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</a> <ul id="toc-Further_developments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theoretical_traditions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theoretical_traditions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Theoretical traditions </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Theoretical_traditions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Theoretical traditions subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Theoretical_traditions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Positivism_and_anti-positivism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Positivism_and_anti-positivism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Positivism and anti-positivism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Positivism_and_anti-positivism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Positivism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Positivism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.1 Positivism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Positivism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Antipositivism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Antipositivism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.2 Antipositivism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Antipositivism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classical_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classical_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Classical theory </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classical_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Functionalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Functionalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.1 Functionalism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Functionalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conflict_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conflict_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.2 Conflict theory </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conflict_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Symbolic_interactionism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Symbolic_interactionism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.3 Symbolic interactionism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Symbolic_interactionism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Utilitarianism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Utilitarianism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.4 Utilitarianism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Utilitarianism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-20th-century_social_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#20th-century_social_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 20th-century social theory </div> </a> <ul id="toc-20th-century_social_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pax_Wisconsana" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pax_Wisconsana"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.1 Pax Wisconsana </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pax_Wisconsana-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Structuralism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Structuralism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.2 Structuralism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Structuralism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post-structuralism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-structuralism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.3 Post-structuralism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post-structuralism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Central_theoretical_problems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Central_theoretical_problems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Central theoretical problems </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Central_theoretical_problems-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Central theoretical problems subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Central_theoretical_problems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Subjectivity_and_objectivity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Subjectivity_and_objectivity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Subjectivity and objectivity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Subjectivity_and_objectivity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Structure_and_agency" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Structure_and_agency"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Structure and agency </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Structure_and_agency-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Synchrony_and_diachrony" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Synchrony_and_diachrony"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Synchrony and diachrony </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Synchrony_and_diachrony-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Research_methodology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research_methodology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Research methodology </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Research_methodology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Research methodology subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Research_methodology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sampling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sampling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Sampling </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sampling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Methods </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Computational_sociology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Computational_sociology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Computational sociology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Computational_sociology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Subfields" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Subfields"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Subfields </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Subfields-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Subfields subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Subfields-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Culture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Art,_music_and_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Art,_music_and_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.1 Art, music and literature </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Art,_music_and_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criminality,_deviance,_law_and_punishment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criminality,_deviance,_law_and_punishment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Criminality, deviance, law and punishment </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criminality,_deviance,_law_and_punishment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sociology_of_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sociology_of_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.1 Sociology of law </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sociology_of_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Communications_and_information_technologies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Communications_and_information_technologies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Communications and information technologies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Communications_and_information_technologies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Internet_and_digital_media" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Internet_and_digital_media"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.1 Internet and digital media </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Internet_and_digital_media-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Media" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Media"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.2 Media </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Media-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economic_sociology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_sociology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Economic sociology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_sociology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Work,_employment,_and_industry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Work,_employment,_and_industry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4.1 Work, employment, and industry </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Work,_employment,_and_industry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Education </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Environment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Environment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6 Environment </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Environment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Human_ecology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human_ecology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6.1 Human ecology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Human_ecology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_pre-wiring" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_pre-wiring"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6.2 Social pre-wiring </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_pre-wiring-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Family,_gender,_and_sexuality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Family,_gender,_and_sexuality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.7 Family, gender, and sexuality </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Family,_gender,_and_sexuality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Health,_illness,_and_the_body" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Health,_illness,_and_the_body"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.8 Health, illness, and the body </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Health,_illness,_and_the_body-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Death,_dying,_bereavement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Death,_dying,_bereavement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.8.1 Death, dying, bereavement </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Death,_dying,_bereavement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Knowledge_and_science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Knowledge_and_science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.9 Knowledge and science </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Knowledge_and_science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Leisure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Leisure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.10 Leisure </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Leisure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Peace,_war,_and_conflict" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Peace,_war,_and_conflict"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.11 Peace, war, and conflict </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Peace,_war,_and_conflict-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_sociology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_sociology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.12 Political sociology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_sociology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Population_and_demography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Population_and_demography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.13 Population and demography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Population_and_demography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Public_sociology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Public_sociology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.14 Public sociology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Public_sociology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Race_and_ethnic_relations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Race_and_ethnic_relations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.15 Race and ethnic relations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Race_and_ethnic_relations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.16 Religion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_change_and_development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_change_and_development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.17 Social change and development </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_change_and_development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_networks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_networks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.18 Social networks </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_networks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_psychology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_psychology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.19 Social psychology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_psychology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stratification,_poverty_and_inequality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stratification,_poverty_and_inequality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.20 Stratification, poverty and inequality </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stratification,_poverty_and_inequality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Urban_and_rural_sociology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Urban_and_rural_sociology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.21 Urban and rural sociology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Urban_and_rural_sociology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Community_sociology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Community_sociology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.21.1 Community sociology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Community_sociology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_academic_disciplines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_academic_disciplines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Other academic disciplines </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_academic_disciplines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Journals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Journals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Journals </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Journals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Sociology</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 167 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-167" aria-hidden="true" > 167 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sosiologie" title="Sosiologie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Sosiologie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soziologie" title="Soziologie – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Soziologie" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8B%A8%E1%89%A3%E1%88%95%E1%88%8D_%E1%8C%A5%E1%8A%93%E1%89%B5" title="የባሕል ጥናት – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="የባሕል ጥናት" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%AA%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B9" title="علم الاجتماع – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="علم الاجتماع" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socioloch%C3%ADa" title="Sociolochía – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Sociolochía" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frp mw-list-item"><a href="https://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociologia" title="Sociologia – Arpitan" lang="frp" hreflang="frp" data-title="Sociologia" data-language-autonym="Arpetan" data-language-local-name="Arpitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Arpetan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC" title="সমাজতত্ত্ব – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="সমাজতত্ত্ব" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociolox%C3%ADa" title="Socioloxía – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Socioloxía" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avarekokuaaty" title="Avarekokuaaty – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Avarekokuaaty" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sosiologiya" title="Sosiologiya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Sosiologiya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%BE%D9%84%D9%88%D9%85%E2%80%8C%D8%A8%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%85%DB%8C" title="توپلوم‌بیلیمی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="توپلوم‌بیلیمی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="সমাজবিজ্ঞান – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="সমাজবিজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bjn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bjn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaji_masarakat" title="Kaji masarakat – Banjar" lang="bjn" hreflang="bjn" data-title="Kaji masarakat" data-language-autonym="Banjar" data-language-local-name="Banjar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Banjar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Si%C4%81-ho%C4%93-ha%CC%8Dk" title="Siā-hoē-ha̍k – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Siā-hoē-ha̍k" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Социология – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Социология" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Сацыялогія – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Сацыялогія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F%D0%BB%D1%91%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Сацыялёгія – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Сацыялёгія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="समाजशास्त्र – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="समाजशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sosyolohiya" title="Sosyolohiya – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Sosyolohiya" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Социология – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Социология" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%A6%E0%BE%A4%E0%BE%B1%E0%BD%B2%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%9A%E0%BD%BC%E0%BD%82%E0%BD%A6%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BD%B2%E0%BD%82%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%94%E0%BC%8D" title="སྤྱི་ཚོགས་རིག་པ། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="སྤྱི་ཚོགས་རིག་པ།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target">བོད་ཡིག</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociologija" title="Sociologija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Sociologija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociologia" title="Sociologia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Sociologia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8" title="Социологи – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Социологи" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sosyolohiya" title="Sosyolohiya – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Sosyolohiya" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociologie" title="Sociologie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Sociologie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruambanzanga" title="Ruambanzanga – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Ruambanzanga" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target">ChiShona</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suciolugia" title="Suciolugia – Corsican" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="Suciolugia" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="Corsican" class="interlanguage-link-target">Corsu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cymdeithaseg" title="Cymdeithaseg – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Cymdeithaseg" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociologi" title="Sociologi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Sociologi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soziologie" title="Soziologie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Soziologie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sotsioloogia" title="Sotsioloogia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Sotsioloogia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CE%BF%CE%B9%CE%BD%CF%89%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Κοινωνιολογία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Κοινωνιολογία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eml mw-list-item"><a href="https://eml.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociolog%C3%ACa" title="Sociologìa – Emiliano-Romagnolo" lang="egl" hreflang="egl" data-title="Sociologìa" data-language-autonym="Emiliàn e rumagnòl" data-language-local-name="Emiliano-Romagnolo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Emiliàn e rumagnòl</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociolog%C3%ADa" title="Sociología – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Sociología" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociologio" title="Sociologio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Sociologio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociologia" title="Sociologia – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Sociologia" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target">Estremeñu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soziologia" title="Soziologia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Soziologia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B9%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="جامعه‌شناسی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جامعه‌شناسی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociologie" title="Sociologie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Sociologie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sosjology" title="Sosjology – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Sosjology" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociologjie" title="Sociologjie – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Sociologjie" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Furlan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socheola%C3%ADocht" title="Socheolaíocht – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Socheolaíocht" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheshoaylleeaght" title="Sheshoaylleeaght – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Sheshoaylleeaght" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaelg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/E%C3%B2las-comainn" title="Eòlas-comainn – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Eòlas-comainn" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociolox%C3%ADa" title="Socioloxía – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Socioloxía" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A4%BE%E6%9C%83%E5%AD%B8" title="社會學 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="社會學" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target">贛語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%B8%E0%AA%AE%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%9C%E0%AA%B6%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%B8%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%A4%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%B0" title="સમાજશાસ્ત્ર – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="સમાજશાસ્ત્ર" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target">ગુજરાતી</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%82%AC%ED%9A%8C%ED%95%99" title="사회학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="사회학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimiyar_al%27umma" title="Kimiyar al'umma – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Kimiyar al'umma" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8D%D5%B8%D6%81%D5%AB%D5%B8%D5%AC%D5%B8%D5%A3%D5%AB%D5%A1" title="Սոցիոլոգիա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Սոցիոլոգիա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="समाजशास्त्र – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="समाजशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociologija" title="Sociologija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Sociologija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociologio" title="Sociologio – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Sociologio" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sosiologi" title="Sosiologi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sosiologi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociologia" title="Sociologia – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Sociologia" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociologie" title="Sociologie – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Sociologie" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingue</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8" title="Социологи – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Социологи" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ирон</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xh mw-list-item"><a href="https://xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISosioloji" title="ISosioloji – Xhosa" lang="xh" hreflang="xh" data-title="ISosioloji" data-language-autonym="IsiXhosa" data-language-local-name="Xhosa" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiXhosa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%A9lagsfr%C3%A6%C3%B0i" title="Félagsfræði – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Félagsfræði" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociologia" title="Sociologia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Sociologia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%92%D7%99%D7%94" title="סוציולוגיה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="סוציולוגיה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sosiologi" title="Sosiologi – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Sosiologi" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%AE%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%9C%E0%B2%B6%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0" title="ಸಮಾಜಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಸಮಾಜಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-krc mw-list-item"><a href="https://krc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Социология – Karachay-Balkar" lang="krc" hreflang="krc" data-title="Социология" data-language-autonym="Къарачай-малкъар" data-language-local-name="Karachay-Balkar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Къарачай-малкъар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9D%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="სოციოლოგია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="სოციოლოგია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D3%98%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%83" title="Әлеуметтану – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Әлеуметтану" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sosholojia" title="Sosholojia – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Sosholojia" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sosyoloji" title="Sosyoloji – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Sosyoloji" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sosyoloji" title="Sosyoloji – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Sosyoloji" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civaknas%C3%AE" title="Civaknasî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Civaknasî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%8F:%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BE/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Википедия:Сомо/Социология – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Википедия:Сомо/Социология" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soziologia" title="Soziologia – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Soziologia" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sosiolojiya" title="Sosiolojiya – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Sosiolojiya" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladino</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociologia" title="Sociologia – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Sociologia" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociolo%C4%A3ija" title="Socioloģija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Socioloģija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soziologie" title="Soziologie – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Soziologie" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociologija" title="Sociologija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Sociologija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B2ciologia" title="Sòciologia – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Sòciologia" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ligure</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociologie" title="Sociologie – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Sociologie" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sosiolojia" title="Sosiolojia – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Sosiolojia" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociologia" title="Sociologia – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Sociologia" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Szociol%C3%B3gia" title="Szociológia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Szociológia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Социологија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Социологија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B4si%C3%B4l%C3%B4jia" title="Sôsiôlôjia – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Sôsiôlôjia" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%B9%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="സമൂഹശാസ്ത്രം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="സമൂഹശാസ്ത്രം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/So%C4%8Bjolo%C4%A1ija" title="Soċjoloġija – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Soċjoloġija" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="समाजशास्त्र – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="समाजशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9D%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="სოციოლოგია – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="სოციოლოგია" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AC%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="سوسيولوجيا – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="سوسيولوجيا" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sosiologi" title="Sosiologi – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Sosiologi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociologie" title="Sociologie – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Sociologie" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9C%E1%80%B0%E1%80%99%E1%80%BE%E1%80%AF%E1%80%97%E1%80%B1%E1%80%92" title="လူမှုဗေဒ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="လူမှုဗေဒ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fj mw-list-item"><a href="https://fj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology – Fijian" lang="fj" hreflang="fj" data-title="Sociology" data-language-autonym="Na Vosa Vakaviti" data-language-local-name="Fijian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Na Vosa Vakaviti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociologie" title="Sociologie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Sociologie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sosjologie" title="Sosjologie – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Sosjologie" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nedersaksies</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="समाजशास्त्र – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="समाजशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="समाजशास्त्र – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="समाजशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A4%BE%E4%BC%9A%E5%AD%A6" title="社会学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="社会学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sosjologii" title="Sosjologii – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Sosjologii" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sosiologi" title="Sosiologi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Sosiologi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sosiologi" title="Sosiologi – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Sosiologi" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm mw-list-item"><a href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociologie" title="Sociologie – Norman" lang="nrf" hreflang="nrf" data-title="Sociologie" data-language-autonym="Nouormand" data-language-local-name="Norman" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nouormand</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sosiologia" title="Sosiologia – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Sosiologia" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target">Novial</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociologia" title="Sociologia – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Sociologia" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Социологий – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Социологий" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target">Олык марий</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%B8%E0%AC%AE%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%9C_%E0%AC%AC%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%9C%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%9E%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%A8" title="ସମାଜ ବିଜ୍ଞାନ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ସମାଜ ବିଜ୍ଞାନ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target">ଓଡ଼ିଆ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xiwwaasa" title="Xiwwaasa – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Xiwwaasa" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oromoo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sotsiologiya" title="Sotsiologiya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Sotsiologiya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%9C_%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%B0" title="ਸਮਾਜ ਸ਼ਾਸਤਰ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਸਮਾਜ ਸ਼ਾਸਤਰ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="عمرانیات – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="عمرانیات" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sosiologia" title="Sosiologia – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Sosiologia" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target">Papiamentu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BC%D9%88%D9%84%D9%86%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" title="ټولنپوهنه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="ټولنپوهنه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suosialaji" title="Suosialaji – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Suosialaji" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%84%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%82%E1%9E%98%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%91%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%99%E1%9E%B6" title="សង្គមវិទ្យា – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="សង្គមវិទ្យា" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target">ភាសាខ្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociolodjie" title="Sociolodjie – Picard" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd" data-title="Sociolodjie" data-language-autonym="Picard" data-language-local-name="Picard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Picard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tpi mw-list-item"><a href="https://tpi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sosiolosi" title="Sosiolosi – Tok Pisin" lang="tpi" hreflang="tpi" data-title="Sosiolosi" data-language-autonym="Tok Pisin" data-language-local-name="Tok Pisin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tok Pisin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soziologie" title="Soziologie – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Soziologie" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socjologia" title="Socjologia – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Socjologia" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociologia" title="Sociologia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Sociologia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociologie" title="Sociologie – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Sociologie" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D1%96%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D2%91%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Соціолоґія – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Соціолоґія" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Социология – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Социология" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Социология – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Социология" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D" title="समाजशास्त्रम् – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="समाजशास्त्रम्" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sotziologia" title="Sotziologia – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Sotziologia" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Sociology" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociologjia" title="Sociologjia – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Sociologjia" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suciulugg%C3%ACa" title="Suciuluggìa – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Suciuluggìa" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Sociology" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AC%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="سماجيات – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="سماجيات" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociol%C3%B3gia" title="Sociológia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Sociológia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociologija" title="Sociologija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Sociologija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%DB%86%D9%85%DB%95%DA%B5%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="کۆمەڵناسی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="کۆمەڵناسی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Социологија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Социологија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociologija" title="Sociologija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Sociologija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sosiologi" title="Sosiologi – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Sosiologi" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sosiologia" title="Sosiologia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Sosiologia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociologi" title="Sociologi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Sociologi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sosyolohiya" title="Sosyolohiya – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Sosyolohiya" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="சமூகவியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="சமூகவியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shi mw-list-item"><a href="https://shi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tasnamunt" title="Tasnamunt – Tachelhit" lang="shi" hreflang="shi" data-title="Tasnamunt" data-language-autonym="Taclḥit" data-language-local-name="Tachelhit" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taclḥit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Социология – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Социология" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B8%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%AE%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%9C%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%95_%E0%B0%B6%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%82" title="సామాజిక శాస్త్రం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="సామాజిక శాస్త్రం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2" title="สังคมวิทยา – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="สังคมวิทยา" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%B6%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D3%A3" title="Ҷомеашиносӣ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Ҷомеашиносӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sosyoloji" title="Sosyoloji – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Sosyoloji" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sosiologi%C3%BDa" title="Sosiologiýa – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Sosiologiýa" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkmençe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D1%96%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Соціологія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Соціологія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="عمرانیات – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="عمرانیات" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%DB%95%D9%85%D8%A6%D9%89%D9%8A%DB%95%D8%AA%D8%B4%DB%87%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84%D9%89%D9%82" title="جەمئىيەتشۇناسلىق – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="جەمئىيەتشۇناسلىق" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target">ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socio%C5%82ozia" title="Sociołozia – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Sociołozia" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/X%C3%A3_h%E1%BB%99i_h%E1%BB%8Dc" title="Xã hội học – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Xã hội học" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sotsioloogia" title="Sotsioloogia – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Sotsioloogia" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sosyolohiya" title="Sosyolohiya – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Sosyolohiya" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A4%BE%E4%BC%9A%E5%AD%A6" title="社会学 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="社会学" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A1%D7%90%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%92%D7%99%D7%A2" title="סאציאלאגיע – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="סאציאלאגיע" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8C%E1%B9%A3e%E1%BB%8D%CC%80r%E1%BB%8D%CC%80%C3%A0w%C3%B9j%E1%BB%8D" title="Ìṣeọ̀rọ̀àwùjọ – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Ìṣeọ̀rọ̀àwùjọ" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target">Yorùbá</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A4%BE%E6%9C%83%E5%AD%B8" title="社會學 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="社會學" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sosyolociye" title="Sosyolociye – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Sosyolociye" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li 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mw-list-item"><a href="https://bew.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%88lmu_kemasarakatan" title="Èlmu kemasarakatan – Betawi" lang="bew" hreflang="bew" data-title="Èlmu kemasarakatan" data-language-autonym="Betawi" data-language-local-name="Betawi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Betawi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dtp mw-list-item"><a href="https://dtp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sosiologi" title="Sosiologi – Central Dusun" lang="dtp" hreflang="dtp" data-title="Sosiologi" data-language-autonym="Kadazandusun" data-language-local-name="Central Dusun" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kadazandusun</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-iba mw-list-item"><a href="https://iba.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sosiologi" title="Sosiologi – Iban" lang="iba" hreflang="iba" data-title="Sosiologi" data-language-autonym="Jaku Iban" data-language-local-name="Iban" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jaku Iban</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zgh mw-list-item"><a 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Sociology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Social_Network_Diagram_(segment).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg/250px-Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="97" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg/375px-Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg/500px-Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="670" data-file-height="260" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="padding-bottom:0.35em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sociology" title="History of sociology">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_sociology" title="Outline of sociology">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_sociology_articles" title="Index of sociology articles">Index</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Key themes</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">Globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_behavior" title="Human behavior">Human behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human environmental impact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(social_science)" title="Identity (social science)">Identity</a></li> <li>Industrial revolutions <a href="/wiki/Digital_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital Revolution">3</a> / <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Industrial_Revolution" title="Fourth Industrial Revolution">4</a> / <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Industrial_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Fifth Industrial Revolution">5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popularity" title="Popularity">Popularity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_complexity" title="Social complexity">Social complexity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_environment" title="Social environment">Social environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_equality" title="Social equality">Social equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_equity" title="Social equity">Social equity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">Social power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stratification" title="Social stratification">Social stratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_structure" title="Social structure">Social structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_cycle_theory" title="Social cycle theory">Social cycle theory</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Sociological_theory" title="Sociological theory">Perspectives</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_theories" title="Conflict theories">Conflict theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_functionalism" title="Structural functionalism">Structural functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_darwinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Social darwinism">Social darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolic_interactionism" title="Symbolic interactionism">Symbolic interactionism</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Branches_of_sociology" class="mw-redirect" title="Branches of sociology">Branches</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gerontology" title="Gerontology">Aging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_architecture" title="Sociology of architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_art" title="Sociology of art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrosociology" title="Astrosociology">Astrosociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_body" title="Sociology of the body">Body</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">Criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_human_consciousness" title="Sociology of human consciousness">Consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_culture" title="Sociology of culture">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_death" title="Sociology of death">Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deviance_(sociology)" title="Deviance (sociology)">Deviance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_disaster" title="Sociology of disaster">Disaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_sociology" title="Economic sociology">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_education" title="Sociology of education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_emotions" title="Sociology of emotions">Emotion</a> (<a href="/wiki/Social_aspects_of_jealousy" title="Social aspects of jealousy">Jealousy</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_sociology" title="Environmental sociology">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_family" title="Sociology of the family">Family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_sociology" title="Feminist sociology">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiscal_sociology" title="Fiscal sociology">Fiscal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_food" title="Sociology of food">Food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_gender" title="Sociology of gender">Gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_generations" title="Theory of generations">Generations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_health_and_illness" title="Sociology of health and illness">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_sociology" title="Historical sociology">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_immigration" title="Sociology of immigration">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_sociology" title="Industrial sociology">Industrial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_Internet" title="Sociology of the Internet">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_Jewry" title="Sociology of Jewry">Jewry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_knowledge" title="Sociology of knowledge">Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_language" title="Sociology of language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_law" title="Sociology of law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_leisure" title="Sociology of leisure">Leisure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_literature" title="Sociology of literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_sociology" title="Marxist sociology">Marxist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_sociology" title="Mathematical sociology">Mathematic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_sociology" title="Medical sociology">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_sociology" title="Military sociology">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociomusicology" title="Sociomusicology">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_peace,_war,_and_social_conflict" title="Sociology of peace, war, and social conflict">Peace, war, and social conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_philosophy" title="Sociology of philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_sociology" title="Political sociology">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_sociology" title="Public sociology">Public</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_punishment" title="Sociology of punishment">Punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_race_and_ethnic_relations" title="Sociology of race and ethnic relations">Race and ethnicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_religion" title="Sociology of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_sociology" title="Rural sociology">Rural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">Science</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_history_of_science" title="Sociology of the history of science">History of science</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_movement_theory" title="Social movement theory">Social movements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_psychology_(sociology)" title="Social psychology (sociology)">Social psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociocybernetics" title="Sociocybernetics">Sociocybernetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_sociology" title="Sociology of sociology">Sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_space" title="Sociology of space">Space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_sport" title="Sociology of sport">Sport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_construction_of_technology" title="Social construction of technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_terrorism" title="Sociology of terrorism">Terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_sociology" title="Urban sociology">Urban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_utopian_sociology" title="Real utopian sociology">Utopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victimology" title="Victimology">Victimology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_sociology" title="Visual sociology">Visual</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Social_research" title="Social research">Methods</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_research" title="Quantitative research">Quantitative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">Qualitative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_historical_research" title="Comparative historical research">Comparative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_sociology" title="Computational sociology">Computational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnographic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversation_analysis" title="Conversation analysis">Conversation analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_method" title="Historical method">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interview_(research)" title="Interview (research)">Interview</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_sociology" title="Mathematical sociology">Mathematical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_network_analysis" title="Social network analysis">Network analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_experiment" title="Social experiment">Social experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survey_(human_research)" title="Survey (human research)">Survey</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/List_of_sociologists" title="List of sociologists">Major theorists</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li>1700s: <a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a> · <a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Joseph_Siey%C3%A8s" title="Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès">Sieyès</a> </li></ul> 1800s: <a href="/wiki/Harriet_Martineau" title="Harriet Martineau">Martineau</a> · <a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a> · <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a> · <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a> · <a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a> · <a href="/wiki/Lester_Frank_Ward" title="Lester Frank Ward">Ward</a> · <a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a> · <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_T%C3%B6nnies" title="Ferdinand Tönnies">Tönnies</a> · <a href="/wiki/Thorstein_Veblen" title="Thorstein Veblen">Veblen</a> · <a href="/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel">Simmel</a> · <a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Durkheim</a> · <a href="/wiki/Jane_Addams" title="Jane Addams">Addams</a> · <a href="/wiki/George_Herbert_Mead" title="George Herbert Mead">Mead</a> · <a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a> · <a href="/wiki/W.E.B._Du_Bois" class="mw-redirect" title="W.E.B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a> · <a href="/wiki/Karl_Mannheim" title="Karl Mannheim">Mannheim</a> · <a href="/wiki/Norbert_Elias" title="Norbert Elias">Elias</a> 1900s: <a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a> · <a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a> · <a href="/wiki/Arnold_Gehlen" title="Arnold Gehlen">Gehlen</a> · <a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a> · <a href="/wiki/Robert_K._Merton" title="Robert K. Merton">Merton</a> · <a href="/wiki/Robert_Nisbet" title="Robert Nisbet">Nisbet</a> · <a href="/wiki/C._Wright_Mills" title="C. Wright Mills">Mills</a> · <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Bell" title="Daniel Bell">Bell</a> · <a href="/wiki/Helmut_Schoeck" title="Helmut Schoeck">Schoeck</a> · <a href="/wiki/Erving_Goffman" title="Erving Goffman">Goffman</a> · <a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a> · <a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a> · <a href="/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann">Luhmann </a> · <a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a> · <a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a> · <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Bourdieu" title="Pierre Bourdieu">Bourdieu</a> · <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Giddens" title="Anthony Giddens">Giddens</a></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Index_of_sociology_articles" title="Index of sociology articles">Lists</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_sociology" title="Bibliography of sociology">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Sociological_terminology" title="Category:Sociological terminology">Terminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sociology_journals" title="List of sociology journals">Journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sociological_associations" title="List of sociological associations">Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sociologists" title="List of sociologists">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_sociology" title="Timeline of sociology">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Sociology_by_country" title="Category:Sociology by country">By country</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Social_sciences.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/16px-Social_sciences.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/24px-Social_sciences.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/32px-Social_sciences.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="139" data-file-height="122" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Society" title="Portal:Society">Society portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Sociology" title="Template:Sociology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Sociology" title="Template talk:Sociology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Sociology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Sociology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Sociology is the scientific study of <a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">human</a> society that focuses on <a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">society</a>, human <a href="/wiki/Social_behavior" title="Social behavior">social behavior</a>, patterns of <a href="/wiki/Interpersonal_ties" title="Interpersonal ties">social relationships</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_interaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Social interaction">social interaction</a>, and aspects of culture associated with everyday life.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> Regarded as a part of both the <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social sciences</a> and <a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">humanities</a>, sociology uses various methods of <a href="/wiki/Empirical_research" title="Empirical research">empirical investigation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Critical_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Critical analysis">critical analysis</a><a href="#cite_note-:0-4">[4]</a>: 3–5  to develop a body of knowledge about <a href="/wiki/Social_order" title="Social order">social order</a> and <a href="/wiki/Social_change" title="Social change">social change</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-4">[4]</a>: 32–40  Sociological subject matter ranges from <a href="/wiki/Microsociology" title="Microsociology">micro-level</a> analyses of individual interaction and <a href="/wiki/Agency_(sociology)" title="Agency (sociology)">agency</a> to <a href="/wiki/Macrosociology" title="Macrosociology">macro-level</a> analyses of <a href="/wiki/Social_system" title="Social system">social systems</a> and <a href="/wiki/Social_structure" title="Social structure">social structure</a>. Applied sociological research may be applied directly to <a href="/wiki/Social_policy" title="Social policy">social policy</a> and welfare, whereas <a href="/wiki/Theory" title="Theory">theoretical</a> approaches may focus on the understanding of social processes and <a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(sociology)" title="Phenomenology (sociology)">phenomenological</a> method.<a href="#cite_note-Giddens_Intro-5">[5]</a> Traditional focuses of sociology include <a href="/wiki/Social_stratification" title="Social stratification">social stratification</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_class" title="Social class">social class</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_mobility" title="Social mobility">social mobility</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_religion" title="Sociology of religion">religion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Secularization" title="Secularization">secularization</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_law" title="Sociology of law">law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sexuality" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexuality">sexuality</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gender" title="Gender">gender</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Deviance_(sociology)" title="Deviance (sociology)">deviance</a>. Recent studies have added socio-technical aspects of the digital divide as a new focus.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> As all spheres of human activity are affected by the interplay between <a href="/wiki/Structure_and_agency" title="Structure and agency">social structure and individual agency</a>, sociology has gradually expanded its focus to other subjects and institutions, such as <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_health" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociology of health">health</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Medical_sociology" title="Medical sociology">institution of medicine</a>; <a href="/wiki/Economic_sociology" title="Economic sociology">economy</a>; <a href="/wiki/Military_sociology" title="Military sociology">military</a>; <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_punishment" title="Sociology of punishment">punishment</a> and <a href="/wiki/Control_theory_(sociology)" title="Control theory (sociology)">systems of control</a>; <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_Internet" title="Sociology of the Internet">the Internet</a>; <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_education" title="Sociology of education">sociology of education</a>; <a href="/wiki/Social_capital" title="Social capital">social capital</a>; and the role of social activity in the development of <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">scientific knowledge</a>. The range of social scientific methods has also expanded, as <a href="/wiki/Social_research" title="Social research">social researchers</a> draw upon a variety of <a href="/wiki/Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">qualitative</a> and <a href="/wiki/Quantitative_research" title="Quantitative research">quantitative</a> techniques. The <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_turn" title="Linguistic turn">linguistic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cultural_turn" title="Cultural turn">cultural turns</a> of the mid-20th century, especially, have led to increasingly <a href="/wiki/Verstehen" title="Verstehen">interpretative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hermeneutic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hermeneutic">hermeneutic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Philosophic" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophic">philosophical</a> approaches towards the analysis of society. Conversely, the turn of the 21st century has seen the rise of new <a href="/wiki/Analytical_sociology" title="Analytical sociology">analytically</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_sociology" title="Mathematical sociology">mathematically</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Computational_sociology" title="Computational sociology">computationally</a> rigorous techniques, such as <a href="/wiki/Agent-based_model" title="Agent-based model">agent-based modelling</a> and <a href="/wiki/Social_network" title="Social network">social network</a> analysis.<a href="#cite_note-MW-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-Computational_Social_Science-8">[8]</a> Social research has influence throughout various industries and sectors of life, such as among politicians, <a href="/wiki/Public_policy" title="Public policy">policy makers</a>, and legislators; <a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">educators</a>; <a href="/wiki/Urban_planner" title="Urban planner">planners</a>; <a href="/wiki/Public_administration" title="Public administration">administrators</a>; <a href="/wiki/Real_estate_development" title="Real estate development">developers</a>; <a href="/wiki/Business_magnate" title="Business magnate">business magnates</a> and managers; social workers; non-governmental organizations; and non-profit organizations, as well as individuals interested in resolving <a href="/wiki/Social_issues" class="mw-redirect" title="Social issues">social issues</a> in general. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_sociology" title="History of sociology">History of sociology</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_sociologists" title="List of sociologists">List of sociologists</a> and <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_sociology" title="Timeline of sociology">Timeline of sociology</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ibn_Khaldoun-Kassus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Ibn_Khaldoun-Kassus.jpg/170px-Ibn_Khaldoun-Kassus.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="278" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Ibn_Khaldoun-Kassus.jpg/255px-Ibn_Khaldoun-Kassus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Ibn_Khaldoun-Kassus.jpg/340px-Ibn_Khaldoun-Kassus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1636" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a> statue in <a href="/wiki/Tunis" title="Tunis">Tunis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a> (1332–1406)</figcaption></figure> Sociological reasoning predates the foundation of the discipline itself. <a href="/wiki/Social_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Social analysis">Social analysis</a> has origins in the common stock of universal, global knowledge and philosophy, having been carried out from as far back as the time of <a href="/wiki/Old_Comedy" title="Old Comedy">old comic poetry</a> which features social and political criticism,<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">ancient Greek philosophers</a> <a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>. For instance, the origin of the <a href="/wiki/Statistical_survey" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical survey">survey</a> can be traced back to at least the <a href="/wiki/Domesday_Book" title="Domesday Book">Domesday Book</a> in 1086,<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> while ancient philosophers such as <a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a> wrote about the importance of social roles.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> Medieval Arabic writings encompass a rich tradition that unveils early insights into the field of sociology. Some sources consider <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a>, a 14th-century <a href="/wiki/List_of_pre-modern_Arab_scientists_and_scholars" title="List of pre-modern Arab scientists and scholars">Muslim scholar</a> from <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a>,<a href="#cite_note-14">[note 1]</a> to have been the father of sociology, although there is no reference to his work in the writings of European contributors to modern sociology.<a href="#cite_note-15">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-16">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-18">[17]</a> Khaldun's <a href="/wiki/Muqaddimah" title="Muqaddimah">Muqaddimah</a> was considered to be amongst the first works to advance social-scientific reasoning on <a href="/wiki/Social_cohesion" class="mw-redirect" title="Social cohesion">social cohesion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Social_conflict" title="Social conflict">social conflict</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Akhtar-19">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-Psychology_from_Islamic_Perspective:_Contributions_of_Early_Muslim_Scholars_and_Challenges_to_Contemporary_Muslim_Psychologists-20">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-Enan-21">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-The_Autonomous,_the_Universal_and_the_Future_of_Sociology-22">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gates-23">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mowlana-24">[23]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Etymology">Etymology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Etymology">edit</a>]</div> The word <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sociology" class="extiw" title="wikt:sociology">sociology</a> derives part of its name from the <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> word <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/socius" class="extiw" title="wikt:socius">socius</a> ('companion' or 'fellowship'<a href="#cite_note-25">[24]</a>). The suffix <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/-logy" class="extiw" title="wikt:-logy">-logy</a> ('the study of') comes from that of the <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/-%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1" class="extiw" title="wikt:-λογία">-λογία</a>, derived from <a href="/wiki/Logos" title="Logos">λόγος</a> (lógos, 'word' or 'knowledge').[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The term sociology was first coined in 1780 by the French essayist <a href="/wiki/Emmanuel-Joseph_Siey%C3%A8s" class="mw-redirect" title="Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès">Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès</a> in an unpublished <a href="/wiki/Manuscript" title="Manuscript">manuscript</a>.<a href="#cite_note-26">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[note 2]</a> Sociology was later defined independently by French <a href="/wiki/Philosopher_of_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosopher of science">philosopher of science</a> <a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a> (1798–1857) in 1838<a href="#cite_note-28">[26]</a> as a new way of looking at society.<a href="#cite_note-:3-29">[27]</a>: 10  Comte had earlier used the term social physics, but it had been subsequently appropriated by others, most notably the Belgian statistician <a href="/wiki/Adolphe_Quetelet" title="Adolphe Quetelet">Adolphe Quetelet</a>.<a href="#cite_note-30">[28]</a> Comte endeavored to unify history, psychology, and economics through the scientific understanding of social life. Writing shortly after the malaise of the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>, he proposed that social ills could be remedied through sociological <a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">positivism</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemological</a> approach outlined in the <a href="/wiki/Course_of_Positive_Philosophy" title="Course of Positive Philosophy">Course in Positive Philosophy</a> (1830–1842), later included in <a href="/wiki/A_General_View_of_Positivism" title="A General View of Positivism">A General View of Positivism</a> (1848). Comte believed a <a href="/wiki/Law_of_three_stages" title="Law of three stages">positivist stage</a> would mark the final era in the progression of human understanding, after conjectural <a href="/wiki/Theological" class="mw-redirect" title="Theological">theological</a> and <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysical</a> phases.<a href="#cite_note-comte-31">[29]</a> In observing the circular dependence of theory and observation in science, and having classified the sciences, Comte may be regarded as the first <a href="/wiki/Philosopher_of_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosopher of science">philosopher of science</a> in the modern sense of the term.<a href="#cite_note-32">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-33">[31]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Auguste_Comte2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Auguste_Comte2.jpg/170px-Auguste_Comte2.