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</li> <li id="toc-Image_compression" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Image_compression"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 Image compression </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Image_compression-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Digital_signal_processor_(DSP)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Digital_signal_processor_(DSP)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 Digital signal processor (DSP) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Digital_signal_processor_(DSP)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medical_imaging" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medical_imaging"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.4 Medical imaging </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medical_imaging-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tasks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tasks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Tasks </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tasks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Digital_image_transformations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Digital_image_transformations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Digital image transformations </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Digital_image_transformations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Digital image transformations subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Digital_image_transformations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Filtering" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Filtering"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Filtering </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Filtering-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Image_padding_in_Fourier_domain_filtering" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Image_padding_in_Fourier_domain_filtering"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.1 Image padding in Fourier domain filtering </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Image_padding_in_Fourier_domain_filtering-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Filtering_code_examples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Filtering_code_examples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.2 Filtering code examples </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Filtering_code_examples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Affine_transformations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Affine_transformations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Affine transformations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Affine_transformations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Image_denoising_with_Morphology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Image_denoising_with_Morphology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Image denoising with Morphology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Image_denoising_with_Morphology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Applications </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Applications-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Applications subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Digital_camera_images" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Digital_camera_images"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Digital camera images </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Digital_camera_images-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Film" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Film"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Film </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Film-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Face_detection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Face_detection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Face detection </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Face_detection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Improvement_of_image_quality_method" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Improvement_of_image_quality_method"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Improvement of image quality method </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Improvement_of_image_quality_method-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Challenges" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Challenges"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Challenges </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Challenges-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button 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Available in 28 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-28" aria-hidden="true" > 28 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D9%88%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D9%82%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="معالجة الصور الرقمية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="معالجة الصور الرقمية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Processament_digital_d%27imatges" title="Processament digital d'imatges – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Processament digital d'imatges" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digit%C3%A1ln%C3%AD_zpracov%C3%A1n%C3%AD_obrazu" title="Digitální zpracování obrazu – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Digitální zpracování obrazu" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digitaalne_pildit%C3%B6%C3%B6tlus" title="Digitaalne pilditöötlus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Digitaalne pilditöötlus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procesamiento_digital_de_im%C3%A1genes" title="Procesamiento digital de imágenes – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Procesamiento digital de imágenes" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irudien_prozesaketa_digital" title="Irudien prozesaketa digital – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Irudien prozesaketa digital" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B2%D8%B4_%D8%AA%D8%B5%D9%88%DB%8C%D8%B1_%D8%AF%DB%8C%D8%AC%DB%8C%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%84" title="پردازش تصویر دیجیتال – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پردازش تصویر دیجیتال" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%94%94%EC%A7%80%ED%84%B8_%ED%99%94%EC%83%81_%EC%B2%98%EB%A6%AC" title="디지털 화상 처리 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="디지털 화상 처리" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8A%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%AF%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%AB_%D5%A9%D5%BE%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%B4%D5%B7%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4" title="Պատկերի թվային մշակում – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Պատկերի թվային մշակում" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pengolahan_citra_digital" title="Pengolahan citra digital – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Pengolahan citra digital" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukudludlungwa_komfanekiso_wezezibhangqiwe" title="Ukudludlungwa komfanekiso wezezibhangqiwe – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Ukudludlungwa komfanekiso wezezibhangqiwe" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiZulu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elaborazione_digitale_delle_immagini" title="Elaborazione digitale delle immagini – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Elaborazione digitale delle immagini" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digit%C3%A1lis_k%C3%A9pfeldolgoz%C3%A1s" title="Digitális képfeldolgozás – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Digitális képfeldolgozás" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pemprosesan_imej_digital" title="Pemprosesan imej digital – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Pemprosesan imej digital" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digitale_beeldbewerking" title="Digitale beeldbewerking – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Digitale beeldbewerking" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%87%E3%82%B8%E3%82%BF%E3%83%AB%E7%94%BB%E5%83%8F%E5%87%A6%E7%90%86" title="デジタル画像処理 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="デジタル画像処理" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Przetwarzanie_obraz%C3%B3w_cyfrowych" title="Przetwarzanie obrazów cyfrowych – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Przetwarzanie obrazów cyfrowych" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Processamento_digital_de_imagem" title="Processamento digital de imagem – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Processamento digital de imagem" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B8%D1%84%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Цифровая обработка изображений – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Цифровая обработка изображений" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spracovanie_obrazu" title="Spracovanie obrazu – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" 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<button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Algorithmic processing of digitally-represented images</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about mathematical processing of digital images. For artistic processing of images, see <a href="/wiki/Image_editing" title="Image editing">Image editing</a>. For compression algorithms, see <a href="/wiki/Image_compression" title="Image compression">Image compression</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Analog_image_processing" title="Analog image processing">Analog image processing</a>.</div> Digital image processing is the use of a <a href="/wiki/Digital_computer" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital computer">digital computer</a> to process <a href="/wiki/Digital_image" title="Digital image">digital images</a> through an <a href="/wiki/Algorithm" title="Algorithm">algorithm</a>.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gonzalez_2018_p.-2">[2]</a> As a subcategory or field of <a href="/wiki/Digital_signal_processing" title="Digital signal processing">digital signal processing</a>, digital image processing has many advantages over <a href="/wiki/Analog_image_processing" title="Analog image processing">analog image processing</a>. It allows a much wider range of algorithms to be applied to the input data and can avoid problems such as the build-up of <a href="/wiki/Noise_(signal_processing)" title="Noise (signal processing)">noise</a> and <a href="/wiki/Distortion" title="Distortion">distortion</a> during processing. Since images are defined over two dimensions (perhaps more) digital image processing may be modeled in the form of <a href="/wiki/Multidimensional_system" title="Multidimensional system">multidimensional systems</a>. The generation and development of digital image processing are mainly affected by three factors: first, the development of computers;<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> second, the development of mathematics (especially the creation and improvement of discrete mathematics theory);<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> third, the demand for a wide range of applications in environment, agriculture, military, industry and medical science has increased.