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href="#Properties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Properties </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Properties-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Properties subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Properties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Acidity/basicity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Acidity/basicity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Acidity/basicity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Acidity/basicity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Melting_and_boiling_points" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Melting_and_boiling_points"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Melting and boiling points </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Melting_and_boiling_points-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Brittleness" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Brittleness"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Brittleness </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Brittleness-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Compressibility" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Compressibility"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Compressibility </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Compressibility-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Solubility" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Solubility"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Solubility </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Solubility-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Strength" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Strength"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5.1 Strength </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Strength-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electrical_conductivity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electrical_conductivity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6 Electrical conductivity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electrical_conductivity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Colour" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Colour"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.7 Colour </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Colour-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Taste_and_odor" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Taste_and_odor"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.8 Taste and odor </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Taste_and_odor-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Uses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Uses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Uses </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Uses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nomenclature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nomenclature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Nomenclature </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nomenclature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-salt" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-salt"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Non-salt </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Non-salt-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Non-salt subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Non-salt-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Zwitterion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Zwitterion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Zwitterion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Zwitterion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.1 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Salt (chemistry)</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 116 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-116" aria-hidden="true" > 116 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sout_(chemiese_stof)" title="Sout (chemiese stof) – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Sout (chemiese stof)" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salze" title="Salze – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Salze" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A3" title="लवण – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="लवण" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target">अंगिका</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%84%D8%AD_(%D9%83%D9%8A%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%A1)" title="ملح (كيمياء) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="ملح (كيمياء)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sal_(quimica)" title="Sal (quimica) – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Sal (quimica)" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%B1%E0%A6%A3" title="লৱণ – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="লৱণ" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sal_(adob%C3%ADu)" title="Sal (adobíu) – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Sal (adobíu)" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juky_(k%C3%ADmika)" title="Juky (kímika) – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Juky (kímika)" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duz_(kimya)" title="Duz (kimya) – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Duz (kimya)" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%A3_(%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%A8)" title="লবণ (রসায়ন) – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="লবণ (রসায়ন)" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bjn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bjn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uyah" title="Uyah – Banjar" lang="bjn" hreflang="bjn" data-title="Uyah" data-language-autonym="Banjar" data-language-local-name="Banjar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Banjar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%C3%A2m_(h%C3%B2a-ha%CC%8Dk)" title="Iâm (hòa-ha̍k) – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Iâm (hòa-ha̍k)" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D2%99%D2%99%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Тоҙҙар – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Тоҙҙар" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%96" title="Солі – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Солі" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%96" title="Солі – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Солі" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asin_(kimika)" title="Asin (kimika) – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Asin (kimika)" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%BB" title="Сол – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Сол" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soli_(hemijski_spojevi)" title="Soli (hemijski spojevi) – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Soli (hemijski spojevi)" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hal_(kimiezh)" title="Hal (kimiezh) – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Hal (kimiezh)" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B0%D0%B1%D2%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Дабһан – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Дабһан" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sal_(qu%C3%ADmica)" title="Sal (química) – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Sal (química)" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%C4%83%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BC" title="Тăварсем – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Тăварсем" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soli" title="Soli – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Soli" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halwyn" title="Halwyn – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Halwyn" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt_(kemi)" title="Salt (kemi) – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Salt (kemi)" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-se mw-list-item"><a href="https://se.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A1lti_(kemiija)" title="Sálti (kemiija) – Northern Sami" lang="se" hreflang="se" data-title="Sálti (kemiija)" data-language-autonym="Davvisámegiella" data-language-local-name="Northern Sami" class="interlanguage-link-target">Davvisámegiella</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salze" title="Salze – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Salze" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soolad" title="Soolad – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Soolad" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%86%CE%BB%CE%B1%CF%82" title="Άλας – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Άλας" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-myv mw-list-item"><a href="https://myv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%82" title="Салт – Erzya" lang="myv" hreflang="myv" data-title="Салт" data-language-autonym="Эрзянь" data-language-local-name="Erzya" class="interlanguage-link-target">Эрзянь</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sal_(qu%C3%ADmica)" title="Sal (química) – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Sal (química)" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salo_(kemio)" title="Salo (kemio) – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Salo (kemio)" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gatz_(kimika)" title="Gatz (kimika) – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Gatz (kimika)" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%85%DA%A9_(%D8%B4%DB%8C%D9%85%DB%8C)" title="نمک (شیمی) – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="نمک (شیمی)" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nimak" title="Nimak – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Nimak" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sel_(chimie)" title="Sel (chimie) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Sel (chimie)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sal_(qu%C3%ADmica)" title="Sal (química) – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Sal (química)" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%97%BC" title="염 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="염" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%B2%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Աղեր – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Աղեր" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A3" title="लवण – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="लवण" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soli" title="Soli – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Soli" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garam_(kimia)" title="Garam (kimia) – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Garam (kimia)" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sal_(chimia)" title="Sal (chimia) – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Sal (chimia)" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt_(efnafr%C3%A6%C3%B0i)" title="Salt (efnafræði) – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Salt (efnafræði)" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sale" title="Sale – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Sale" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%9C%D7%97_(%D7%9B%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%94)" title="מלח (כימיה) – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מלח (כימיה)" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98" title="მარილები – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="მარილები" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D2%B1%D0%B7%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80_(%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F)" title="Тұздар (химия) – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Тұздар (химия)" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chumvi_(kemia)" title="Chumvi (kemia) – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Chumvi (kemia)" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%83%D0%B7_(%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F)" title="Туз (химия) – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Туз (химия)" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mrj mw-list-item"><a href="https://mrj.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B2%D0%BB%D3%93" title="Санзалвлӓ – Western Mari" lang="mrj" hreflang="mrj" data-title="Санзалвлӓ" data-language-autonym="Кырык мары" data-language-local-name="Western Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кырык мары</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sal_(chemia)" title="Sal (chemia) – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Sal (chemia)" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C4%81%C4%BCi" title="Sāļi – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Sāļi" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Druskos" title="Druskos – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Druskos" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln mw-list-item"><a href="https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%B3ngwa" title="Móngwa – Lingala" lang="ln" hreflang="ln" data-title="Móngwa" data-language-autonym="Lingála" data-language-local-name="Lingala" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingála</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/silna" title="silna – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="silna" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="Lojban" class="interlanguage-link-target">La .lojban.</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saa" title="Saa – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Saa" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B3" title="Só – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Só" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8" title="Соли – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Соли" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sira" title="Sira – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Sira" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%A3%E0%B4%82" title="ലവണം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ലവണം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garam_(kimia)" title="Garam (kimia) – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Garam (kimia)" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zouten" title="Zouten – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Zouten" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A3" title="लवण – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="लवण" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A3" title="लवण – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="लवण" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A1%A9_(%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%A6)" title="塩 (化学) – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="塩 (化学)" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saalten" title="Saalten – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Saalten" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt_(kjemisk_forbindelse)" title="Salt (kjemisk forbindelse) – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Salt (kjemisk forbindelse)" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt" title="Salt – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Salt" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sal_(quimia)" title="Sal (quimia) – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Sal (quimia)" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuzlar" title="Tuzlar – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Tuzlar" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B2%E0%A9%82%E0%A8%A3_(%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%87%E0%A8%A3_%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%A8)" title="ਲੂਣ (ਰਸਾਇਣ ਵਿਗਿਆਨ) – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਲੂਣ (ਰਸਾਇਣ ਵਿਗਿਆਨ)" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%88%D9%86" title="لون – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="لون" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84%DA%AB%D9%87_(%DA%A9%DB%90%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A7)" title="مالګه (کېميا) – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="مالګه (کېميا)" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saal_(kimischri)" title="Saal (kimischri) – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Saal (kimischri)" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sal_(ch%C3%ACmica)" title="Sal (chìmica) – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Sal (chìmica)" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solt_(Chemie)" title="Solt (Chemie) – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Solt (Chemie)" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sole" title="Sole – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Sole" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%86%CE%BB%CE%B1%CF%82" title="Άλας – Pontic" lang="pnt" hreflang="pnt" data-title="Άλας" data-language-autonym="Ποντιακά" data-language-local-name="Pontic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ποντιακά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sal" title="Sal – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Sal" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sare_(chimie)" title="Sare (chimie) – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Sare (chimie)" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kachi" title="Kachi – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Kachi" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%97" title="Солї – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Солї" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8" title="Соли – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Соли" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krip%C3%ABrat" title="Kripërat – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Kripërat" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%80%E0%B6%AB%E0%B6%BA" title="ලවණය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ලවණය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt" title="Salt – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Salt" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%88%DA%BB_(%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%DA%AA%D9%8A%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A7)" title="لوڻ (علم ڪيميا) – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="لوڻ (علم ڪيميا)" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/So%C4%BE_(ch%C3%A9mia)" title="Soľ (chémia) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Soľ (chémia)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sol_(kemija)" title="Sol (kemija) – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Sol (kemija)" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D9%88%DB%8E_(%DA%A9%DB%8C%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%A7)" title="خوێ (کیمیا) – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="خوێ (کیمیا)" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE" title="Со – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Со" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sol" title="Sol – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Sol" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uyah_(kimia)" title="Uyah (kimia) – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Uyah (kimia)" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suola" title="Suola – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Suola" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salter" title="Salter – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Salter" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asin_(kimika)" title="Asin (kimika) – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Asin (kimika)" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81_(%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D)" title="உப்பு (வேதியியல்) – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="உப்பு (வேதியியல்)" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B7%E0%B8%AD_(%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B5)" title="เกลือ (เคมี) – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="เกลือ (เคมี)" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuz_(kimya)" title="Tuz (kimya) – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Tuz (kimya)" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" 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bonding</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Ionic compound" redirects here. Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Salt" title="Salt">Salt</a> or <a href="/wiki/Sodium_chloride" title="Sodium chloride">Sodium chloride</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NaCl_bonds.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/NaCl_bonds.svg/220px-NaCl_bonds.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/NaCl_bonds.svg/330px-NaCl_bonds.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/NaCl_bonds.svg/440px-NaCl_bonds.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1152" data-file-height="1001" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Crystal" title="Crystal">crystal</a> structure of <a href="/wiki/Sodium_chloride" title="Sodium chloride">sodium chloride</a>, NaCl, a typical salt. The purple spheres represent <a href="/wiki/Sodium" title="Sodium">sodium</a> <a href="/wiki/Cation" class="mw-redirect" title="Cation">cations</a>, Na+, and the green spheres represent <a href="/wiki/Chloride" title="Chloride">chloride</a> <a href="/wiki/Anion" class="mw-redirect" title="Anion">anions</a>, Cl−. The yellow stipples show the electrostatic forces.</figcaption></figure> In <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>, a salt or ionic compound is a <a href="/wiki/Chemical_compound" title="Chemical compound">chemical compound</a> consisting of an assembly of positively charged <a href="/wiki/Ions" class="mw-redirect" title="Ions">ions</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cation" class="mw-redirect" title="Cation">cations</a>) and negatively charged ions (<a href="/wiki/Anion" class="mw-redirect" title="Anion">anions</a>),<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> which results in a compound with no net <a href="/wiki/Electric_charge" title="Electric charge">electric charge</a> (electrically neutral). The constituent ions are held together by <a href="/wiki/Coulomb%27s_law" title="Coulomb's law">electrostatic forces</a> termed <a href="/wiki/Ionic_bonding" title="Ionic bonding">ionic bonds</a>. The component ions in a salt can be either <a href="/wiki/Inorganic_compound" title="Inorganic compound">inorganic</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Chloride" title="Chloride">chloride</a> (Cl−), or <a href="/wiki/Organic_chemistry" title="Organic chemistry">organic</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Acetate" title="Acetate">acetate</a> (CH 3COO− ). Each ion can be either <a href="/wiki/Monatomic_ion" class="mw-redirect" title="Monatomic ion">monatomic</a> (termed <a href="/wiki/Simple_ion" class="mw-redirect" title="Simple ion">simple ion</a>), such as <a href="/wiki/Sodium" title="Sodium">sodium</a> (Na+) and chloride (Cl−) in <a href="/wiki/Sodium_chloride" title="Sodium chloride">sodium chloride</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Polyatomic_ion" title="Polyatomic ion">polyatomic</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Ammonium" title="Ammonium">ammonium</a> (NH+ 4) and <a href="/wiki/Carbonate" title="Carbonate">carbonate</a> (CO2− 3) ions in <a href="/wiki/Ammonium_carbonate" title="Ammonium carbonate">ammonium carbonate</a>. Salts containing basic ions <a href="/wiki/Hydroxide" title="Hydroxide">hydroxide</a> (OH−) or <a href="/wiki/Oxide" title="Oxide">oxide</a> (O2−) are classified as <a href="/wiki/Base_(chemistry)" title="Base (chemistry)">bases</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Sodium_hydroxide" title="Sodium hydroxide">sodium hydroxide</a> and <a href="/wiki/Potassium_oxide" title="Potassium oxide">potassium oxide</a>. Individual ions within a salt usually have multiple near neighbours, so they are not considered to be part of molecules, but instead part of a continuous three-dimensional network. Salts usually form <a href="/wiki/Crystal_structure" title="Crystal structure">crystalline structures</a> when solid. Salts composed of small ions typically have high <a href="/wiki/Melting_point" title="Melting point">melting</a> and <a href="/wiki/Boiling_point" title="Boiling point">boiling points</a>, and are <a href="/wiki/Hardness" title="Hardness">hard</a> and <a href="/wiki/Brittleness" title="Brittleness">brittle</a>. As solids they are almost always <a href="/wiki/Insulator_(electricity)" title="Insulator (electricity)">electrically insulating</a>, but when <a href="/wiki/Melting" title="Melting">melted</a> or <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_(chemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dissolution (chemistry)">dissolved</a> they become highly <a href="/wiki/Electrical_resistivity_and_conductivity" title="Electrical resistivity and conductivity">conductive</a>, because the ions become mobile. Some salts have large cations, large anions, or both. In terms of their properties, such species often are more similar to organic compounds. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_of_discovery">History of discovery</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Salt_(chemistry)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History of discovery">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:X-ray_spectrometer,_1912._(9660569929).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/X-ray_spectrometer%2C_1912._%289660569929%29.jpg/220px-X-ray_spectrometer%2C_1912._%289660569929%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="311" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/X-ray_spectrometer%2C_1912._%289660569929%29.jpg/330px-X-ray_spectrometer%2C_1912._%289660569929%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/X-ray_spectrometer%2C_1912._%289660569929%29.jpg/440px-X-ray_spectrometer%2C_1912._%289660569929%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="883" data-file-height="1250" /></a><figcaption>X-ray spectrometer developed by W. H. Bragg</figcaption></figure> In 1913 the structure of <a href="/wiki/Sodium_chloride" title="Sodium chloride">sodium chloride</a> was determined by <a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Bragg" title="William Henry Bragg">William Henry Bragg</a> and his son <a href="/wiki/William_Lawrence_Bragg" class="mw-redirect" title="William Lawrence Bragg">William Lawrence Bragg</a>.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-sherman-4">[4]</a> This revealed that there were six equidistant <a href="/wiki/Coordination_number" title="Coordination number">nearest-neighbours</a> for each atom, demonstrating that the constituents were not arranged in molecules or finite aggregates, but instead as a network with long-range <a href="/wiki/Crystal_structure" title="Crystal structure">crystalline</a> order.<a href="#cite_note-sherman-4">[4]</a> Many other <a href="/wiki/Inorganic_compound" title="Inorganic compound">inorganic compounds</a> were also found to have similar structural features.<a href="#cite_note-sherman-4">[4]</a> These compounds were soon described as being constituted of ions rather than neutral <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atoms</a>, but proof of this hypothesis was not found until the mid-1920s, when <a href="/wiki/X-ray_reflectivity" title="X-ray reflectivity">X-ray reflection</a> experiments (which detect the density of electrons), were performed.<a href="#cite_note-sherman-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> Principal contributors to the development of a <a href="/wiki/Theoretical" class="mw-redirect" title="Theoretical">theoretical</a> treatment of ionic crystal structures were <a href="/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born">Max Born</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Haber" title="Fritz Haber">Fritz Haber</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Land%C3%A9" title="Alfred Landé">Alfred Landé</a>, <a href="/wiki/Erwin_Madelung" title="Erwin Madelung">Erwin Madelung</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paul_Peter_Ewald" title="Paul Peter Ewald">Paul Peter Ewald</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kazimierz_Fajans" title="Kazimierz Fajans">Kazimierz Fajans</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPauling1960505-6">[6]</a> Born predicted crystal energies based on the assumption of ionic constituents, which showed good correspondence to <a href="/wiki/Thermochemistry" title="Thermochemistry">thermochemical</a> measurements, further supporting the assumption.<a href="#cite_note-sherman-4">[4]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Formation">Formation</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Salt_(chemistry)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Formation">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Halite-57430.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="White crystals form a mineral sample of halite, shown against a black background." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Halite-57430.jpg/220px-Halite-57430.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Halite-57430.jpg/330px-Halite-57430.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Halite-57430.jpg/440px-Halite-57430.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="539" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Halite" title="Halite">Halite</a>, the mineral form of <a href="/wiki/Sodium_chloride" title="Sodium chloride">sodium chloride</a>, forms when salty water evaporates leaving the ions behind.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lead(II)_sulfate.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Lead%28II%29_sulfate.jpg/220px-Lead%28II%29_sulfate.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Lead%28II%29_sulfate.jpg/330px-Lead%28II%29_sulfate.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Lead%28II%29_sulfate.jpg/440px-Lead%28II%29_sulfate.jpg 2x" data-file-width="582" data-file-height="502" /></a><figcaption>Solid lead(II) sulfate (PbSO4)</figcaption></figure> Many metals such as the <a href="/wiki/Alkali_metal" title="Alkali metal">alkali metals</a> react directly with the <a href="/wiki/Electronegativity" title="Electronegativity">electronegative</a> <a href="/wiki/Halogen" title="Halogen">halogens</a> gases to form salts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZumdahl1989312-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoldDwight199371-8">[8]</a> Salts form upon evaporation of their <a href="/wiki/Solution_(chemistry)" title="Solution (chemistry)">solutions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoldDwight199382-9">[9]</a> Once the solution is <a href="/wiki/Supersaturation" title="Supersaturation">supersaturated</a> and the solid compound nucleates.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoldDwight199382-9">[9]</a> This process occurs widely in nature and is the means of formation of the <a href="/wiki/Evaporite" title="Evaporite">evaporite</a> minerals.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> Insoluble salts can be precipitated by mixing two solutions, one with the cation and one with the anion in it. Because all solutions are electrically neutral, the two solutions mixed must also contain <a href="/wiki/Counterion" title="Counterion">counterions</a> of the opposite charges. To ensure that these do not contaminate the precipitated salt, it is important to ensure they do not also precipitate.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZumdahl1989133–140-11">[11]</a> If the two solutions have hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions as the counterions, they will react with one another in what is called an <a href="/wiki/Acid%E2%80%93base_reaction#Arrhenius_theory" title="Acid–base reaction">acid–base reaction</a> or a <a href="/wiki/Neutralization_reaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutralization reaction">neutralization reaction</a> to form water.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZumdahl1989144–145-12">[12]</a> Alternately the counterions can be chosen to ensure that even when combined into a single solution they will remain soluble as <a href="/wiki/Spectator_ions" class="mw-redirect" title="Spectator ions">spectator ions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZumdahl1989133–140-11">[11]</a> If the solvent is water in either the evaporation or precipitation method of formation, in many cases the <a href="/wiki/Ionic_crystal" title="Ionic crystal">ionic crystal</a> formed also includes <a href="/wiki/Water_of_crystallization" title="Water of crystallization">water of crystallization</a>, so the product is known as a <a href="/wiki/Hydrate" title="Hydrate">hydrate</a>, and can have very different chemical properties compared to the <a href="/wiki/Anhydrous" title="Anhydrous">anhydrous</a> material.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown2009417-13">[13]</a> Molten salts will solidify on cooling to below their <a href="/wiki/Freezing_point" class="mw-redirect" title="Freezing point">freezing point</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoldDwight199379-14">[14]</a> This is sometimes used for the <a href="/wiki/Solid-state_chemistry" title="Solid-state chemistry">solid-state synthesis</a> of complex salts from solid reactants, which are first melted together.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoldDwight199379–81-15">[15]</a> In other cases, the solid reactants do not need to be melted, but instead can react through a <a href="/wiki/Solid-state_reaction_route" title="Solid-state reaction route">solid-state reaction route</a>. In this method, the reactants are repeatedly finely ground into a paste and then heated to a temperature where the ions in neighboring reactants can diffuse together during the time the reactant mixture remains in the oven.