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="239" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Auguste_Comte2.jpg/255px-Auguste_Comte2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Auguste_Comte2.jpg/340px-Auguste_Comte2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="555" data-file-height="779" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a> (1798–1857)</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">Comte gave a powerful impetus to the development of sociology, an impetus that bore fruit in the later decades of the nineteenth century. To say this is certainly not to claim that French sociologists such as <a href="/wiki/Durkheim" class="mw-redirect" title="Durkheim">Durkheim</a> were devoted disciples of the high priest of positivism. But by insisting on the irreducibility of each of his basic sciences to the particular science of sciences which it presupposed in the hierarchy and by emphasizing the nature of sociology as the scientific study of social phenomena Comte put sociology on the map. To be sure, [its] beginnings can be traced back well beyond <a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a>, for example, and to <a href="/wiki/Condorcet" class="mw-redirect" title="Condorcet">Condorcet</a>, not to speak of <a href="/wiki/Claude_Henri_de_Rouvroy,_comte_de_Saint-Simon" class="mw-redirect" title="Claude Henri de Rouvroy, comte de Saint-Simon">Saint-Simon</a>, Comte's immediate predecessor. But Comte's clear recognition of sociology as a particular science, with a character of its own, justified Durkheim in regarding him as the father or founder of this science, even though Durkheim did not accept the idea of the three states and criticized Comte's approach to sociology.<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Copleston" title="Frederick Copleston">Frederick Copleston</a>, A History of Philosophy: IX Modern Philosophy (1974), p. 118</cite></div></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Karl_Marx.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Karl_Marx.jpg/170px-Karl_Marx.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Karl_Marx.jpg/255px-Karl_Marx.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Karl_Marx.jpg/340px-Karl_Marx.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="1500" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a> (1818–1883)</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Marx">Marx</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Marx">edit</a>]</div> Both Comte and <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a> set out to develop scientifically justified systems in the wake of European industrialization and <a href="/wiki/Secularization" title="Secularization">secularization</a>, informed by various key movements in the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">philosophies of history</a> <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">and science</a>. Marx rejected Comtean positivism<a href="#cite_note-34">[32]</a> but in attempting to develop a "science of society" nevertheless came to be recognized as a founder of sociology as the word gained wider meaning. For <a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Isaiah Berlin</a>, even though Marx did not consider himself to be a sociologist, he may be regarded as the "true father" of modern sociology, "in so far as anyone can claim the title."<a href="#cite_note-:1-35">[33]</a>: 130 <blockquote>To have given clear and unified answers in familiar empirical terms to those theoretical questions which most occupied men's minds at the time, and to have deduced from them clear practical directives without creating obviously artificial links between the two, was the principal achievement of Marx's theory. The sociological treatment of historical and moral problems, which Comte and after him, <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Taine</a>, had discussed and mapped, became a precise and concrete study only when the attack of militant Marxism made its conclusions a burning issue, and so made the search for evidence more zealous and the attention to method more intense.<a href="#cite_note-:1-35">[33]</a>: 13–14 </blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spencer">Spencer</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Spencer">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spencer-detail.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Spencer-detail.png/170px-Spencer-detail.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Spencer-detail.png/255px-Spencer-detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Spencer-detail.png 2x" data-file-width="282" data-file-height="319" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Herbert Spencer</a> (1820–1903)</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Herbert Spencer</a> was one of the most popular and influential 19th-century sociologists. It is estimated that he sold one million books in his lifetime, far more than any other sociologist at the time.<a href="#cite_note-36">[34]</a> So strong was his influence that many other 19th-century thinkers, including <a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Émile Durkheim</a>, defined their ideas in relation to his. Durkheim's <a href="/wiki/Division_of_Labour_in_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="Division of Labour in Society">Division of Labour in Society</a> is to a large extent an extended debate with Spencer from whose sociology Durkheim borrowed extensively.<a href="#cite_note-Émile_Durkheim's_Division_of_Labor_and_the_Shadow_of_Herbert_Spencer-37">[35]</a> Also a notable <a href="/wiki/Biologist" title="Biologist">biologist</a>, Spencer coined the term <a href="/wiki/Survival_of_the_fittest" title="Survival of the fittest">survival of the fittest</a>.<a href="#cite_note-sotf-38">[36]</a> While Marxian ideas defined one strand of sociology, Spencer was a critic of socialism, as well as a strong advocate for a <a href="/wiki/Laissez-faire" title="Laissez-faire">laissez-faire</a> style of government. His ideas were closely observed by conservative political circles, especially in the United States and England.<a href="#cite_note-Commanger-39">[37]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Foundations_of_the_academic_discipline">Foundations of the academic discipline</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Foundations of the academic discipline">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Émile Durkheim</a> and <a href="/wiki/Social_facts" class="mw-redirect" title="Social facts">Social facts</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Emile_Durkheim.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Emile_Durkheim.jpg/170px-Emile_Durkheim.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="241" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Emile_Durkheim.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="229" data-file-height="324" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Émile Durkheim</a></figcaption></figure> The first formal Department of Sociology in the world was established in 1892 by <a href="/wiki/Albion_Woodbury_Small" title="Albion Woodbury Small">Albion Small</a>—from the invitation of <a href="/wiki/William_Rainey_Harper" title="William Rainey Harper">William Rainey Harper</a>—at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a>. The <a href="/wiki/American_Journal_of_Sociology" title="American Journal of Sociology">American Journal of Sociology</a> was founded shortly thereafter in 1895 by Small as well.<a href="#cite_note-40">[38]</a> The institutionalization of sociology as an academic discipline, however, was chiefly led by <a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Émile Durkheim</a>, who developed <a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">positivism</a> as a foundation for practical <a href="/wiki/Social_research" title="Social research">social research</a>. While Durkheim rejected much of the detail of Comte's philosophy, he retained and refined its method, maintaining that the social sciences are a logical continuation of the natural ones into the realm of human activity, and insisting that they may retain the same objectivity, rationalism, and approach to causality.<a href="#cite_note-Wacquant-41">[39]</a> Durkheim set up the first European department of sociology at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Bordeaux" title="University of Bordeaux">University of Bordeaux</a> in 1895, publishing his <a href="/wiki/Rules_of_the_Sociological_Method" class="mw-redirect" title="Rules of the Sociological Method">Rules of the Sociological Method</a> (1895).<a href="#cite_note-Poggi-42">[40]</a> For Durkheim, sociology could be described as the "science of institutions, their genesis and their functioning."<a href="#cite_note-43">[41]</a> Durkheim's monograph <a href="/wiki/Suicide_(Durkheim_book)" title="Suicide (Durkheim book)">Suicide</a> (1897) is considered a seminal work in statistical analysis by contemporary sociologists. Suicide is a case study of variations in suicide rates among <a href="/wiki/Catholic" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic">Catholic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Protestant" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant">Protestant</a> populations, and served to distinguish sociological analysis from <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a> or philosophy. It also marked a major contribution to the theoretical concept of <a href="/wiki/Structural_functionalism" title="Structural functionalism">structural functionalism</a>. By carefully examining suicide statistics in different police districts, he attempted to demonstrate that Catholic communities have a lower suicide rate than that of Protestants, something he attributed to social (as opposed to individual or <a href="/wiki/Psychological" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychological">psychological</a>) causes. He developed the notion of objective <a href="/wiki/Social_facts" class="mw-redirect" title="Social facts">social facts</a> to delineate a unique empirical object for the science of sociology to study.<a href="#cite_note-Wacquant-41">[39]</a> Through such studies he posited that sociology would be able to determine whether any given society is healthy or pathological, and seek social reform to negate organic breakdown, or "<a href="/wiki/Anomie" title="Anomie">social anomie</a>". Sociology quickly evolved as an academic response to the perceived challenges of <a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">modernity</a>, such as industrialization, urbanization, <a href="/wiki/Secularization" title="Secularization">secularization</a>, and the process of <a href="/wiki/Rationalization_(sociology)" title="Rationalization (sociology)">rationalization</a>.<a href="#cite_note-44">[42]</a> The field predominated in <a href="/wiki/Continental_Europe" title="Continental Europe">continental Europe</a>, with British <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a> and statistics generally following on a separate trajectory. By the turn of the 20th century, however, many theorists were active in the <a href="/wiki/English-speaking_world" title="English-speaking world">English-speaking world</a>. Few early sociologists were confined strictly to the subject, interacting also with economics, <a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">jurisprudence</a>, psychology and philosophy, with theories being appropriated in a variety of different fields. Since its inception, sociological epistemology, methods, and frames of inquiry, have significantly expanded and diverged.<a href="#cite_note-Giddens_Intro-5">[5]</a> Durkheim, Marx, and the German theorist <a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a> are typically cited as the three principal architects of sociology.<a href="#cite_note-Max_Weber_–_Stanford_Encyclopaedia_of_Philosophy-45">[43]</a> <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Herbert Spencer</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Graham_Sumner" title="William Graham Sumner">William Graham Sumner</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lester_F._Ward" class="mw-redirect" title="Lester F. Ward">Lester F. Ward</a>, <a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Vilfredo Pareto</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Alexis de Tocqueville</a>, <a href="/wiki/Werner_Sombart" title="Werner Sombart">Werner Sombart</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thorstein_Veblen" title="Thorstein Veblen">Thorstein Veblen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_T%C3%B6nnies" title="Ferdinand Tönnies">Ferdinand Tönnies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel">Georg Simmel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jane_Addams" title="Jane Addams">Jane Addams</a> and <a href="/wiki/Karl_Mannheim" title="Karl Mannheim">Karl Mannheim</a> are often included on academic curricula as founding theorists. Curricula also may include <a href="/wiki/Charlotte_Perkins_Gilman" title="Charlotte Perkins Gilman">Charlotte Perkins Gilman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marianne_Weber" title="Marianne Weber">Marianne Weber</a>, <a href="/wiki/Harriet_Martineau" title="Harriet Martineau">Harriet Martineau</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Friedrich Engels</a> as founders of the feminist tradition in sociology. Each key figure is associated with a particular theoretical perspective and orientation.<a href="#cite_note-transformation325-46">[44]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Marx and Engels associated the emergence of modern society above all with the development of capitalism; for Durkheim it was connected in particular with industrialization and the new social division of labor which this brought about; for Weber it had to do with the emergence of a distinctive way of thinking, the rational calculation which he associated with the Protestant Ethic (more or less what Marx and Engels speak of in terms of those 'icy waves of egotistical calculation'). Together the works of these great classical sociologists suggest what Giddens has recently described as 'a multidimensional view of institutions of modernity' and which emphasises not only capitalism and industrialism as key institutions of modernity, but also 'surveillance' (meaning 'control of information and social supervision') and 'military power' (control of the means of violence in the context of the industrialisation of war).<a href="#cite_note-transformation325-46">[44]</a><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/John_Harriss" title="John Harriss">John Harriss</a>, The Second Great Transformation? Capitalism at the End of the Twentieth Century (1992)</cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Further_developments">Further developments</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Further developments">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ferdinand_Toennies_Bueste_Husum-Ausschnitt.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Ferdinand_Toennies_Bueste_Husum-Ausschnitt.jpg/170px-Ferdinand_Toennies_Bueste_Husum-Ausschnitt.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Ferdinand_Toennies_Bueste_Husum-Ausschnitt.jpg/255px-Ferdinand_Toennies_Bueste_Husum-Ausschnitt.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Ferdinand_Toennies_Bueste_Husum-Ausschnitt.jpg/340px-Ferdinand_Toennies_Bueste_Husum-Ausschnitt.jpg 2x" data-file-width="732" data-file-height="835" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Bust_(sculpture)" title="Bust (sculpture)">Bust</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_T%C3%B6nnies" title="Ferdinand Tönnies">Ferdinand Tönnies</a> in <a href="/wiki/Husum" title="Husum">Husum</a>, Germany</figcaption></figure> The first college course entitled "Sociology" was taught in the United States at <a href="/wiki/Yale" class="mw-redirect" title="Yale">Yale</a> in 1875 by <a href="/wiki/William_Graham_Sumner" title="William Graham Sumner">William Graham Sumner</a>.<a href="#cite_note-47">[45]</a> In 1883, <a href="/wiki/Lester_F._Ward" class="mw-redirect" title="Lester F. Ward">Lester F. Ward</a>, who later became the first president of the <a href="/wiki/American_Sociological_Association" title="American Sociological Association">American Sociological Association</a> (ASA), published Dynamic Sociology—Or Applied social science as based upon statical sociology and the less complex sciences, attacking the laissez-faire sociology of <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Herbert Spencer</a> and Sumner.<a href="#cite_note-Commanger-39">[37]</a> Ward's 1,200-page book was used as core material in many early American sociology courses. In 1890, the oldest continuing American course in the modern tradition began at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Kansas" title="University of Kansas">University of Kansas</a>, lectured by <a href="/wiki/Frank_W._Blackmar" title="Frank W. Blackmar">Frank W. Blackmar</a>.<a href="#cite_note-University_of_Kansas_Sociology_Department_Webpage-48">[46]</a> The Department of Sociology at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a> was established in 1892 by <a href="/wiki/Albion_Woodbury_Small" title="Albion Woodbury Small">Albion Small</a>, who also published the first sociology textbook: An introduction to the study of society.<a href="#cite_note-uchicago1970-49">[47]</a> <a href="/wiki/George_Herbert_Mead" title="George Herbert Mead">George Herbert Mead</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Cooley" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Cooley">Charles Cooley</a>, who had met at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan" title="University of Michigan">University of Michigan</a> in 1891 (along with <a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a>), moved to Chicago in 1894.<a href="#cite_note-50">[48]</a> Their influence gave rise to <a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">social psychology</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Symbolic_interactionism" title="Symbolic interactionism">symbolic interactionism</a> of the modern <a href="/wiki/Chicago_school_(sociology)" title="Chicago school (sociology)">Chicago School</a>.<a href="#cite_note-51">[49]</a> The <a href="/wiki/American_Journal_of_Sociology" title="American Journal of Sociology">American Journal of Sociology</a> was founded in 1895, followed by the ASA in 1905.<a href="#cite_note-uchicago1970-49">[47]</a> The sociological canon of classics with Durkheim and <a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a> at the top owes its existence in part to <a href="/wiki/Talcott_Parsons" title="Talcott Parsons">Talcott Parsons</a>, who is largely credited with introducing both to American audiences.<a href="#cite_note-camic-52">[50]</a> Parsons consolidated the sociological tradition and set the agenda for American sociology at the point of its fastest disciplinary growth. Sociology in the United States was less historically influenced by <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a> than its European counterpart, and to this day broadly remains more statistical in its approach.<a href="#cite_note-53">[51]</a> The first sociology department established in the United Kingdom was at the <a href="/wiki/London_School_of_Economics" title="London School of Economics">London School of Economics</a> and Political Science (home of the <a href="/wiki/British_Journal_of_Sociology" class="mw-redirect" title="British Journal of Sociology">British Journal of Sociology</a>) in 1904.<a href="#cite_note-British_Journal_of_Sociology_Website-54">[52]</a> <a href="/wiki/Leonard_Trelawny_Hobhouse" class="mw-redirect" title="Leonard Trelawny Hobhouse">Leonard Trelawny Hobhouse</a> and <a href="/wiki/Edvard_Westermarck" title="Edvard Westermarck">Edvard Westermarck</a> became the lecturers in the discipline at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_London" title="University of London">University of London</a> in 1907.<a href="#cite_note-55">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-56">[54]</a> <a href="/wiki/Harriet_Martineau" title="Harriet Martineau">Harriet Martineau</a>, an English translator of Comte, has been cited as the first female sociologist.<a href="#cite_note-57">[55]</a> In 1909, the <a href="/wiki/German_Sociological_Association" title="German Sociological Association">German Sociological Association</a> was founded by <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_T%C3%B6nnies" title="Ferdinand Tönnies">Ferdinand Tönnies</a>, Max Weber, and <a href="/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel">Georg Simmel</a>, among others.<a href="#cite_note-58">[56]</a> Weber established the first department in Germany at the <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Maximilian_University_of_Munich" title="Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich">Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich</a> in 1919, having presented an influential new <a href="/wiki/Antipositivist" class="mw-redirect" title="Antipositivist">antipositivist</a> sociology.<a href="#cite_note-Bendix1-59">[57]</a> In 1920, <a href="/wiki/Florian_Znaniecki" title="Florian Znaniecki">Florian Znaniecki</a> set up the first department <a href="/wiki/Sociology_in_Poland" title="Sociology in Poland">in Poland</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Institute_for_Social_Research" class="mw-redirect" title="Institute for Social Research">Institute for Social Research</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Goethe_University_Frankfurt" title="Goethe University Frankfurt">University of Frankfurt</a> (later to become the <a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a> of <a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">critical theory</a>) was founded in 1923.<a href="#cite_note-britannica-60">[58]</a> International co-operation in sociology began in 1893, when <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Worms" title="René Worms">René Worms</a> founded the <a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Worms" class="extiw" title="fr:René Worms">Institut International de Sociologie</a>, an institution later eclipsed by the much larger <a href="/wiki/International_Sociological_Association" title="International Sociological Association">International Sociological Association</a> (ISA), founded in 1949.<a href="#cite_note-61">[59]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theoretical_traditions">Theoretical traditions</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Theoretical traditions">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sociological_theory" title="Sociological theory">Sociological theory</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Three_stages_of_Sociology.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Three_stages_of_Sociology.svg/220px-Three_stages_of_Sociology.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Three_stages_of_Sociology.svg/330px-Three_stages_of_Sociology.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Three_stages_of_Sociology.svg/440px-Three_stages_of_Sociology.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="419" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Three_stages_of_Sociology" class="mw-redirect" title="Three stages of Sociology">Three stages of Sociology</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Positivism_and_anti-positivism">Positivism and anti-positivism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Positivism and anti-positivism">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Positivism">Positivism</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Positivism">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></div> The overarching <a href="/wiki/Methodology" title="Methodology">methodological</a> principle of <a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">positivism</a> is to conduct sociology in broadly the same manner as <a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural science</a>. An emphasis on <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricism</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a> is sought to provide a tested foundation for sociological research based on the assumption that the only authentic knowledge is scientific knowledge, and that such knowledge can only arrive by positive affirmation through scientific methodology.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Our main goal is to extend scientific rationalism to human conduct.... What has been called our positivism is but a consequence of this rationalism.<a href="#cite_note-DinW-62">[60]</a><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Émile Durkheim</a>, The Rules of Sociological Method (1895)</cite></div></blockquote> The term has long since ceased to carry this meaning; there are no fewer than twelve distinct epistemologies that are referred to as positivism.<a href="#cite_note-Wacquant-41">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-Halfpenny-63">[61]</a> Many of these approaches do not self-identify as "positivist", some because they themselves arose in opposition to older forms of positivism, and some because the label has over time become a pejorative term<a href="#cite_note-Wacquant-41">[39]</a> by being mistakenly linked with a theoretical <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricism</a>. The extent of <a href="/wiki/Antipositivism" title="Antipositivism">antipositivist</a> criticism has also diverged, with many rejecting the scientific method and others only seeking to amend it to reflect 20th-century developments in the philosophy of science. However, positivism (broadly understood as a scientific approach to the study of society) remains dominant in contemporary sociology, especially in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-Wacquant-41">[39]</a> <a href="/wiki/Lo%C3%AFc_Wacquant" title="Loïc Wacquant">Loïc Wacquant</a> distinguishes three major strains of positivism: <a href="/wiki/Durkheimian" class="mw-redirect" title="Durkheimian">Durkheimian</a>, Logical, and Instrumental.<a href="#cite_note-Wacquant-41">[39]</a> None of these are the same as that set forth by Comte, who was unique in advocating such a rigid (and perhaps optimistic) version.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated2005-64">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-:0-4">[4]</a>: 94–8, 100–4  While Émile Durkheim rejected much of the detail of Comte's philosophy, he retained and refined its method. Durkheim maintained that the social sciences are a logical continuation of the natural ones into the realm of human activity, and insisted that they should retain the same objectivity, rationalism, and approach to causality.<a href="#cite_note-Wacquant-41">[39]</a> He developed the notion of objective sui generis "social facts" to serve as unique empirical objects for the science of sociology to study.<a href="#cite_note-Wacquant-41">[39]</a> The variety of positivism that remains dominant today is termed instrumental positivism. This approach eschews epistemological and metaphysical concerns (such as the nature of social facts) in favour of methodological clarity, <a href="/wiki/Replicability" class="mw-redirect" title="Replicability">replicability</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reliabilism" title="Reliabilism">reliability</a> and <a href="/wiki/Validity_(logic)" title="Validity (logic)">validity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Gartell-65">[63]</a> This positivism is more or less synonymous with <a href="/wiki/Quantitative_research" title="Quantitative research">quantitative research</a>, and so only resembles older positivism in practice. Since it carries no explicit philosophical commitment, its practitioners may not belong to any particular school of thought. Modern sociology of this type is often credited to <a href="/wiki/Paul_Lazarsfeld" title="Paul Lazarsfeld">Paul Lazarsfeld</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Wacquant-41">[39]</a> who pioneered large-scale survey studies and developed statistical techniques for analysing them. This approach lends itself to what <a href="/wiki/Robert_K._Merton" title="Robert K. Merton">Robert K. Merton</a> called <a href="/wiki/Middle_range_theory_(sociology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle range theory (sociology)">middle-range theory</a>: abstract statements that generalize from segregated hypotheses and empirical regularities rather than starting with an abstract idea of a social whole.<a href="#cite_note-Boudon-66">[64]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Antipositivism">Antipositivism</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Antipositivism">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Antipositivism" title="Antipositivism">Antipositivism</a></div> The German philosopher <a href="/wiki/Hegel" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegel">Hegel</a> criticised traditional empiricist epistemology, which he rejected as uncritical, and determinism, which he viewed as overly mechanistic.<a href="#cite_note-:0-4">[4]</a>: 169  <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a>'s methodology borrowed from <a href="/wiki/Hegelian_dialectic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegelian dialectic">Hegelian dialecticism</a> but also a rejection of positivism in favour of critical analysis, seeking to supplement the empirical acquisition of "facts" with the elimination of illusions.<a href="#cite_note-:0-4">[4]</a>: 202–3  He maintained that appearances need to be critiqued rather than simply documented. Early <a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">hermeneuticians</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Dilthey" title="Wilhelm Dilthey">Wilhelm Dilthey</a> pioneered the distinction between natural and social science ('<a href="/wiki/Geisteswissenschaft" title="Geisteswissenschaft">Geisteswissenschaft</a>'). Various <a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantian" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Kantian">neo-Kantian</a> philosophers, <a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">phenomenologists</a> and <a href="/wiki/Human_science" title="Human science">human scientists</a> further theorized how the analysis of the <a href="/wiki/Social_reality" title="Social reality">social world</a> differs to that of the <a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">natural world</a> due to the irreducibly complex aspects of human society, culture, and <a href="/wiki/Being" class="mw-redirect" title="Being">being</a>.<a href="#cite_note-67">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-68">[66]</a> In the Italian context of development of social sciences and of sociology in particular, there are oppositions to the first foundation of the discipline, sustained by speculative philosophy in accordance with the antiscientific tendencies matured by critique of positivism and evolutionism, so a tradition Progressist struggles to establish itself.<a href="#cite_note-69">[67]</a> At the turn of the 20th century, the first generation of German sociologists formally introduced methodological <a href="/wiki/Anti-positivism" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-positivism">anti-positivism</a>, proposing that research should concentrate on human cultural <a href="/wiki/Norm_(sociology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Norm (sociology)">norms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Value_(personal_and_cultural)" class="mw-redirect" title="Value (personal and cultural)">values</a>, <a href="/wiki/Symbol" title="Symbol">symbols</a>, and social processes viewed from a resolutely <a href="/wiki/Subject_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject (philosophy)">subjective</a> perspective. Max Weber argued that sociology may be loosely described as a science as it is able to identify <a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">causal relationships</a> of human "<a href="/wiki/Social_action" title="Social action">social action</a>"—especially among "<a href="/wiki/Ideal_type" title="Ideal type">ideal types</a>", or hypothetical simplifications of complex social phenomena.<a href="#cite_note-:0-4">[4]</a>: 239–40  As a non-positivist, however, Weber sought relationships that are not as "historical, invariant, or generalisable"<a href="#cite_note-:0-4">[4]</a>: 241  as those pursued by natural scientists. Fellow German sociologist, <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_T%C3%B6nnies" title="Ferdinand Tönnies">Ferdinand Tönnies</a>, theorised on two crucial abstract concepts with his work on "<a href="/wiki/Gemeinschaft_and_Gesellschaft" title="Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft">gemeinschaft and gesellschaft</a>" (<abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'community' and 'society'). Tönnies marked a sharp line between the realm of concepts and the reality of social action: the first must be treated axiomatically and in a deductive way ("pure sociology"), whereas the second empirically and inductively ("applied sociology").<a href="#cite_note-Tönnies_2001-70">[68]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Max_Weber,_1918.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Max Weber in 1918, facing right and looking at the camera" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Max_Weber%2C_1918.jpg/170px-Max_Weber%2C_1918.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="233" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Max_Weber%2C_1918.jpg/255px-Max_Weber%2C_1918.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Max_Weber%2C_1918.jpg/340px-Max_Weber%2C_1918.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1169" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption>Max Weber in 1918</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">[Sociology is] ... the science whose object is to interpret the meaning of social action and thereby give a causal explanation of the way in which the action proceeds and the effects which it produces. By 'action' in this definition is meant the human behaviour when and to the extent that the agent or agents see it as subjectively meaningful ... the meaning to which we refer may be either (a) the meaning actually intended either by an individual agent on a particular historical occasion or by a number of agents on an approximate average in a given set of cases, or (b) the meaning attributed to the agent or agents, as types, in a pure type constructed in the abstract. In neither case is the 'meaning' to be thought of as somehow objectively 'correct' or 'true' by some metaphysical criterion. This is the difference between the empirical sciences of action, such as sociology and history, and any kind of prior discipline, such as jurisprudence, logic, ethics, or aesthetics whose aim is to extract from their subject-matter 'correct' or 'valid' meaning.<a href="#cite_note-71">[69]</a><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a>, The Nature of Social Action (1922), p. 7</cite></div></blockquote> Both Weber and <a href="/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel">Georg Simmel</a> pioneered the "<a href="/wiki/Verstehen" title="Verstehen">Verstehen</a>" (or 'interpretative') method in social science; a systematic process by which an outside observer attempts to relate to a particular cultural group, or indigenous people, on their own terms and from their own point of view.<a href="#cite_note-Kaern_Phillips_Cohen_1990_p.-72">[70]</a> Through the work of Simmel, in particular, sociology acquired a possible character beyond positivist data-collection or grand, deterministic systems of structural law. Relatively isolated from the sociological academy throughout his lifetime, Simmel presented idiosyncratic analyses of modernity more reminiscent of the <a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">phenomenological</a> and <a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">existential</a> writers than of Comte or Durkheim, paying particular concern to the forms of, and possibilities for, social individuality.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1971-73">[71]</a> His sociology engaged in a neo-Kantian inquiry into the limits of perception, asking 'What is society?' in a direct allusion to Kant's question 'What is nature?'<a href="#cite_note-Simmel_1971_p._6-74">[72]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Simmel_01.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Simmel_01.JPG/170px-Simmel_01.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Simmel_01.JPG 1.5x" data-file-width="188" data-file-height="251" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel">Georg Simmel</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">The deepest problems of modern life flow from the attempt of the individual to maintain the independence and individuality of his existence against the sovereign powers of society, against the weight of the historical heritage and the external culture and technique of life. The antagonism represents the most modern form of the conflict which primitive man must carry on with nature for his bodily existence. The eighteenth century may have called for liberation from all the ties which grew up historically in politics, in religion, in morality, and in economics to permit the original natural virtue of man, which is equal in everyone, to develop without inhibition; the nineteenth century may have sought to promote, in addition to man's freedom, his individuality (which is connected with the division of labor) and his achievements which make him unique and indispensable but which at the same time make him so much the more dependent on the complementary activity of others; Nietzsche may have seen the relentless struggle of the individual as the prerequisite for his full development, while socialism found the same thing in the suppression of all competition – but in each of these the same fundamental motive was at work, namely the resistance of the individual to being leveled, swallowed up in the social-technological mechanism.