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Digital_image_processing&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Digital_image#History" title="Digital image">Digital image § History</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Digital_imaging#History" title="Digital imaging">Digital imaging § History</a></div> Many of the techniques of <a href="/wiki/Digital_image" title="Digital image">digital image</a> processing, or digital picture processing as it often was called, were developed in the 1960s, at <a href="/wiki/Bell_Laboratories" class="mw-redirect" title="Bell Laboratories">Bell Laboratories</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Jet_Propulsion_Laboratory" title="Jet Propulsion Laboratory">Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Maryland,_College_Park" title="University of Maryland, College Park">University of Maryland</a>, and a few other research facilities, with application to <a href="/wiki/Satellite_imagery" title="Satellite imagery">satellite imagery</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wirephoto" title="Wirephoto">wire-photo</a> standards conversion, <a href="/wiki/Medical_physics" title="Medical physics">medical imaging</a>, <a href="/wiki/Videophone" class="mw-redirect" title="Videophone">videophone</a>, <a href="/wiki/Character_recognition" class="mw-redirect" title="Character recognition">character recognition</a>, and photograph enhancement.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> The purpose of early image processing was to improve the quality of the image. It was aimed for human beings to improve the visual effect of people. In image processing, the input is a low-quality image, and the output is an image with improved quality. Common image processing include image enhancement, restoration, encoding, and compression. The first successful application was the American Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL). They useD image processing techniques such as geometric correction, gradation transformation, noise removal, etc. on the thousands of lunar photos sent back by the Space Detector Ranger 7 in 1964, taking into account the position of the Sun and the environment of the Moon. The impact of the successful mapping of the Moon's surface map by the computer has been a success. Later, more complex image processing was performed on the nearly 100,000 photos sent back by the spacecraft, so that the topographic map, color map and panoramic mosaic of the Moon were obtained, which achieved extraordinary results and laid a solid foundation for human landing on the Moon.<a href="#cite_note-:1-7">[7]</a> The cost of processing was fairly high, however, with the computing equipment of that era. That changed in the 1970s, when digital image processing proliferated as cheaper computers and dedicated hardware became available. This led to images being processed in real-time, for some dedicated problems such as <a href="/wiki/Television_standards_conversion" title="Television standards conversion">television standards conversion</a>. As <a href="/wiki/General-purpose_computer" class="mw-redirect" title="General-purpose computer">general-purpose computers</a> became faster, they started to take over the role of dedicated hardware for all but the most specialized and computer-intensive operations. With the fast computers and signal processors available in the 2000s, digital image processing has become the most common form of image processing, and is generally used because it is not only the most versatile method, but also the cheapest. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Image_sensors">Image sensors</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Digital_image_processing&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Image sensors">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Image_sensor" title="Image sensor">Image sensor</a></div> The basis for modern <a href="/wiki/Image_sensors" class="mw-redirect" title="Image sensors">image sensors</a> is <a href="/wiki/Metal%E2%80%93oxide%E2%80%93semiconductor" class="mw-redirect" title="Metal–oxide–semiconductor">metal–oxide–semiconductor</a> (MOS) technology,<a href="#cite_note-Williams-8">[8]</a> invented at Bell Labs between 1955 and 1960,<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lojek1202-14">[14]</a> This led to the development of digital <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">semiconductor</a> image sensors, including the <a href="/wiki/Charge-coupled_device" title="Charge-coupled device">charge-coupled device</a> (CCD) and later the <a href="/wiki/CMOS_sensor" class="mw-redirect" title="CMOS sensor">CMOS sensor</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Williams-8">[8]</a> The charge-coupled device was invented by <a href="/wiki/Willard_S._Boyle" class="mw-redirect" title="Willard S. Boyle">Willard S. Boyle</a> and <a href="/wiki/George_E._Smith" title="George E. Smith">George E. Smith</a> at Bell Labs in 1969.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> While researching MOS technology, they realized that an electric charge was the analogy of the magnetic bubble and that it could be stored on a tiny <a href="/wiki/MOS_capacitor" class="mw-redirect" title="MOS capacitor">MOS capacitor</a>. As it was fairly straightforward to <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_device_fabrication" title="Semiconductor device fabrication">fabricate</a> a series of MOS capacitors in a row, they connected a suitable voltage to them so that the charge could be stepped along from one to the next.<a href="#cite_note-Williams-8">[8]</a> The CCD is a semiconductor circuit that was later used in the first <a href="/wiki/Digital_video_camera" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital video camera">digital video cameras</a> for <a href="/wiki/Television_broadcasting" class="mw-redirect" title="Television broadcasting">television broadcasting</a>.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> The <a href="/wiki/NMOS_logic" title="NMOS logic">NMOS</a> <a href="/wiki/Active-pixel_sensor" title="Active-pixel sensor">active-pixel sensor</a> (APS) was invented by <a href="/wiki/Olympus_Corporation" title="Olympus Corporation">Olympus</a> in Japan during the mid-1980s. This was enabled by advances in MOS <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_device_fabrication" title="Semiconductor device fabrication">semiconductor device fabrication</a>, with <a href="/wiki/MOSFET_scaling" class="mw-redirect" title="MOSFET scaling">MOSFET scaling</a> reaching smaller <a href="/wiki/List_of_semiconductor_scale_examples" title="List of semiconductor scale examples">micron and then sub-micron</a> levels.<a href="#cite_note-fossum93-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> The NMOS APS was fabricated by Tsutomu Nakamura's team at Olympus in 1985.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> The <a href="/wiki/CMOS" title="CMOS">CMOS</a> active-pixel sensor (CMOS sensor) was later developed by <a href="/wiki/Eric_Fossum" title="Eric Fossum">Eric Fossum</a>'s team at the <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a> <a href="/wiki/Jet_Propulsion_Laboratory" title="Jet Propulsion Laboratory">Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a> in 1993.<a href="#cite_note-Fossum2014-20">[20]</a> By 2007, sales of CMOS sensors had surpassed CCD sensors.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> MOS image sensors are widely used in <a href="/wiki/Optical_mouse" title="Optical mouse">optical mouse</a> technology. The first optical mouse, invented by <a href="/wiki/Richard_F._Lyon" title="Richard F. Lyon">Richard F. Lyon</a> at <a href="/wiki/Xerox" title="Xerox">Xerox</a> in 1980, used a <a href="/wiki/6_%CE%BCm_process" title="6 μm process">5 μm</a> <a href="/wiki/NMOS_logic" title="NMOS logic">NMOS</a> <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuit</a> sensor chip.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> Since the first commercial optical mouse, the <a href="/wiki/IntelliMouse" title="IntelliMouse">IntelliMouse</a> introduced in 1999, most optical mouse devices use CMOS sensors.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-hackaday-25">[25]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Image_compression">Image compression</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Digital_image_processing&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Image compression">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Image_compression" title="Image compression">Image compression</a></div> An important development in digital <a href="/wiki/Image_compression" title="Image compression">image compression</a> technology was the <a href="/wiki/Discrete_cosine_transform" title="Discrete cosine transform">discrete cosine transform</a> (DCT), a <a href="/wiki/Lossy_compression" title="Lossy compression">lossy compression</a> technique first proposed by <a href="/wiki/N._Ahmed" class="mw-redirect" title="N. Ahmed">Nasir Ahmed</a> in 1972.<a href="#cite_note-Ahmed-26">[26]</a> DCT compression became the basis for <a href="/wiki/JPEG" title="JPEG">JPEG</a>, which was introduced by the <a href="/wiki/Joint_Photographic_Experts_Group" title="Joint Photographic Experts Group">Joint Photographic Experts Group</a> in 1992.<a href="#cite_note-t81-27">[27]</a> JPEG compresses images down to much smaller file sizes, and has become the most widely used <a href="/wiki/Image_file_format" title="Image file format">image file format</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a>.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> Its highly efficient DCT compression algorithm was largely responsible for the wide proliferation of <a href="/wiki/Digital_images" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital images">digital images</a> and <a href="/wiki/Digital_photo" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital photo">digital photos</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Atlantic-29">[29]</a> with several billion JPEG images produced every day as of 2015<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Digital_image_processing&action=edit">[update]</a>.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> Medical imaging techniques produce very large amounts of data, especially from CT, MRI and PET modalities. As a result, storage and communications of electronic image data are prohibitive without the use of compression.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> <a href="/wiki/JPEG_2000" title="JPEG 2000">JPEG 2000</a> image compression is used by the <a href="/wiki/DICOM" title="DICOM">DICOM</a> standard for storage and transmission of medical images. The cost and feasibility of accessing large image data sets over low or various bandwidths are further addressed by use of another DICOM standard, called <a href="/wiki/JPIP" title="JPIP">JPIP</a>, to enable efficient streaming of the <a href="/wiki/JPEG_2000" title="JPEG 2000">JPEG 2000</a> compressed image data.