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoldDwight199371-8">[8]</a> Other synthetic routes use a solid precursor with the correct <a href="/wiki/Stoichiometry" title="Stoichiometry">stoichiometric</a> ratio of non-volatile ions, which is heated to drive off other species.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoldDwight199371-8">[8]</a> In some reactions between highly reactive metals (usually from <a href="/wiki/Alkali_metal" title="Alkali metal">Group 1</a> or <a href="/wiki/Alkaline_earth_metal" title="Alkaline earth metal">Group 2</a>) and highly electronegative halogen gases, or water, the atoms can be ionized by <a href="/wiki/Electron_transfer" title="Electron transfer">electron transfer</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZumdahl1989312–313-16">[16]</a> a process thermodynamically understood using the <a href="/wiki/Born%E2%80%93Haber_cycle" title="Born–Haber cycle">Born–Haber cycle</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarrow1988161–162-17">[17]</a> Salts are formed by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Salt-forming_reaction&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Salt-forming reaction (page does not exist)">salt-forming reactions</a> <ul><li>A <a href="/wiki/Base_(chemistry)" title="Base (chemistry)">base</a> and an <a href="/wiki/Acid" title="Acid">acid</a>, e.g., <a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">NH3</a> + <a href="/wiki/Hydrochloric_acid" title="Hydrochloric acid">HCl</a> → <a href="/wiki/Ammonium_chloride" title="Ammonium chloride">NH4Cl</a></li> <li>A <a href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">metal</a> and an <a href="/wiki/Acid" title="Acid">acid</a>, e.g., <a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">Mg</a> + <a href="/wiki/Sulfuric_acid" title="Sulfuric acid">H2SO4</a> → <a href="/wiki/Magnesium_sulfate" title="Magnesium sulfate">MgSO4</a> + <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">H2</a></li> <li>A metal and a non-metal, e.g., <a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">Ca</a> + <a href="/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine">Cl2</a> → <a href="/wiki/Calcium_chloride" title="Calcium chloride">CaCl2</a></li> <li>A <a href="/wiki/Base_(chemistry)" title="Base (chemistry)">base</a> and an <a href="/wiki/Acid_anhydride" title="Acid anhydride">acid anhydride</a>, e.g., 2 <a href="/wiki/Sodium_hydroxide" title="Sodium hydroxide">NaOH</a> + <a href="/wiki/Dichlorine_monoxide" title="Dichlorine monoxide">Cl2O</a> → 2 <a href="/wiki/Sodium_hypochlorite" title="Sodium hypochlorite">NaClO</a> + <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">H2O</a></li> <li>An <a href="/wiki/Acid" title="Acid">acid</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Base_anhydride" title="Base anhydride">base anhydride</a>, e.g., 2 <a href="/wiki/Nitric_acid" title="Nitric acid">HNO3</a> + <a href="/wiki/Sodium_oxide" title="Sodium oxide">Na2O</a> → 2 <a href="/wiki/Sodium_nitrate" title="Sodium nitrate">NaNO3</a> + <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">H2O</a></li> <li>In the <a href="/wiki/Salt_metathesis_reaction" title="Salt metathesis reaction">salt metathesis reaction</a> where two different salts are mixed in water, their ions recombine, and the new salt is insoluble and precipitates. For example: <dl><dd>Pb(NO3)2 + Na2SO4 → PbSO4↓ + 2 NaNO3</dd></dl></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bonding">Bonding</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Salt_(chemistry)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Bonding">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NaF.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/NaF.gif/300px-NaF.gif" decoding="async" width="300" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/NaF.gif/450px-NaF.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/NaF.gif 2x" data-file-width="560" data-file-height="245" /></a><figcaption>A schematic <a href="/wiki/Electron_shell" title="Electron shell">electron shell</a> diagram of <a href="/wiki/Sodium" title="Sodium">sodium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fluorine" title="Fluorine">fluorine</a> atoms undergoing a redox reaction to form <a href="/wiki/Sodium_fluoride" title="Sodium fluoride">sodium fluoride</a>. Sodium loses its outer <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electron</a> to give it a stable <a href="/wiki/Electron_configuration" title="Electron configuration">electron configuration</a>, and this electron enters the fluorine atom <a href="/wiki/Exothermic" class="mw-redirect" title="Exothermic">exothermically</a>. The oppositely charged ions – typically a great many of them – are then attracted to each other to form a solid.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ionic_bonding" title="Ionic bonding">Ionic bonding</a></div> Ions in salts are primarily held together by the <a href="/wiki/Electrostatic_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrostatic force">electrostatic forces</a> between the charge distribution of these bodies, and in particular, the ionic bond resulting from the long-ranged <a href="/wiki/Coulomb%27s_law" title="Coulomb's law">Coulomb</a> attraction between the net negative charge of the anions and net positive charge of the cations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPauling19606-18">[18]</a> There is also a small additional attractive force from <a href="/wiki/Van_der_Waals_interactions" class="mw-redirect" title="Van der Waals interactions">van der Waals interactions</a> which contributes only around 1–2% of the cohesive energy for small ions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKittel200561-19">[19]</a> When a pair of ions comes close enough for their <a href="/wiki/Valence_shell" class="mw-redirect" title="Valence shell">outer</a> <a href="/wiki/Electron_shell" title="Electron shell">electron shells</a> (most simple ions have <a href="/wiki/Closed_shell" class="mw-redirect" title="Closed shell">closed shells</a>) to overlap, a short-ranged repulsive force occurs,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPauling1960507-20">[20]</a> due to the <a href="/wiki/Pauli_exclusion_principle" title="Pauli exclusion principle">Pauli exclusion principle</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAshcroftMermin1977379-21">[21]</a> The balance between these forces leads to a potential energy well with minimum energy when the nuclei are separated by a specific equilibrium distance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPauling1960507-20">[20]</a> If the <a href="/wiki/Electronic_structure" class="mw-redirect" title="Electronic structure">electronic structure</a> of the two interacting bodies is affected by the presence of one another, covalent interactions (non-ionic) also contribute to the overall energy of the compound formed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPauling196065-22">[22]</a> Salts are rarely purely ionic, i.e. held together only by electrostatic forces. The bonds between even the most <a href="/wiki/Electronegative" class="mw-redirect" title="Electronegative">electronegative</a>/<a href="/wiki/Electropositive" class="mw-redirect" title="Electropositive">electropositive</a> pairs such as those in <a href="/wiki/Caesium_fluoride" title="Caesium fluoride">caesium fluoride</a> exhibit a small degree of <a href="/wiki/Covalent_bond" title="Covalent bond">covalency</a>.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> Conversely, covalent bonds between unlike atoms often exhibit some charge separation and can be considered to have a partial ionic character.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPauling196065-22">[22]</a> The circumstances under which a compound will have ionic or covalent character can typically be understood using <a href="/wiki/Fajans%27_rules" title="Fajans' rules">Fajans' rules</a>, which use only charges and the sizes of each ion. According to these rules, compounds with the most ionic character will have large positive ions with a low charge, bonded to a small negative ion with a high charge.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> More generally <a href="/wiki/HSAB_theory" title="HSAB theory">HSAB theory</a> can be applied, whereby the compounds with the most ionic character are those consisting of hard acids and hard bases: small, highly charged ions with a high difference in electronegativities between the anion and cation.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> This difference in electronegativities means that the charge separation, and resulting dipole moment, is maintained even when the ions are in contact (the excess electrons on the anions are not transferred or polarized to neutralize the cations).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarrow1988676-28">[28]</a> Although chemists classify idealized bond types as being ionic or covalent, the existence of additional types such as <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_bonds" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen bonds">hydrogen bonds</a> and <a href="/wiki/Metallic_bonds" class="mw-redirect" title="Metallic bonds">metallic bonds</a>, for example, has led some philosophers of science to suggest that alternative approaches to understanding bonding are required. This could be by applying <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a> to calculate binding energies.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Structure">Structure</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Salt_(chemistry)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Structure">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mercury-telluride-unit-cell-3D-ionic.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Mercury-telluride-unit-cell-3D-ionic.png/220px-Mercury-telluride-unit-cell-3D-ionic.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Mercury-telluride-unit-cell-3D-ionic.png/330px-Mercury-telluride-unit-cell-3D-ionic.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Mercury-telluride-unit-cell-3D-ionic.png/440px-Mercury-telluride-unit-cell-3D-ionic.png 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="1032" /></a><figcaption>The unit cell of the <a href="/wiki/Zinc_blende" class="mw-redirect" title="Zinc blende">zinc blende</a> structure</figcaption></figure> The lattice energy is the summation of the interaction of all sites with all other sites. For unpolarizable spherical ions, only the charges and distances are required to determine the electrostatic interaction energy. For any particular ideal crystal structure, all distances are geometrically related to the smallest internuclear distance. So for each possible crystal structure, the total electrostatic energy can be related to the electrostatic energy of unit charges at the nearest neighboring distance by a multiplicative constant called the <a href="/wiki/Madelung_constant" title="Madelung constant">Madelung constant</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPauling1960507-20">[20]</a> that can be efficiently computed using an <a href="/wiki/Ewald_sum" class="mw-redirect" title="Ewald sum">Ewald sum</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKittel200564-31">[31]</a> When a reasonable form is assumed for the additional repulsive energy, the total lattice energy can be modelled using the <a href="/wiki/Born%E2%80%93Land%C3%A9_equation" title="Born–Landé equation">Born–Landé equation</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPauling1960509-32">[32]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Born%E2%80%93Mayer_equation" title="Born–Mayer equation">Born–Mayer equation</a>, or in the absence of structural information, the <a href="/wiki/Kapustinskii_equation" title="Kapustinskii equation">Kapustinskii equation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> Using an even simpler approximation of the ions as impenetrable hard spheres, the arrangement of anions in these systems are often related to <a href="/wiki/Close-packing_of_equal_spheres" title="Close-packing of equal spheres">close-packed</a> arrangements of spheres, with the cations occupying tetrahedral or octahedral <a href="/wiki/Interstitial_site" title="Interstitial site">interstices</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAshcroftMermin1977383-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZumdahl1989444–445-35">[35]</a> Depending on the <a href="/wiki/Stoichiometry" title="Stoichiometry">stoichiometry</a> of the salt, and the <a href="/wiki/Coordination_sphere" title="Coordination sphere">coordination</a> (principally determined by the <a href="/wiki/Cation-anion_radius_ratio" title="Cation-anion radius ratio">radius ratio</a>) of cations and anions, a variety of structures are commonly observed,<a href="#cite_note-Moore-36">[36]</a> and theoretically rationalized by <a href="/wiki/Pauling%27s_rules" title="Pauling's rules">Pauling's rules</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAshcroftMermin1977382–387-37">[37]</a> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <caption>Common ionic compound structures with close-packed anions<a href="#cite_note-Moore-36">[36]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Stoichiometry </th> <th rowspan="2">Cation:anion coordination </th> <th colspan="2">Interstitial sites </th> <th colspan="2">Cubic close packing of anions </th> <th colspan="2">Hexagonal close packing of anions </th></tr> <tr> <th>Occupancy </th> <th>Critical radius ratio </th> <th>Name </th> <th>Madelung constant </th> <th>Name </th> <th>Madelung constant </th></tr> <tr> <td>MX</td> <td>6:6</td> <td>all octahedral</td> <td>0.4142<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAshcroftMermin1977383-34">[34]</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sodium_chloride" title="Sodium chloride">sodium chloride</a></td> <td>1.747565<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKittel200565-38">[38]</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Nickeline#Crystal_structure" title="Nickeline">nickeline</a></td> <td><1.73<a href="#cite_note-39">[a]</a><a href="#cite_note-40">[39]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td>4:4</td> <td>alternate tetrahedral</td> <td>0.2247<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAshcroftMermin1977386-41">[40]</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Zinc_blende" class="mw-redirect" title="Zinc blende">zinc blende</a></td> <td>1.6381<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKittel200565-38">[38]</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Wurtzite" title="Wurtzite">wurtzite</a></td> <td>1.641<a href="#cite_note-sherman-4">[4]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>MX2</td> <td>8:4</td> <td>all tetrahedral</td> <td>0.2247</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Fluorite" title="Fluorite">fluorite</a></td> <td>5.03878<a href="#cite_note-Dienes-42">[41]</a></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td>6:3</td> <td>half octahedral (alternate layers fully occupied)</td> <td>0.4142</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Cadmium_chloride" title="Cadmium chloride">cadmium chloride</a></td> <td>5.61<a href="#cite_note-43">[42]</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Cadmium_iodide" title="Cadmium iodide">cadmium iodide</a></td> <td>4.71<a href="#cite_note-Dienes-42">[41]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>MX3</td> <td>6:2</td> <td>one-third octahedral</td> <td>0.4142</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Rhodium(III)_bromide" title="Rhodium(III) bromide">rhodium(III) bromide</a><a href="#cite_note-44">[b]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ellis-46">[44]</a></td> <td>6.67<a href="#cite_note-Hoppe1966-47">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-48">[c]</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Bismuth_iodide" class="mw-redirect" title="Bismuth iodide">bismuth iodide</a></td> <td>8.26<a href="#cite_note-Hoppe1966-47">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-49">[d]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>M2X3</td> <td>6:4</td> <td>two-thirds octahedral</td> <td>0.4142</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Corundum" title="Corundum">corundum</a></td> <td>25.0312<a href="#cite_note-Dienes-42">[41]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>ABO3</td> <td></td> <td>two-thirds octahedral</td> <td>0.4142</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ilmenite" title="Ilmenite">ilmenite</a></td> <td>Depends on charges and structure <a href="#cite_note-51">[e]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>AB2O4</td> <td></td> <td>one-eighth tetrahedral and one-half octahedral</td> <td>rA/rO = 0.2247, rB/rO = 0.4142<a href="#cite_note-53">[f]</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Spinel_group" title="Spinel group">spinel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spinel_group" title="Spinel group">inverse spinel</a></td> <td>Depends on cation site distributions<a href="#cite_note-54">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-55">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-56">[50]</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Olivine" title="Olivine">olivine</a></td> <td>Depends on cation site distributions<a href="#cite_note-57">[51]</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> In some cases, the anions take on a simple cubic packing and the resulting common structures observed are: <table class="wikitable sortable"> <caption>Common ionic compound structures with simple cubic packed anions<a href="#cite_note-Ellis-46">[44]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Stoichiometry </th> <th rowspan="2">Cation:anion coordination </th> <th rowspan="2">Interstitial sites occupied </th> <th colspan="3">Example structure </th></tr> <tr> <th>Name </th> <th>Critical radius ratio </th> <th>Madelung constant </th></tr> <tr> <td>MX</td> <td>8:8</td> <td>entirely filled</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Cesium_chloride" class="mw-redirect" title="Cesium chloride">cesium chloride</a></td> <td>0.7321<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAshcroftMermin1977384-58">[52]</a></td> <td>1.762675<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKittel200565-38">[38]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>MX2</td> <td>8:4</td> <td>half filled</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Calcium_fluoride" title="Calcium fluoride">calcium fluoride</a></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>M2X</td> <td>4:8</td> <td>half filled</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Lithium_oxide" title="Lithium oxide">lithium oxide</a></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> Some <a href="/wiki/Ionic_liquids" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionic liquids">ionic liquids</a>, particularly with mixtures of anions or cations, can be cooled rapidly enough that there is not enough time for crystal <a href="/wiki/Nucleation" title="Nucleation">nucleation</a> to occur, so an <a href="/wiki/Ionic_glass" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionic glass">ionic glass</a> is formed (with no long-range order).