<a href="#cite_note-75">[73]</a><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel">Georg Simmel</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Metropolis_and_Mental_Life" title="The Metropolis and Mental Life">The Metropolis and Mental Life</a> (1903)</cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classical_theory">Classical theory</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Classical theory">edit</a>]</div> The contemporary discipline of sociology is theoretically multi-paradigmatic<a href="#cite_note-Abend-76">[74]</a> in line with the contentions of classical social theory. <a href="/wiki/Randall_Collins" title="Randall Collins">Randall Collins</a>' well-cited survey of sociological theory<a href="#cite_note-77">[75]</a> retroactively labels various theorists as belonging to four theoretical traditions: Functionalism, Conflict, Symbolic Interactionism, and Utilitarianism.<a href="#cite_note-78">[76]</a> Accordingly, modern sociological theory predominantly descends from functionalist (Durkheim) and conflict (Marx and Weber) approaches to social structure, as well as from symbolic-interactionist approaches to social interaction, such as micro-level structural (<a href="/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel">Simmel</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">pragmatist</a> (<a href="/wiki/George_Herbert_Mead" title="George Herbert Mead">Mead</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Cooley" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Cooley">Cooley</a>) perspectives. <a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a> (also known as rational choice or social exchange), although often associated with economics, is an established tradition within sociological theory.<a href="#cite_note-79">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-80">[78]</a> Lastly, as argued by <a href="/wiki/Raewyn_Connell" title="Raewyn Connell">Raewyn Connell</a>, a tradition that is often forgotten is that of <a href="/wiki/Social_Darwinism" title="Social Darwinism">Social Darwinism</a>, which applies the logic of Darwinian biological evolution to people and societies.<a href="#cite_note-81">[79]</a> This tradition often aligns with classical functionalism, and was once the dominant theoretical stance in American sociology, from <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1881 – c. 1915,<a href="#cite_note-82">[80]</a> associated with several founders of sociology, primarily <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Herbert Spencer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lester_F._Ward" class="mw-redirect" title="Lester F. Ward">Lester F. Ward</a>, and <a href="/wiki/William_Graham_Sumner" title="William Graham Sumner">William Graham Sumner</a>. Contemporary sociological theory retains traces of each of these traditions and they are by no means mutually exclusive.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Functionalism">Functionalism</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Functionalism">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Structural_functionalism" title="Structural functionalism">Structural functionalism</a></div> A broad historical paradigm in both sociology and <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a>, functionalism addresses the <a href="/wiki/Social_structure" title="Social structure">social structure</a>—referred to as "<a href="/wiki/Social_organization" title="Social organization">social organization</a>" by the classical theorists—with respect to the whole as well as the necessary function of the whole's constituent elements. A common analogy (popularized by <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Herbert Spencer</a>) is to regard <a href="/wiki/Norm_(sociology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Norm (sociology)">norms</a> and institutions as 'organs' that work towards the proper functioning of the entire 'body' of society.<a href="#cite_note-Sociology_beyond_societies:_mobilities_for_the_twenty-first_century-83">[81]</a> The perspective was implicit in the original sociological positivism of Comte but was theorized in full by Durkheim, again with respect to observable, structural laws. Functionalism also has an anthropological basis in the work of theorists such as <a href="/wiki/Marcel_Mauss" title="Marcel Mauss">Marcel Mauss</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bronis%C5%82aw_Malinowski" title="Bronisław Malinowski">Bronisław Malinowski</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Radcliffe-Brown" class="mw-redirect" title="Radcliffe-Brown">Radcliffe-Brown</a>. It is in the latter's specific usage that the prefix "structural" emerged.<a href="#cite_note-84">[82]</a> Classical functionalist theory is generally united by its tendency towards biological analogy and notions of <a href="/wiki/Social_evolutionism" class="mw-redirect" title="Social evolutionism">social evolutionism</a>, in that the basic form of society would increase in complexity and those forms of social organization that promoted solidarity would eventually overcome social disorganization. As <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Giddens" title="Anthony Giddens">Giddens</a> states:<a href="#cite_note-85">[83]</a><blockquote>Functionalist thought, from Comte onwards, has looked particularly towards biology as the science providing the closest and most compatible model for social science. Biology has been taken to provide a guide to conceptualizing the structure and the function of social systems and to analyzing processes of evolution via mechanisms of adaptation. Functionalism strongly emphasizes the pre-eminence of the social world over its individual parts (i.e. its constituent actors, human subjects).</blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Conflict_theory">Conflict theory</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Conflict theory">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Conflict_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Conflict theory">Conflict theory</a></div> Functionalist theories emphasize "cohesive systems" and are often contrasted with "conflict theories", which critique the overarching socio-political system or emphasize the inequality between particular groups. The following quotes from Durkheim<a href="#cite_note-86">[84]</a> and Marx<a href="#cite_note-87">[85]</a> epitomize the political, as well as theoretical, disparities, between functionalist and conflict thought respectively: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">To aim for a civilization beyond that made possible by the nexus of the surrounding environment will result in unloosing sickness into the very society we live in. Collective activity cannot be encouraged beyond the point set by the condition of the social organism without undermining health.<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Émile Durkheim, <a href="/wiki/The_Division_of_Labour_in_Society" title="The Division of Labour in Society">The Division of Labour in Society</a> (1893)</cite></div></blockquote> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles. Freeman and slave, patrician and plebeian, lord and serf, guild-master and journeyman, in a word, oppressor and oppressed, stood in constant opposition to one another, carried on an uninterrupted, now hidden, now open fight, a fight that each time ended, either in a revolutionary re-constitution of society at large, or in the common ruin of the contending classes.<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a> & <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Friedrich Engels</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Communist_Manifesto" title="The Communist Manifesto">The Communist Manifesto</a> (1848)</cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Symbolic_interactionism">Symbolic interactionism</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Symbolic interactionism">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Symbolic_interactionism" title="Symbolic interactionism">Symbolic interactionism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dramaturgy_(sociology)" title="Dramaturgy (sociology)">Dramaturgy (sociology)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Interpretive_sociology" class="mw-redirect" title="Interpretive sociology">Interpretive sociology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Phenomenological_sociology" class="mw-redirect" title="Phenomenological sociology">Phenomenological sociology</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Symbolic_interaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbolic interaction">Symbolic interaction</a>—often associated with <a href="/wiki/Interactionism" title="Interactionism">interactionism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(sociology)" title="Phenomenology (sociology)">phenomenology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dramaturgy_(sociology)" title="Dramaturgy (sociology)">dramaturgy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antipositivism" title="Antipositivism">interpretivism</a>—is a sociological approach that places emphasis on subjective meanings and the empirical unfolding of social processes, generally accessed through micro-analysis.<a href="#cite_note-88">[86]</a> This tradition emerged in the <a href="/wiki/Chicago_school_(sociology)" title="Chicago school (sociology)">Chicago School</a> of the 1920s and 1930s, which, prior to World War II, "had been the center of sociological research and graduate study."<a href="#cite_note-Second_Chicago_School-89">[87]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] The approach focuses on creating a framework for building a theory that sees society as the product of the everyday interactions of individuals. Society is nothing more than the shared reality that people construct as they interact with one another. This approach sees people interacting in countless settings using symbolic communications to accomplish the tasks at hand. Therefore, society is a complex, ever-changing mosaic of subjective meanings.<a href="#cite_note-:3-29">[27]</a>: 19  Some critics of this approach argue that it only looks at what is happening in a particular social situation, and disregards the effects that culture, race or gender (i.e. social-historical structures) may have in that situation.<a href="#cite_note-:3-29">[27]</a> Some important sociologists associated with this approach include <a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a>, <a href="/wiki/George_Herbert_Mead" title="George Herbert Mead">George Herbert Mead</a>, <a href="/wiki/Erving_Goffman" title="Erving Goffman">Erving Goffman</a>, <a href="/wiki/George_Homans" class="mw-redirect" title="George Homans">George Homans</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Peter_Blau" title="Peter Blau">Peter Blau</a>. It is also in this tradition that the radical-empirical approach of <a href="/wiki/Ethnomethodology" title="Ethnomethodology">ethnomethodology</a> emerges from the work of <a href="/wiki/Harold_Garfinkel" title="Harold Garfinkel">Harold Garfinkel</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Utilitarianism">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rational_choice_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Rational choice theory">Rational choice theory</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Exchange_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Exchange theory">Exchange theory</a></div> Utilitarianism is often referred to as <a href="/wiki/Exchange_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Exchange theory">exchange theory</a> or <a href="/wiki/Rational_choice_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Rational choice theory">rational choice theory</a> in the context of sociology. This tradition tends to privilege the agency of individual rational actors and assumes that within interactions individuals always seek to maximize their own self-interest. As argued by <a href="/wiki/Josh_Whitford" title="Josh Whitford">Josh Whitford</a>, rational actors are assumed to have four basic elements:<a href="#cite_note-90">[88]</a> <ol><li>"a knowledge of alternatives;"</li> <li>"a knowledge of, or beliefs about the consequences of the various alternatives;"</li> <li>"an ordering of preferences over outcomes;" and</li> <li>"a decision rule, to select among the possible alternatives"</li></ol> Exchange theory is specifically attributed to the work of <a href="/wiki/George_C._Homans" title="George C. Homans">George C. Homans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peter_Blau" title="Peter Blau">Peter Blau</a> and Richard Emerson.<a href="#cite_note-91">[89]</a> Organizational sociologists <a href="/wiki/James_G._March" title="James G. March">James G. March</a> and <a href="/wiki/Herbert_A._Simon" title="Herbert A. Simon">Herbert A. Simon</a> noted that an individual's <a href="/wiki/Bounded_rationality" title="Bounded rationality">rationality is bounded</a> by the context or organizational setting. The utilitarian perspective in sociology was, most notably, revitalized in the late 20th century by the work of former <a href="/wiki/American_Sociological_Association" title="American Sociological Association">ASA</a> president <a href="/wiki/James_Samuel_Coleman" title="James Samuel Coleman">James Coleman</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="20th-century_social_theory">20th-century social theory</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: 20th-century social theory">edit</a>]</div> Following the decline of theories of sociocultural evolution in the United States, the interactionist thought of the <a href="/wiki/Chicago_school_(sociology)" title="Chicago school (sociology)">Chicago School</a> dominated American sociology. As <a href="/wiki/Anselm_Strauss" title="Anselm Strauss">Anselm Strauss</a> describes, "we didn't think symbolic interaction was a perspective in sociology; we thought it was sociology."<a href="#cite_note-Second_Chicago_School-89">[87]</a> Moreover, philosophical and psychological pragmatism grounded this tradition.<a href="#cite_note-92">[90]</a> After World War II, mainstream sociology shifted to the survey-research of <a href="/wiki/Paul_Lazarsfeld" title="Paul Lazarsfeld">Paul Lazarsfeld</a> at <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a> and the general theorizing of <a href="/wiki/Pitirim_Sorokin" title="Pitirim Sorokin">Pitirim Sorokin</a>, followed by <a href="/wiki/Talcott_Parsons" title="Talcott Parsons">Talcott Parsons</a> at <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a>. Ultimately, "the failure of the Chicago, Columbia, and Wisconsin [sociology] departments to produce a significant number of graduate students interested in and committed to general theory in the years 1936–45 was to the advantage of the Harvard department."<a href="#cite_note-93">[91]</a> As Parsons began to dominate general theory, his work primarily referenced European sociology—almost entirely omitting citations of both the American tradition of sociocultural-evolution as well as pragmatism. In addition to Parsons' revision of the sociological canon (which included Marshall, Pareto, Weber and Durkheim), the lack of theoretical challenges from other departments nurtured the rise of the Parsonian structural-functionalist movement, which reached its crescendo in the 1950s, but by the 1960s was in rapid decline.<a href="#cite_note-Coakley-94">[92]</a> By the 1980s, most functionalist perspectives in Europe had broadly been replaced by <a href="/wiki/Conflict_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Conflict theory">conflict</a>-oriented approaches,<a href="#cite_note-Slattery-95">[93]</a> and to many in the discipline, functionalism was considered "as dead as a dodo:"<a href="#cite_note-Barnes-96">[94]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Giddens" title="Anthony Giddens">Giddens</a>:<a href="#cite_note-97">[95]</a><blockquote>The orthodox consensus terminated in the late 1960s and 1970s as the middle ground shared by otherwise competing perspectives gave way and was replaced by a baffling variety of competing perspectives. This third 'generation' of social theory includes phenomenologically inspired approaches, critical theory, <a href="/wiki/Ethnomethodology" title="Ethnomethodology">ethnomethodology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Symbolic_interactionism" title="Symbolic interactionism">symbolic interactionism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">structuralism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">post-structuralism</a>, and theories written in the tradition of <a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">hermeneutics</a> and ordinary <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">language philosophy</a>.</blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pax_Wisconsana">Pax Wisconsana</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Pax Wisconsana">edit</a>]</div> While some conflict approaches also gained popularity in the United States, the mainstream of the discipline instead shifted to a variety of empirically oriented <a href="/wiki/Middle_range_theory_(sociology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle range theory (sociology)">middle-range theories</a> with no single overarching, or "grand", theoretical orientation. <a href="/wiki/John_Levi_Martin" title="John Levi Martin">John Levi Martin</a> refers to this "golden age of methodological unity and theoretical calm" as the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Pax_Wisconsana&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pax Wisconsana (page does not exist)">Pax Wisconsana</a>,<a href="#cite_note-98">[96]</a> as it reflected the composition of the sociology department at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Wisconsin%E2%80%93Madison" title="University of Wisconsin–Madison">University of Wisconsin–Madison</a>: numerous scholars working on separate projects with little contention.<a href="#cite_note-99">[97]</a> <a href="/wiki/Omar_Lizardo" title="Omar Lizardo">Omar Lizardo</a> describes the pax wisconsana as "a Midwestern flavored, <a href="/wiki/Robert_K._Merton" title="Robert K. Merton">Mertonian</a> resolution of the theory/method wars in which [sociologists] all agreed on at least two working hypotheses: (1) <a href="/wiki/Grand_theory" title="Grand theory">grand theory</a> is a waste of time; [and] (2) good theory has to be good to think with or goes in the trash bin."<a href="#cite_note-100">[98]</a> Despite the aversion to grand theory in the latter half of the 20th century, several new traditions have emerged that propose various syntheses: structuralism, post-structuralism, cultural sociology and systems theory.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Some sociologists have called for a return to 'grand theory' to combat the rise of scientific and pragmatist influences within the tradition of sociological thought (see <a href="/wiki/Duane_Rousselle" title="Duane Rousselle">Duane Rousselle</a>).<a href="#cite_note-101">[99]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anthony_Giddens_at_the_Progressive_Governance_Converence,_Budapest,_Hungary,_2004_October.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Anthony_Giddens_at_the_Progressive_Governance_Converence%2C_Budapest%2C_Hungary%2C_2004_October.jpg/150px-Anthony_Giddens_at_the_Progressive_Governance_Converence%2C_Budapest%2C_Hungary%2C_2004_October.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Anthony_Giddens_at_the_Progressive_Governance_Converence%2C_Budapest%2C_Hungary%2C_2004_October.jpg/225px-Anthony_Giddens_at_the_Progressive_Governance_Converence%2C_Budapest%2C_Hungary%2C_2004_October.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Anthony_Giddens_at_the_Progressive_Governance_Converence%2C_Budapest%2C_Hungary%2C_2004_October.jpg/300px-Anthony_Giddens_at_the_Progressive_Governance_Converence%2C_Budapest%2C_Hungary%2C_2004_October.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1329" data-file-height="1652" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Giddens" title="Anthony Giddens">Anthony Giddens</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Structuralism">Structuralism</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Structuralism">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Structural_linguistics" title="Structural linguistics">structuralist</a> movement originated primarily from the work of Durkheim as interpreted by two European scholars: <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Giddens" title="Anthony Giddens">Anthony Giddens</a>, a sociologist, whose theory of structuration draws on the <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistic</a> theory of <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_de_Saussure" title="Ferdinand de Saussure">Ferdinand de Saussure</a>; and <a href="/wiki/Claude_L%C3%A9vi-Strauss" title="Claude Lévi-Strauss">Claude Lévi-Strauss</a>, an anthropologist. In this context, 'structure' does not refer to 'social structure', but to the <a href="/wiki/Semiotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Semiotic">semiotic</a> understanding of human culture as a <a href="/wiki/Sign_(semiotics)" title="Sign (semiotics)">system of signs</a>. One may delineate four central tenets of structuralism:<a href="#cite_note-102">[100]</a> <ol><li>Structure is what determines the structure of a whole.</li> <li>Structuralists believe that every system has a structure.</li> <li>Structuralists are interested in 'structural' laws that deal with coexistence rather than changes.</li> <li>Structures are the 'real things' beneath the surface or the appearance of meaning.</li></ol> The second tradition of structuralist thought, contemporaneous with Giddens, emerges from the American School of <a href="/wiki/Social_network_analysis" title="Social network analysis">social network analysis</a> in the 1970s and 1980s,<a href="#cite_note-103">[101]</a> spearheaded by the <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Department_of_Social_Relations" title="Harvard Department of Social Relations">Harvard Department of Social Relations</a> led by <a href="/wiki/Harrison_White" title="Harrison White">Harrison White</a> and his students. This tradition of structuralist thought argues that, rather than semiotics, social structure is networks of patterned social relations. And, rather than Levi-Strauss, this school of thought draws on the notions of structure as theorized by Levi-Strauss' contemporary anthropologist, <a href="/wiki/Radcliffe-Brown" class="mw-redirect" title="Radcliffe-Brown">Radcliffe-Brown</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lizardo,_Omar_2010-104">[102]</a> Some<a href="#cite_note-105">[103]</a> refer to this as "network structuralism", and equate it to "British structuralism" as opposed to the "French structuralism" of Levi-Strauss. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Post-structuralism">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Post-structuralist" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-structuralist">Post-structuralist</a> thought has tended to <a href="/wiki/Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">reject 'humanist' assumptions</a> in the construction of social <a href="/wiki/Theory" title="Theory">theory</a>.<a href="#cite_note-106">[104]</a> <a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Michel Foucault</a> provides an important critique in his <a href="/wiki/The_Order_of_Things" title="The Order of Things">Archaeology of the Human Sciences</a>, though <a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a> (1986) and <a href="/wiki/Richard_Rorty" title="Richard Rorty">Rorty</a> (1986) have both argued that Foucault merely replaces one such system of thought with another.<a href="#cite_note-107">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-108">[106]</a> The dialogue between these intellectuals highlights a trend in recent years for certain schools of sociology and philosophy to intersect. The <a href="/wiki/Anti-humanist" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-humanist">anti-humanist</a> position has been associated with "<a href="/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">postmodernism</a>", a term used in specific contexts to describe an era or phenomena, but occasionally construed as a method.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Central_theoretical_problems">Central theoretical problems</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Central theoretical problems">edit</a>]</div> Overall, there is a strong consensus regarding the central problems of sociological theory, which are largely inherited from the classical theoretical traditions. This consensus is: how to link, transcend or cope with the following "big three" dichotomies:<a href="#cite_note-109">[107]</a> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivity_and_objectivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Subjectivity and objectivity">subjectivity and objectivity</a>, which deal with knowledge;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structure_and_agency" title="Structure and agency">structure and agency</a>, which deal with action;</li> <li>and <a href="/wiki/Synchrony_and_diachrony" class="mw-redirect" title="Synchrony and diachrony">synchrony and diachrony</a>, which deal with time.</li></ol> Lastly, sociological theory often grapples with the problem of integrating or transcending the divide between micro, meso, and macro-scale social phenomena, which is a subset of all three central problems.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Subjectivity_and_objectivity">Subjectivity and objectivity</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Subjectivity and objectivity">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(science)" title="Objectivity (science)">Objectivity (science)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity (philosophy)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Subjectivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Subjectivity">Subjectivity</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Sociology" title="Special:EditPage/Sociology">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Sociology%22">"Sociology"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Sociology%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Sociology%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Sociology%22+-wikipedia">books</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Sociology%22">scholar</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Sociology%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a> (March 2023) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> The problem of subjectivity and objectivity can be divided into two parts: a concern over the general possibilities of social actions, and the specific problem of social scientific knowledge. In the former, the subjective is often equated (though not necessarily) with the individual, and the individual's intentions and interpretations of the objective. The objective is often considered any public or external action or outcome, on up to society writ large. A primary question for social theorists, then, is how knowledge reproduces along the chain of subjective-objective-subjective, that is to say: how is <a href="/wiki/Intersubjectivity" title="Intersubjectivity">intersubjectivity</a> achieved? While, historically, qualitative methods have attempted to tease out subjective interpretations, quantitative survey methods also attempt to capture individual subjectivities. Qualitative methods take an approach to objective description known as <a href="/wiki/In_situ" title="In situ">in situ</a>, meaning that descriptions must have appropriate contextual information to understand the information.<a href="#cite_note-110">[108]</a> The latter concern with scientific knowledge results from the fact that a sociologist is part of the very object they seek to explain, as <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Bourdieu" title="Pierre Bourdieu">Bourdieu</a> explains: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"> How can the sociologist effect in practice this radical doubting which is indispensable for bracketing all the presuppositions inherent in the fact that she is a social being, that she is therefore socialised and led to feel "like a fish in water" within that social world whose structures she has internalised? How can she prevent the social world itself from carrying out the construction of the object, in a sense, through her, through these unself-conscious operations or operations unaware of themselves of which she is the apparent subject?<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Pierre Bourdieu, "The Problem of Reflexive Sociology", An Invitation to Reflexive Sociology (1992), p. 235</cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Structure_and_agency">Structure and agency</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Structure and agency">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Structure_and_agency" title="Structure and agency">Structure and agency</a></div> Structure and agency, sometimes referred to as determinism versus voluntarism,<a href="#cite_note-ArcherArcher1995-111">[109]</a> form an enduring ontological debate in social theory: "Do social structures determine an individual's behaviour or does human agency?" In this context, <a href="/wiki/Agency_(sociology)" title="Agency (sociology)">agency</a> refers to the capacity of individuals to act independently and make free choices, whereas <a href="/wiki/Social_structure" title="Social structure">structure</a> relates to factors that limit or affect the choices and actions of individuals (e.g. social class, religion, gender, ethnicity, etc.). Discussions over the primacy of either structure or agency relate to the core of sociological <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a> (i.e. "what is the social world made of?", "what is a cause in the social world, and what is an effect?").<a href="#cite_note-The_Constitution_of_Society-112">[110]</a> A perennial question within this debate is that of "<a href="/wiki/Social_reproduction" title="Social reproduction">social reproduction</a>": how are structures (specifically, structures producing inequality) reproduced through the choices of individuals? <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Synchrony_and_diachrony">Synchrony and diachrony</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Synchrony and diachrony">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-One_source plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-one_source" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section relies largely or entirely on a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Articles_with_a_single_source" title="Wikipedia:Articles with a single source">single source</a>. Relevant discussion may be found on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Sociology##" title="Talk:Sociology">talk page</a>. Please help <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sociology&action=edit">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">introducing citations to additional sources</a>. Find sources: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Sociology%22">"Sociology"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Sociology%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Sociology%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Sociology%22+-wikipedia">books</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Sociology%22">scholar</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Sociology%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a> (March 2023)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> Synchrony and diachrony (or statics and dynamics) within social theory are terms that refer to a distinction that emerged through the work of <a href="/wiki/Levi-Strauss" class="mw-redirect" title="Levi-Strauss">Levi-Strauss</a> who inherited it from the linguistics of <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_de_Saussure" title="Ferdinand de Saussure">Ferdinand de Saussure</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lizardo,_Omar_2010-104">[102]</a> Synchrony slices moments of time for analysis, thus it is an analysis of static social reality. Diachrony, on the other hand, attempts to analyse dynamic sequences. Following Saussure, synchrony would refer to social phenomena as a static concept like a language, while diachrony would refer to unfolding processes like actual speech. In Anthony Giddens' introduction to Central Problems in Social Theory, he states that, "in order to show the interdependence of action and structure…we must grasp the time space relations inherent in the constitution of all social interaction." And like structure and agency, time is integral to discussion of <a href="/wiki/Social_reproduction" title="Social reproduction">social reproduction</a>. In terms of sociology, historical sociology is often better positioned to analyse social life as diachronic, while survey research takes a snapshot of social life and is thus better equipped to understand social life as synchronized. Some argue that the synchrony of social structure is a methodological perspective rather than an ontological claim.<a href="#cite_note-Lizardo,_Omar_2010-104">[102]</a> Nonetheless, the problem for theory is how to integrate the two manners of recording and thinking about social data. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research_methodology">Research methodology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Research methodology">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Social_research" title="Social research">Social research</a></div> Sociological research methods may be divided into two broad, though often supplementary, categories:<a href="#cite_note-113">[111]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">Qualitative designs</a> emphasize understanding of social phenomena through direct observation, communication with participants, or analysis of texts, and may stress contextual and subjective accuracy over generality.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_method" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantitative method">Quantitative designs</a> approach social phenomena through quantifiable evidence, and often rely on statistical analysis of many cases (or across intentionally designed treatments in an experiment) to establish valid and reliable general claims.</li></ul> Sociologists are often divided into camps of support for particular research techniques. These disputes relate to the epistemological debates at the historical core of social theory. While very different in many aspects, both qualitative and quantitative approaches involve a systematic interaction between <a href="/wiki/Social_theory" title="Social theory">theory</a> and data.<a href="#cite_note-Methods-114">[112]</a> Quantitative methodologies hold the dominant position in sociology, especially in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-Wacquant-41">[39]</a> In the discipline's two most cited journals, quantitative articles have historically outnumbered qualitative ones by a factor of two.<a href="#cite_note-Hunter-115">[113]</a> (Most articles published in the largest British journal, on the other hand, are <a href="/wiki/Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">qualitative</a>.) Most textbooks on the methodology of social research are written from the quantitative perspective,<a href="#cite_note-Hanson-116">[114]</a> and the very term "methodology" is often used synonymously with "statistics". Practically all sociology PhD programmes in the United States require training in statistical methods. The work produced by quantitative researchers is also deemed more 'trustworthy' and 'unbiased' by the general public,<a href="#cite_note-gm-117">[115]</a> though this judgment continues to be challenged by antipositivists.<a href="#cite_note-gm-117">[115]</a> The choice of method often depends largely on what the researcher intends to investigate. For example, a researcher concerned with drawing a statistical generalization across an entire population may administer a <a href="/wiki/Survey_research" class="mw-redirect" title="Survey research">survey questionnaire</a> to a representative sample population. By contrast, a researcher who seeks full contextual understanding of an individual's <a href="/wiki/Social_actions" class="mw-redirect" title="Social actions">social actions</a> may choose ethnographic <a href="/wiki/Participant_observation" title="Participant observation">participant observation</a> or open-ended interviews. Studies will commonly combine, or <a href="/wiki/Triangulation_(social_science)" title="Triangulation (social science)">'triangulate'</a>, quantitative and qualitative methods as part of a 'multi-strategy' design. For instance, a quantitative study may be performed to obtain statistical patterns on a target sample, and then combined with a qualitative interview to determine the play of <a href="/wiki/Agency_(sociology)" title="Agency (sociology)">agency</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Methods-114">[112]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sampling">Sampling</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Sampling">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Planche_de_Galton.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Planche_de_Galton.jpg/200px-Planche_de_Galton.