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Digital_signal_processor_(DSP)">Digital signal processor (DSP)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Digital_image_processing&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Digital signal processor (DSP)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Digital_signal_processor" title="Digital signal processor">Digital signal processor</a></div> Electronic <a href="/wiki/Signal_processing" title="Signal processing">signal processing</a> was revolutionized by the wide adoption of <a href="/wiki/MOS_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="MOS technology">MOS technology</a> in the 1970s.<a href="#cite_note-Grant-34">[34]</a> <a href="/wiki/MOS_integrated_circuit" class="mw-redirect" title="MOS integrated circuit">MOS integrated circuit</a> technology was the basis for the first single-chip <a href="/wiki/Microprocessors" class="mw-redirect" title="Microprocessors">microprocessors</a> and <a href="/wiki/Microcontrollers" class="mw-redirect" title="Microcontrollers">microcontrollers</a> in the early 1970s,<a href="#cite_note-ieee-35">[35]</a> and then the first single-chip <a href="/wiki/Digital_signal_processor" title="Digital signal processor">digital signal processor</a> (DSP) chips in the late 1970s.<a href="#cite_note-computerhistory1979-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-Taranovich-37">[37]</a> DSP chips have since been widely used in digital image processing.<a href="#cite_note-computerhistory1979-36">[36]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Discrete_cosine_transform" title="Discrete cosine transform">discrete cosine transform</a> (DCT) <a href="/wiki/Image_compression" title="Image compression">image compression</a> algorithm has been widely implemented in DSP chips, with many companies developing DSP chips based on DCT technology. DCTs are widely used for <a href="/wiki/Encoding" class="mw-redirect" title="Encoding">encoding</a>, decoding, <a href="/wiki/Video_coding" class="mw-redirect" title="Video coding">video coding</a>, <a href="/wiki/Audio_coding" class="mw-redirect" title="Audio coding">audio coding</a>, <a href="/wiki/Multiplexing" title="Multiplexing">multiplexing</a>, control signals, <a href="/wiki/Signaling" class="mw-redirect" title="Signaling">signaling</a>, <a href="/wiki/Analog-to-digital_conversion" class="mw-redirect" title="Analog-to-digital conversion">analog-to-digital conversion</a>, formatting <a href="/wiki/Luminance" title="Luminance">luminance</a> and color differences, and color formats such as <a href="/wiki/YUV444" class="mw-redirect" title="YUV444">YUV444</a> and <a href="/wiki/YUV411" class="mw-redirect" title="YUV411">YUV411</a>. DCTs are also used for encoding operations such as <a href="/wiki/Motion_estimation" title="Motion estimation">motion estimation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Motion_compensation" title="Motion compensation">motion compensation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Inter-frame" class="mw-redirect" title="Inter-frame">inter-frame</a> prediction, <a href="/wiki/Quantization_(signal_processing)" title="Quantization (signal processing)">quantization</a>, perceptual weighting, <a href="/wiki/Entropy_encoding" class="mw-redirect" title="Entropy encoding">entropy encoding</a>, variable encoding, and <a href="/wiki/Motion_vector" class="mw-redirect" title="Motion vector">motion vectors</a>, and decoding operations such as the inverse operation between different color formats (<a href="/wiki/YIQ" title="YIQ">YIQ</a>, <a href="/wiki/YUV" class="mw-redirect" title="YUV">YUV</a> and <a href="/wiki/RGB" class="mw-redirect" title="RGB">RGB</a>) for display purposes. DCTs are also commonly used for <a href="/wiki/High-definition_television" title="High-definition television">high-definition television</a> (HDTV) encoder/decoder chips.<a href="#cite_note-Stankovic-38">[38]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medical_imaging">Medical imaging</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Digital_image_processing&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Medical imaging">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Medical_imaging" title="Medical imaging">Medical imaging</a></div> In 1972, engineer Godfrey Hounsfield from the British company EMI invented the X-ray computed tomography (CT) device for head diagnosis, which is commonly referred to as CT (computed tomography). The CT nucleus method is based on the projecting X-rays through a section of the human head, which are then processed by computer to reconstruct the cross-sectional image, known as image reconstruction. In 1975, EMI successfully developed a CT device for the entire body, enabling the clear acquisition of tomographic images of various parts of the human body. This revolutionary diagnostic technique earned Hounsfield and physicist Allan Cormack the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1979.<a href="#cite_note-:1-7">[7]</a> Digital image processing technology for medical applications was inducted into the <a href="/wiki/Space_Foundation" title="Space Foundation">Space Foundation</a>'s Space Technology Hall of Fame in 1994.<a href="#cite_note-sf-39">[39]</a> By 2010, over 5 billion medical imaging studies had been conducted worldwide.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> Radiation exposure from medical imaging in 2006 accounted for about 50% of total ionizing radiation exposure in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> Medical imaging equipment is manufactured using technology from the <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_industry" title="Semiconductor industry">semiconductor industry</a>, including <a href="/wiki/CMOS" title="CMOS">CMOS</a> <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuit</a> chips, <a href="/wiki/Power_semiconductor_device" title="Power semiconductor device">power semiconductor devices</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sensors" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensors">sensors</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Image_sensors" class="mw-redirect" title="Image sensors">image sensors</a> (particularly <a href="/wiki/CMOS_sensor" class="mw-redirect" title="CMOS sensor">CMOS sensors</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Biosensors" class="mw-redirect" title="Biosensors">biosensors</a>, as well as processors like <a href="/wiki/Microcontrollers" class="mw-redirect" title="Microcontrollers">microcontrollers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Microprocessors" class="mw-redirect" title="Microprocessors">microprocessors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Digital_signal_processors" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital signal processors">digital signal processors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Media_processor" title="Media processor">media processors</a> and <a href="/wiki/System-on-chip" class="mw-redirect" title="System-on-chip">system-on-chip</a> devices. As of 2015<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Digital_image_processing&action=edit">[update]</a>, annual shipments of medical imaging chips reached 46 million units, generating a market value of $1.1 billion.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Tasks">Tasks</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Digital_image_processing&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Tasks">edit</a>]</div> Digital image processing allows the use of much more complex algorithms, and hence, can offer both more sophisticated performance at simple tasks, and the implementation of methods which would be impossible by analogue means. In particular, digital image processing is a concrete application of, and a practical technology based on: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_classification" title="Statistical classification">Classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feature_extraction" class="mw-redirect" title="Feature extraction">Feature extraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multi-scale_signal_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Multi-scale signal analysis">Multi-scale signal analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pattern_recognition" title="Pattern recognition">Pattern recognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graphical_projection" class="mw-redirect" title="Graphical projection">Projection</a></li></ul> Some techniques which are used in digital image processing include: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anisotropic_diffusion" title="Anisotropic diffusion">Anisotropic diffusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hidden_Markov_model" title="Hidden Markov model">Hidden Markov models</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Image_editing" title="Image editing">Image editing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_photograph_restoration" title="Digital photograph restoration">Image restoration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_component_analysis" title="Independent component analysis">Independent component analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_filter" title="Linear filter">Linear filtering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_neural_networks" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial neural networks">Neural networks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partial_differential_equations" class="mw-redirect" title="Partial differential equations">Partial differential equations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pixelation" title="Pixelation">Pixelation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Point_feature_matching" class="mw-redirect" title="Point feature matching">Point feature matching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principal_components_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Principal components analysis">Principal components analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-organizing_map" title="Self-organizing map">Self-organizing maps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wavelet" title="Wavelet">Wavelets</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Digital_image_transformations">Digital image transformations</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Digital_image_processing&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Digital image transformations">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Filtering">Filtering</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Digital_image_processing&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Filtering">edit</a>]</div> Digital filters are used to blur and sharpen digital images. Filtering can be performed by: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kernel_(image_processing)#Convolution" title="Kernel (image processing)">convolution</a> with specifically designed <a href="/wiki/Kernel_(image_processing)" title="Kernel (image processing)">kernels</a> (filter array) in the spatial domain<a href="#cite_note-:0-45">[45]</a></li> <li>masking specific frequency regions in the frequency (Fourier) domain</li></ul> The following examples show both methods:<a href="#cite_note-Gonzalez_2008-46">[46]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Filter type </th> <th>Kernel or mask </th> <th>Example </th></tr> <tr> <td>Original Image </td> <td align="center"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}0&0&0\\0&1&0\\0&0&0\end{bmatrix}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow> <mo>[</mo> <mtable rowspacing="4pt" columnspacing="1em"> <mtr> <mtd> <mn>0</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>0</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>0</mn> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mn>0</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>0</mn> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mn>0</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>0</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>0</mn> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> <mo>]</mo> </mrow> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}0&0&0\\0&1&0\\0&0&0\end{bmatrix}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/5bf6623ca763ba780b471a565eb1b06cd14b445c" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -4.005ex; width:11.985ex; height:9.