gordon. 1967. <i>A Grebo-English dictionary.</i> (<i>West African Language Monographs</i>, 6) London: Cambridge University Press.</li> <li>Ingemann, Frances, and John Duitsman. "A Survey of Grebo Dialects in Liberia," <i>Liberian Studies Journal</i>, 7(2):121-131, 1976.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Greenberg" title="Joseph Greenberg">Greenberg, Joseph H.</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Languages_of_Africa" title="The Languages of Africa">The Languages of Africa</a></i>. Indiana Univ. Press, 1966).</li> <li>Hasselbring, Sue and Eric Johnson. <i>A sociolinguistic survey of the Grebo language area of Liberia. SIL Electronic Survey Reports 2002-074</i>, 2002. Online version: <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.sil.org/silesr/abstract.asp?ref=2002-074">[1]</a>.</li> <li>Payne, John. 1867. <i>A Dictionary of the Grebo Language.</i> Philadelphia: King and Baird.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Grebo_languages&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>US Navy map of <i>Maryland in Liberia</i>, 1853. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" 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style="width:1%">Wee</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Daho-Doo_language" title="Daho-Doo language">Daho-Doo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glaro-Twabo_language" title="Glaro-Twabo language">Glaro-Twabo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sapo_language" title="Sapo language">Sapo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W%C3%A8_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Wè language">Wè</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Krahn_language" title="Western Krahn language">Krahn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyabwa_language" title="Nyabwa language">Nyabwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konobo_language" title="Konobo language">Konobo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wobe_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Wobe language">Wobe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div 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