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Planche_de_Galton.jpg/300px-Planche_de_Galton.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Planche_de_Galton.jpg/400px-Planche_de_Galton.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1350" data-file-height="1118" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Galton_board" title="Galton board">bean machine</a>, designed by early social research methodologist Sir <a href="/wiki/Francis_Galton" title="Francis Galton">Francis Galton</a> to demonstrate the <a href="/wiki/Normal_distribution" title="Normal distribution">normal distribution</a>, which is important to much quantitative <a href="/wiki/Statistical_hypothesis_testing" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical hypothesis testing">hypothesis testing</a><a href="#cite_note-118">[a]</a></figcaption></figure> Quantitative methods are often used to ask questions about a population that is very large, making a census or a complete <a href="/wiki/Enumeration" title="Enumeration">enumeration</a> of all the members in that population infeasible. A 'sample' then forms a manageable <a href="/wiki/Subset" title="Subset">subset</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Statistical_population" title="Statistical population">population</a>. In quantitative research, statistics are used to draw <a href="/wiki/Inference" title="Inference">inferences</a> from this sample regarding the population as a whole. The process of selecting a sample is referred to as <a href="/wiki/Sampling_(statistics)" title="Sampling (statistics)">'sampling'</a>. While it is usually best to <a href="/wiki/Random_sampling" class="mw-redirect" title="Random sampling">sample randomly</a>, concern with differences between specific subpopulations sometimes calls for <a href="/wiki/Stratified_sampling" title="Stratified sampling">stratified sampling</a>. Conversely, the impossibility of random sampling sometimes necessitates <a href="/wiki/Nonprobability_sampling" title="Nonprobability sampling">nonprobability sampling</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Convenience_sampling" title="Convenience sampling">convenience sampling</a> or <a href="/wiki/Snowball_sampling" title="Snowball sampling">snowball sampling</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Methods-114">[112]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Methods">Methods</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Methods">edit</a>]</div> The following list of research methods is neither exclusive nor exhaustive: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archival_research" title="Archival research">Archival research</a> (or the <a href="/wiki/Historical_method" title="Historical method">Historical method</a>): Draws upon the <a href="/wiki/Secondary_data" title="Secondary data">secondary data</a> located in historical archives and records, such as biographies, memoirs, journals, and so on.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Content_analysis" title="Content analysis">Content analysis</a>: The content of interviews and other texts is systematically analysed. Often data is 'coded' as a part of the '<a href="/wiki/Grounded_theory" title="Grounded theory">grounded theory</a>' approach using qualitative data analysis (QDA) software, such as <a href="/wiki/Atlas.ti" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlas.ti">Atlas.ti</a>, <a href="/wiki/MAXQDA" title="MAXQDA">MAXQDA</a>, <a href="/wiki/NVivo" title="NVivo">NVivo</a>,<a href="#cite_note-119">[116]</a> or <a href="/wiki/QDA_Miner" title="QDA Miner">QDA Miner</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_research" class="mw-redirect" title="Experimental research">Experimental research</a>: The researcher isolates a single social process and reproduces it in a laboratory (for example, by creating a situation where unconscious sexist judgements are possible), seeking to determine whether or not certain social <a href="/wiki/Dependent_and_independent_variables" title="Dependent and independent variables">variables</a> can cause, or depend upon, other variables (for instance, seeing if people's feelings about traditional gender roles can be manipulated by the activation of contrasting <a href="/wiki/Gender_stereotype" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender stereotype">gender stereotypes</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Jost-120">[117]</a> Participants are <a href="/wiki/Random_assignment" title="Random assignment">randomly assigned</a> to different groups that either serve as <a href="/wiki/Scientific_control" title="Scientific control">controls</a>—acting as reference points because they are tested with regard to the dependent variable, albeit without having been exposed to any independent variables of interest—or receive one or more treatments. Randomization allows the researcher to be sure that any resulting differences between groups are the result of the treatment.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longitudinal_study" title="Longitudinal study">Longitudinal study</a>: An extensive examination of a specific person or group over a long period of time.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">Observation</a>: Using data from the senses, the researcher records information about social phenomenon or behaviour. Observation techniques may or may not feature participation. In <a href="/wiki/Participant_observation" title="Participant observation">participant observation</a>, the researcher goes into the field (e.g. a community or a place of work), and participates in the activities of the field for a prolonged period of time in order to acquire a deep understanding of it.<a href="#cite_note-:3-29">[27]</a>: 42  Data acquired through these techniques may be analysed either quantitatively or qualitatively. In the observation research, a sociologist might study <a href="/wiki/Global_warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Global warming">global warming</a> in some part of the world that is less populated.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Program_Evaluation" class="mw-redirect" title="Program Evaluation">Program Evaluation</a> is a systematic method for collecting, analyzing, and using information to answer questions about projects, policies and programs,<a href="#cite_note-121">[118]</a> particularly about their effectiveness and efficiency. In both the public and private sectors, stakeholders often want to know whether the programs they are funding, implementing, voting for, or objecting to are producing the intended effect. While program evaluation first focuses on this definition, important considerations often include how much the program costs per participant, how the program could be improved, whether the program is worthwhile, whether there are better alternatives, if there are unintended outcomes, and whether the program goals are appropriate and useful.<a href="#cite_note-122">[119]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survey_research" class="mw-redirect" title="Survey research">Survey research</a>: The researcher gathers data using interviews, questionnaires, or similar feedback from a set of people sampled from a particular population of interest. Survey items from an interview or questionnaire may be open-ended or closed-ended.<a href="#cite_note-:3-29">[27]</a>: 40  Data from surveys is usually analysed statistically on a computer.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Computational_sociology">Computational sociology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Computational sociology">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sna_large.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Sna_large.png/170px-Sna_large.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Sna_large.png/255px-Sna_large.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Sna_large.png/340px-Sna_large.png 2x" data-file-width="682" data-file-height="801" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Social_network" title="Social network">social network</a> diagram: individuals (or 'nodes') connected by relationships</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Computational_sociology" title="Computational sociology">Computational sociology</a></div> Sociologists increasingly draw upon computationally intensive methods to analyse and model social phenomena.<a href="#cite_note-Blackwell-123">[120]</a> Using <a href="/wiki/Computer_simulation" title="Computer simulation">computer simulations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">artificial intelligence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Text_mining" title="Text mining">text mining</a>, complex statistical methods, and new analytic approaches like <a href="/wiki/Social_network" title="Social network">social network</a> analysis and <a href="/wiki/Social_sequence_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Social sequence analysis">social sequence analysis</a>, computational sociology develops and tests theories of complex social processes through bottom-up modelling of social interactions.<a href="#cite_note-MW-7">[7]</a> Although the subject matter and methodologies in social science differ from those in natural science or <a href="/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">computer science</a>, several of the approaches used in contemporary social simulation originated from fields such as <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a> and artificial intelligence.<a href="#cite_note-Artificial_Societies-124">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cooperation-125">[122]</a> By the same token, some of the approaches that originated in computational sociology have been imported into the natural sciences, such as measures of <a href="/wiki/Centrality" title="Centrality">network centrality</a> from the fields of social network analysis and <a href="/wiki/Network_science" title="Network science">network science</a>. In relevant literature, computational sociology is often related to the study of <a href="/wiki/Social_complexity" title="Social complexity">social complexity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-The_Computer_as_Laboratory:_Toward_a_Theory_of_Complex_Adaptive_Systems-126">[123]</a> Social complexity concepts such as <a href="/wiki/Complex_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Complex systems">complex systems</a>, <a href="/wiki/Non-linear" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-linear">non-linear</a> interconnection among macro and micro process, and <a href="/wiki/Emergence" title="Emergence">emergence</a>, have entered the vocabulary of computational sociology.<a href="#cite_note-Methodological_Implications_of_Complex_Systems_Approaches_to_Sociality:_Simulation_as_a_Foundation_for_Knowledge-127">[124]</a> A practical and well-known example is the construction of a computational model in the form of an "<a href="/wiki/Artificial_society" title="Artificial society">artificial society</a>", by which researchers can analyse the structure of a social system.<a href="#cite_note-SfSS1-128">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-Generative-129">[126]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Subfields">Subfields</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Subfields">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For a topical guide, see <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_sociology" title="Outline of sociology">Outline of sociology</a>.</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Culture">Culture</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Culture">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AdornoHorkheimerHabermasbyJeremyJShapiro2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/AdornoHorkheimerHabermasbyJeremyJShapiro2.png/220px-AdornoHorkheimerHabermasbyJeremyJShapiro2.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/AdornoHorkheimerHabermasbyJeremyJShapiro2.png/330px-AdornoHorkheimerHabermasbyJeremyJShapiro2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/AdornoHorkheimerHabermasbyJeremyJShapiro2.png/440px-AdornoHorkheimerHabermasbyJeremyJShapiro2.png 2x" data-file-width="1067" data-file-height="696" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Max_Horkheimer" title="Max Horkheimer">Max Horkheimer</a> (left, front), <a href="/wiki/Theodor_Adorno" class="mw-redirect" title="Theodor Adorno">Theodor Adorno</a> (right, front), and <a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Jürgen Habermas</a> (right, back), 1965</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_culture" title="Sociology of culture">Sociology of culture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cultural_criminology" title="Cultural criminology">Cultural criminology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cultural_studies" title="Cultural studies">Cultural studies</a></div> Sociologists' approach to culture can be divided into "sociology of culture" and "cultural sociology"—terms which are similar, though not entirely interchangeable. Sociology of culture is an older term, and considers some topics and objects as more or less "cultural" than others. Conversely, cultural sociology sees all social phenomena as inherently cultural.<a href="#cite_note-umn-130">[127]</a> Sociology of culture often attempts to explain certain cultural phenomena as a product of social processes, while cultural sociology sees culture as a potential explanation of social phenomena.<a href="#cite_note-131">[128]</a> For <a href="/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel">Simmel</a>, culture referred to "the cultivation of individuals through the agency of external forms which have been objectified in the course of history."<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1971-73">[71]</a> While early theorists such as <a href="/wiki/Durkheim" class="mw-redirect" title="Durkheim">Durkheim</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marcel_Mauss" title="Marcel Mauss">Mauss</a> were influential in <a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">cultural anthropology</a>, sociologists of culture are generally distinguished by their concern for <a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">modern</a> (rather than <a href="/wiki/Primitive_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Primitive culture">primitive</a> or ancient) society. Cultural sociology often involves the <a href="/wiki/Hermeneutic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hermeneutic">hermeneutic</a> analysis of words, artefacts and symbols, or ethnographic interviews. However, some sociologists employ historical-comparative or quantitative techniques in the analysis of culture, Weber and Bourdieu for instance. The subfield is sometimes allied with <a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">critical theory</a> in the vein of <a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Theodor W. Adorno</a>, <a href="/wiki/Walter_Benjamin" title="Walter Benjamin">Walter Benjamin</a>, and other members of the <a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a>. Loosely distinct from the sociology of culture is the field of <a href="/wiki/Cultural_studies" title="Cultural studies">cultural studies</a>. <a href="/wiki/Centre_for_Contemporary_Cultural_Studies" title="Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies">Birmingham School</a> theorists such as <a href="/wiki/Richard_Hoggart" title="Richard Hoggart">Richard Hoggart</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stuart_Hall_(cultural_theorist)" title="Stuart Hall (cultural theorist)">Stuart Hall</a> questioned the division between "producers" and "consumers" evident in earlier theory, emphasizing the reciprocity in the production of texts. Cultural Studies aims to examine its subject matter in terms of cultural practices and their relation to power. For example, a study of a <a href="/wiki/Subculture" title="Subculture">subculture</a> (e.g. white working class youth in London) would consider the social practices of the group as they relate to the dominant class. The "<a href="/wiki/Cultural_turn" title="Cultural turn">cultural turn</a>" of the 1960s ultimately placed culture much higher on the sociological agenda.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Art,_music_and_literature">Art, music and literature</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Art, music and literature">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_literature" title="Sociology of literature">Sociology of literature</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_art" title="Sociology of art">Sociology of art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_film" title="Sociology of film">Sociology of film</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_music" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociology of music">Sociology of music</a></div> Sociology of literature, film, and art is a subset of the sociology of culture. This field studies the social production of artistic objects and its social implications. A notable example is Pierre Bourdieu's Les Règles de L'Art: Genèse et Structure du Champ Littéraire (1992).<a href="#cite_note-132">[129]</a> None of the founding fathers of sociology produced a detailed study of art, but they did develop ideas that were subsequently applied to literature by others. Marx's theory of ideology was directed at literature by <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Macherey" title="Pierre Macherey">Pierre Macherey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Terry_Eagleton" title="Terry Eagleton">Terry Eagleton</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fredric_Jameson" title="Fredric Jameson">Fredric Jameson</a>. Weber's theory of modernity as cultural rationalization, which he applied to music, was later applied to all the arts, literature included, by <a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a> writers such as <a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Theodor Adorno</a> and <a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Jürgen Habermas</a>. Durkheim's view of sociology as the study of externally defined social facts was redirected towards literature by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Escarpit" title="Robert Escarpit">Robert Escarpit</a>. Bourdieu's own work is clearly indebted to Marx, Weber and Durkheim.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Criminality,_deviance,_law_and_punishment">Criminality, deviance, law and punishment</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Criminality, deviance, law and punishment">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">Criminology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_law" title="Sociology of law">Sociology of law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_punishment" title="Sociology of punishment">Sociology of punishment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Deviance_(sociology)" title="Deviance (sociology)">Deviance</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_disorganization_theory&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Social disorganization theory (page does not exist)">Social disorganization theory</a></div> Criminologists analyse the nature, causes, and control of criminal activity, drawing upon methods across sociology, <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Behavioural_sciences" title="Behavioural sciences">behavioural sciences</a>. The sociology of deviance focuses on actions or behaviours that violate <a href="/wiki/Norm_(sociology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Norm (sociology)">norms</a>, including both infringements of formally enacted rules (e.g., crime) and informal violations of cultural norms. It is the remit of sociologists to study why these norms exist; how they change over time; and how they are enforced. The concept of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_disorganization&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Social disorganization (page does not exist)">social disorganization</a> is when the broader social systems leads to violations of norms. For instance, <a href="/wiki/Robert_K._Merton" title="Robert K. Merton">Robert K. Merton</a> produced a <a href="/wiki/Robert_K._Merton#Merton's_theory_of_deviance" title="Robert K. Merton">typology of deviance</a>, which includes both individual and system level causal explanations of deviance.<a href="#cite_note-Robert_K._Merton_Remembered-133">[130]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sociology_of_law">Sociology of law</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Sociology of law">edit</a>]</div> The study of law played a significant role in the formation of classical sociology. Durkheim famously described law as the "visible symbol" of social solidarity.<a href="#cite_note-134">[131]</a> The sociology of law refers to both a sub-discipline of sociology and an approach within the field of legal studies. Sociology of law is a diverse field of study that examines the interaction of law with other aspects of society, such as the development of legal institutions and the effect of laws on social change and vice versa. For example, an influential recent work in the field relies on statistical analyses to argue that the increase in incarceration in the US over the last 30 years is due to changes in law and policing and not to an increase in crime; and that this increase has significantly contributed to the persistence of racial <a href="/wiki/Social_stratification" title="Social stratification">stratification</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Western-135">[132]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Communications_and_information_technologies">Communications and information technologies</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Communications and information technologies">edit</a>]</div> The sociology of communications and information technologies includes "the social aspects of computing, the Internet, new media, computer networks, and other communication and information technologies."<a href="#cite_note-asanet-136">[133]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Internet_and_digital_media">Internet and digital media</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Internet and digital media">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_Internet" title="Sociology of the Internet">Sociology of the Internet</a></div> The Internet is of interest to sociologists in various ways, most practically as a tool for <a href="/wiki/Social_research" title="Social research">research</a> and as a discussion platform.<a href="#cite_note-137">[134]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_Internet" title="Sociology of the Internet">sociology of the Internet</a> in the broad sense concerns the analysis of <a href="/wiki/Online_communities" class="mw-redirect" title="Online communities">online communities</a> (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Newsgroup" class="mw-redirect" title="Newsgroup">newsgroups</a>, social networking sites) and <a href="/wiki/Virtual_world" title="Virtual world">virtual worlds</a>, meaning that there is often overlap with community sociology. Online communities may be studied statistically through <a href="/wiki/Social_network" title="Social network">network analysis</a> or interpreted qualitatively through <a href="/wiki/Virtual_ethnography" class="mw-redirect" title="Virtual ethnography">virtual ethnography</a>. Moreover, organizational change is catalysed through <a href="/wiki/New_media" title="New media">new media</a>, thereby influencing social change at-large, perhaps forming the framework for a transformation from an <a href="/wiki/Industrial_society" title="Industrial society">industrial</a> to an <a href="/wiki/Informational_society" class="mw-redirect" title="Informational society">informational society</a>. One notable text is <a href="/wiki/Manuel_Castells" title="Manuel Castells">Manuel Castells</a>' <a href="/wiki/The_Internet_Galaxy" title="The Internet Galaxy">The Internet Galaxy</a>—the title of which forms an inter-textual reference to <a href="/wiki/Marshall_McLuhan" title="Marshall McLuhan">Marshall McLuhan</a>'s <a href="/wiki/The_Gutenberg_Galaxy" title="The Gutenberg Galaxy">The Gutenberg Galaxy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-138">[135]</a> Closely related to the sociology of the Internet is <a href="/wiki/Digital_sociology" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital sociology">digital sociology</a>, which expands the scope of study to address not only the internet but also the impact of the other digital media and devices that have emerged since the first decade of the twenty-first century.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Media">Media</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Media">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Media_studies" title="Media studies">Media studies</a></div> As with <a href="/wiki/Cultural_studies" title="Cultural studies">cultural studies</a>, media study is a distinct discipline that owes to the convergence of sociology and other social sciences and humanities, in particular, <a href="/wiki/Literary_criticism" title="Literary criticism">literary criticism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">critical theory</a>. Though neither the production process nor the critique of aesthetic forms is in the remit of sociologists, analyses of <a href="/wiki/Socialization" title="Socialization">socializing</a> factors, such as <a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">ideological effects</a> and <a href="/wiki/Audience_reception" title="Audience reception">audience reception</a>, stem from sociological theory and method. Thus the 'sociology of the media' is not a subdiscipline per se, but the media is a common and often indispensable topic.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economic_sociology">Economic sociology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Economic sociology">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Economic_sociology" title="Economic sociology">Economic sociology</a></div> The term "economic sociology" was first used by <a href="/wiki/William_Stanley_Jevons" title="William Stanley Jevons">William Stanley Jevons</a> in 1879, later to be coined in the works of Durkheim, Weber, and Simmel between 1890 and 1920.<a href="#cite_note-princeton1-139">[136]</a> Economic sociology arose as a new approach to the analysis of economic phenomena, emphasizing class relations and <a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">modernity</a> as a philosophical concept. The relationship between <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalism</a> and modernity is a salient issue, perhaps best demonstrated in Weber's <a href="/wiki/The_Protestant_Ethic_and_the_Spirit_of_Capitalism" title="The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism">The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism</a> (1905) and Simmel's <a href="/wiki/The_Philosophy_of_Money" title="The Philosophy of Money">The Philosophy of Money</a> (1900). The contemporary period of economic sociology, also known as new economic sociology, was consolidated by the 1985 work of <a href="/wiki/Mark_Granovetter" title="Mark Granovetter">Mark Granovetter</a> titled "Economic Action and Social Structure: The Problem of Embeddedness". This work elaborated the concept of <a href="/wiki/Embeddedness" title="Embeddedness">embeddedness</a>, which states that economic relations between individuals or firms take place within existing social relations (and are thus structured by these relations as well as the greater social structures of which those relations are a part). <a href="/wiki/Social_network" title="Social network">Social network</a> analysis has been the primary methodology for studying this phenomenon. Granovetter's theory of the <a href="/wiki/Mark_Granovetter#The_strength_of_weak_ties" title="Mark Granovetter">strength of weak ties</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Burt" class="mw-redirect" title="Ronald Burt">Ronald Burt</a>'s concept of structural holes are two of the best known theoretical contributions of this field.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Work,_employment,_and_industry">Work, employment, and industry</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Work, employment, and industry">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_work" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociology of work">sociology of work</a> and <a href="/wiki/Industrial_relations" title="Industrial relations">Industrial relations</a></div> The sociology of work, or industrial sociology, examines "the direction and implications of trends in <a href="/wiki/Technological" class="mw-redirect" title="Technological">technological</a> change, <a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">globalization</a>, labour markets, work organization, <a href="/wiki/Managerial" class="mw-redirect" title="Managerial">managerial</a> practices and <a href="/wiki/Division_of_labour" title="Division of labour">employment relations</a> to the extent to which these trends are intimately related to changing patterns of inequality in modern societies and to the changing experiences of individuals and families the ways in which workers challenge, resist and make their own contributions to the patterning of work and shaping of work institutions."<a href="#cite_note-140">[137]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Education">Education</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Education">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_education" title="Sociology of education">Sociology of education</a></div> The sociology of education is the study of how educational institutions determine social structures, experiences, and other outcomes. It is particularly concerned with the schooling systems of modern industrial societies.<a href="#cite_note-Dictionary-141">[138]</a> A classic 1966 study in this field by <a href="/wiki/James_Samuel_Coleman" title="James Samuel Coleman">James Coleman</a>, known as the "Coleman Report", analysed the performance of over 150,000 students and found that student background and socioeconomic status are much more important in determining educational outcomes than are measured differences in school resources (i.e. per pupil spending).<a href="#cite_note-Hanushek-142">[139]</a> The controversy over "school effects" ignited by that study has continued to this day. The study also found that socially disadvantaged black students profited from schooling in racially mixed classrooms, and thus served as a catalyst for <a href="/wiki/Desegregation_busing" title="Desegregation busing">desegregation busing</a> in American public schools.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Environment">Environment</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Environment">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Environmental_sociology" title="Environmental sociology">Environmental sociology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_disaster" title="Sociology of disaster">Sociology of disaster</a></div> Environmental sociology is the study of human interactions with the natural environment, typically emphasizing human dimensions of environmental problems, social impacts of those problems, and efforts to resolve them. As with other sub-fields of sociology, scholarship in environmental sociology may be at one or multiple levels of analysis, from global (e.g. world-systems) to local, societal to individual. Attention is paid also to the processes by which environmental problems become defined and known to humans. As argued by notable environmental sociologist <a href="/wiki/John_Bellamy_Foster" title="John Bellamy Foster">John Bellamy Foster</a>, the predecessor to modern environmental sociology is Marx's analysis of the <a href="/wiki/Metabolic_rift" title="Metabolic rift">metabolic rift</a>, which influenced contemporary thought on <a href="/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">sustainability</a>. Environmental sociology is often interdisciplinary and overlaps with the sociology of risk, <a href="/wiki/Rural_sociology" title="Rural sociology">rural sociology</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_disaster" title="Sociology of disaster">sociology of disaster</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Human_ecology">Human ecology</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Human ecology">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Human_ecology" title="Human ecology">Human ecology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Architectural_sociology" class="mw-redirect" title="Architectural sociology">Architectural sociology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Visual_sociology" title="Visual sociology">Visual sociology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_space" title="Sociology of space">Sociology of space</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Urban_sociology" title="Urban sociology">Urban sociology</a></div> Human ecology deals with interdisciplinary study of the relationship between humans and their natural, social, and built environments. In addition to Environmental sociology, this field overlaps with <a href="/wiki/Architectural_sociology" class="mw-redirect" title="Architectural sociology">architectural sociology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Urban_sociology" title="Urban sociology">urban sociology</a>, and to some extent <a href="/wiki/Visual_sociology" title="Visual sociology">visual sociology</a>. In turn, visual sociology—which is concerned with all visual dimensions of social life—overlaps with media studies in that it uses photography, film and other technologies of media.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Social_pre-wiring">Social pre-wiring</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Social pre-wiring">edit</a>]</div> Social pre-wiring deals with the study of fetal social behavior and social interactions in a multi-fetal environment. Specifically, social pre-wiring refers to the <a href="/wiki/Ontogeny" title="Ontogeny">ontogeny</a> of <a href="/wiki/Social_relation" title="Social relation">social interaction</a>. Also informally referred to as, "wired to be social". The theory questions whether there is a propensity to <a href="/wiki/Social_actions" class="mw-redirect" title="Social actions">socially oriented action</a> already present before birth. Research in the theory concludes that newborns are born into the world with a unique <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetic</a> wiring to be social.<a href="#cite_note-:2-143">[140]</a> Circumstantial evidence supporting the social pre-wiring hypothesis can be revealed when examining newborns' behavior. Newborns, not even hours after birth, have been found to display a preparedness for <a href="/wiki/Social_relation" title="Social relation">social interaction</a>. This preparedness is expressed in ways such as their imitation of facial gestures. This observed behavior cannot be attributed to any current form of <a href="/wiki/Socialization" title="Socialization">socialization</a> or <a href="/wiki/Social_construction" class="mw-redirect" title="Social construction">social construction</a>. Rather, newborns most likely <a href="/wiki/Heredity" title="Heredity">inherit</a> to some extent <a href="/wiki/Social_behavior" title="Social behavior">social behavior</a> and <a href="/wiki/Identity_(social_science)" title="Identity (social science)">identity</a> through <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:2-143">[140]</a> Principal evidence of this theory is uncovered by examining Twin pregnancies. The main argument is, if there are <a href="/wiki/Social_behavior" title="Social behavior">social behaviors</a> that are <a href="/wiki/Heredity" title="Heredity">inherited</a> and developed before birth, then one should expect twin foetuses to engage in some form of <a href="/wiki/Social_relation" title="Social relation">social interaction</a> before they are born. Thus, ten foetuses were analyzed over a period of time using ultrasound techniques. Using kinematic analysis, the results of the experiment were that the twin foetuses would interact with each other for longer periods and more often as the pregnancies went on. Researchers were able to conclude that the performance of movements between the co-twins were not accidental but specifically aimed.<a href="#cite_note-:2-143">[140]</a> The social pre-wiring hypothesis was proved correct:<a href="#cite_note-:2-143">[140]</a> <blockquote>The central advance of this study is the demonstration that '<a href="/wiki/Social_actions" class="mw-redirect" title="Social actions">social actions</a>' are already performed in the second trimester of <a href="/wiki/Gestational_age_(obstetrics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gestational age (obstetrics)">gestation</a>. Starting from the 14th week of <a href="/wiki/Gestational_age_(obstetrics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gestational age (obstetrics)">gestation</a> twin foetuses plan and execute movements specifically aimed at the co-twin. These findings force us to predate the emergence of <a href="/wiki/Social_behavior" title="Social behavior">social behavior</a>: when the context enables it, as in the case of twin foetuses, other-directed actions are not only possible but predominant over self-directed actions.</blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Family,_gender,_and_sexuality">Family, gender, and sexuality</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Family, gender, and sexuality">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_family" title="Sociology of the family">Sociology of the family</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_childhood" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociology of childhood">Sociology of childhood</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_gender" title="Sociology of gender">Sociology of gender</a>, <a href="/wiki/Feminist_sociology" title="Feminist sociology">Feminist sociology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Feminist_theory" title="Feminist theory">Feminist theory</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Queer_theory" title="Queer theory">Queer theory</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:WomanFactory1940s.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/WomanFactory1940s.jpg/200px-WomanFactory1940s.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/WomanFactory1940s.jpg/300px-WomanFactory1940s.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/WomanFactory1940s.jpg/400px-WomanFactory1940s.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7296" data-file-height="5656" /></a><figcaption>"<a href="/wiki/Rosie_the_Riveter" title="Rosie the Riveter">Rosie the Riveter</a>" was an iconic symbol of the American <a href="/wiki/United_States_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="United States home front during World War II">homefront</a> and a departure from <a href="/wiki/Gender_roles" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender roles">gender roles</a> due to wartime necessity.</figcaption></figure> Family, gender and sexuality form a broad area of inquiry studied in many sub-fields of sociology. A family is a group of people who are related by kinship ties :- Relations of blood / marriage / civil partnership or adoption. The family unit is one of the most important social institutions found in some form in nearly all known societies. It is the basic unit of social organization and plays a key role in socializing children into the culture of their society. The sociology of the family examines the family, as an institution and unit of <a href="/wiki/Socialization" title="Socialization">socialization</a>, with special concern for the comparatively modern historical emergence of the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_family" title="Nuclear family">nuclear family</a> and its distinct <a href="/wiki/Gender_roles" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender roles">gender roles</a>. The notion of "<a href="/wiki/Childhood" class="mw-redirect" title="Childhood">childhood</a>" is also significant. As one of the more basic institutions to which one may apply sociological perspectives, the sociology of the family is a common component on introductory academic curricula. <a href="/wiki/Feminist_sociology" title="Feminist sociology">Feminist sociology</a>, on the other hand, is a normative sub-field that observes and critiques the cultural categories of gender and sexuality, particularly with respect to power and inequality. The primary concern of <a href="/wiki/Feminist_theory" title="Feminist theory">feminist theory</a> is the <a href="/wiki/Patriarchy" title="Patriarchy">patriarchy</a> and the systematic oppression of women apparent in many societies, both at the level of small-scale interaction and in terms of the broader social structure. <a href="/wiki/Feminist_sociology" title="Feminist sociology">Feminist sociology</a> also analyses how gender interlocks with race and class to produce and perpetuate social inequalities.<a href="#cite_note-144">[141]</a> "How to account for the differences in definitions of femininity and masculinity and in sex role across different societies and historical periods" is also a concern.<a href="#cite_note-145">[142]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Health,_illness,_and_the_body">Health, illness, and the body</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Health, illness, and the body">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_health_and_illness" title="Sociology of health and illness">Sociology of health and illness</a> and <a href="/wiki/Medical_sociology" title="Medical sociology">Medical sociology</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_health_and_illness" title="Sociology of health and illness">sociology of health and illness</a> focuses on the social effects of, and public attitudes toward, illnesses, diseases, <a href="/wiki/Mental_health" title="Mental health">mental health</a> and <a href="/wiki/Disabilities" class="mw-redirect" title="Disabilities">disabilities</a>. This sub-field also overlaps with <a href="/wiki/Gerontology" title="Gerontology">gerontology</a> and the study of the <a href="/wiki/Ageing" title="Ageing">ageing</a> process. <a href="/wiki/Medical_sociology" title="Medical sociology">Medical sociology</a>, by contrast, focuses on the inner-workings of the medical profession, its organizations, its institutions and how these can shape knowledge and interactions. In Britain, sociology was introduced into the medical curriculum following the Goodenough Report (1944).<a href="#cite_note-British_Sociological_Association:_Medical_Sociology-146">[143]</a><a href="#cite_note-147">[144]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_body" title="Sociology of the body">sociology of the body</a> and embodiment<a href="#cite_note-asanet2-148">[145]</a> takes a broad perspective on the idea of "the body" and includes "a wide range of embodied dynamics including human and non-human bodies, morphology, human reproduction, anatomy, body fluids, biotechnology, genetics". This often intersects with health and illness, but also theories of bodies as political, social, cultural, economic and ideological productions.<a href="#cite_note-149">[146]</a> The <a href="/wiki/International_Sociological_Association" title="International Sociological Association">ISA</a> maintains a Research Committee devoted to "the Body in the Social Sciences".<a href="#cite_note-150">[147]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Death,_dying,_bereavement">Death, dying, bereavement</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Death, dying, bereavement">edit</a>]</div> A subfield of the sociology of health and illness that overlaps with cultural sociology is the study of death, dying and bereavement,<a href="#cite_note-151">[148]</a> sometimes referred to broadly as the <a href="/wiki/Thanatology" title="Thanatology">sociology of death</a>. This topic is exemplified by the work of <a href="/wiki/Douglas_Davies" title="Douglas Davies">Douglas Davies</a> and Michael C. Kearl.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Knowledge_and_science">Knowledge and science</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Knowledge and science">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_knowledge" title="Sociology of knowledge">Sociology of knowledge</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">Sociology of scientific knowledge</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_history_of_science" title="Sociology of the history of science">Sociology of the history of science</a></div> The sociology of knowledge is the study of the relationship between human thought and the social context within which it arises, and of the effects prevailing ideas have on societies. The term first came into widespread use in the 1920s, when a number of German-speaking theorists, most notably <a href="/wiki/Max_Scheler" title="Max Scheler">Max Scheler</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Karl_Mannheim" title="Karl Mannheim">Karl Mannheim</a>, wrote extensively on it. With the dominance of <a href="/wiki/Structural_functionalism" title="Structural functionalism">functionalism</a> through the middle years of the 20th century, the sociology of knowledge tended to remain on the periphery of mainstream sociological thought. It was largely reinvented and applied much more closely to everyday life in the 1960s, particularly by <a href="/wiki/Peter_L._Berger" title="Peter L. Berger">Peter L. Berger</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Luckmann" title="Thomas Luckmann">Thomas Luckmann</a> in <a href="/wiki/The_Social_Construction_of_Reality" title="The Social Construction of Reality">The Social Construction of Reality</a> (1966) and is still central for methods dealing with qualitative understanding of human society (compare <a href="/wiki/Socially_constructed_reality" class="mw-redirect" title="Socially constructed reality">socially constructed reality</a>). The "archaeological" and "genealogical" studies of <a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Michel Foucault</a> are of considerable contemporary influence. The sociology of science involves the study of science as a social activity, especially dealing "with the social conditions and effects of science, and with the social structures and processes of scientific activity."<a href="#cite_note-socofsci-bendavid-152">[149]</a> Important theorists in the sociology of science include <a href="/wiki/Robert_K._Merton" title="Robert K. Merton">Robert K. Merton</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bruno_Latour" title="Bruno Latour">Bruno Latour</a>. These branches of sociology have contributed to the formation of <a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies" title="Science and technology studies">science and technology studies</a>. Both the <a href="/wiki/American_Sociological_Association" title="American Sociological Association">ASA</a> and the <a href="/wiki/British_Sociological_Association" title="British Sociological Association">BSA</a> have sections devoted to the subfield of Science, Knowledge and Technology.<a href="#cite_note-asanet3-153">[150]</a><a href="#cite_note-154">[151]</a> The <a href="/wiki/International_Sociological_Association" title="International Sociological Association">ISA</a> maintains a Research Committee on Science and Technology.<a href="#cite_note-155">[152]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Leisure">Leisure</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Leisure">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_leisure" title="Sociology of leisure">Sociology of leisure</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_sport" title="Sociology of sport">Sociology of sport</a></div> Sociology of leisure is the study of how humans organize their free time. Leisure includes a broad array of activities, such as <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_sport" title="Sociology of sport">sport</a>, tourism, and the playing of games. The sociology of leisure is closely tied to the sociology of work, as each explores a different side of the work–leisure relationship. More recent studies in the field move away from the work–leisure relationship and focus on the relation between leisure and culture. This area of sociology began with <a href="/wiki/Thorstein_Veblen" title="Thorstein Veblen">Thorstein Veblen</a>'s Theory of the Leisure Class.<a href="#cite_note-156">[153]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Peace,_war,_and_conflict">Peace, war, and conflict</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Peace, war, and conflict">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Peace_and_conflict_studies" title="Peace and conflict studies">Peace and conflict studies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Military_sociology" title="Military sociology">Military sociology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_terrorism" title="Sociology of terrorism">Sociology of terrorism</a></div> This subfield of sociology studies, broadly, the dynamics of war, conflict resolution, peace movements, war refugees, conflict resolution and military institutions.<a href="#cite_note-asanet4-157">[154]</a> As a subset of this subfield, <a href="/wiki/Military_sociology" title="Military sociology">military sociology</a> aims towards the systematic study of the military as a social group rather than as an <a href="/wiki/Military_organization" title="Military organization">organization</a>. It is a highly specialized sub-field which examines issues related to service personnel as a distinct <a href="/wiki/Social_group" title="Social group">group</a> with coerced <a href="/wiki/Collective_action" title="Collective action">collective action</a> based on shared <a href="/wiki/Advocacy_group" title="Advocacy group">interests</a> linked to survival in <a href="/wiki/Vocation" title="Vocation">vocation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Combat" title="Combat">combat</a>, with purposes and <a href="/wiki/Value_(personal_and_cultural)" class="mw-redirect" title="Value (personal and cultural)">values</a> that are more defined and narrower than within civil society. Military sociology also concerns civilian-military relations and interactions between other groups or governmental agencies. Topics include the dominant assumptions held by those in the military, changes in military members' willingness to fight, military unionization, military professionalism, the increased utilization of women, the military industrial-academic complex, the military's dependence on research, and the institutional and organizational structure of military.<a href="#cite_note-Core_Issues_and_Theory_in_Military_Sociology-158">[155]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political_sociology">Political sociology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Political sociology">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Political_sociology" title="Political sociology">Political sociology</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:JuergenHabermas.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/JuergenHabermas.jpg/220px-JuergenHabermas.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/JuergenHabermas.jpg/330px-JuergenHabermas.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/JuergenHabermas.jpg/440px-JuergenHabermas.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2939" data-file-height="1959" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Jürgen Habermas</a></figcaption></figure> Historically, political sociology concerned the relations between political organization and society. A typical research question in this area might be: "Why do so few American citizens choose to vote?"<a href="#cite_note-159">[156]</a> In this respect questions of political opinion formation brought about some of the pioneering uses of statistical <a href="/wiki/Survey_research" class="mw-redirect" title="Survey research">survey research</a> by <a href="/wiki/Paul_Lazarsfeld" title="Paul Lazarsfeld">Paul Lazarsfeld</a>. A major subfield of political sociology developed in relation to such questions, which draws on comparative history to analyse socio-political trends. The field developed from the work of Max Weber and <a href="/wiki/Moisey_Ostrogorsky" title="Moisey Ostrogorsky">Moisey Ostrogorsky</a>.<a href="#cite_note-160">[157]</a> Contemporary political sociology includes these areas of research, but it has been opened up to wider questions of power and politics.<a href="#cite_note-161">[158]</a> Today political sociologists are as likely to be concerned with how identities are formed that contribute to structural domination by one group over another; the politics of who knows how and with what authority; and questions of how power is contested in social interactions in such a way as to bring about widespread cultural and social change. Such questions are more likely to be studied qualitatively. The study of <a href="/wiki/Social_movements" class="mw-redirect" title="Social movements">social movements</a> and their effects has been especially important in relation to these wider definitions of politics and power.<a href="#cite_note-162">[159]</a> Political sociology has also moved beyond <a href="/wiki/Methodological_nationalism" title="Methodological nationalism">methodological nationalism</a> and analysed the role of non-governmental organizations, the diffusion of the nation-state throughout the Earth as a <a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">social construct</a>, and the role of <a href="/wiki/Statelessness" title="Statelessness">stateless entities</a> in the modern <a href="/wiki/World_society" class="mw-redirect" title="World society">world society</a>. Contemporary political sociologists also study inter-state interactions and human rights.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Population_and_demography">Population and demography</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Population and demography">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">Demography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Human_ecology" title="Human ecology">Human ecology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mobilities" title="Mobilities">Mobilities</a></div> Demographers or sociologists of population study the size, composition and change over time of a given population. Demographers study how these characteristics impact, or are impacted by, various social, economic or political systems. The study of population is also closely related to human ecology and environmental sociology, which studies a population's relationship with the surrounding environment and often overlaps with urban or rural sociology. Researchers in this field may study the movement of populations: transportation, migrations, diaspora, etc., which falls into the subfield known as <a href="/wiki/Mobilities" title="Mobilities">mobilities</a> studies and is closely related to <a href="/wiki/Human_geography" title="Human geography">human geography</a>. Demographers may also study spread of disease within a given population or <a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">epidemiology</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Public_sociology">Public sociology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Public sociology">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Public_sociology" title="Public sociology">Public sociology</a></div> Public sociology refers to an approach to the discipline which seeks to transcend the academy in order to engage with wider audiences. It is perhaps best understood as a style of sociology rather than a particular method, theory, or set of political values. This approach is primarily associated with <a href="/wiki/Michael_Burawoy" title="Michael Burawoy">Michael Burawoy</a> who contrasted it with professional sociology, a form of academic sociology that is concerned primarily with addressing other professional sociologists. Public sociology is also part of the broader field of science communication or <a href="/wiki/Science_journalism" title="Science journalism">science journalism</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Race_and_ethnic_relations">Race and ethnic relations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Race and ethnic relations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_race_and_ethnic_relations" title="Sociology of race and ethnic relations">Sociology of race and ethnic relations</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_immigration" title="Sociology of immigration">Sociology of immigration</a></div> The sociology of race and of ethnic relations is the area of the discipline that studies the <a href="/wiki/Social_relation" title="Social relation">social</a>, political, and economic relations between <a href="/wiki/Race_(classification_of_human_beings)" class="mw-redirect" title="Race (classification of human beings)">races</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ethnicities" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnicities">ethnicities</a> at all levels of society. This area encompasses the study of racism, <a href="/wiki/Residential_segregation" title="Residential segregation">residential segregation</a>, and other complex social processes between different racial and ethnic groups. This research frequently interacts with other areas of sociology such as <a href="/wiki/Social_stratification" title="Social stratification">stratification</a> and <a href="/wiki/Social_psychology_(sociology)" title="Social psychology (sociology)">social psychology</a>, as well as with <a href="/wiki/Postcolonial_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Postcolonial theory">postcolonial theory</a>. At the level of political policy, ethnic relations are discussed in terms of either <a href="/wiki/Assimilationism" class="mw-redirect" title="Assimilationism">assimilationism</a> or <a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">multiculturalism</a>. <a href="/wiki/Anti-racism" title="Anti-racism">Anti-racism</a> forms another style of policy, particularly popular in the 1960s and 1970s.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religion">Religion</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Religion">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_religion" title="Sociology of religion">Sociology of religion</a></div> The sociology of religion concerns the practices, historical backgrounds, developments, universal themes and roles of religion in society.<a href="#cite_note-163">[160]</a> There is particular emphasis on the recurring role of religion in all societies and throughout recorded history. The sociology of religion is distinguished from the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">philosophy of religion</a> in that sociologists do not set out to assess the validity of religious truth-claims, instead assuming what <a href="/wiki/Peter_L._Berger" title="Peter L. Berger">Peter L. Berger</a> has described as a position of "methodological atheism".<a href="#cite_note-164">[161]</a> It may be said that the modern formal discipline of sociology began with the analysis of religion in Durkheim's 1897 <a href="/wiki/Suicide_(Durkheim_book)" title="Suicide (Durkheim book)">study of suicide</a> rates among <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic">Roman Catholic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Protestant" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant">Protestant</a> populations. Max Weber published four major texts on religion in a context of <a href="/wiki/Economic_sociology" title="Economic sociology">economic sociology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Social_stratification" title="Social stratification">social stratification</a>: <a href="/wiki/The_Protestant_Ethic_and_the_Spirit_of_Capitalism" title="The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism">The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism</a> (1905), <a href="/wiki/The_Religion_of_China:_Confucianism_and_Taoism" class="mw-redirect" title="The Religion of China: Confucianism and Taoism">The Religion of China: Confucianism and Taoism</a> (1915), <a href="/wiki/The_Religion_of_India:_The_Sociology_of_Hinduism_and_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="The Religion of India: The Sociology of Hinduism and Buddhism">The Religion of India: The Sociology of Hinduism and Buddhism</a> (1915), and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Judaism_(book)" title="Ancient Judaism (book)">Ancient Judaism</a> (1920). Contemporary debates often centre on topics such as <a href="/wiki/Secularization" title="Secularization">secularization</a>, <a href="/wiki/Civil_religion" title="Civil religion">civil religion</a>, the intersection of religion and economics and the role of religion in a context of <a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">globalization</a> and <a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">multiculturalism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-165">[162]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_change_and_development">Social change and development</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: Social change and development">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Social_change" title="Social change">Social change</a>, <a href="/wiki/Development_studies" title="Development studies">Development studies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Community_development" title="Community development">Community development</a>, and <a href="/wiki/International_development" title="International development">International development</a></div> The sociology of change and development attempts to understand how societies develop and how they can be changed. This includes studying many different aspects of society, for example demographic trends,<a href="#cite_note-166">[163]</a> political or technological trends,<a href="#cite_note-167">[164]</a> or changes in culture. Within this field, sociologists often use <a href="/wiki/Macrosociology" title="Macrosociology">macrosociological methods</a> or <a href="/wiki/Comparative_historical_research" title="Comparative historical research">historical-comparative methods</a>. In contemporary studies of social change, there are overlaps with <a href="/wiki/International_development" title="International development">international development</a> or <a href="/wiki/Community_development" title="Community development">community development</a>. However, most of the founders of sociology had theories of social change based on their study of history. For instance, <a href="/wiki/Marx" class="mw-redirect" title="Marx">Marx</a> contended that the material circumstances of society ultimately caused the ideal or cultural aspects of society, while <a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a> argued that it was in fact the cultural mores of Protestantism that ushered in a transformation of material circumstances. In contrast to both, <a href="/wiki/Durkheim" class="mw-redirect" title="Durkheim">Durkheim</a> argued that societies moved from simple to complex through a process of <a href="/wiki/Sociocultural_evolution" title="Sociocultural evolution">sociocultural evolution</a>. Sociologists in this field also study processes of globalization and imperialism. Most notably, <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Wallerstein" title="Immanuel Wallerstein">Immanuel Wallerstein</a> extends Marx's theoretical frame to include large spans of time and the entire globe in what is known as <a href="/wiki/World_systems_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="World systems theory">world systems theory</a>. Development sociology is also heavily influenced by <a href="/wiki/Post-colonialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-colonialism">post-colonialism</a>. In recent years, <a href="/wiki/Raewyn_Connell" title="Raewyn Connell">Raewyn Connell</a> issued a critique of the bias in sociological research towards countries in the <a href="/wiki/Global_North" class="mw-redirect" title="Global North">Global North</a>. She argues that this bias blinds sociologists to the lived experiences of the <a href="/wiki/Global_South" class="mw-redirect" title="Global South">Global South</a>, specifically, so-called, "Northern Theory" lacks an adequate theory of imperialism and colonialism.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] There are many organizations studying social change, including the <a href="/wiki/Fernand_Braudel_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="Fernand Braudel Center">Fernand Braudel Center</a> for the Study of Economies, Historical Systems, and Civilizations, and the <a href="/wiki/Global_Social_Change_Research_Project" title="Global Social Change Research Project">Global Social Change Research Project</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_networks">Social networks</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: Social networks">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Harrisonwhite.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Harrisonwhite.jpg/150px-Harrisonwhite.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="202" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Harrisonwhite.jpg/225px-Harrisonwhite.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Harrisonwhite.jpg/300px-Harrisonwhite.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1749" data-file-height="2353" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Harrison_White" title="Harrison White">Harrison White</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Social_network" title="Social network">Social network</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_network_analysis" title="Social network analysis">Social network analysis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Figurational_Sociology" class="mw-redirect" title="Figurational Sociology">Figurational Sociology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Relational_sociology" title="Relational sociology">Relational sociology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sociomapping" title="Sociomapping">Sociomapping</a></div> A social network is a <a href="/wiki/Social_structure" title="Social structure">social structure</a> composed of individuals (or organizations) called "nodes", which are tied (connected) by one or more specific types of <a href="/wiki/Interdependency" class="mw-redirect" title="Interdependency">interdependency</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Friendship" title="Friendship">friendship</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kinship" title="Kinship">kinship</a>, financial exchange, dislike, <a href="/wiki/Sexual_network" title="Sexual network">sexual relationships</a>, or relationships of beliefs, knowledge or prestige. Social networks operate on many levels, from families up to the level of nations, and play a critical role in determining the way problems are solved, organizations are run, and the degree to which individuals succeed in achieving their goals. An underlying theoretical assumption of social network analysis is that groups are not necessarily the building blocks of society: the approach is open to studying less-bounded social systems, from non-local <a href="/wiki/Communities" class="mw-redirect" title="Communities">communities</a> to networks of exchange. Drawing theoretically from <a href="/wiki/Relational_sociology" title="Relational sociology">relational sociology</a>, social network analysis avoids treating individuals (persons, organizations, states) as discrete units of analysis, it focuses instead on how the structure of ties affects and constitutes individuals and their relationships. In contrast to analyses that assume that socialization into norms determines behaviour, network analysis looks to see the extent to which the structure and composition of ties affect norms. On the other hand, recent research by <a href="/wiki/Omar_Lizardo" title="Omar Lizardo">Omar Lizardo</a> also demonstrates that network ties are shaped and created by previously existing cultural tastes.<a href="#cite_note-168">[165]</a> Social network theory is usually defined in <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_sociology" title="Mathematical sociology">formal mathematics</a> and may include integration of geographical data into <a href="/wiki/Sociomapping" title="Sociomapping">sociomapping</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_psychology">Social psychology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: Social psychology">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Social_psychology_(sociology)" title="Social psychology (sociology)">Social psychology (sociology)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Psychoanalytic_sociology" title="Psychoanalytic sociology">Psychoanalytic sociology</a></div> Sociological social psychology focuses on micro-scale <a href="/wiki/Social_actions" class="mw-redirect" title="Social actions">social actions</a>. This area may be described as adhering to "sociological miniaturism", examining whole societies through the study of individual thoughts and emotions as well as behaviour of small groups.<a href="#cite_note-Sociological_miniaturism:_seeing_the_big_through_the_small_in_social_psychology-169">[166]</a> One special concern to psychological sociologists is how to explain a variety of demographic, social, and cultural facts in terms of human social interaction. Some of the major topics in this field are social inequality, <a href="/wiki/Group_dynamics" title="Group dynamics">group dynamics</a>, prejudice, aggression, social perception, group behaviour, social change, non-verbal behaviour, socialization, conformity, leadership, and social identity. Social psychology may be taught with <a href="/wiki/Social_psychology_(psychology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Social psychology (psychology)">psychological emphasis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-about1-170">[167]</a> In sociology, researchers in this field are the most prominent users of the experimental method (however, unlike their psychological counterparts, they also frequently employ other methodologies). Social psychology looks at social influences, as well as social perception and social interaction.<a href="#cite_note-about1-170">[167]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stratification,_poverty_and_inequality">Stratification, poverty and inequality</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: Stratification, poverty and inequality">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Social_stratification" title="Social stratification">Social stratification</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_inequality" title="Social inequality">Social inequality</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_mobility" title="Social mobility">Social mobility</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Social_class" title="Social class">Social class</a></div> Social stratification is the hierarchical arrangement of individuals into social classes, <a href="/wiki/Caste" title="Caste">castes</a>, and divisions within a society.<a href="#cite_note-:3-29">[27]</a>: 225  Modern <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Western societies</a> stratification traditionally relates to cultural and economic classes arranged in three main layers: upper class, middle class, and <a href="/wiki/Working_class" title="Working class">lower class</a>, but each class may be further subdivided into smaller classes (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Occupational_prestige" title="Occupational prestige">occupational</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Social_Class_and_Stratification-171">[168]</a> Social stratification is interpreted in radically different ways within sociology. Proponents of <a href="/wiki/Structural_functionalism" title="Structural functionalism">structural functionalism</a> suggest that, since the stratification of classes and castes is evident in all societies, hierarchy must be beneficial in stabilizing their existence. <a href="/wiki/Conflict_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Conflict theory">Conflict theorists</a>, by contrast, critique the inaccessibility of resources and lack of <a href="/wiki/Social_mobility" title="Social mobility">social mobility</a> in stratified societies.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Karl Marx distinguished social classes by their connection to the <a href="/wiki/Means_of_production" title="Means of production">means of production</a> in the capitalist system: the <a href="/wiki/Bourgeoisie" title="Bourgeoisie">bourgeoisie</a> own the means, but this effectively includes the <a href="/wiki/Proletariat" title="Proletariat">proletariat</a> itself as the workers can only sell their own <a href="/wiki/Labour_power" title="Labour power">labour power</a> (forming the <a href="/wiki/Base_and_superstructure" title="Base and superstructure">material base of the cultural superstructure</a>). Max Weber critiqued Marxist <a href="/wiki/Economic_determinism" title="Economic determinism">economic determinism</a>, arguing that social stratification is not based purely on economic inequalities, but on other status and power differentials (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Patriarchy" title="Patriarchy">patriarchy</a>). According to Weber, stratification may occur among at least three complex variables: <ol><li>Property (class): A person's economic position in a society, based on birth and individual achievement.<a href="#cite_note-:3-29">[27]</a>: 243  Weber differs from Marx in that he does not see this as the supreme factor in stratification. Weber noted how managers of corporations or industries control firms they do not own; Marx would have placed such a person in the proletariat.</li> <li>Prestige (status): A person's prestige, or popularity in a society. This could be determined by the kind of job this person does or wealth.</li> <li>Power (political party): A person's ability to get their way despite the resistance of others. For example, individuals in state jobs, such as an employee of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, or a member of the United States Congress, may hold little property or status but they still hold immense power.<a href="#cite_note-172">[169]</a></li></ol> <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Bourdieu" title="Pierre Bourdieu">Pierre Bourdieu</a> provides a modern example in the concepts of <a href="/wiki/Cultural_capital" title="Cultural capital">cultural</a> and <a href="/wiki/Symbolic_capital" title="Symbolic capital">symbolic capital</a>. Theorists such as <a href="/wiki/Ralf_Dahrendorf" title="Ralf Dahrendorf">Ralf Dahrendorf</a> have noted the tendency towards an enlarged middle-class in modern Western societies, particularly in relation to the necessity of an educated work force in technological or service-based economies.<a href="#cite_note-173">[170]</a> Perspectives concerning globalization, such as <a href="/wiki/Dependency_theory" title="Dependency theory">dependency theory</a>, suggest this effect owes to the shift of workers to the <a href="/wiki/Developing_country" title="Developing country">developing countries</a>.