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}0&0&0\\0&1&0\\0&0&0\end{bmatrix}}}"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Affine_Transformation_Original_Checkerboard.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ef/Affine_Transformation_Original_Checkerboard.jpg" decoding="async" width="364" height="263" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="364" data-file-height="263" /></a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Lowpass" class="mw-redirect" title="Lowpass">Spatial Lowpass</a> </td> <td align="center"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{9}}\times {\begin{bmatrix}1&1&1\\1&1&1\\1&1&1\end{bmatrix}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mn>9</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow> <mo>[</mo> <mtable rowspacing="4pt" columnspacing="1em"> <mtr> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> <mo>]</mo> </mrow> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{9}}\times {\begin{bmatrix}1&1&1\\1&1&1\\1&1&1\end{bmatrix}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/fd0334e2eba0c8ade0a603b8fcadb1ecad64042b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -4.005ex; width:16.824ex; height:9.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{9}}\times {\begin{bmatrix}1&1&1\\1&1&1\\1&1&1\end{bmatrix}}}"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Spatial_Mean_Filter_Checkerboard.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c0/Spatial_Mean_Filter_Checkerboard.png" decoding="async" width="366" height="265" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="366" data-file-height="265" /></a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Edge_detection" title="Edge detection">Spatial Highpass</a> </td> <td align="center"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}0&-1&0\\-1&4&-1\\0&-1&0\end{bmatrix}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow> <mo>[</mo> <mtable rowspacing="4pt" columnspacing="1em"> <mtr> <mtd> <mn>0</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>0</mn> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>4</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mn>0</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>0</mn> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> <mo>]</mo> </mrow> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}0&-1&0\\-1&4&-1\\0&-1&0\end{bmatrix}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9b629b1894659e926464af9782a0566c993bef9a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -4.005ex; width:17.409ex; height:9.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}0&-1&0\\-1&4&-1\\0&-1&0\end{bmatrix}}}"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Spatial_Laplacian_Filter_Checkerboard.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6b/Spatial_Laplacian_Filter_Checkerboard.png" decoding="async" width="366" height="265" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="366" data-file-height="265" /></a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Fast_Fourier_transform" title="Fast Fourier transform">Fourier Representation</a> </td> <td>Pseudo-code: image = checkerboard F = Fourier Transform of image Show Image: log(1+Absolute Value(F)) </td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/File:Fourier_Space_Checkerboard.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/42/Fourier_Space_Checkerboard.png" decoding="async" width="233" height="265" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="233" data-file-height="265" /></a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Fourier Lowpass </td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/File:Lowpass_Butterworth_Checkerboard.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Lowpass_Butterworth_Checkerboard.png" decoding="async" width="209" height="265" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="209" data-file-height="265" /></a> </td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/File:Lowpass_FFT_Filtered_checkerboard.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/Lowpass_FFT_Filtered_checkerboard.png" decoding="async" width="365" height="265" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="365" data-file-height="265" /></a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Fourier Highpass </td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/File:Highpass_Butterworth_Checkerboard.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Highpass_Butterworth_Checkerboard.png" decoding="async" width="267" height="265" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="267" data-file-height="265" /></a> </td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/File:Highpass_FFT_Filtered_checkerboard.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/Highpass_FFT_Filtered_checkerboard.png" decoding="async" width="365" height="265" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="365" data-file-height="265" /></a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Image_padding_in_Fourier_domain_filtering">Image padding in Fourier domain filtering</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Digital_image_processing&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Image padding in Fourier domain filtering">edit</a>]</div> Images are typically padded before being transformed to the Fourier space, the <a href="/wiki/Highpass_filter" class="mw-redirect" title="Highpass filter">highpass filtered</a> images below illustrate the consequences of different padding techniques: <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Zero padded </th> <th>Repeated edge padded </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Highpass_FFT_Filtered_checkerboard.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/Highpass_FFT_Filtered_checkerboard.png" decoding="async" width="365" height="265" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="365" data-file-height="265" /></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Highpass_FFT_Replicate.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/85/Highpass_FFT_Replicate.png" decoding="async" width="365" height="265" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="365" data-file-height="265" /></a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> Notice that the highpass filter shows extra edges when zero padded compared to the repeated edge padding. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Filtering_code_examples">Filtering code examples</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Digital_image_processing&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Filtering code examples">edit</a>]</div> MATLAB example for spatial domain highpass filtering. <div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-matlab mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>img=checkerboard(20); % generate checkerboard % ************************** SPATIAL DOMAIN *************************** klaplace=[0 -1 0; -1 5 -1; 0 -1 0]; % Laplacian filter kernel X=conv2(img,klaplace); % convolve test img with % 3x3 Laplacian kernel figure() imshow(X,[]) % show Laplacian filtered title('Laplacian Edge Detection') </pre></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Affine_transformations">Affine transformations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Digital_image_processing&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Affine transformations">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Affine_transformations" class="mw-redirect" title="Affine transformations">Affine transformations</a> enable basic image transformations including scale, rotate, translate, mirror and shear as is shown in the following examples:<a href="#cite_note-Gonzalez_2008-46">[46]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Transformation Name </th> <th>Affine Matrix </th> <th>Example </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Identity_operation" class="mw-redirect" title="Identity operation">Identity</a> </td> <td align="center"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}1&0&0\\0&1&0\\0&0&1\end{bmatrix}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow> <mo>[</mo> <mtable rowspacing="4pt" columnspacing="1em"> <mtr> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>0</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>0</mn> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mn>0</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>0</mn> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mn>0</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>0</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> <mo>]</mo> </mrow> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}1&0&0\\0&1&0\\0&0&1\end{bmatrix}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/917dc504a6780a695d578a7b216036af7e49c506" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -4.005ex; width:11.985ex; height:9.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}1&0&0\\0&1&0\\0&0&1\end{bmatrix}}}"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Checkerboard_identity.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Checkerboard_identity.svg/160px-Checkerboard_identity.svg.png" decoding="async" width="160" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Checkerboard_identity.svg/240px-Checkerboard_identity.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Checkerboard_identity.svg/320px-Checkerboard_identity.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Reflection_(mathematics)" title="Reflection (mathematics)">Reflection</a> </td> <td align="center"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}-1&0&0\\0&1&0\\0&0&1\end{bmatrix}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow> <mo>[</mo> <mtable rowspacing="4pt" columnspacing="1em"> <mtr> <mtd> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>0</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>0</mn> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mn>0</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>0</mn> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mn>0</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>0</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> <mo>]</mo> </mrow> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}-1&0&0\\0&1&0\\0&0&1\end{bmatrix}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b6f3c4219a22cd7963c3bed901717c1b34edda32" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -4.005ex; width:13.793ex; height:9.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}-1&0&0\\0&1&0\\0&0&1\end{bmatrix}}}"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Checkerboard_reflection.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Checkerboard_reflection.svg/160px-Checkerboard_reflection.svg.png" decoding="async" width="160" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Checkerboard_reflection.svg/240px-Checkerboard_reflection.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Checkerboard_reflection.svg/320px-Checkerboard_reflection.