<a href="#cite_note-:0-59">[53]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Defects">Defects</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Salt_(chemistry)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Defects">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:328px;max-width:328px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:132px;max-width:132px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:D%C3%A9faut_de_Frenkel.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Diagram of charged ions with a positive ion out of place in the structure" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/D%C3%A9faut_de_Frenkel.png/130px-D%C3%A9faut_de_Frenkel.png" decoding="async" width="130" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/D%C3%A9faut_de_Frenkel.png/195px-D%C3%A9faut_de_Frenkel.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/D%C3%A9faut_de_Frenkel.png/260px-D%C3%A9faut_de_Frenkel.png 2x" data-file-width="617" data-file-height="629" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Frenkel defect</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:192px;max-width:192px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Schottky-Defekt.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Diagram of charged ions with a positive and negative missing from the structure" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Schottky-Defekt.svg/190px-Schottky-Defekt.svg.png" decoding="async" width="190" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Schottky-Defekt.svg/285px-Schottky-Defekt.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Schottky-Defekt.svg/380px-Schottky-Defekt.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="700" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Schottky defect</div></div></div></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Crystallographic_defect" title="Crystallographic defect">crystallographic defect</a></div> Within any crystal, there will usually be some defects. To maintain electroneutrality of the crystals, defects that involve loss of a cation will be associated with loss of an anion, i.e. these defects come in pairs.<a href="#cite_note-:3-60">[54]</a> <a href="/wiki/Frenkel_defect" title="Frenkel defect">Frenkel defects</a> consist of a cation vacancy paired with a cation interstitial and can be generated anywhere in the bulk of the crystal,<a href="#cite_note-:3-60">[54]</a> occurring most commonly in compounds with a low coordination number and cations that are much smaller than the anions.<a href="#cite_note-Prakash-61">[55]</a> <a href="/wiki/Schottky_defect" title="Schottky defect">Schottky defects</a> consist of one vacancy of each type, and are generated at the surfaces of a crystal,<a href="#cite_note-:3-60">[54]</a> occurring most commonly in compounds with a high coordination number and when the anions and cations are of similar size.<a href="#cite_note-Prakash-61">[55]</a> If the cations have multiple possible <a href="/wiki/Oxidation_state" title="Oxidation state">oxidation states</a>, then it is possible for cation vacancies to compensate for electron deficiencies on cation sites with higher oxidation numbers, resulting in a <a href="/wiki/Non-stoichiometric_compound" title="Non-stoichiometric compound">non-stoichiometric compound</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:3-60">[54]</a> Another non-stoichiometric possibility is the formation of an <a href="/wiki/F-center" title="F-center">F-center</a>, a free electron occupying an anion vacancy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKittel2005376-62">[56]</a> When the compound has three or more ionic components, even more defect types are possible.<a href="#cite_note-:3-60">[54]</a> All of these point defects can be generated via thermal vibrations and have an <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_equilibrium" title="Thermodynamic equilibrium">equilibrium</a> concentration. Because they are energetically costly but <a href="/wiki/Entropy" title="Entropy">entropically</a> beneficial, they occur in greater concentration at higher temperatures. Once generated, these pairs of defects can diffuse mostly independently of one another, by hopping between lattice sites. This defect mobility is the source of most transport phenomena within an ionic crystal, including diffusion and <a href="/wiki/Solid_state_ionic_conductivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Solid state ionic conductivity">solid state ionic conductivity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:3-60">[54]</a> When vacancies collide with interstitials (Frenkel), they can recombine and annihilate one another. Similarly, vacancies are removed when they reach the surface of the crystal (Schottky). Defects in the crystal structure generally expand the <a href="/wiki/Lattice_parameter" class="mw-redirect" title="Lattice parameter">lattice parameters</a>, reducing the overall density of the crystal.<a href="#cite_note-:3-60">[54]</a> Defects also result in ions in distinctly different local environments, which causes them to experience a different <a href="/wiki/Crystal_field_theory" title="Crystal field theory">crystal-field symmetry</a>, especially in the case of different cations exchanging lattice sites.<a href="#cite_note-:3-60">[54]</a> This results in a different <a href="/wiki/Crystal-field_splitting_parameter" class="mw-redirect" title="Crystal-field splitting parameter">splitting</a> of <a href="/wiki/D-Orbitals" class="mw-redirect" title="D-Orbitals">d-electron orbitals</a>, so that the optical absorption (and hence colour) can change with defect concentration.<a href="#cite_note-:3-60">[54]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Properties">Properties</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Salt_(chemistry)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Properties">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ILfromOS.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/ILfromOS.svg/220px-ILfromOS.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="73" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/ILfromOS.svg/330px-ILfromOS.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/ILfromOS.svg/440px-ILfromOS.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="3505" data-file-height="1159" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/BMIM-PF6" class="mw-redirect" title="BMIM-PF6">[BMIM]+[PF6]−</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Ionic_liquid" title="Ionic liquid">ionic liquid</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Acidity/basicity">Acidity/basicity</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Salt_(chemistry)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Acidity/basicity">edit</a>]</div> Ionic compounds containing <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_ion" title="Hydrogen ion">hydrogen ions</a> (H+) are classified as <a href="/wiki/Acid" title="Acid">acids</a>, and those containing <a href="/wiki/Electropositivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Electropositivity">electropositive</a> cations<a href="#cite_note-63">[57]</a> and basic anions ions <a href="/wiki/Hydroxide" title="Hydroxide">hydroxide</a> (OH−) or <a href="/wiki/Oxide" title="Oxide">oxide</a> (O2−) are classified as <a href="/wiki/Base_(chemistry)" title="Base (chemistry)">bases</a>. Other ionic compounds are known as salts and can be formed by <a href="/wiki/Acid%E2%80%93base_reaction#Arrhenius_theory" title="Acid–base reaction">acid–base reactions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-64">[58]</a> Salts that produce <a href="/wiki/Hydroxide" title="Hydroxide">hydroxide</a> <a href="/wiki/Ions" class="mw-redirect" title="Ions">ions</a> when dissolved in <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a> are called <a href="/wiki/Alkali_salt" title="Alkali salt">alkali salts</a>, and salts that produce <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> <a href="/wiki/Ions" class="mw-redirect" title="Ions">ions</a> when dissolved in <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a> are called <a href="/wiki/Acid_salt" title="Acid salt">acid salts</a>. If the compound is the result of a reaction between a <a href="/wiki/Strong_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Strong acid">strong acid</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Weak_base" title="Weak base">weak base</a>, the result is an <a href="/wiki/Acid_salt" title="Acid salt">acid salt</a>. If it is the result of a reaction between a <a href="/wiki/Strong_base" class="mw-redirect" title="Strong base">strong base</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Weak_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Weak acid">weak acid</a>, the result is a <a href="/wiki/Base_salt" class="mw-redirect" title="Base salt">base salt</a>. If it is the result of a reaction between a strong acid and a strong base, the result is a neutral salt. Weak acids reacted with weak bases can produce ionic compounds with both the <a href="/wiki/Conjugate_base" class="mw-redirect" title="Conjugate base">conjugate base</a> ion and conjugate acid ion, such as <a href="/wiki/Ammonium_acetate" title="Ammonium acetate">ammonium acetate</a>. Some ions are classed as <a href="/wiki/Amphoterism" title="Amphoterism">amphoteric</a>, being able to react with either an acid or a base.<a href="#cite_note-65">[59]</a> This is also true of some compounds with ionic character, typically oxides or hydroxides of less-electropositive metals (so the compound also has significant covalent character), such as <a href="/wiki/Zinc_oxide" title="Zinc oxide">zinc oxide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aluminium_hydroxide" title="Aluminium hydroxide">aluminium hydroxide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aluminium_oxide" title="Aluminium oxide">aluminium oxide</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lead(II)_oxide" title="Lead(II) oxide">lead(II) oxide</a>.<a href="#cite_note-66">[60]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Melting_and_boiling_points">Melting and boiling points</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Salt_(chemistry)&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Melting and boiling points">edit</a>]</div> Electrostatic forces between particles are strongest when the charges are high, and the distance between the nuclei of the ions is small. In such cases, the compounds generally have very high <a href="/wiki/Melting_point" title="Melting point">melting</a> and <a href="/wiki/Boiling_point" title="Boiling point">boiling points</a> and a low <a href="/wiki/Vapor_pressure" title="Vapor pressure">vapour pressure</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcQuarrieRock1991503-67">[61]</a> Trends in melting points can be even better explained when the structure and ionic size ratio is taken into account.<a href="#cite_note-68">[62]</a> Above their melting point, salts melt and become <a href="/wiki/Molten_salt" title="Molten salt">molten salts</a> (although some salts such as <a href="/wiki/Aluminium_chloride" title="Aluminium chloride">aluminium chloride</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iron(III)_chloride" title="Iron(III) chloride">iron(III) chloride</a> show molecule-like structures in the liquid phase).<a href="#cite_note-69">[63]</a> Inorganic compounds with simple ions typically have small ions, and thus have high melting points, so are solids at room temperature. Some substances with larger ions, however, have a melting point below or near room temperature (often defined as up to 100 °C), and are termed <a href="/wiki/Ionic_liquid" title="Ionic liquid">ionic liquids</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFreemantle20091-70">[64]</a> Ions in ionic liquids often have uneven charge distributions, or bulky <a href="/wiki/Substituent" title="Substituent">substituents</a> like hydrocarbon chains, which also play a role in determining the strength of the interactions and propensity to melt.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFreemantle20093–4-71">[65]</a> Even when the local structure and bonding of an ionic solid is disrupted sufficiently to melt it, there are still strong long-range electrostatic forces of attraction holding the liquid together and preventing ions boiling to form a gas phase.<a href="#cite_note-:1-72">[66]</a> This means that even room temperature ionic liquids have low vapour pressures, and require substantially higher temperatures to boil.<a href="#cite_note-:1-72">[66]</a> Boiling points exhibit similar trends to melting points in terms of the size of ions and strength of other interactions.<a href="#cite_note-:1-72">[66]</a> When vapourized, the ions are still not freed of one another. For example, in the vapour phase sodium chloride exists as diatomic "molecules".<a href="#cite_note-73">[67]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Brittleness">Brittleness</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Salt_(chemistry)&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Brittleness">edit</a>]</div> Most salts are very <a href="/wiki/Brittle" class="mw-redirect" title="Brittle">brittle</a>. Once they reach the limit of their strength, they cannot deform <a href="/wiki/Malleability" class="mw-redirect" title="Malleability">malleably</a>, because the strict alignment of positive and negative ions must be maintained. Instead the material undergoes <a href="/wiki/Fracture" title="Fracture">fracture</a> via <a href="/wiki/Cleavage_(crystal)" title="Cleavage (crystal)">cleavage</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:2-74">[68]</a> As the temperature is elevated (usually close to the melting point) a <a href="/wiki/Ductile-brittle_transition_temperature" class="mw-redirect" title="Ductile-brittle transition temperature">ductile–brittle transition</a> occurs, and <a href="/wiki/Plastic_flow" class="mw-redirect" title="Plastic flow">plastic flow</a> becomes possible by the motion of <a href="/wiki/Dislocation" title="Dislocation">dislocations</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:2-74">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-75">[69]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Compressibility">Compressibility</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Salt_(chemistry)&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Compressibility">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Compressibility" title="Compressibility">compressibility</a> of a salt is strongly determined by its structure, and in particular the <a href="/wiki/Coordination_number" title="Coordination number">coordination number</a>. For example, halides with the caesium chloride structure (coordination number 8) are less compressible than those with the sodium chloride structure (coordination number 6), and less again than those with a coordination number of 4.<a href="#cite_note-76">[70]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Solubility">Solubility</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Salt_(chemistry)&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Solubility">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SolubilityVsTemperature.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/SolubilityVsTemperature.png/317px-SolubilityVsTemperature.png" decoding="async" width="317" height="262" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/SolubilityVsTemperature.png/476px-SolubilityVsTemperature.