<a href="#cite_note-174">[171]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Urban_and_rural_sociology">Urban and rural sociology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology&action=edit&section=57" title="Edit section: Urban and rural sociology">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Urban_sociology" title="Urban sociology">Urban sociology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rural_sociology" title="Rural sociology">Rural sociology</a></div> Urban sociology involves the analysis of social life and human interaction in metropolitan areas. It is a discipline seeking to provide advice for planning and policy making. After the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>, works such as <a href="/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel">Georg Simmel</a>'s <a href="/wiki/The_Metropolis_and_Mental_Life" title="The Metropolis and Mental Life">The Metropolis and Mental Life</a> (1903) focused on urbanization and the effect it had on alienation and anonymity. In the 1920s and 1930s The <a href="/wiki/Chicago_school_(sociology)" title="Chicago school (sociology)">Chicago School</a> produced a major body of theory on the nature of the city, important to both urban sociology and criminology, utilizing <a href="/wiki/Symbolic_interactionism" title="Symbolic interactionism">symbolic interactionism</a> as a method of field research. Contemporary research is commonly placed in a context of <a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">globalization</a>, for instance, in <a href="/wiki/Saskia_Sassen" title="Saskia Sassen">Saskia Sassen</a>'s study of the "<a href="/wiki/Global_city" title="Global city">global city</a>".<a href="#cite_note-175">[172]</a> Rural sociology, by contrast, is the analysis of non-metropolitan areas. As agriculture and wilderness tend to be a more prominent social fact in rural regions, rural sociologists often overlap with environmental sociologists.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Community_sociology">Community sociology</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology&action=edit&section=58" title="Edit section: Community sociology">edit</a>]</div> Often grouped with urban and rural sociology is that of community sociology or the sociology of community.<a href="#cite_note-asanet5-176">[173]</a> Taking various communities—including online communities—as the unit of analysis, community sociologists study the origin and effects of different associations of people. For instance, German sociologist <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_T%C3%B6nnies" title="Ferdinand Tönnies">Ferdinand Tönnies</a> distinguished between two types of human association: <a href="/wiki/Gemeinschaft" class="mw-redirect" title="Gemeinschaft">gemeinschaft</a> (usually translated as "community") and <a href="/wiki/Gesellschaft" class="mw-redirect" title="Gesellschaft">gesellschaft</a> ("society" or "association"). In his 1887 work, Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft, Tönnies argued that Gemeinschaft is perceived to be a tighter and more cohesive social entity, due to the presence of a "unity of will".<a href="#cite_note-177">[174]</a> The 'development' or 'health' of a community is also a central concern of community sociologists also engage in development sociology, exemplified by the literature surrounding the concept of <a href="/wiki/Social_capital" title="Social capital">social capital</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_academic_disciplines">Other academic disciplines</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology&action=edit&section=59" title="Edit section: Other academic disciplines">edit</a>]</div> Sociology overlaps with a variety of disciplines that study society, in particular <a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">social anthropology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">political science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_work" title="Social work">social work</a> and <a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">social philosophy</a>. Many comparatively new fields such as <a href="/wiki/Communication_studies" title="Communication studies">communication studies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cultural_studies" title="Cultural studies">cultural studies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">demography</a> and <a href="/wiki/Literary_theory" title="Literary theory">literary theory</a>, draw upon methods that originated in sociology. The terms "<a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social science</a>" and "<a href="/wiki/Social_research" title="Social research">social research</a>" have both gained a degree of autonomy since their origination in classical sociology. The distinct field of <a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">social anthropology</a> or anthroposociology is the dominant constituent of anthropology throughout the United Kingdom and Commonwealth and much of Europe (France in particular),<a href="#cite_note-178">[175]</a> where it is distinguished from <a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">cultural anthropology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-179">[176]</a> In the United States, social anthropology is commonly subsumed within cultural anthropology (or under the relatively new designation of <a href="/wiki/Sociocultural_anthropology" title="Sociocultural anthropology">sociocultural anthropology</a>).<a href="#cite_note-180">[177]</a> Sociology and <a href="/wiki/Applied_sociology" class="mw-redirect" title="Applied sociology">applied sociology</a> are connected to the professional and academic discipline of social work.<a href="#cite_note-Web_page-181">[178]</a> Both disciplines study social interactions, community and the effect of various systems (i.e. family, school, community, laws, political sphere) on the individual.<a href="#cite_note-Generalist_Practice_with_Organisations_and_Communities-182">[179]</a> However, social work is generally more focused on practical strategies to alleviate social dysfunctions; sociology in general provides a thorough examination of the root causes of these problems.<a href="#cite_note-Direct_Social_Work_Practice-183">[180]</a> For example, a sociologist might study why a community is plagued with poverty. The <a href="/wiki/Applied_sociology" class="mw-redirect" title="Applied sociology">applied sociologist</a> would be more focused on practical strategies on what needs to be done to alleviate this burden. The social worker would be focused on action; implementing theses strategies <a href="/wiki/Clinical_social_work" title="Clinical social work">"directly"</a> or <a href="/wiki/Community_practice" title="Community practice">"indirectly"</a> by means of <a href="/wiki/Mental_health" title="Mental health">mental health</a> therapy, <a href="/wiki/Counseling" class="mw-redirect" title="Counseling">counselling</a>, advocacy, <a href="/wiki/Community_organization" title="Community organization">community organization</a> or <a href="/wiki/Community_mobilization" title="Community mobilization">community mobilization</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Generalist_Practice_with_Organisations_and_Communities-182">[179]</a> <a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">Social anthropology</a> is the branch of <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a> that studies how contemporary living human beings behave in <a href="/wiki/Social_group" title="Social group">social groups</a>. Practitioners of social anthropology, like sociologists, investigate various facets of <a href="/wiki/Social_organization" title="Social organization">social organization</a>. Traditionally, social anthropologists analyzed non-industrial and non-Western societies, whereas sociologists focused on industrialized societies in the Western world. In recent years, however, social anthropology has expanded its focus to modern Western societies, meaning that the two disciplines increasingly converge.<a href="#cite_note-James_Trostle-184">[181]</a><a href="#cite_note-Web_page-181">[178]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sociocultural_anthropology" title="Sociocultural anthropology">Sociocultural anthropology</a>, which includes <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_anthropology" title="Linguistic anthropology">linguistic anthropology</a>, is concerned with the problems of difference and similarity within and between human populations. The discipline arose concomitantly with the expansion of European colonial empires, and its practices and theories have been questioned and reformulated along with processes of decolonization. Such issues have re-emerged as transnational processes have challenged the centrality of the <a href="/wiki/Nation_state" title="Nation state">nation-state</a> to theorizations about culture and <a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">power</a>. New challenges have emerged as public debates about <a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">multiculturalism</a>, and the increasing use of the culture concept outside of the academy and among peoples studied by anthropology.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <a href="/wiki/Irving_Louis_Horowitz" title="Irving Louis Horowitz">Irving Louis Horowitz</a>, in his The Decomposition of Sociology (1994), has argued that the discipline, while arriving from a "distinguished lineage and tradition", is in decline due to deeply ideological theory and a lack of relevance to policy making: "The decomposition of sociology began when this great tradition became subject to ideological thinking, and an inferior tradition surfaced in the wake of totalitarian triumphs."<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1994-185">[182]</a> Furthermore: "A problem yet unmentioned is that sociology's malaise has left all the social sciences vulnerable to pure positivism—to an empiricism lacking any theoretical basis. Talented individuals who might, in an earlier time, have gone into sociology are seeking intellectual stimulation in business, law, the natural sciences, and even creative writing; this drains sociology of much needed potential."<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1994-185">[182]</a> Horowitz cites the lack of a 'core discipline' as exacerbating the problem. <a href="/wiki/Randall_Collins" title="Randall Collins">Randall Collins</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Swaine_Thomas" title="Dorothy Swaine Thomas">Dorothy Swaine Thomas</a> Professor in Sociology at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania" title="University of Pennsylvania">University of Pennsylvania</a> and a member of the Advisory Editors Council of the <a href="/wiki/Social_Evolution_%26_History" title="Social Evolution & History">Social Evolution & History</a> journal, has voiced similar sentiments: "we have lost all coherence as a discipline, we are breaking up into a conglomerate of specialities, each going on its own way and with none too high regard for each other."<a href="#cite_note-186">[183]</a> In 2007, <a href="/wiki/Times_Higher_Education" title="Times Higher Education">The Times Higher Education Guide</a> published a list of 'The most cited authors of books in the Humanities' (including philosophy and psychology). Seven of the top ten are listed as sociologists: <a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Michel Foucault</a> (1), <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Bourdieu" title="Pierre Bourdieu">Pierre Bourdieu</a> (2), <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Giddens" title="Anthony Giddens">Anthony Giddens</a> (5), <a href="/wiki/Erving_Goffman" title="Erving Goffman">Erving Goffman</a> (6), <a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Jürgen Habermas</a> (7), <a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a> (8), and <a href="/wiki/Bruno_Latour" title="Bruno Latour">Bruno Latour</a> (10).<a href="#cite_note-The_most_cited_authors_of_books_in_the_humanities-187">[184]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Journals">Journals</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology&action=edit&section=60" title="Edit section: Journals">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For a more comprehensive list, see <a href="/wiki/List_of_sociology_journals" title="List of sociology journals">List of sociology journals</a>.</div> The most highly ranked general journals which publish original research in the field of sociology are the <a href="/wiki/American_Journal_of_Sociology" title="American Journal of Sociology">American Journal of Sociology</a> and the <a href="/wiki/American_Sociological_Review" title="American Sociological Review">American Sociological Review</a>.<a href="#cite_note-WoS-188">[185]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Annual_Review_of_Sociology" title="Annual Review of Sociology">Annual Review of Sociology</a>, which publishes original review essays, is also highly ranked.<a href="#cite_note-WoS-188">[185]</a> Many other generalist and specialized journals exist. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology&action=edit&section=61" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:Social_sciences.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/32px-Social_sciences.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/48px-Social_sciences.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/64px-Social_sciences.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="139" data-file-height="122" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Society" title="Portal:Society">Society portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_sociology" title="Bibliography of sociology">Bibliography of sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_juncture_theory" title="Critical juncture theory">Critical juncture theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_theory" title="Culture theory">Cultural theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engaged_theory" title="Engaged theory">Engaged theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historic_recurrence" title="Historic recurrence">Historic recurrence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_social_sciences" title="History of the social sciences">History of the social sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sociologists" title="List of sociologists">List of sociologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_sociology" title="Outline of sociology">Outline of sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_sociology" title="Political sociology">Political sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-industrial_society" title="Post-industrial society">Post-industrial society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_theory" title="Social theory">Social theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">Social psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociological_Francoism" title="Sociological Francoism">Sociological Francoism</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology&action=edit&section=62" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> See <a href="/wiki/Early_Islamic_philosophy#Branches" title="Early Islamic philosophy">Branches of the early Islamic philosophy</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> See also Fauré, Christine, and Jacques Guilhaumou. 2006. "Sieyès et le non-dit de la sociologie: du mot à la chose." Revue d'histoire des sciences humaines 15. Naissances de la science sociale. See also the article <a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/sociologie" class="extiw" title="fr:sociologie">'sociologie'</a> in the French-language Wikipedia. </li> </ol></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> The normal distribution is important in many fields of science, not just the <a href="/wiki/Social_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Social sciences">social sciences</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology&action=edit&section=63" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology&action=edit&section=64" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dictionary.com/browse/sociology">"sociology"</a>. 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Palgrave Macmillan, Macmillan Publishers Ltd. pp. 167–168. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2F9781137009319">10.1057/9781137009319</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-32044-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-230-32044-4"><bdi>978-0-230-32044-4</bdi></a>. <q>Even a local form of sociology must be provided with a social context and described in situ, that is, enmeshed within a set of relationships with other sociologies, disciplines and institutions.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Study+and+Its+Methods&rft.btitle=Mapping+the+Sociology+of+Health+and+Medicine%3A+America%2C+Britain+and+Australia+Compared&rft.pages=167-168&rft.edition=1&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan%2C+Macmillan+Publishers+Ltd&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1057%2F9781137009319&rft.isbn=978-0-230-32044-4&rft.aulast=Collyer&rft.aufirst=Fran&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ArcherArcher1995-111"><a href="#cite_ref-ArcherArcher1995_111-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArcher1995" class="citation book cs1">Archer, Margaret Scotford (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SMbNRp5EseMC&pg=PA65">Realist Social Theory: The Morphogenetic Approach</a>. 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Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 88 (3): 498–509. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.333.6801">10.1.1.333.6801</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0022-3514.88.3.498">10.1037/0022-3514.88.3.498</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15740442">15740442</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.willettsurvey.org/TMSTN/Gender/ComplementaryGenderSterotypes.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 4 September 2013. Retrieved 8 September 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Personality+and+Social+Psychology&rft.atitle=Exposure+to+benevolent+sexism+and+complementary+gender+stereotypes%3A+Consequences+for+specific+and+diffuse+forms+of+system+justification&rft.volume=88&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=498-509&rft.date=2005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.333.6801%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15740442&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F0022-3514.88.3.498&rft.aulast=Jost&rft.aufirst=JT&rft.au=Kay%2C+AC&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.willettsurvey.org%2FTMSTN%2FGender%2FComplementaryGenderSterotypes.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> Administration for Children and Families (2010) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/opre/other_resrch/pm_guide_eval/index.html">The Program Manager's Guide to Evaluation</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120825195829/http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/opre/other_resrch/pm_guide_eval/index.html">Archived</a> 25 August 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Chapter 2: What is program evaluation?. </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShackman2018" class="citation cs2">Shackman, Gene (11 February 2018), What Is Program Evaluation: A Beginner's Guide (Presentation Slides), The Global Social Change Research Project, <a href="/wiki/SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3060080">3060080</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+Is+Program+Evaluation%3A+A+Beginner%27s+Guide&rft.pub=The+Global+Social+Change+Research+Project&rft.date=2018-02-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D3060080%23id-name%3DSSRN&rft.aulast=Shackman&rft.aufirst=Gene&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Blackwell-123"><a href="#cite_ref-Blackwell_123-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/William_Sims_Bainbridge" title="William Sims Bainbridge">Bainbridge, William Sims</a> 2007. 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Belmont, CA: Thomson Brooks/Cole. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-534-64458-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-534-64458-1"><bdi>978-0-534-64458-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+1&rft.btitle=Direct+Social+Work+Practice&rft.place=Belmont%2C+CA&rft.pub=Thomson+Brooks%2FCole&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-534-64458-1&rft.aulast=Hepworth&rft.aufirst=D.H&rft.au=Rooney%2C+R.H.&rft.au=Rooney%2C+G.D&rft.au=Strom-Gottfried%2C+K.&rft.au=Larsen%2C+J.A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdirectsocialwork00dean&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-James_Trostle-184"><a href="#cite_ref-James_Trostle_184-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJanesStallGifford1986" class="citation book cs1">Janes, Craig Robert; Stall, Ron; Gifford, Sandra M. (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ggn-VgZceYAC&q=Will%20Anthropology%20be%20absorbed%20by%20Sociology%3F&pg=PA82">James Trostle</a>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-277-2248-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-277-2248-5"><bdi>978-90-277-2248-5</bdi></a>. Retrieved 8 September 2009 – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=James+Trostle&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-90-277-2248-5&rft.aulast=Janes&rft.aufirst=Craig+Robert&rft.au=Stall%2C+Ron&rft.au=Gifford%2C+Sandra+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dggn-VgZceYAC%26q%3DWill%2520Anthropology%2520be%2520absorbed%2520by%2520Sociology%253F%26pg%3DPA82&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated1994-185">^ <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1994_185-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1994_185-1">b</a> Horowitz, Irving (1994) The Decomposition of Sociology Oxford University Press. pp. 3–9 </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a> Collins, Randall as cited in Horowitz, Irving. 1994. The Decomposition of Sociology. Oxford University Press. pp. 3–9. </li> <li id="cite_note-The_most_cited_authors_of_books_in_the_humanities-187"><a href="#cite_ref-The_most_cited_authors_of_books_in_the_humanities_187-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/story.asp?storyCode=405956&sectioncode=26">"The most cited authors of books in the humanities"</a>. timeshighereducation.co.uk. 26 March 2009. Retrieved 16 November 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=timeshighereducation.co.uk&rft.atitle=The+most+cited+authors+of+books+in+the+humanities&rft.date=2009-03-26&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.timeshighereducation.co.uk%2Fstory.asp%3FstoryCode%3D405956%26sectioncode%3D26&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-WoS-188">^ <a href="#cite_ref-WoS_188-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-WoS_188-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation report cs1">2011 Journal Citation Reports: Social Sciences. Web of Science (Report). <a href="/wiki/Thomson_Reuters" title="Thomson Reuters">Thomson Reuters</a>. 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=2011+Journal+Citation+Reports%3A+Social+Sciences&rft.pub=Thomson+Reuters&rft.date=2011&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociology" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology&action=edit&section=65" title="Edit section: Sources">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li>Aby, Stephen H. 2005. Sociology: A Guide to Reference and Information Sources (3rd ed.). Littleton, CO: Libraries Unlimited Inc. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56308-947-5" title="Special:BookSources/1-56308-947-5">1-56308-947-5</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/57475961">57475961</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earl_Babbie" title="Earl Babbie">Babbie, Earl R.</a> 2003. The Practice of Social Research (10th ed.). Wadsworth: <a href="/wiki/Thomson_Learning" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomson Learning">Thomson Learning</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-534-62029-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-534-62029-9">0-534-62029-9</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/51917727">51917727</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080527231135/http://ddl.uwinnipeg.ca/res_des/files/readings/cwmills-intel_craft.pdf">C. Wright Mills, Intellectual Craftsmanship Advices how to Work for young Sociologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randall_Collins" title="Randall Collins">Collins, Randall</a>. 1994. Four Sociological Traditions. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-508208-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-508208-7">0-19-508208-7</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/28411490">28411490</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewis_A._Coser" title="Lewis A. Coser">Coser, Lewis A.</a> 1971. Masters of Sociological Thought: Ideas in Historical and Social Context. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-15-555128-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-15-555128-0">0-15-555128-0</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Giddens" title="Anthony Giddens">Giddens, Anthony</a>. 2006. Sociology (5th ed.). Cambridge: Polity Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7456-3378-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-7456-3378-1">0-7456-3378-1</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/63186308">63186308</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLandis,_Judson_R1989" class="citation book cs1">Landis, Judson R (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sociologyconcept00land_0">Sociology: Concepts and Characteristics</a> (7th ed.). Belmont, California: Wadsworth. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-534-10158-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-534-10158-9"><bdi>978-0-534-10158-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sociology%3A+Concepts+and+Characteristics&rft.place=Belmont%2C+California&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=Wadsworth&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-534-10158-9&rft.au=Landis%2C+Judson+R&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsociologyconcept00land_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociology" class="Z3988"></li> <li>House, J. S., & Mortimer, J. (1990). Social structure and the individual: Emerging themes and new directions. Social Psychology Quarterly, 71–80.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seymour_Martin_Lipset" title="Seymour Martin Lipset">Lipset, Seymour Martin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Everett_Carll_Ladd" title="Everett Carll Ladd">Everett Carll Ladd</a>. "The Politics of American Sociologists", American Journal of Sociology (1972) 78#1 pp. 67–104 <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2776571">2776571</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacionis,_John_J1991" class="citation book cs1">Macionis, John J (1991). Sociology (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-820358-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-13-820358-0"><bdi>978-0-13-820358-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sociology&rft.place=Englewood+Cliffs%2C+NJ&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Prentice+Hall&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-13-820358-0&rft.au=Macionis%2C+John+J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_K._Merton" title="Robert K. Merton">Merton, Robert K.</a> 1959. Social Theory and Social Structure. Toward the codification of theory and research (revised & enlarged ed.). Glencoe, IL.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/4536864">4536864</a></li> <li>Mills, C. Wright. 1959. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UTQ6OkKwszoC">The Sociological Imagination</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221227155643/https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Sociological_Imagination/UTQ6OkKwszoC?hl=en&gbpv=0">Archived</a> 27 December 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/165883">165883</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMitchell2007" class="citation book cs1">Mitchell, Geoffrey Duncan (2007) [1968]. A Hundred Years of Sociology: A Concise History of the Major Figures, Ideas, and Schools of Sociological Thought. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-202-36168-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-202-36168-0"><bdi>978-0-202-36168-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/145146341">145146341</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Hundred+Years+of+Sociology%3A+A+Concise+History+of+the+Major+Figures%2C+Ideas%2C+and+Schools+of+Sociological+Thought&rft.place=New+Brunswick%2C+NJ&rft.pub=Transaction+Publishers&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F145146341&rft.isbn=978-0-202-36168-0&rft.aulast=Mitchell&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey+Duncan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASociology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_A._Nisbet" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert A. Nisbet">Nisbet, Robert A.</a> 1967. The Sociological Tradition, London, Heinemann Educational Books. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56000-667-6" title="Special:BookSources/1-56000-667-6">1-56000-667-6</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/26934810">26934810</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Ritzer" title="George Ritzer">Ritzer, George</a>, and Douglas J. Goodman. 2004. Sociological Theory (6th ed.). <a href="/wiki/McGraw-Hill" class="mw-redirect" title="McGraw-Hill">McGraw-Hill</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-07-281718-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-07-281718-6">0-07-281718-6</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/52240022">52240022</a></li> <li>Scott, John, and Gordon Marshall, eds. 2005. A Dictionary of Sociology (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-860986-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-860986-8">0-19-860986-8</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/60370982">60370982</a></li> <li>Wallace, Ruth A., and Alison Wolf. 1995. Contemporary Sociological Theory: Continuing the Classical Tradition (4th ed.). Prentice-Hall. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-13-036245-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-13-036245-X">0-13-036245-X</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/31604842">31604842</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harrison_White" title="Harrison White">White, Harrison C.</a> 2008. Identity and Control. How Social Formations Emerge (2nd ed.). Princeton: <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-13714-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-13714-8">978-0-691-13714-8</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/174138884">174138884</a></li> <li>Willis, Evan. 1996. The Sociological Quest: An introduction to the study of social life. <a href="/wiki/New_Brunswick,_New_Jersey" title="New Brunswick, New Jersey">New Brunswick</a>, NJ: <a href="/wiki/Rutgers_University_Press" title="Rutgers University Press">Rutgers University Press</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8135-2367-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-8135-2367-2">0-8135-2367-2</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/34633406">34633406</a></li></ul> </div> <a href="#cite_note-189">[1]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology&action=edit&section=66" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.asanet.org/">American Sociological Association (ASA)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.essnet.org/">Eastern Sociological Society (ESS)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tasa.org.au/">Australian Sociological Association (TASA)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bangladeshsociology.org/">Bangladesh Sociological Society (BSS)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britsoc.co.uk/">British Sociological Association (BSA)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.acsalf.ca/">Canadian Association of French-speaking Sociologists and Anthropologists</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070203144815/http://www.csaa.ca/">Canadian Sociological Association (CSA)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.europeansociology.org/">European Sociological Association (ESA)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://afs-socio.fr/">French Sociological Association</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.soziologie.de/">German Sociological Association (DGS)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lib.uchicago.edu/e/scrc/findingaids/view.php?eadid=ICU.SPCL.SOCIOLOGYINTERVIEWS">Guide to the University of Chicago Department of Sociology Interviews 1972</a> at the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lib.uchicago.edu/scrc/">University of Chicago Special Collections Research Center</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lib.uchicago.edu/e/scrc/findingaids/view.php?eadid=ICU.SPCL.SOCIOLOGYDEPT">Guide to the University of Chicago Department of Sociology Records 1924-2001</a> at the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lib.uchicago.edu/scrc/">University of Chicago Special Collections Research Center</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.insoso.org/">Indian Sociological Society (ISS)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iisoc.org/">International Institute of Sociology (IIS)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.isa-sociology.org/">International Sociological Association (ISA)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100107083812/http://www.alas.fsoc.uba.ar/index.html">Latin American Sociological Association (ALAS)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ooir.org/index.php?field=Social+Sciences&category=Sociology">Observatory of International Research (OOIR): Latest Papers and Trends in Sociology</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aps.pt/">Portuguese Sociological Association (APS)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sociology.ie/">Sociological Association of Ireland (SAI)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nordicsociologicalassociation.org/">The Nordic Sociological Association (NSA)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sverigessociologforbund.se/">The Swedish Sociological Association(in swedish)</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid 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alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/21px-Social_sciences.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/32px-Social_sciences.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/42px-Social_sciences.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="139" data-file-height="122" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Society" title="Portal:Society">Society</a></li></ul></div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236088147">.