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Scale_(ratio)" title="Scale (ratio)">Scale</a> </td> <td align="center"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}c_{x}=2&0&0\\0&c_{y}=1&0\\0&0&1\end{bmatrix}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow> <mo>[</mo> <mtable rowspacing="4pt" columnspacing="1em"> <mtr> <mtd> <msub> <mi>c</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>x</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mn>2</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>0</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>0</mn> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mn>0</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <msub> <mi>c</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>y</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>0</mn> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mn>0</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>0</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> <mo>]</mo> </mrow> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}c_{x}=2&0&0\\0&c_{y}=1&0\\0&0&1\end{bmatrix}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/75c9c1d42880a29086ffc303cd6aecd0d83c3bb9" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -4.171ex; width:22.417ex; height:9.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}c_{x}=2&0&0\\0&c_{y}=1&0\\0&0&1\end{bmatrix}}}"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Checkerboard_scale.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Checkerboard_scale.svg/240px-Checkerboard_scale.svg.png" decoding="async" width="240" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Checkerboard_scale.svg/360px-Checkerboard_scale.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Checkerboard_scale.svg/480px-Checkerboard_scale.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="240" data-file-height="160" /></a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Rotate" class="mw-redirect" title="Rotate">Rotate</a> </td> <td align="center"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}\cos(\theta )&\sin(\theta )&0\\-\sin(\theta )&\cos(\theta )&0\\0&0&1\end{bmatrix}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow> <mo>[</mo> <mtable rowspacing="4pt" columnspacing="1em"> <mtr> <mtd> <mi>cos</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>θ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mtd> <mtd> <mi>sin</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>θ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>0</mn> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mo>−</mo> <mi>sin</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>θ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mtd> <mtd> <mi>cos</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>θ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>0</mn> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mn>0</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>0</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> <mo>]</mo> </mrow> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}\cos(\theta )&\sin(\theta )&0\\-\sin(\theta )&\cos(\theta )&0\\0&0&1\end{bmatrix}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1e7686d473b2f40fbb3e867b4b3409bf63bcd823" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -4.171ex; width:23.621ex; height:9.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}\cos(\theta )&\sin(\theta )&0\\-\sin(\theta )&\cos(\theta )&0\\0&0&1\end{bmatrix}}}"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Checkerboard_rotate.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Checkerboard_rotate.svg/160px-Checkerboard_rotate.svg.png" decoding="async" width="160" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Checkerboard_rotate.svg/240px-Checkerboard_rotate.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Checkerboard_rotate.svg/320px-Checkerboard_rotate.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></a> where θ = <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1214402035">.mw-parser-output .sfrac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .sfrac.tion,.mw-parser-output .sfrac .tion{display:inline-block;vertical-align:-0.5em;font-size:85%;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sfrac .num{display:block;line-height:1em;margin:0.0em 0.1em;border-bottom:1px solid}.mw-parser-output .sfrac .den{display:block;line-height:1em;margin:0.1em 0.1em}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style>⁠π/6⁠ =30° </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Shear_matrix" class="mw-redirect" title="Shear matrix">Shear</a> </td> <td align="center"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}1&c_{x}=0.5&0\\c_{y}=0&1&0\\0&0&1\end{bmatrix}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow> <mo>[</mo> <mtable rowspacing="4pt" columnspacing="1em"> <mtr> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <msub> <mi>c</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>x</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mn>0.5</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>0</mn> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <msub> <mi>c</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>y</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mn>0</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>0</mn> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mn>0</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>0</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> <mo>]</mo> </mrow> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}1&c_{x}=0.5&0\\c_{y}=0&1&0\\0&0&1\end{bmatrix}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0063f16565cecf78a3732068701f46390ad2f4a7" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -4.171ex; width:24.226ex; height:9.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}1&c_{x}=0.5&0\\c_{y}=0&1&0\\0&0&1\end{bmatrix}}}"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Checkerboard_shear.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Checkerboard_shear.svg/160px-Checkerboard_shear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="160" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Checkerboard_shear.svg/240px-Checkerboard_shear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Checkerboard_shear.svg/320px-Checkerboard_shear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> To apply the affine matrix to an image, the image is converted to matrix in which each entry corresponds to the pixel intensity at that location. Then each pixel's location can be represented as a vector indicating the coordinates of that pixel in the image, [x, y], where x and y are the row and column of a pixel in the image matrix. This allows the coordinate to be multiplied by an affine-transformation matrix, which gives the position that the pixel value will be copied to in the output image. However, to allow transformations that require translation transformations, 3 dimensional <a href="/wiki/Homogeneous_coordinates" title="Homogeneous coordinates">homogeneous coordinates</a> are needed. The third dimension is usually set to a non-zero constant, usually 1, so that the new coordinate is [x, y, 1]. This allows the coordinate vector to be multiplied by a 3 by 3 matrix, enabling translation shifts. So the third dimension, which is the constant 1, allows translation. Because matrix multiplication is associative, multiple affine transformations can be combined into a single affine transformation by multiplying the matrix of each individual transformation in the order that the transformations are done. This results in a single matrix that, when applied to a point vector, gives the same result as all the individual transformations performed on the vector [x, y, 1] in sequence. Thus a sequence of affine transformation matrices can be reduced to a single affine transformation matrix. For example, 2 dimensional coordinates only allow rotation about the origin (0, 0). But 3 dimensional homogeneous coordinates can be used to first translate any point to (0, 0), then perform the rotation, and lastly translate the origin (0, 0) back to the original point (the opposite of the first translation). These 3 affine transformations can be combined into a single matrix, thus allowing rotation around any point in the image.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Image_denoising_with_Morphology">Image denoising with Morphology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Digital_image_processing&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Image denoising with Morphology">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_morphology" title="Mathematical morphology">Mathematical morphology</a> is suitable for denoising images. <a href="/wiki/Structuring_element" title="Structuring element">Structuring element</a> are important in <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_morphology" title="Mathematical morphology">Mathematical morphology</a>. The following examples are about Structuring elements. The denoise function, image as I, and structuring element as B are shown as below and table. e.g. <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle (I')={\begin{bmatrix}45&50&65\\40&60&55\\25&15&5\end{bmatrix}}B={\begin{bmatrix}1&2&1\\2&1&1\\1&0&3\end{bmatrix}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msup> <mi>I</mi> <mo>′</mo> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow> <mo>[</mo> <mtable rowspacing="4pt" columnspacing="1em"> <mtr> <mtd> <mn>45</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>50</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>65</mn> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mn>40</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>60</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>55</mn> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mn>25</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>15</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>5</mn> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> <mo>]</mo> </mrow> </mrow> <mi>B</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow> <mo>[</mo> <mtable rowspacing="4pt" columnspacing="1em"> <mtr> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>2</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mn>2</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>0</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>3</mn> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> <mo>]</mo> </mrow> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle (I')={\begin{bmatrix}45&50&65\\40&60&55\\25&15&5\end{bmatrix}}B={\begin{bmatrix}1&2&1\\2&1&1\\1&0&3\end{bmatrix}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/d5dd627bfdf775e47bdfa507fea655bee9fedb2e" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -4.005ex; width:39.128ex; height:9.