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/SolubilityVsTemperature.png 2x" data-file-width="583" data-file-height="481" /></a><figcaption>The aqueous solubility of a variety of salts as a function of temperature. Some compounds exhibiting unusual solubility behavior have been included.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Solubility#Solubility_of_ionic_compounds_in_water" title="Solubility">Solubility § Solubility of ionic compounds in water</a></div> When simple salts <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_(chemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dissolution (chemistry)">dissolve</a>, they <a href="/wiki/Dissociation_(chemistry)" title="Dissociation (chemistry)">dissociate</a> into individual ions, which are <a href="/wiki/Solvation" title="Solvation">solvated</a> and dispersed throughout the resulting solution. Salts do not exist in solution. <a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown200989–91-77">[71]</a> In contrast, molecular compounds, which includes most organic compounds, remain intact in solution. The <a href="/wiki/Solubility" title="Solubility">solubility</a> of salts is highest in <a href="/wiki/Polar_solvent" class="mw-redirect" title="Polar solvent">polar solvents</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a>) or <a href="/wiki/Ionic_liquid" title="Ionic liquid">ionic liquids</a>, but tends to be low in <a href="/wiki/Nonpolar_solvent" class="mw-redirect" title="Nonpolar solvent">nonpolar solvents</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/Petrol" class="mw-redirect" title="Petrol">petrol</a>/<a href="/wiki/Gasoline" title="Gasoline">gasoline</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown2009413–415-78">[72]</a> This contrast is principally because the resulting <a href="/wiki/Intermolecular_force#Ion–dipole_and_ion–induced_dipole_forces" title="Intermolecular force">ion–dipole interactions</a> are significantly stronger than ion-induced dipole interactions, so the <a href="/wiki/Enthalpy_change_of_solution" title="Enthalpy change of solution">heat of solution</a> is higher. When the oppositely charged ions in the solid ionic lattice are surrounded by the opposite pole of a polar molecule, the solid ions are pulled out of the lattice and into the liquid. If the <a href="/wiki/Solvation" title="Solvation">solvation</a> energy exceeds the <a href="/wiki/Lattice_energy" title="Lattice energy">lattice energy</a>, the negative net <a href="/wiki/Enthalpy_change_of_solution" title="Enthalpy change of solution">enthalpy change of solution</a> provides a thermodynamic drive to remove ions from their positions in the crystal and dissolve in the liquid. In addition, the <a href="/wiki/Entropy_of_mixing" title="Entropy of mixing">entropy change of solution</a> is usually positive for most solid solutes like salts, which means that their solubility increases when the temperature increases.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown2009422-79">[73]</a> There are some unusual salts such as <a href="/wiki/Cerium(III)_sulfate" title="Cerium(III) sulfate">cerium(III) sulfate</a>, where this entropy change is negative, due to extra order induced in the water upon solution, and the solubility decreases with temperature.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown2009422-79">[73]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Lattice_energy" title="Lattice energy">lattice energy</a>, the cohesive forces between these ions within a solid, determines the solubility. The solubility is dependent on how well each ion interacts with the solvent, so certain patterns become apparent. For example, salts of <a href="/wiki/Sodium" title="Sodium">sodium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Potassium" title="Potassium">potassium</a> and ammonium are usually soluble in water. Notable exceptions include <a href="/wiki/Ammonium_hexachloroplatinate" title="Ammonium hexachloroplatinate">ammonium hexachloroplatinate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Potassium_cobaltinitrite" class="mw-redirect" title="Potassium cobaltinitrite">potassium cobaltinitrite</a>. Most <a href="/wiki/Nitrates" class="mw-redirect" title="Nitrates">nitrates</a> and many <a href="/wiki/Sulfate" title="Sulfate">sulfates</a> are water-soluble. Exceptions include <a href="/wiki/Barium_sulfate" title="Barium sulfate">barium sulfate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Calcium_sulfate" title="Calcium sulfate">calcium sulfate</a> (sparingly soluble), and <a href="/wiki/Lead(II)_sulfate" title="Lead(II) sulfate">lead(II) sulfate</a>, where the 2+/2− pairing leads to high lattice energies. For similar reasons, most metal <a href="/wiki/Carbonate" title="Carbonate">carbonates</a> are not soluble in water. Some soluble carbonate salts are: <a href="/wiki/Sodium_carbonate" title="Sodium carbonate">sodium carbonate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Potassium_carbonate" title="Potassium carbonate">potassium carbonate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ammonium_carbonate" title="Ammonium carbonate">ammonium carbonate</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Strength">Strength</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Salt_(chemistry)&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Strength">edit</a>]</div> Strong salts or strong <a href="/wiki/Electrolyte" title="Electrolyte">electrolyte</a> salts are chemical salts composed of <a href="/wiki/Strong_electrolyte" title="Strong electrolyte">strong electrolytes</a>. These salts dissociate completely or almost completely in <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a>. They are generally odorless and <a href="/wiki/Volatility_(chemistry)" title="Volatility (chemistry)">nonvolatile</a>. Strong salts start with Na__, K__, NH4__, or they end with __NO3, __ClO4, or __CH3COO. Most group 1 and 2 metals form strong salts. Strong salts are especially useful when creating conductive compounds as their constituent ions allow for greater conductivity.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Weak salts or weak electrolyte salts are composed of weak <a href="/wiki/Electrolyte" title="Electrolyte">electrolytes</a>. These salts do not dissociate well in water. They are generally more <a href="/wiki/Volatility_(chemistry)" title="Volatility (chemistry)">volatile</a> than strong salts. They may be similar in <a href="/wiki/Odor" title="Odor">odor</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Acid" title="Acid">acid</a> or <a href="/wiki/Base_(chemistry)" title="Base (chemistry)">base</a> they are derived from. For example, <a href="/wiki/Sodium_acetate" title="Sodium acetate">sodium acetate</a>, CH3COONa, smells similar to <a href="/wiki/Acetic_acid" title="Acetic acid">acetic acid</a> CH3COOH. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electrical_conductivity">Electrical conductivity</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Salt_(chemistry)&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Electrical conductivity">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SegStackEdgeOnHMTFCQ.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/SegStackEdgeOnHMTFCQ.jpg/220px-SegStackEdgeOnHMTFCQ.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/SegStackEdgeOnHMTFCQ.jpg/330px-SegStackEdgeOnHMTFCQ.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/SegStackEdgeOnHMTFCQ.jpg/440px-SegStackEdgeOnHMTFCQ.jpg 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="468" /></a><figcaption>Edge-on view of portion of crystal structure of hexamethylene<a href="/wiki/Tetrathiafulvene" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetrathiafulvene">TTF</a>/<a href="/wiki/TCNQ" class="mw-redirect" title="TCNQ">TCNQ</a> charge transfer salt.<a href="#cite_note-80">[74]</a></figcaption></figure> Salts are characteristically <a href="/wiki/Insulator_(electricity)" title="Insulator (electricity)">insulators</a>. Although they contain charged atoms or clusters, these materials do not typically <a href="/wiki/Electrical_conductivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical conductivity">conduct electricity</a> to any significant extent when the substance is solid. In order to conduct, the charged particles must be <a href="/wiki/Electrical_mobility" title="Electrical mobility">mobile</a> rather than stationary in a <a href="/wiki/Crystal_structure" title="Crystal structure">crystal lattice</a>. This is achieved to some degree at high temperatures when the defect concentration increases the ionic mobility and <a href="/wiki/Solid_state_ionic_conductivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Solid state ionic conductivity">solid state ionic conductivity</a> is observed. When the salts are <a href="/wiki/Solution_(chemistry)" title="Solution (chemistry)">dissolved in a liquid</a> or are melted into a <a href="/wiki/Liquid" title="Liquid">liquid</a>, they can conduct electricity because the ions become completely mobile. For this reason, molten salts and solutions containing dissolved salts (e.g., sodium chloride in water) can be used as <a href="/wiki/Electrolyte" title="Electrolyte">electrolytes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-81">[75]</a> This conductivity gain upon dissolving or melting is sometimes used as a defining characteristic of salts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZumdahl1989341-82">[76]</a> In some unusual salts: <a href="/wiki/Fast-ion_conductor" title="Fast-ion conductor">fast-ion conductors</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ionic_glass" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionic glass">ionic glasses</a>,<a href="#cite_note-:0-59">[53]</a> one or more of the ionic components has a significant mobility, allowing conductivity even while the material as a whole remains solid.<a href="#cite_note-:4-83">[77]</a> This is often highly temperature dependent, and may be the result of either a phase change or a high defect concentration.<a href="#cite_note-:4-83">[77]</a> These materials are used in all solid-state <a href="/wiki/Supercapacitor" title="Supercapacitor">supercapacitors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Battery_(electricity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battery (electricity)">batteries</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fuel_cell" title="Fuel cell">fuel cells</a>, and in various kinds of <a href="/wiki/Chemical_sensor" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical sensor">chemical sensors</a>.<a href="#cite_note-84">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-85">[79]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Colour">Colour</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Salt_(chemistry)&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Colour">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:406px;max-width:406px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:210px;max-width:210px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Cobalt(II)_chloride.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="blue powder on a watch glass" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Cobalt%28II%29_chloride.jpg/208px-Cobalt%28II%29_chloride.jpg" decoding="async" width="208" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Cobalt%28II%29_chloride.jpg/312px-Cobalt%28II%29_chloride.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Cobalt%28II%29_chloride.jpg/416px-Cobalt%28II%29_chloride.jpg 2x" data-file-width="955" data-file-height="600" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Anhydrous" title="Anhydrous">Anhydrous</a> <a href="/wiki/Cobalt(II)_chloride" title="Cobalt(II) chloride">cobalt(II) chloride</a>, CoCl2</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:192px;max-width:192px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Cobalt(II)-chloride-hexahydrate-sample.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="a pile of red granules on white paper" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Cobalt%28II%29-chloride-hexahydrate-sample.jpg/190px-Cobalt%28II%29-chloride-hexahydrate-sample.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Cobalt%28II%29-chloride-hexahydrate-sample.jpg/285px-Cobalt%28II%29-chloride-hexahydrate-sample.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Cobalt%28II%29-chloride-hexahydrate-sample.jpg/380px-Cobalt%28II%29-chloride-hexahydrate-sample.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2146" data-file-height="1474" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Cobalt(II) chloride hexahydrate, CoCl2·6H2O</div></div></div></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Colour_of_chemicals" class="mw-redirect" title="Colour of chemicals">Colour of chemicals</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Color_of_chemicals#Salts" title="Color of chemicals">colour of a salt</a> is often different from the <a href="/wiki/Colour_of_chemicals#ions_in_aqueous_solution" class="mw-redirect" title="Colour of chemicals">colour of an aqueous solution</a> containing the constituent ions,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPauling1960105-86">[80]</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Hydrate" title="Hydrate">hydrated</a> form of the same compound.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown2009417-13">[13]</a> The anions in compounds with bonds with the most ionic character tend to be colorless (with an <a href="/wiki/Absorption_band" title="Absorption band">absorption band</a> in the ultraviolet part of the spectrum).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPauling1960107-87">[81]</a> In compounds with less ionic character, their color deepens through yellow, orange, red, and black (as the absorption band shifts to longer wavelengths into the visible spectrum). <a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPauling1960107-87">[81]</a> The absorption band of simple cations shifts toward a shorter wavelength when they are involved in more covalent interactions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPauling1960107-87">[81]</a> This occurs during <a href="/wiki/Solvation" title="Solvation">hydration</a> of metal ions, so colorless <a href="/wiki/Anhydrous" title="Anhydrous">anhydrous</a> salts with an anion absorbing in the infrared can become colorful in solution.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPauling1960107-87">[81]</a> Salts exist in many different <a href="/wiki/Color" title="Color">colors</a>, which arise either from their constituent anions, cations or <a href="/wiki/Solvation" title="Solvation">solvates</a>. For example: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sodium_chromate" title="Sodium chromate">sodium chromate</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1123817410">.mw-parser-output .template-chem2-su{display:inline-block;font-size:80%;line-height:1;vertical-align:-0.35em}.mw-parser-output .template-chem2-su>span{display:block;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output sub.template-chem2-sub{font-size:80%;vertical-align:-0.35em}.mw-parser-output sup.template-chem2-sup{font-size:80%;vertical-align:0.65em}</style>Na2CrO4 is made yellow by the <a href="/wiki/Chromate_ion" class="mw-redirect" title="Chromate ion">chromate ion</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410">CrO2−4.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potassium_dichromate" title="Potassium dichromate">potassium dichromate</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410">K2Cr2O7 is made red-orange by the <a href="/wiki/Dichromate_ion" class="mw-redirect" title="Dichromate ion">dichromate ion</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410">Cr2O2−7.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cobalt(II)_nitrate" title="Cobalt(II) nitrate">cobalt(II) nitrate</a> hexahydrate <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410">Co(NO3)2·6H2O is made red by the chromophore of <a href="/wiki/Water_of_crystallization" title="Water of crystallization">hydrated</a> cobalt(II) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410">[Co(H2O)6]2+.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copper(II)_sulfate" title="Copper(II) sulfate">copper(II) sulfate</a> pentahydrate <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410">CuSO4·5H2O is made blue by the hydrated copper(II) cation.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potassium_permanganate" title="Potassium permanganate">potassium permanganate</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410">KMnO4 is made violet by the <a href="/wiki/Permanganate" title="Permanganate">permanganate</a> anion <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410">MnO−4.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nickel(II)_chloride" title="Nickel(II) chloride">nickel(II) chloride</a> hexahydrate <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410">NiCl2·6H2O is made green by the hydrated nickel(II) chloride <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410">[NiCl2(H2O)4].