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline;font-size:88%;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em 0 0;padding:0 2em}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;padding:0.2em 0;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px;line-height:22px}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 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print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="noprint metadata sister-bar" role="navigation" aria-label="sister-projects"><div class="sister-bar-header">Sociology at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a>:</div><ul class="sister-bar-content"><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/19px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/29px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/38px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/Sociology" class="extiw" title="wikt:Special:Search/Sociology">Definitions</a> from Wiktionary</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/14px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/21px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/28px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Sociology" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Sociology">Media</a> from Commons</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/21px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/32px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/42px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="759" data-file-height="415" /><a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Special:Search/Sociology" class="extiw" title="n:Special:Search/Sociology">News</a> from Wikinews</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/16px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/24px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/32px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Sociology" class="extiw" title="q:Sociology">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/18px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/28px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/36px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Portal:Sociology" class="extiw" title="s:Portal:Sociology">Texts</a> from Wikisource</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/19px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/29px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/38px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Subject:Sociology" class="extiw" title="b:Subject:Sociology">Textbooks</a> from Wikibooks</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/21px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/32px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/42px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Sociology" class="extiw" title="v:Sociology">Resources</a> from Wikiversity</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/21px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/32px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/42px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="590" /><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21201" class="extiw" title="d:Q21201">Data</a> from Wikidata</li></ul></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output 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class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Sociology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#eedde9;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Sociology2" title="Template:Sociology2"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Sociology2" title="Template talk:Sociology2"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Sociology2" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Sociology2"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Sociology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Sociology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:#eedde9;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_sociology" title="Outline of sociology">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sociology" title="History of sociology">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_sociology" title="Timeline of sociology">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_sociology_articles" title="Index of sociology articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#eedde9;;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_basic_sociology_topics" class="mw-redirect" title="List of basic sociology topics">General aspects</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_sociology" title="Public sociology">Public sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_research" title="Social research">Social research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_theory" title="Social theory">Social theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociological_theory" title="Sociological theory">Sociological theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociological_practice" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociological practice">Sociological practice</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#eedde9;;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">Perspectives</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_theories" title="Conflict theories">Conflict theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_functionalism" title="Structural functionalism">Structural functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_darwinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Social darwinism">Social darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolic_interactionism" title="Symbolic interactionism">Symbolic interactionism</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#eedde9;;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Subfields_of_sociology" class="mw-redirect" title="Subfields of sociology">Related fields and subfields</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_sociology" title="Comparative sociology">Comparative sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">Criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">Cultural anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_sociology" title="Historical sociology">Historical sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_society" title="Industrial society">Industrial society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_sociology" title="Political sociology">Political sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_sociology" title="Rural sociology">Rural sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">Social anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_movement" title="Social movement">Social movements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_psychology_(sociology)" title="Social psychology (sociology)">Social psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociolinguistics" title="Sociolinguistics">Sociolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_sociology" title="Urban sociology">Urban sociology</a></li> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Sociology_of" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#eedde9;;width:1%">Sociology of</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_art" title="Sociology of art">art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_body" title="Sociology of the body">body</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_human_consciousness" title="Sociology of human consciousness">consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_culture" title="Sociology of culture">culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_death" title="Sociology of death">death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deviance_(sociology)" title="Deviance (sociology)">deviance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_sociology" title="Economic sociology">economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_education" title="Sociology of education">education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_emotions" title="Sociology of emotions">emotions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_sociology" title="Environmental sociology">environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_family" title="Sociology of the family">family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_food" title="Sociology of food">food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_gender" title="Sociology of gender">gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_health_and_illness" title="Sociology of health and illness">health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_immigration" title="Sociology of immigration">immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_knowledge" title="Sociology of knowledge">knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_law" title="Sociology of law">law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_leisure" title="Sociology of leisure">leisure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociology of medicine">medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_sociology" title="Military sociology">military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_race_and_ethnic_relations" title="Sociology of race and ethnic relations">race and ethnicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_religion" title="Sociology of religion">religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_sports" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociology of sports">sport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_small_groups" title="Sociology of small groups">small groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_space" title="Sociology of space">space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stratification" title="Social stratification">stratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociotechnology" title="Sociotechnology">technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_sociology" title="Industrial sociology">work</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#eedde9;;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">Major theorists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Joseph_Siey%C3%A8s" title="Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès">Sieyès</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Martineau" title="Harriet Martineau">Martineau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lester_Frank_Ward" title="Lester Frank Ward">Ward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_T%C3%B6nnies" title="Ferdinand Tönnies">Tönnies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorstein_Veblen" title="Thorstein Veblen">Veblen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel">Simmel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Durkheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jane_Addams" title="Jane Addams">Addams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Herbert_Mead" title="George Herbert Mead">Mead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W.E.B._Du_Bois" class="mw-redirect" title="W.E.B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Mannheim" title="Karl Mannheim">Mannheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norbert_Elias" title="Norbert Elias">Elias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnold_Gehlen" title="Arnold Gehlen">Gehlen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_K._Merton" title="Robert K. Merton">Merton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nisbet" title="Robert Nisbet">Nisbet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._Wright_Mills" title="C. Wright Mills">Mills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Bell" title="Daniel Bell">Bell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helmut_Schoeck" title="Helmut Schoeck">Schoeck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erving_Goffman" title="Erving Goffman">Goffman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann">Luhmann </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Bourdieu" title="Pierre Bourdieu">Bourdieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Giddens" title="Anthony Giddens">Giddens</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#eedde9;;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">Methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_research" title="Quantitative research">Quantitative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">Qualitative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_historical_research" title="Comparative historical research">Comparative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_sociology" title="Computational sociology">Computational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnographic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversation_analysis" title="Conversation analysis">Conversation analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_method" title="Historical method">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interview_(research)" title="Interview (research)">Interview</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_sociology" title="Mathematical sociology">Mathematical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_network_analysis" title="Social network analysis">Network analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_experiment" title="Social experiment">Social experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survey_(human_research)" title="Survey (human research)">Survey</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#eedde9;;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">Key themes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <li><a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">Globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_behavior" title="Human behavior">Human behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human environmental impact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(social_science)" title="Identity (social science)">Identity</a></li> <li>Industrial revolutions <a href="/wiki/Digital_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital Revolution">3</a> / <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Industrial_Revolution" title="Fourth Industrial Revolution">4</a> / <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Industrial_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Fifth Industrial Revolution">5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popularity" title="Popularity">Popularity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_complexity" title="Social complexity">Social complexity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_environment" title="Social environment">Social environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_equality" title="Social equality">Social equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_equity" title="Social equity">Social equity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">Social power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stratification" title="Social stratification">Social stratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_structure" title="Social structure">Social structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_cycle_theory" title="Social cycle theory">Social cycle theory</a></li></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:#eedde9;"><div> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Sociology" title="Category:Sociology">Categories</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Sociology_lists" title="Category:Sociology lists">lists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Sociology_journals" title="Category:Sociology journals">Journals</a></li></ul></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Sociology" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Sociology">Commons</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Sociology" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Sociology">WikiProject</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Social_sciences.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/32px-Social_sciences.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/48px-Social_sciences.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/64px-Social_sciences.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="139" data-file-height="122" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Society" title="Portal:Society">Society portal</a></li> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Social_sciences" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Social_sciences" title="Template:Social sciences"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Social_sciences" title="Template talk:Social sciences"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Social_sciences" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Social sciences"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Social_sciences" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social sciences</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_social_science" title="Outline of social science">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_social_sciences" title="History of the social sciences">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_sociology_articles" title="Index of sociology articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Primary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_anthropology" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical anthropology">physical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">Economics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microeconomics" title="Microeconomics">microeconomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroeconomics" title="Macroeconomics">macroeconomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Econometrics" title="Econometrics">econometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_economics" title="Mathematical economics">mathematical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">Geography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Physical_geography" title="Physical geography">physical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_geography" title="Human geography">human</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_geography" title="Technical geography">technical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_geography" title="Integrated geography">integrated</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_history" title="Cultural history">cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_sciences_of_history" title="Auxiliary sciences of history">auxiliary sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history" title="Economic history">economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_history_(field)" title="World history (field)">human</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history" title="Military history">military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history" title="Political history">political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_history" title="Social history">social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_history" title="Legal history">legal history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_legal_systems" title="List of national legal systems">legal systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_law" title="Public law">public law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_law" title="Private law">private law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">semiotics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">Political science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_relations" title="International relations">international relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_politics" title="Comparative politics">comparative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_policy" title="Public policy">public policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_administration" title="Public administration">public administration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">Psychology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abnormal_psychology" title="Abnormal psychology">abnormal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">cognitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_psychology" title="Developmental psychology">developmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personality_psychology" title="Personality psychology">personality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Sociology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_Internet" title="Sociology of the Internet">internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_sociology" title="Rural sociology">rural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_sociology" title="Urban sociology">urban</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Interdisciplinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Administration <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Business_administration" title="Business administration">business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_administration" title="Public administration">public</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthrozoology" title="Anthrozoology">Anthrozoology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Area_studies" title="Area studies">Area studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_studies" title="Business studies">Business studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">Cognitive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communication_studies" title="Communication studies">Communication studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_studies" title="Community studies">Community studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">Criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_studies" title="Cultural studies">Cultural studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_studies" title="Development studies">Development studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">Education</a></li> <li>Environmental <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_social_science" title="Environmental social science">social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_studies" title="Environmental studies">studies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_studies" title="Food studies">Food studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_studies" title="Gender studies">Gender studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_studies" title="Global studies">Global studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_sociology" title="Historical sociology">Historical sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">History of technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_ecology" title="Human ecology">Human ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_science" title="Information science">Information science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_relations" title="International relations">International studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Management" title="Management">Management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_studies" title="Media studies">Media studies</a></li> <li>Philosophies <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_and_economics" title="Philosophy and economics"> economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">social science</a></li></ul></li> <li>Planning <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land-use_planning" title="Land-use planning">land use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_planning" title="Regional planning">regional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning" title="Urban planning">urban</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ecology" title="Political ecology">Political ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_economy" title="Political economy">Political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_sociology" title="Political sociology">Political sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">Public health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_science" title="Regional science">Regional science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies" title="Science and technology studies">Science and technology studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_studies" title="Science studies">Science studies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_social_science" title="Quantum social science">Quantum social science</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_work" title="Social work">Social work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegan_studies" title="Vegan studies">Vegan studies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">List</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_social_science_journals" title="List of social science journals">List of social science journals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other categorizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Behavioral sciences">Behavioral sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geisteswissenschaft" title="Geisteswissenschaft">Geisteswissenschaft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_science" title="Human science">Human science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">Humanities</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Social_sciences" title="Category:Social sciences">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Social_sciences" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Social sciences">Commons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Social_sciences.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/32px-Social_sciences.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/48px-Social_sciences.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/64px-Social_sciences.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="139" data-file-height="122" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Society" title="Portal:Society">Society portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Wikiversity page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/16px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/24px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/32px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /></a> <a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Portal:Social_Sciences" class="extiw" title="wikiversity:Portal:Social Sciences">Wikiversity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Social_philosophy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Social_philosophy" title="Template:Social philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Social_philosophy" title="Template talk:Social philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Social_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Social philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Social_philosophy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agency_(philosophy)" title="Agency (philosophy)">Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anomie" title="Anomie">Anomie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_(norm)" title="Convention (norm)">Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmopolitanism" title="Cosmopolitanism">Cosmopolitanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Customary_law" title="Customary law">Customs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_heritage" title="Cultural heritage">Cultural heritage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culturalism" title="Culturalism">Culturalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interculturalism" title="Interculturalism">Inter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monoculturalism" title="Monoculturalism">Mono</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">Culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Counterculture" title="Counterculture">Counter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Familialism" title="Familialism">Familialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honour" title="Honour">Honour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_nature" title="Human nature">Human nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(social_science)" title="Identity (social science)">Identity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Identity_formation" title="Identity formation">Formation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">Ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institution" title="Institution">Institutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invisible_hand" title="Invisible hand">Invisible hand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyalty" title="Loyalty">Loyalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">Modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">Morality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_morality" title="Public morality">Public</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mores" title="Mores">Mores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_character" title="National character">National character</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reification_(Marxism)" title="Reification (Marxism)">Reification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ressentiment" title="Ressentiment">Ressentiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sittlichkeit" title="Sittlichkeit">Sittlichkeit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_alienation" title="Social alienation">Social alienation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_norm" title="Social norm">Social norms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_order" title="Spontaneous order">Spontaneous order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stewardship" title="Stewardship">Stewardship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tradition" title="Tradition">Traditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics_and_social_sciences)" class="mw-redirect" title="Value (ethics and social sciences)">Values</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Family_values" title="Family values">Family</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volksgeist" class="mw-redirect" title="Volksgeist">Volksgeist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worldview" title="Worldview">Worldview</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Budapest_School" title="Budapest School">Budapest School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_social_teaching" title="Catholic social teaching">Catholic social teaching</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_conservatism" title="Social conservatism">Social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personalism" title="Personalism">Personalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ancient</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philo" title="Philo">Philo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xunzi_(philosopher)" title="Xunzi (philosopher)">Xunzi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medieval</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Alpharabius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avempace" title="Avempace">Avempace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Bruni" title="Leonardo Bruni">Bruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gelasius_I" title="Pope Gelasius I">Gelasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photios_I_of_Constantinople" title="Photios I of Constantinople">Photios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemistos_Plethon" title="Gemistos Plethon">Plethon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Tufayl" title="Ibn Tufayl">Ibn Tufayl</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Guicciardini" title="Francesco Guicciardini">Guicciardini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_de_Montaigne" title="Michel de Montaigne">Montaigne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Müntzer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th and 19th centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Arnold" title="Matthew Arnold">Arnold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Bonald" title="Louis de Bonald">Bonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Emerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fourier" title="Charles Fourier">Fourier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius" title="Claude Adrien Helvétius">Helvétius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Guillaume_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_le_Play" title="Pierre Guillaume Frédéric le Play">Le Play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Owen" title="Robert Owen">Owen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan">Renan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Royce" title="Josiah Royce">Royce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ruskin" title="John Ruskin">Ruskin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">de Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Stirner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Taine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giambattista_Vico" title="Giambattista Vico">Vico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swami_Vivekananda" title="Swami Vivekananda">Vivekananda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th and 21st centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Agamben" title="Giorgio Agamben">Agamben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_de_Benoist" title="Alain de Benoist">Benoist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judith_Butler" title="Judith Butler">Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Camus" title="Albert Camus">Camus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_de_Beauvoir" title="Simone de Beauvoir">de Beauvoir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Debord" title="Guy Debord">Debord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Deleuze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">Dewey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Durkheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umberto_Eco" title="Umberto Eco">Eco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Evola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnold_Gehlen" title="Arnold Gehlen">Gehlen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byung-Chul_Han" title="Byung-Chul Han">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luce_Irigaray" title="Luce Irigaray">Irigaray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk" title="Russell Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leszek_Ko%C5%82akowski" title="Leszek Kołakowski">Kołakowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Kropotkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nick_Land" title="Nick Land">Land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Lasch" title="Christopher Lasch">Lasch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">MacIntyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Maritain" title="Jacques Maritain">Maritain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinhold_Niebuhr" title="Reinhold Niebuhr">Niebuhr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Oakeshott" title="Michael Oakeshott">Oakeshott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Polanyi" title="Karl Polanyi">Polanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvepalli_Radhakrishnan" title="Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan">Radhakrishnan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">Santayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Shariati" title="Ali Shariati">Shariati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel">Simmel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._F._Skinner" title="B. F. Skinner">Skinner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Werner_Sombart" title="Werner Sombart">Sombart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sowell" title="Thomas Sowell">Sowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_Weil" title="Simone Weil">Weil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_Zinn" title="Howard Zinn">Zinn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavoj_%C5%BDi%C5%BEek" title="Slavoj Žižek">Žižek</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/De_Officiis" title="De Officiis">De Officiis</a> (44 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oration_on_the_Dignity_of_Man" title="Oration on the Dignity of Man">Oration on the Dignity of Man</a> (1486)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Vindication_of_Natural_Society" title="A Vindication of Natural Society">A Vindication of Natural Society</a> (1756)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a> (1835–1840)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civilization_and_Its_Discontents" title="Civilization and Its Discontents">Civilization and Its Discontents</a> (1930)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Work_of_Art_in_the_Age_of_Mechanical_Reproduction" title="The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction">The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction</a> (1935)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Second_Sex" title="The Second Sex">The Second Sex</a> (1949)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-Dimensional_Man" title="One-Dimensional Man">One-Dimensional Man</a> (1964)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Society_of_the_Spectacle" title="The Society of the Spectacle">The Society of the Spectacle</a> (1967)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality" title="The History of Sexuality">The History of Sexuality</a> (1976)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Culture_of_Narcissism" title="The Culture of Narcissism">The Culture of Narcissism</a> (1979)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Conflict_of_Visions" title="A Conflict of Visions">A Conflict of Visions</a> (1987)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Closing_of_the_American_Mind" title="The Closing of the American Mind">The Closing of the American Mind</a> (1987)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_Trouble" title="Gender Trouble">Gender Trouble</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Malaise_of_Modernity" title="The Malaise of Modernity">The Malaise of Modernity</a> (1991)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectuals_and_Society" title="Intellectuals and Society">Intellectuals and Society</a> (2010)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agnotology" title="Agnotology">Agnotology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_critic" title="Cultural critic">Cultural criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_pessimism" title="Cultural pessimism">Cultural pessimism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historism" title="Historism">Historism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">Humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_culture" title="Philosophy of culture">Philosophy of culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Philosophy of education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">Philosophy of history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_criticism" title="Social criticism">Social criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_theory" title="Social theory">Social theory</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Sociology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Social_philosophy" title="Category:Social philosophy">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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