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle (I')={\begin{bmatrix}45&50&65\\40&60&55\\25&15&5\end{bmatrix}}B={\begin{bmatrix}1&2&1\\2&1&1\\1&0&3\end{bmatrix}}}"> Define Dilation(I, B)(i,j) = <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle max\{I(i+m,j+n)+B(m,n)\}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>m</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>x</mi> <mo fence="false" stretchy="false">{</mo> <mi>I</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>i</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mi>m</mi> <mo>,</mo> <mi>j</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mi>n</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>+</mo> <mi>B</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>m</mi> <mo>,</mo> <mi>n</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo fence="false" stretchy="false">}</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle max\{I(i+m,j+n)+B(m,n)\}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/599269d5746cc51950f4d58b8c0cadd6fd7fb888" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:32.699ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle max\{I(i+m,j+n)+B(m,n)\}}">. Let Dilation(I,B) = D(I,B) D(I', B)(1,1) = <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle max(45+1,50+2,65+1,40+2,60+1,55+1,25+1,15+0,5+3)=66}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>m</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>45</mn> <mo>+</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo>,</mo> <mn>50</mn> <mo>+</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mo>,</mo> <mn>65</mn> <mo>+</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo>,</mo> <mn>40</mn> <mo>+</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mo>,</mo> <mn>60</mn> <mo>+</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo>,</mo> <mn>55</mn> <mo>+</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo>,</mo> <mn>25</mn> <mo>+</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo>,</mo> <mn>15</mn> <mo>+</mo> <mn>0</mn> <mo>,</mo> <mn>5</mn> <mo>+</mo> <mn>3</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mn>66</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle max(45+1,50+2,65+1,40+2,60+1,55+1,25+1,15+0,5+3)=66}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/5a6de39b45d781fc5376b8986f011e5306fc3e61" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:75.891ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle max(45+1,50+2,65+1,40+2,60+1,55+1,25+1,15+0,5+3)=66}"> Define Erosion(I, B)(i,j) = <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle min\{I(i+m,j+n)-B(m,n)\}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>m</mi> <mi>i</mi> <mi>n</mi> <mo fence="false" stretchy="false">{</mo> <mi>I</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>i</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mi>m</mi> <mo>,</mo> <mi>j</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mi>n</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>−</mo> <mi>B</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>m</mi> <mo>,</mo> <mi>n</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo fence="false" stretchy="false">}</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle min\{I(i+m,j+n)-B(m,n)\}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a97c6892ee3be97dfc7294eab5e0b2eb342522e7" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:32.337ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle min\{I(i+m,j+n)-B(m,n)\}}">. Let Erosion(I,B) = E(I,B) E(I', B)(1,1) = <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle min(45-1,50-2,65-1,40-2,60-1,55-1,25-1,15-0,5-3)=2}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>m</mi> <mi>i</mi> <mi>n</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>45</mn> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo>,</mo> <mn>50</mn> <mo>−</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mo>,</mo> <mn>65</mn> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo>,</mo> <mn>40</mn> <mo>−</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mo>,</mo> <mn>60</mn> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo>,</mo> <mn>55</mn> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo>,</mo> <mn>25</mn> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo>,</mo> <mn>15</mn> <mo>−</mo> <mn>0</mn> <mo>,</mo> <mn>5</mn> <mo>−</mo> <mn>3</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mn>2</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle min(45-1,50-2,65-1,40-2,60-1,55-1,25-1,15-0,5-3)=2}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/eaa1749eaef7dde8ee36dfaec03b76360a518dfe" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:74.367ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle min(45-1,50-2,65-1,40-2,60-1,55-1,25-1,15-0,5-3)=2}"> After dilation <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle (I')={\begin{bmatrix}45&50&65\\40&66&55\\25&15&5\end{bmatrix}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msup> <mi>I</mi> <mo>′</mo> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow> <mo>[</mo> <mtable rowspacing="4pt" columnspacing="1em"> <mtr> <mtd> <mn>45</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>50</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>65</mn> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mn>40</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>66</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>55</mn> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mn>25</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>15</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>5</mn> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> <mo>]</mo> </mrow> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle (I')={\begin{bmatrix}45&50&65\\40&66&55\\25&15&5\end{bmatrix}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/382f07b1ad616c4c4c3864a2b269e1a311055000" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -4.005ex; width:22.281ex; height:9.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle (I')={\begin{bmatrix}45&50&65\\40&66&55\\25&15&5\end{bmatrix}}}"> After erosion <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle (I')={\begin{bmatrix}45&50&65\\40&2&55\\25&15&5\end{bmatrix}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msup> <mi>I</mi> <mo>′</mo> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow> <mo>[</mo> <mtable rowspacing="4pt" columnspacing="1em"> <mtr> <mtd> <mn>45</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>50</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>65</mn> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mn>40</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>2</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>55</mn> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mn>25</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>15</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>5</mn> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> <mo>]</mo> </mrow> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle (I')={\begin{bmatrix}45&50&65\\40&2&55\\25&15&5\end{bmatrix}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/795249edfeea8a1cb8483e45fb546786ff08856e" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -4.005ex; width:22.281ex; height:9.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle (I')={\begin{bmatrix}45&50&65\\40&2&55\\25&15&5\end{bmatrix}}}"> An opening method is just simply erosion first, and then dilation while the closing method is vice versa. In reality, the D(I,B) and E(I,B) can implemented by <a href="/wiki/Convolution" title="Convolution">Convolution</a> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Structuring element </th> <th>Mask </th> <th>Code </th> <th>Example </th></tr> <tr> <td>Original Image </td> <td>None </td> <td>Use Matlab to read Original image <div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-matlab mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>original = imread('scene.jpg'); image = rgb2gray(original); [r, c, channel] = size(image); se = logical([1 1 1 ; 1 1 1 ; 1 1 1]); [p, q] = size(se); halfH = floor(p/2); halfW = floor(q/2); time = 3; % denoising 3 times with all method </pre></div> </td> <td><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lotus_free.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Lotus_free.jpg/220px-Lotus_free.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Lotus_free.jpg/330px-Lotus_free.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Lotus_free.jpg/440px-Lotus_free.jpg 2x" data-file-width="457" data-file-height="363" /></a><figcaption>Original lotus</figcaption></figure> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Dilation_(morphology)" title="Dilation (morphology)">Dilation</a> </td> <td align="center"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}1&1&1\\1&1&1\\1&1&1\end{bmatrix}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow> <mo>[</mo> <mtable rowspacing="4pt" columnspacing="1em"> <mtr> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> <mo>]</mo> </mrow> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}1&1&1\\1&1&1\\1&1&1\end{bmatrix}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/5350c22386c6f1c2c32769f4fc14ca3a0121a3ea" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -4.005ex; width:11.985ex; height:9.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}1&1&1\\1&1&1\\1&1&1\end{bmatrix}}}"> </td> <td>Use Matlab to dilation <div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-matlab mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>imwrite(image, "scene_dil.jpg") extractmax = zeros(size(image), class(image)); for i = 1 : time dil_image = imread('scene_dil.jpg'); for col = (halfW + 1): (c - halfW) for row = (halfH + 1) : (r - halfH) dpointD = row - halfH; dpointU = row + halfH; dpointL = col - halfW; dpointR = col + halfW; dneighbor = dil_image(dpointD:dpointU, dpointL:dpointR); filter = dneighbor(se); extractmax(row, col) = max(filter); end end imwrite(extractmax, "scene_dil.jpg"); end </pre></div> </td> <td><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lotus_free_dil.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Lotus_free_dil.jpg/220px-Lotus_free_dil.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Lotus_free_dil.jpg/330px-Lotus_free_dil.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Lotus_free_dil.jpg/440px-Lotus_free_dil.jpg 2x" data-file-width="457" data-file-height="363" /></a><figcaption>Denoising picture with dilation method</figcaption></figure> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Erosion_(morphology)" title="Erosion (morphology)">Erosion</a> </td> <td align="center"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}1&1&1\\1&1&1\\1&1&1\end{bmatrix}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow> <mo>[</mo> <mtable rowspacing="4pt" columnspacing="1em"> <mtr> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> <mo>]</mo> </mrow> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}1&1&1\\1&1&1\\1&1&1\end{bmatrix}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/5350c22386c6f1c2c32769f4fc14ca3a0121a3ea" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -4.005ex; width:11.985ex; height:9.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}1&1&1\\1&1&1\\1&1&1\end{bmatrix}}}"> </td> <td>Use Matlab to erosion <div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-matlab mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>imwrite(image, 'scene_ero.jpg'); extractmin = zeros(size(image), class(image)); for i = 1: time ero_image = imread('scene_ero.jpg'); for col = (halfW + 1): (c - halfW) for row = (halfH +1): (r -halfH) pointDown = row-halfH; pointUp = row+halfH; pointLeft = col-halfW; pointRight = col+halfW; neighbor = ero_image(pointDown:pointUp,pointLeft:pointRight); filter = neighbor(se); extractmin(row, col) = min(filter); end end imwrite(extractmin, "scene_ero.jpg"); end </pre></div> </td> <td><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lotus_free_erosion.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Lotus_free_erosion.jpg/220px-Lotus_free_erosion.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Lotus_free_erosion.jpg/330px-Lotus_free_erosion.