</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodium_chloride" title="Sodium chloride">sodium chloride</a> NaCl and <a href="/wiki/Magnesium_sulfate" title="Magnesium sulfate">magnesium sulfate</a> heptahydrate <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410">MgSO4·7H2O are colorless or white because the constituent <a href="/wiki/Cations" class="mw-redirect" title="Cations">cations</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anions" class="mw-redirect" title="Anions">anions</a> do not absorb light in the part of the spectrum that is visible to humans.</li></ul> Some <a href="/wiki/Minerals" class="mw-redirect" title="Minerals">minerals</a> are salts, some of which are <a href="/wiki/Soluble" class="mw-redirect" title="Soluble">soluble</a> in water.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute">dubious</a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Salt_(chemistry)#Dubious" title="Talk:Salt (chemistry)">discuss</a>][<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] Similarly, inorganic <a href="/wiki/Pigment" title="Pigment">pigments</a> tend not to be salts, because insolubility is required for fastness. Some organic <a href="/wiki/Dye" title="Dye">dyes</a> are salts, but they are virtually insoluble in water. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Taste_and_odor">Taste and odor</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Salt_(chemistry)&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Taste and odor">edit</a>]</div> Salts can elicit all five <a href="/wiki/Basic_taste" class="mw-redirect" title="Basic taste">basic tastes</a>, e.g., <a href="/wiki/Saltiness" class="mw-redirect" title="Saltiness">salty</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sodium_chloride" title="Sodium chloride">sodium chloride</a>), <a href="/wiki/Sweet" class="mw-redirect" title="Sweet">sweet</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lead_diacetate" class="mw-redirect" title="Lead diacetate">lead diacetate</a>, which will cause <a href="/wiki/Lead_poisoning" title="Lead poisoning">lead poisoning</a> if ingested), <a href="/wiki/Sour_(taste)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sour (taste)">sour</a> (<a href="/wiki/Potassium_bitartrate" title="Potassium bitartrate">potassium bitartrate</a>), <a href="/wiki/Bitter_(taste)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bitter (taste)">bitter</a> (<a href="/wiki/Magnesium_sulfate" title="Magnesium sulfate">magnesium sulfate</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Umami" title="Umami">umami</a> or <a href="/wiki/Umami" title="Umami">savory</a> (<a href="/wiki/Monosodium_glutamate" title="Monosodium glutamate">monosodium glutamate</a>). Salts of strong acids and strong bases ("<a href="#Strong_salt">strong salts</a>") are non-<a href="/wiki/Volatility_(chemistry)" title="Volatility (chemistry)">volatile</a> and often odorless, whereas salts of either weak acids or weak bases ("<a href="#Weak_salt">weak salts</a>") may smell like the <a href="/wiki/Conjugate_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Conjugate acid">conjugate acid</a> (e.g., acetates like acetic acid (<a href="/wiki/Vinegar" title="Vinegar">vinegar</a>) and cyanides like <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_cyanide" title="Hydrogen cyanide">hydrogen cyanide</a> (<a href="/wiki/Almond" title="Almond">almonds</a>)) or the conjugate base (e.g., ammonium salts like <a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a>) of the component ions. That slow, partial decomposition is usually accelerated by the presence of water, since <a href="/wiki/Hydrolysis" title="Hydrolysis">hydrolysis</a> is the other half of the <a href="/wiki/Reversible_reaction" title="Reversible reaction">reversible reaction</a> equation of formation of weak salts. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Uses">Uses</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Salt_(chemistry)&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Uses">edit</a>]</div> Salts have long had a wide variety of uses and applications. Many <a href="/wiki/Minerals" class="mw-redirect" title="Minerals">minerals</a> are ionic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWenkBulakh2004774-88">[82]</a> Humans have processed <a href="/wiki/Common_salt" class="mw-redirect" title="Common salt">common salt</a> (sodium chloride) for over 8000 years, using it first as a food seasoning and preservative, and now also in manufacturing, <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a>, water conditioning, for de-icing roads, and many other uses.<a href="#cite_note-89">[83]</a> Many salts are so widely used in society that they go by common names unrelated to their chemical identity. Examples of this include <a href="/wiki/Borax" title="Borax">borax</a>, <a href="/wiki/Calomel" title="Calomel">calomel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Milk_of_magnesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Milk of magnesia">milk of magnesia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muriatic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Muriatic acid">muriatic acid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oil_of_vitriol" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil of vitriol">oil of vitriol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saltpeter" class="mw-redirect" title="Saltpeter">saltpeter</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Slaked_lime" class="mw-redirect" title="Slaked lime">slaked lime</a>.<a href="#cite_note-90">[84]</a> Soluble salts can easily be dissolved to provide <a href="/wiki/Electrolyte" title="Electrolyte">electrolyte</a> solutions. This is a simple way to control the concentration and <a href="/wiki/Ionic_strength" title="Ionic strength">ionic strength</a>. The concentration of solutes affects many <a href="/wiki/Colligative_properties" title="Colligative properties">colligative properties</a>, including increasing the <a href="/wiki/Osmotic_pressure" title="Osmotic pressure">osmotic pressure</a>, and causing <a href="/wiki/Freezing-point_depression" title="Freezing-point depression">freezing-point depression</a> and <a href="/wiki/Boiling-point_elevation" title="Boiling-point elevation">boiling-point elevation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtkinsde_Paula2006150–157-91">[85]</a> Because the solutes are charged ions they also increase the electrical conductivity of the solution.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtkinsde_Paula2006761–770-92">[86]</a> The increased ionic strength reduces the thickness of the <a href="/wiki/Electrical_double_layer" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical double layer">electrical double layer</a> around <a href="/wiki/Colloid" title="Colloid">colloidal</a> particles, and therefore the stability of <a href="/wiki/Emulsion" title="Emulsion">emulsions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Suspension_(chemistry)" title="Suspension (chemistry)">suspensions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtkinsde_Paula2006163–169-93">[87]</a> The chemical identity of the ions added is also important in many uses. For example, <a href="/wiki/Fluoride" title="Fluoride">fluoride</a> containing compounds are dissolved to supply fluoride ions for <a href="/wiki/Water_fluoridation" title="Water fluoridation">water fluoridation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Reeves-94">[88]</a> Solid salts have long been used as paint pigments, and are resistant to organic solvents, but are sensitive to acidity or basicity.<a href="#cite_note-95">[89]</a> Since 1801 <a href="/wiki/Pyrotechnician" title="Pyrotechnician">pyrotechnicians</a> have described and widely used metal-containing salts as sources of colour in fireworks.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussell200914-96">[90]</a> Under intense heat, the electrons in the metal ions or small molecules can be excited.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussell200982-97">[91]</a> These electrons later return to lower energy states, and release light with a colour spectrum characteristic of the species present.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussell2009108–117-98">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussell2009129–133-99">[93]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Chemical_synthesis" title="Chemical synthesis">chemical synthesis</a>, salts are often used as <a href="/wiki/Precursor_(chemistry)" title="Precursor (chemistry)">precursors</a> for high-temperature solid-state synthesis.<a href="#cite_note-100">[94]</a> Many metals are geologically most abundant as salts within <a href="/wiki/Ore" title="Ore">ores</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZumdahlZumdahl2015822-101">[95]</a> To obtain the <a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">elemental</a> materials, these ores are processed by <a href="/wiki/Smelting" title="Smelting">smelting</a> or <a href="/wiki/Electrolysis" title="Electrolysis">electrolysis</a>, in which <a href="/wiki/Redox_reaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Redox reaction">redox reactions</a> occur (often with a reducing agent such as carbon) such that the metal ions gain electrons to become neutral atoms.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZumdahlZumdahl2015823-102">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-103">[97]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nomenclature">Nomenclature</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Salt_(chemistry)&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Nomenclature">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/IUPAC_nomenclature_of_inorganic_chemistry" title="IUPAC nomenclature of inorganic chemistry">IUPAC nomenclature of inorganic chemistry</a></div> According to the <a href="/wiki/Nomenclature" title="Nomenclature">nomenclature</a> recommended by <a href="/wiki/IUPAC" class="mw-redirect" title="IUPAC">IUPAC</a>, salts are named according to their composition, not their structure.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIUPAC200568-104">[98]</a> In the most simple case of a binary salt with no possible ambiguity about the charges and thus the <a href="/wiki/Stoichiometry" title="Stoichiometry">stoichiometry</a>, the common name is written using two words.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIUPAC200570-105">[99]</a> The name of the cation (the unmodified element name for monatomic cations) comes first, followed by the name of the anion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIUPAC200569-106">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kotz-107">[101]</a> For example, MgCl2 is named <a href="/wiki/Magnesium_chloride" title="Magnesium chloride">magnesium chloride</a>, and Na2SO4 is named <a href="/wiki/Sodium_sulfate" title="Sodium sulfate">sodium sulfate</a> (SO2− 4, <a href="/wiki/Sulfate" title="Sulfate">sulfate</a>, is an example of a <a href="/wiki/Polyatomic_ion" title="Polyatomic ion">polyatomic ion</a>). To obtain the <a href="/wiki/Empirical_formula" title="Empirical formula">empirical formula</a> from these names, the stoichiometry can be deduced from the charges on the ions, and the requirement of overall charge neutrality.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown200936–37-108">[102]</a> If there are multiple different cations and/or anions, multiplicative prefixes (di-, tri-, tetra-, ...) are often required to indicate the relative compositions,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIUPAC200575–76-109">[103]</a> and cations then anions are listed in alphabetical order.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIUPAC200575-110">[104]</a> For example, KMgCl3 is named <a href="/wiki/Magnesium_potassium_trichloride" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnesium potassium trichloride">magnesium potassium trichloride</a> to distinguish it from K2MgCl4, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Magnesium_dipotassium_tetrachloride&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Magnesium dipotassium tetrachloride (page does not exist)">magnesium dipotassium tetrachloride</a><a href="#cite_note-111">[105]</a> (note that in both the empirical formula and the written name, the cations appear in alphabetical order, but the order varies between them because the <a href="/wiki/Symbol_(chemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbol (chemistry)">symbol</a> for <a href="/wiki/Potassium" title="Potassium">potassium</a> is K).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIUPAC200576-112">[106]</a> When one of the ions already has a multiplicative prefix within its name, the alternate multiplicative prefixes (bis-, tris-, tetrakis-, ...) are used.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIUPAC200576–77-113">[107]</a> For example, Ba(BrF4)2 is named <a href="/w/index.php?title=Barium_bis(tetrafluoridobromate)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Barium bis(tetrafluoridobromate) (page does not exist)">barium bis(tetrafluoridobromate)</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIUPAC200577-114">[108]</a> Compounds containing one or more elements which can exist in a variety of charge/<a href="/wiki/Oxidation_state" title="Oxidation state">oxidation states</a> will have a stoichiometry that depends on which oxidation states are present, to ensure overall neutrality. This can be indicated in the name by specifying either the oxidation state of the elements present, or the charge on the ions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIUPAC200577-114">[108]</a> Because of the risk of ambiguity in allocating oxidation states, IUPAC prefers direct indication of the ionic charge numbers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIUPAC200577-114">[108]</a> These are written as an <a href="/wiki/Arabic_numerals" title="Arabic numerals">arabic</a> integer followed by the sign (... , 2−, 1−, 1+, 2+, ...) in parentheses directly after the name of the cation (without a space separating them).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIUPAC200577-114">[108]</a> For example, FeSO4 is named <a href="/wiki/Iron(2%2B)_sulfate" class="mw-redirect" title="Iron(2+) sulfate">iron(2+) sulfate</a> (with the 2+ charge on the <a href="/wiki/Fe2%2B" class="mw-redirect" title="Fe2+">Fe2+</a> ions balancing the 2− charge on the sulfate ion), whereas Fe2(SO4)3 is named <a href="/wiki/Iron(3%2B)_sulfate" class="mw-redirect" title="Iron(3+) sulfate">iron(3+) sulfate</a> (because the two iron ions in each <a href="/wiki/Formula_unit" title="Formula unit">formula unit</a> each have a charge of 3+, to balance the 2− on each of the three sulfate ions).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIUPAC200577-114">[108]</a> <a href="/wiki/Stock_nomenclature" title="Stock nomenclature">Stock nomenclature</a>, still in common use, writes the <a href="/wiki/Oxidation_number" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxidation number">oxidation number</a> in <a href="/wiki/Roman_numerals" title="Roman numerals">Roman numerals</a> (... , −II, −I, 0, I, II, ...). So the examples given above would be named <a href="/wiki/Iron(II)_sulfate" title="Iron(II) sulfate">iron(II) sulfate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iron(III)_sulfate" title="Iron(III) sulfate">iron(III) sulfate</a> respectively.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIUPAC200577–78-115">[109]</a> For simple ions the ionic charge and the oxidation number are identical, but for polyatomic ions they often differ. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Uranyl(2%2B)" class="mw-redirect" title="Uranyl(2+)">uranyl(2+)</a> ion, UO2+ 2, has uranium in an oxidation state of +6, so would be called a dioxouranium(VI) ion in Stock nomenclature.<a href="#cite_note-116">[110]</a> An even older naming system for metal cations, also still widely used, appended the suffixes -ous and -ic to the <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> root of the name, to give special names for the low and high oxidation states.