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Lotus_free_erosion.jpg/440px-Lotus_free_erosion.jpg 2x" data-file-width="457" data-file-height="363" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Opening_(morphology)" title="Opening (morphology)">Opening</a> </td> <td align="center"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}1&1&1\\1&1&1\\1&1&1\end{bmatrix}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow> <mo>[</mo> <mtable rowspacing="4pt" columnspacing="1em"> <mtr> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> <mo>]</mo> </mrow> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}1&1&1\\1&1&1\\1&1&1\end{bmatrix}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/5350c22386c6f1c2c32769f4fc14ca3a0121a3ea" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -4.005ex; width:11.985ex; height:9.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}1&1&1\\1&1&1\\1&1&1\end{bmatrix}}}"> </td> <td>Use Matlab to Opening <div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-matlab mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>imwrite(extractmin, "scene_opening.jpg") extractopen = zeros(size(image), class(image)); for i = 1 : time dil_image = imread('scene_opening.jpg'); for col = (halfW + 1): (c - halfW) for row = (halfH + 1) : (r - halfH) dpointD = row - halfH; dpointU = row + halfH; dpointL = col - halfW; dpointR = col + halfW; dneighbor = dil_image(dpointD:dpointU, dpointL:dpointR); filter = dneighbor(se); extractopen(row, col) = max(filter); end end imwrite(extractopen, "scene_opening.jpg"); end </pre></div> </td> <td><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lotus_free_opening.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Lotus_free_opening.jpg/220px-Lotus_free_opening.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Lotus_free_opening.jpg/330px-Lotus_free_opening.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Lotus_free_opening.jpg/440px-Lotus_free_opening.jpg 2x" data-file-width="457" data-file-height="363" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Closing_(morphology)" title="Closing (morphology)">Closing</a> </td> <td align="center"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}1&1&1\\1&1&1\\1&1&1\end{bmatrix}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow> <mo>[</mo> <mtable rowspacing="4pt" columnspacing="1em"> <mtr> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> <mo>]</mo> </mrow> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}1&1&1\\1&1&1\\1&1&1\end{bmatrix}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/5350c22386c6f1c2c32769f4fc14ca3a0121a3ea" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -4.005ex; width:11.985ex; height:9.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}1&1&1\\1&1&1\\1&1&1\end{bmatrix}}}"> </td> <td>Use Matlab to Closing <div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-matlab mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>imwrite(extractmax, "scene_closing.jpg") extractclose = zeros(size(image), class(image)); for i = 1 : time ero_image = imread('scene_closing.jpg'); for col = (halfW + 1): (c - halfW) for row = (halfH + 1) : (r - halfH) dpointD = row - halfH; dpointU = row + halfH; dpointL = col - halfW; dpointR = col + halfW; dneighbor = ero_image(dpointD:dpointU, dpointL:dpointR); filter = dneighbor(se); extractclose(row, col) = min(filter); end end imwrite(extractclose, "scene_closing.jpg"); end </pre></div> </td> <td><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lotus_free_closing.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Lotus_free_closing.jpg/220px-Lotus_free_closing.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Lotus_free_closing.jpg/330px-Lotus_free_closing.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Lotus_free_closing.jpg/440px-Lotus_free_closing.jpg 2x" data-file-width="457" data-file-height="363" /></a><figcaption>Denoising picture with closing method</figcaption></figure> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Digital_image_processing&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Applications">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Digital_imaging" title="Digital imaging">Digital imaging</a> and <a href="/wiki/Applications_of_computer_vision" class="mw-redirect" title="Applications of computer vision">Applications of computer vision</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Digital_camera_images">Digital camera images</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Digital_image_processing&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Digital camera images">edit</a>]</div> Digital cameras generally include specialized digital image processing hardware – either dedicated chips or added circuitry on other chips – to convert the raw data from their <a href="/wiki/Image_sensor" title="Image sensor">image sensor</a> into a <a href="/wiki/Color_correction" title="Color correction">color-corrected</a> image in a standard <a href="/wiki/Image_file_formats" class="mw-redirect" title="Image file formats">image file format</a>. Additional post processing techniques increase edge sharpness or color saturation to create more naturally looking images. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Film">Film</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Digital_image_processing&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Film">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Westworld_(film)" title="Westworld (film)">Westworld</a> (1973) was the first feature film to use the digital image processing to <a href="/wiki/Pixellate" class="mw-redirect" title="Pixellate">pixellate</a> photography to simulate an android's point of view.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> Image processing is also vastly used to produce the <a href="/wiki/Chroma_key" title="Chroma key">chroma key</a> effect that replaces the background of actors with natural or artistic scenery. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Face_detection">Face detection</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Digital_image_processing&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Face detection">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Face_detection_process_V1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Face_detection_process_V1.jpg/220px-Face_detection_process_V1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="278" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Face_detection_process_V1.jpg/330px-Face_detection_process_V1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Face_detection_process_V1.jpg/440px-Face_detection_process_V1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="611" data-file-height="771" /></a><figcaption>Face detection process</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Face_detection" title="Face detection">Face detection</a> can be implemented with <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_morphology" title="Mathematical morphology">Mathematical morphology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Discrete_cosine_transform" title="Discrete cosine transform">Discrete cosine transform</a> which is usually called DCT, and horizontal <a href="/wiki/Projection_(mathematics)" title="Projection (mathematics)">Projection (mathematics)</a>. General method with feature-based method The feature-based method of face detection is using skin tone, edge detection, face shape, and feature of a face (like eyes, mouth, etc.) to achieve face detection. The skin tone, face shape, and all the unique elements that only the human face have can be described as features. Process explanation <ol><li>Given a batch of face images, first, extract the skin tone range by sampling face images. The skin tone range is just a skin filter. <ol><li><a href="/wiki/Structural_similarity" class="mw-redirect" title="Structural similarity">Structural similarity</a> index measure (SSIM) can be applied to compare images in terms of extracting the skin tone.</li> <li>Normally, HSV or RGB color spaces are suitable for the skin filter. E.g. HSV mode, the skin tone range is [0,48,50] ~ [20,255,255]</li></ol></li> <li>After filtering images with skin tone, to get the face edge, morphology and DCT are used to remove noise and fill up missing skin areas. <ol><li>Opening method or closing method can be used to achieve filling up missing skin.</li> <li>DCT is to avoid the object with skin-like tone. Since human faces always have higher texture.</li> <li>Sobel operator or other operators can be applied to detect face edge.</li></ol></li> <li>To position human features like eyes, using the projection and find the peak of the histogram of projection help to get the detail feature like mouth, hair, and lip. <ol><li>Projection is just projecting the image to see the high frequency which is usually the feature position.</li></ol></li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Improvement_of_image_quality_method">Improvement of image quality method</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Digital_image_processing&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Improvement of image quality method">edit</a>]</div> Image quality can be influenced by camera vibration, over-exposure, gray level distribution too centralized, and noise, etc. For example, noise problem can be solved by <a href="/wiki/Smoothing" title="Smoothing">Smoothing</a> method while gray level distribution problem can be improved by <a href="/wiki/Histogram_equalization" title="Histogram equalization">histogram equalization</a>. <a href="/wiki/Smoothing" title="Smoothing">Smoothing</a> method In drawing, if there is some dissatisfied color, taking some color around dissatisfied color and averaging them. This is an easy way to think of Smoothing method. Smoothing method can be implemented with mask and <a href="/wiki/Convolution" title="Convolution">Convolution</a>. Take the small image and mask for instance as below. image is <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}2&5&6&5\\3&1&4&6\\1&28&30&2\\7&3&2&2\end{bmatrix}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow> <mo>[</mo> <mtable rowspacing="4pt" columnspacing="1em"> <mtr> <mtd> <mn>2</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>5</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>6</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>5</mn> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mn>3</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>4</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>6</mn> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>28</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>30</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>2</mn> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mn>7</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>3</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>2</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>2</mn> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> <mo>]</mo> </mrow> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}2&5&6&5\\3&1&4&6\\1&28&30&2\\7&3&2&2\end{bmatrix}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ba73023ac222584748d50094fd2b5c8ff4fb3fc4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -5.671ex; width:17.795ex; height:12.