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown200938-117">[111]</a> For example, this scheme uses "ferrous" and "ferric", for iron(II) and iron(III) respectively,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown200938-117">[111]</a> so the examples given above were classically named <a href="/wiki/Ferrous_sulfate" class="mw-redirect" title="Ferrous sulfate">ferrous sulfate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ferric_sulfate" class="mw-redirect" title="Ferric sulfate">ferric sulfate</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Common salt-forming cations include: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ammonium" title="Ammonium">Ammonium</a> NH+ 4</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">Calcium</a> Ca2+ </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">Iron</a> Fe2+ and Fe3+ </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">Magnesium</a> Mg2+ </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potassium" title="Potassium">Potassium</a> K+ </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyridinium" title="Pyridinium">Pyridinium</a> C 5H 5NH+ </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaternary_ammonium_cation" title="Quaternary ammonium cation">Quaternary ammonium</a> NR+ 4, R being an <a href="/wiki/Alkyl" class="mw-redirect" title="Alkyl">alkyl</a> group or an <a href="/wiki/Aryl" class="mw-redirect" title="Aryl">aryl</a> group</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodium" title="Sodium">Sodium</a> Na+ </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">Copper</a> Cu2+ </li></ul> Common salt-forming anions (parent acids in parentheses where available) include: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acetate" title="Acetate">Acetate</a> CH 3COO− (<a href="/wiki/Acetic_acid" title="Acetic acid">acetic acid</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbonate" title="Carbonate">Carbonate</a> CO2− 3 (<a href="/wiki/Carbonic_acid" title="Carbonic acid">carbonic acid</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chloride" title="Chloride">Chloride</a> Cl− (<a href="/wiki/Hydrochloric_acid" title="Hydrochloric acid">hydrochloric acid</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citrate" class="mw-redirect" title="Citrate">Citrate</a> HOC(COO− )(CH 2COO− ) 2 (<a href="/wiki/Citric_acid" title="Citric acid">citric acid</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyanide" title="Cyanide">Cyanide</a> C≡N− (<a href="/wiki/Hydrocyanic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrocyanic acid">hydrocyanic acid</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluoride" title="Fluoride">Fluoride</a> F− (<a href="/wiki/Hydrofluoric_acid" title="Hydrofluoric acid">hydrofluoric acid</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrate" title="Nitrate">Nitrate</a> NO− 3 (<a href="/wiki/Nitric_acid" title="Nitric acid">nitric acid</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrite" title="Nitrite">Nitrite</a> NO− 2 (<a href="/wiki/Nitrous_acid" title="Nitrous acid">nitrous acid</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxide" title="Oxide">Oxide</a> O2− (<a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phosphate" title="Phosphate">Phosphate</a> PO3− 4 (<a href="/wiki/Phosphoric_acid" title="Phosphoric acid">phosphoric acid</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfate" title="Sulfate">Sulfate</a> SO2− 4 (<a href="/wiki/Sulfuric_acid" title="Sulfuric acid">sulfuric acid</a>)</li></ul> Salts with varying number of hydrogen atoms replaced by cations as compared to their parent acid can be referred to as monobasic, dibasic, or tribasic, identifying that one, two, or three hydrogen atoms have been replaced; polybasic salts refer to those with more than one hydrogen atom replaced. Examples include: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monosodium_phosphate" title="Monosodium phosphate">Sodium phosphate monobasic</a> (NaH2PO4)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disodium_phosphate" title="Disodium phosphate">Sodium phosphate dibasic</a> (Na2HPO4)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trisodium_phosphate" title="Trisodium phosphate">Sodium phosphate tribasic</a> (Na3PO4)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Non-salt">Non-salt</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Salt_(chemistry)&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Non-salt">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Zwitterion">Zwitterion</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Salt_(chemistry)&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Zwitterion">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Zwitterion" title="Zwitterion">Zwitterions</a> contain an anionic and a cationic centre in the same <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">molecule</a>, but are not considered salts. Examples of zwitterions are <a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acids</a>, many <a href="/wiki/Metabolite" title="Metabolite">metabolites</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peptide" title="Peptide">peptides</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">proteins</a>.<a href="#cite_note-118">[112]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Salt_(chemistry)&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bonding_in_solids" title="Bonding in solids">Bonding in solids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ioliomics" title="Ioliomics">Ioliomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_metathesis_reaction" title="Salt metathesis reaction">Salt metathesis reaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bresle_method" title="Bresle method">Bresle method</a> (the method used to test for salt presence during coating applications)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carboxylate" title="Carboxylate">Carboxylate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halide" title="Halide">Halide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ionic_bond" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionic bond">Ionic bonds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natron" title="Natron">Natron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salinity" title="Salinity">Salinity</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Salt_(chemistry)&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> This structure type has a variable lattice parameter c/a ratio, and the exact Madelung constant depends on this. </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> This structure has been referred to in references as <a href="/wiki/Yttrium(III)_chloride" title="Yttrium(III) chloride">yttrium(III) chloride</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chromium(III)_chloride" title="Chromium(III) chloride">chromium(III) chloride</a>, but both are now known as the RhBr3 structure type. </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> The reference lists this structure as <a href="/wiki/Molybdenum(III)_chloride" title="Molybdenum(III) chloride">MoCl3</a>, which is now known as the RhBr3 structure. </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> The reference lists this structure as <a href="/wiki/Iron(III)_chloride" title="Iron(III) chloride">FeCl3</a>, which is now known as the BiI3 structure type. </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> This structure type can accommodate any charges on A and B that add up to six. When both are three the charge structure is equivalent to that of corrundum.<a href="#cite_note-50">[46]</a> The structure also has a variable lattice parameter c/a ratio, and the exact Madelung constant depends on this. </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> However, in some cases such as <a href="/wiki/Spinel" title="Spinel">MgAl2O4</a> the larger cation occupies the smaller tetrahedral site.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWenkBulakh2004778-52">[47]</a> </li> </ol></div></div><div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Salt_(chemistry)&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <a href="/wiki/International_Union_of_Pure_and_Applied_Chemistry" title="International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry">IUPAC</a>, <a href="/wiki/IUPAC_books#Gold_Book" class="mw-redirect" title="IUPAC books">Compendium of Chemical Terminology</a>, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version: (2006–) "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://goldbook.iupac.org/terms/view/S05447.html">salt</a>". <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1351%2Fgoldbook.S05447">10.1351/goldbook.S05447</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBraggBragg1913" class="citation journal cs1">Bragg, W. H.; Bragg, W. L. (1 July 1913). "The Reflection of X-rays by Crystals". Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences. 88 (605): 428–438. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1913RSPSA..88..428B">1913RSPSA..88..428B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspa.1913.0040">10.1098/rspa.1913.0040</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:13112732">13112732</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Royal+Society+A%3A+Mathematical%2C+Physical+and+Engineering+Sciences&rft.atitle=The+Reflection+of+X-rays+by+Crystals&rft.volume=88&rft.issue=605&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E428-%3C%2Fspan%3E438&rft.date=1913-07-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A13112732%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frspa.1913.0040&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1913RSPSA..88..428B&rft.aulast=Bragg&rft.aufirst=W.+H.&rft.au=Bragg%2C+W.+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASalt+%28chemistry%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBragg1913" class="citation journal cs1">Bragg, W. H. (22 September 1913). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspa.1913.0082">"The Reflection of X-rays by Crystals. (II.)"</a>. 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Zeitschrift für Kristallographie – Crystalline Materials. 147 (1–4): 167–176. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1978ZK....147..167A">1978ZK....147..167A</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1524%2Fzkri.1978.147.14.167">10.1524/zkri.1978.147.14.167</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/11380%2F738457">11380/738457</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:101158673">101158673</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+Kristallographie+%E2%80%93+Crystalline+Materials&rft.atitle=Madelung+energies+and+cation+distributions+in+olivine-type+structures&rft.volume=147&rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E167-%3C%2Fspan%3E176&rft.date=1978&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F11380%2F738457&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A101158673%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1524%2Fzkri.1978.147.14.167&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1978ZK....147..167A&rft.aulast=Alberti&rft.aufirst=A.&rft.au=Vezzalini%2C+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASalt+%28chemistry%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAshcroftMermin1977384-58"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAshcroftMermin1977384_58-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAshcroftMermin1977">Ashcroft & Mermin 1977</a>, p. 384. </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-59">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_59-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_59-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSouquet1981" class="citation journal cs1">Souquet, J (October 1981). 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Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-010-0458-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-94-010-0458-9"><bdi>978-94-010-0458-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171203204320/https://books.google.com/books?id=ft9sCQAAQBAJ&lpg=PA11&pg=PA1">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-12-03.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Molten+Salts%3A+From+Fundamentals+to+Applications&rft.place=Dordrecht&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Springer+Netherlands&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-94-010-0458-9&rft.aulast=Tosi&rft.aufirst=M.+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dft9sCQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASalt+%28chemistry%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFreemantle20091-70"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFreemantle20091_70-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFreemantle2009">Freemantle 2009</a>, p. 1. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFreemantle20093–4-71"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFreemantle20093–4_71-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFreemantle2009">Freemantle 2009</a>, pp. 3–4. </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-72">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_72-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_72-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_72-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRebeloCanongia_LopesEsperançaFilipe2005" class="citation journal cs1">Rebelo, Luis P. 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Amsterdam: Elsevier. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/moderninorganics00xuru/page/n27">22</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-444-53599-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-444-53599-3"><bdi>978-0-444-53599-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+inorganic+synthetic+chemistry&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.pages=22&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-444-53599-3&rft.aulast=Xu&rft.aufirst=Ruren&rft.au=Pang%2C+Wenqin&rft.au=Huo%2C+Qisheng&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmoderninorganics00xuru&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASalt+%28chemistry%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZumdahlZumdahl2015822-101"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZumdahlZumdahl2015822_101-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFZumdahlZumdahl2015">Zumdahl & Zumdahl 2015</a>, pp. 822. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZumdahlZumdahl2015823-102"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZumdahlZumdahl2015823_102-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFZumdahlZumdahl2015">Zumdahl & Zumdahl 2015</a>, pp. 823. </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGupta2003" class="citation book cs1">Gupta, Chiranjib Kumar (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/chemicalmetallur00gupt">Chemical metallurgy principles and practice</a>. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/chemicalmetallur00gupt/page/n376">359</a>–365. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-527-60525-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-527-60525-5"><bdi>978-3-527-60525-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chemical+metallurgy+principles+and+practice&rft.place=Weinheim&rft.pages=359-365&rft.pub=Wiley-VCH&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-3-527-60525-5&rft.aulast=Gupta&rft.aufirst=Chiranjib+Kumar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fchemicalmetallur00gupt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASalt+%28chemistry%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIUPAC200568-104"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIUPAC200568_104-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFIUPAC2005">IUPAC 2005</a>, p. 68. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIUPAC200570-105"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIUPAC200570_105-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFIUPAC2005">IUPAC 2005</a>, p. 70. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIUPAC200569-106"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIUPAC200569_106-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFIUPAC2005">IUPAC 2005</a>, p. 69. </li> <li id="cite_note-Kotz-107"><a href="#cite_ref-Kotz_107-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKotzTreichelWeaver2006" class="citation book cs1">Kotz, John C.; Treichel, Paul M; Weaver, Gabriela C. (2006). Chemistry and Chemical Reactivity (Sixth ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson Brooks/Cole. p. 111. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-534-99766-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-534-99766-3"><bdi>978-0-534-99766-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chemistry+and+Chemical+Reactivity&rft.place=Belmont%2C+CA&rft.pages=111&rft.edition=Sixth&rft.pub=Thomson+Brooks%2FCole&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-534-99766-3&rft.aulast=Kotz&rft.aufirst=John+C.&rft.au=Treichel%2C+Paul+M&rft.au=Weaver%2C+Gabriela+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASalt+%28chemistry%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown200936–37-108"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrown200936–37_108-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrown2009">Brown 2009</a>, pp. 36–37. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIUPAC200575–76-109"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIUPAC200575–76_109-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFIUPAC2005">IUPAC 2005</a>, pp. 75–76. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIUPAC200575-110"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIUPAC200575_110-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFIUPAC2005">IUPAC 2005</a>, p. 75. </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGibbonsReinsboroughWhitla1975" class="citation journal cs1">Gibbons, Cyril S.; Reinsborough, Vincent C.; Whitla, W. Alexander (January 1975). "Crystal Structures of K2MgCl4 and Cs2MgCl4". Canadian Journal of Chemistry. 53 (1): 114–118. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1139%2Fv75-015">10.1139/v75-015</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Canadian+Journal+of+Chemistry&rft.atitle=Crystal+Structures+of+K%3Csub%3E2%3C%2Fsub%3EMgCl%3Csub%3E4%3C%2Fsub%3E+and+Cs%3Csub%3E2%3C%2Fsub%3EMgCl%3Csub%3E4%3C%2Fsub%3E&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E114-%3C%2Fspan%3E118&rft.date=1975-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1139%2Fv75-015&rft.aulast=Gibbons&rft.aufirst=Cyril+S.&rft.au=Reinsborough%2C+Vincent+C.&rft.au=Whitla%2C+W.+Alexander&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASalt+%28chemistry%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIUPAC200576-112"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIUPAC200576_112-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFIUPAC2005">IUPAC 2005</a>, p. 76. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIUPAC200576–77-113"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIUPAC200576–77_113-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFIUPAC2005">IUPAC 2005</a>, pp. 76–77. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIUPAC200577-114">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIUPAC200577_114-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIUPAC200577_114-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIUPAC200577_114-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIUPAC200577_114-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIUPAC200577_114-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFIUPAC2005">IUPAC 2005</a>, p. 77. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIUPAC200577–78-115"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIUPAC200577–78_115-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFIUPAC2005">IUPAC 2005</a>, pp. 77–78. </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFernelius1982" class="citation journal cs1">Fernelius, W. Conard (November 1982). "Numbers in chemical names". Journal of Chemical Education. 59 (11): 964. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1982JChEd..59..964F">1982JChEd..59..964F</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fed059p964">10.1021/ed059p964</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Chemical+Education&rft.atitle=Numbers+in+chemical+names&rft.volume=59&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=964&rft.date=1982-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fed059p964&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1982JChEd..59..964F&rft.aulast=Fernelius&rft.aufirst=W.+Conard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASalt+%28chemistry%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown200938-117">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrown200938_117-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrown200938_117-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrown2009">Brown 2009</a>, p. 38. </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Voet" class="citation book cs1">Voet, D. & Voet, J. G. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070911065858/http://www.chem.upenn.edu/chem/research/faculty.php?browse=V">Biochemistry</a> (3rd ed.). Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons Inc. p. 68. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780471193500" title="Special:BookSources/9780471193500"><bdi>9780471193500</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chem.upenn.edu/chem/research/faculty.php?browse=V">the original</a> on 2007-09-11.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Biochemistry&rft.place=Hoboken%2C+New+Jersey&rft.pages=68&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons+Inc.&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9780471193500&rft.aulast=Voet&rft.aufirst=D.&rft.au=Voet%2C+J.+G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chem.upenn.edu%2Fchem%2Fresearch%2Ffaculty.php%3Fbrowse%3DV&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASalt+%28chemistry%29" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Kurlansky" title="Mark Kurlansky">Mark Kurlansky</a> (2002). Salt: A World History. Walker Publishing Company. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-200161-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-14-200161-9">0-14-200161-9</a>.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAshcroftMermin1977" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Neil_Ashcroft" title="Neil Ashcroft">Ashcroft, Neil W.</a>; <a href="/wiki/David_Mermin" class="mw-redirect" title="David Mermin">Mermin, N. David</a> (1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/solidstatephysic00ashc">Solid state physics</a> (27th repr. ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-03-083993-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-03-083993-1"><bdi>978-0-03-083993-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Solid+state+physics&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=27th+repr.&rft.pub=Holt%2C+Rinehart+and+Winston&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-0-03-083993-1&rft.aulast=Ashcroft&rft.aufirst=Neil+W.&rft.au=Mermin%2C+N.+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsolidstatephysic00ashc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASalt+%28chemistry%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAtkinsde_Paula2006" class="citation book cs1">Atkins, Peter; de Paula, Julio (2006). Atkins' physical chemistry (8th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-870072-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-870072-2"><bdi>978-0-19-870072-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Atkins%27+physical+chemistry&rft.place=Oxford&rft.edition=8th&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-19-870072-2&rft.aulast=Atkins&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft.au=de+Paula%2C+Julio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASalt+%28chemistry%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarrow1988" class="citation book cs1">Barrow, Gordon M. (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/physicalchemistr00gord_0">Physical chemistry</a> (5th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-003905-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-003905-6"><bdi>978-0-07-003905-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Physical+chemistry&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=5th&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-07-003905-6&rft.aulast=Barrow&rft.aufirst=Gordon+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fphysicalchemistr00gord_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASalt+%28chemistry%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown2009" class="citation book cs1">Brown, Theodore L.; LeMay, H. Eugene Jr; Bursten, Bruce E.; Lanford, Steven; Sagatys, Dalius; Duffy, Neil (2009). Chemistry: the central science: a broad perspective (2nd ed.). Frenchs Forest, N.S.W.: Pearson Australia. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4425-1147-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4425-1147-7"><bdi>978-1-4425-1147-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chemistry%3A+the+central+science%3A+a+broad+perspective&rft.place=Frenchs+Forest%2C+N.S.W.&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Pearson+Australia&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-4425-1147-7&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Theodore+L.&rft.au=LeMay%2C+H.+Eugene+Jr&rft.au=Bursten%2C+Bruce+E.&rft.au=Lanford%2C+Steven&rft.au=Sagatys%2C+Dalius&rft.au=Duffy%2C+Neil&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASalt+%28chemistry%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreemantle2009" class="citation book cs1">Freemantle, Michael (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kvM2YEftV2cC&pg=PP1">An introduction to ionic liquids</a>. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84755-161-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84755-161-0"><bdi>978-1-84755-161-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+introduction+to+ionic+liquids&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Royal+Society+of+Chemistry&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-84755-161-0&rft.aulast=Freemantle&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkvM2YEftV2cC%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASalt+%28chemistry%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIUPAC2005" class="citation book cs1">International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, Division of Chemical Nomenclature (2005). Neil G. Connelly (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160203110828/http://www.iupac.org/nc/home/publications/iupac-books/books-db/book-details.html?tx_wfqbe_pi1%5Bbookid%5D=5">Nomenclature of inorganic chemistry: IUPAC recommendations 2005</a> (New ed.). Cambridge: RSC Publ. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85404-438-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85404-438-2"><bdi>978-0-85404-438-2</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iupac.org/nc/home/publications/iupac-books/books-db/book-details.html?tx_wfqbe_pi1%5Bbookid%5D=5">the original</a> on 2016-02-03. Retrieved 2023-02-05.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nomenclature+of+inorganic+chemistry%3A+IUPAC+recommendations+2005&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.edition=New&rft.pub=RSC+Publ.&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-85404-438-2&rft.au=International+Union+of+Pure+and+Applied+Chemistry%2C+Division+of+Chemical+Nomenclature&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iupac.org%2Fnc%2Fhome%2Fpublications%2Fiupac-books%2Fbooks-db%2Fbook-details.html%3Ftx_wfqbe_pi1%26%2391%3Bbookid%26%2393%3B%3D5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASalt+%28chemistry%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKittel2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Kittel" title="Charles Kittel">Kittel, Charles</a> (2005). <a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_Solid_State_Physics_(Kittel_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Introduction to Solid State Physics (Kittel book)">Introduction to Solid State Physics</a> (8th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-41526-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-41526-8"><bdi>978-0-471-41526-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Solid+State+Physics&rft.place=Hoboken%2C+NJ&rft.edition=8th&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-471-41526-8&rft.aulast=Kittel&rft.aufirst=Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASalt+%28chemistry%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcQuarrieRock1991" class="citation book cs1">McQuarrie, Donald A.; Rock, Peter A. (1991). General chemistry (3rd ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman and Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-2169-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-2169-7"><bdi>978-0-7167-2169-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=General+chemistry&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=W.H.+Freeman+and+Co.&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-7167-2169-7&rft.aulast=McQuarrie&rft.aufirst=Donald+A.&rft.au=Rock%2C+Peter+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASalt+%28chemistry%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPauling1960" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling">Pauling, Linus</a> (1960). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/natureofchemical00paul">The nature of the chemical bond and the structure of molecules and crystals: an introduction to modern structural chemistry</a> (3rd ed.). Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-0333-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-0333-0"><bdi>978-0-8014-0333-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+nature+of+the+chemical+bond+and+the+structure+of+molecules+and+crystals%3A+an+introduction+to+modern+structural+chemistry&rft.place=Ithaca%2C+N.Y.&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=1960&rft.isbn=978-0-8014-0333-0&rft.aulast=Pauling&rft.aufirst=Linus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnatureofchemical00paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASalt+%28chemistry%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell2009" class="citation book cs1">Russell, Michael S. (2009). The chemistry of fireworks (2nd ed.). Cambridge, UK: RSC Pub. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85404-127-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85404-127-5"><bdi>978-0-85404-127-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+chemistry+of+fireworks&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=RSC+Pub.&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-85404-127-5&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Michael+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASalt+%28chemistry%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWenkBulakh2004" class="citation book cs1">Wenk, Hans-Rudolph; Bulakh, Andrei (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vUVdAAAAQBAJ&pg=PT774">Minerals: Their Constitution and Origin</a> (1st ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-39390-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-39390-5"><bdi>978-1-107-39390-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Minerals%3A+Their+Constitution+and+Origin&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-107-39390-5&rft.aulast=Wenk&rft.aufirst=Hans-Rudolph&rft.au=Bulakh%2C+Andrei&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvUVdAAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT774&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASalt+%28chemistry%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoldDwight1993" class="citation book cs1">Wold, Aaron; Dwight, Kirby (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=N-QRBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA71">Solid State Chemistry Synthesis, Structure, and Properties of Selected Oxides and Sulfides</a>. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-011-1476-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-94-011-1476-9"><bdi>978-94-011-1476-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Solid+State+Chemistry+Synthesis%2C+Structure%2C+and+Properties+of+Selected+Oxides+and+Sulfides&rft.place=Dordrecht&rft.pub=Springer+Netherlands&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-94-011-1476-9&rft.aulast=Wold&rft.aufirst=Aaron&rft.au=Dwight%2C+Kirby&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DN-QRBwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA71&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASalt+%28chemistry%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZumdahl1989" class="citation book cs1">Zumdahl, Steven S. (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/experimentalchem0000hall">Chemistry</a> (2nd ed.). Lexington, Mass.: D.C. Heath. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-669-16708-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-669-16708-5"><bdi>978-0-669-16708-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chemistry&rft.place=Lexington%2C+Mass.&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=D.C.+Heath&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-669-16708-5&rft.aulast=Zumdahl&rft.aufirst=Steven+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fexperimentalchem0000hall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASalt+%28chemistry%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZumdahlZumdahl2015" class="citation book cs1">Zumdahl, Steven; Zumdahl, Susan (2015). Chemistry: An Atoms First Approach. Cengage Learning. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-305-68804-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-305-68804-9"><bdi>978-1-305-68804-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chemistry%3A+An+Atoms+First+Approach&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-305-68804-9&rft.aulast=Zumdahl&rft.aufirst=Steven&rft.au=Zumdahl%2C+Susan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASalt+%28chemistry%29" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Salt_(chemistry)&oldid=1272109677">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Salt_(chemistry)&oldid=1272109677</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Chemical_compounds" title="Category:Chemical compounds">Chemical compounds</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Salts" title="Category:Salts">Salts</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Alchemical_substances" title="Category:Alchemical substances">Alchemical substances</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ions" title="Category:Ions">Ions</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Chemical_compounds_by_chemical_bond" title="Category:Chemical compounds by chemical bond">Chemical compounds by chemical bond</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_December_2022" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from December 2022">Articles with unsourced statements from December 2022</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_accuracy_disputes" title="Category:All accuracy disputes">All accuracy disputes</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_disputed_statements_from_December_2021" title="Category:Articles with disputed statements from December 2021">Articles with disputed statements from December 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_clarification_from_December_2021" title="Category:Wikipedia articles needing clarification from December 2021">Wikipedia articles needing clarification from December 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_April_2020" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from April 2020">Articles with unsourced statements from April 2020</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 27 January 2025, at 05:14 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. 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