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}2&5&6&5\\3&1&4&6\\1&28&30&2\\7&3&2&2\end{bmatrix}}}"> mask is <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}1/9&1/9&1/9\\1/9&1/9&1/9\\1/9&1/9&1/9\end{bmatrix}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow> <mo>[</mo> <mtable rowspacing="4pt" columnspacing="1em"> <mtr> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mn>9</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mn>9</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mn>9</mn> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mn>9</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mn>9</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mn>9</mn> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mn>9</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mn>9</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mn>9</mn> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> <mo>]</mo> </mrow> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}1/9&1/9&1/9\\1/9&1/9&1/9\\1/9&1/9&1/9\end{bmatrix}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9a61c215b24aa9c824f9615efbedb4edf03ab15c" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -4.338ex; width:18.959ex; height:9.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}1/9&1/9&1/9\\1/9&1/9&1/9\\1/9&1/9&1/9\end{bmatrix}}}"> After <a href="/wiki/Convolution" title="Convolution">Convolution</a> and smoothing, image is <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}2&5&6&5\\3&9&10&6\\1&9&9&2\\7&3&2&2\end{bmatrix}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow> <mo>[</mo> <mtable rowspacing="4pt" columnspacing="1em"> <mtr> <mtd> <mn>2</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>5</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>6</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>5</mn> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mn>3</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>9</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>10</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>6</mn> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>9</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>9</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>2</mn> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mn>7</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>3</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>2</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>2</mn> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> <mo>]</mo> </mrow> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}2&5&6&5\\3&9&10&6\\1&9&9&2\\7&3&2&2\end{bmatrix}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/855545cfa40bd44d635cbd904ae86c853209a8b7" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -5.671ex; width:16.632ex; height:12.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}2&5&6&5\\3&9&10&6\\1&9&9&2\\7&3&2&2\end{bmatrix}}}"> Oberseving image[1, 1], image[1, 2], image[2, 1], and image[2, 2]. The original image pixel is 1, 4, 28, 30. After smoothing mask, the pixel becomes 9, 10, 9, 9 respectively. new image[1, 1] = <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{9}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mn>9</mn> </mfrac> </mstyle> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{9}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ca7fbb8c7af3dce2f4bb214f14a76358a32a49d2" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.338ex; width:1.658ex; height:3.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{9}}}"> * (image[0,0]+image[0,1]+image[0,2]+image[1,0]+image[1,1]+image[1,2]+image[2,0]+image[2,1]+image[2,2]) new image[1, 1] = floor(<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{9}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mn>9</mn> </mfrac> </mstyle> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{9}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ca7fbb8c7af3dce2f4bb214f14a76358a32a49d2" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.338ex; width:1.658ex; height:3.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{9}}}"> * (2+5+6+3+1+4+1+28+30)) = 9 new image[1, 2] = floor({<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{9}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mn>9</mn> </mfrac> </mstyle> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{9}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ca7fbb8c7af3dce2f4bb214f14a76358a32a49d2" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.338ex; width:1.658ex; height:3.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{9}}}"> * (5+6+5+1+4+6+28+30+2)) = 10 new image[2, 1] = floor(<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{9}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mn>9</mn> </mfrac> </mstyle> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{9}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ca7fbb8c7af3dce2f4bb214f14a76358a32a49d2" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.338ex; width:1.658ex; height:3.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{9}}}"> * (3+1+4+1+28+30+7+3+2)) = 9 new image[2, 2] = floor(<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{9}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mn>9</mn> </mfrac> </mstyle> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{9}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ca7fbb8c7af3dce2f4bb214f14a76358a32a49d2" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.338ex; width:1.658ex; height:3.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{9}}}"> * (1+4+6+28+30+2+3+2+2)) = 9 Gray Level Histogram method Generally, given a gray level histogram from an image as below. Changing the histogram to uniform distribution from an image is usually what we called <a href="/wiki/Histogram_equalization" title="Histogram equalization">Histogram equalization</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gray_level_histogram.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Gray_level_histogram.jpg/220px-Gray_level_histogram.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Gray_level_histogram.jpg/330px-Gray_level_histogram.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Gray_level_histogram.jpg/440px-Gray_level_histogram.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1222" data-file-height="826" /></a><figcaption>Figure 1</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Uniform_distribution.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Uniform_distribution.jpg/220px-Uniform_distribution.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Uniform_distribution.jpg/330px-Uniform_distribution.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Uniform_distribution.jpg/440px-Uniform_distribution.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1208" data-file-height="837" /></a><figcaption>Figure 2</figcaption></figure> In discrete time, the area of gray level histogram is <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \sum _{i=0}^{k}H(p_{i})}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <munderover> <mo>∑</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> </mrow> </munderover> <mi>H</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>p</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \sum _{i=0}^{k}H(p_{i})}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/abf8541658f07b519e88ce11222fb7653e7066f5" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.005ex; width:9.584ex; height:7.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \sum _{i=0}^{k}H(p_{i})}">(see figure 1) while the area of uniform distribution is <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \sum _{i=0}^{k}G(q_{i})}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <munderover> <mo>∑</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> </mrow> </munderover> <mi>G</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>q</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \sum _{i=0}^{k}G(q_{i})}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/3315d247848798770d0f3c21a86f1dd8c6d837e1" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.005ex; width:9.215ex; height:7.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \sum _{i=0}^{k}G(q_{i})}">(see figure 2). It is clear that the area will not change, so <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \sum _{i=0}^{k}H(p_{i})=\sum _{i=0}^{k}G(q_{i})}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <munderover> <mo>∑</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> </mrow> </munderover> <mi>H</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>p</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <munderover> <mo>∑</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> </mrow> </munderover> <mi>G</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>q</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \sum _{i=0}^{k}H(p_{i})=\sum _{i=0}^{k}G(q_{i})}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f5a03a27e52e7dae4eaec2248d84c2d112021c57" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.005ex; width:21.897ex; height:7.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \sum _{i=0}^{k}H(p_{i})=\sum _{i=0}^{k}G(q_{i})}">. From the uniform distribution, the probability of <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle q_{i}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>q</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle q_{i}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/2752dcbff884354069fe332b8e51eb0a70a531b6" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.837ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle q_{i}}"> is <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\tfrac {N^{2}}{q_{k}-q_{0}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0"> <mfrac> <msup> <mi>N</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mrow> <msub> <mi>q</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mi>q</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </mfrac> </mstyle> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\tfrac {N^{2}}{q_{k}-q_{0}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/65ade21483343c9cd5b40ec715577f6d5c16bf9a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.505ex; width:5.272ex; height:4.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\tfrac {N^{2}}{q_{k}-q_{0}}}}"> while the <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 0<i<k}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>0</mn> <mo><</mo> <mi>i</mi> <mo><</mo> <mi>k</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 0<i<k}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a10b8f01bb97f7dc0f56d3f67f22c83944b2464b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:9.373ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 0<i<k}"> In continuous time, the equation is <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \displaystyle \int _{q_{0}}^{q}{\tfrac {N^{2}}{q_{k}-q_{0}}}ds=\displaystyle \int _{p_{0}}^{p}H(s)ds}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msubsup> <mo>∫</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msub> <mi>q</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>q</mi> </mrow> </msubsup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0"> <mfrac> <msup> <mi>N</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mrow> <msub> <mi>q</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>k</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mi>q</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </mfrac> </mstyle> </mrow> <mi>d</mi> <mi>s</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msubsup> <mo>∫</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msub> <mi>p</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>p</mi> </mrow> </msubsup> <mi>H</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>s</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mi>d</mi> <mi>s</mi> </mstyle> </mstyle> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \displaystyle \int _{q_{0}}^{q}{\tfrac {N^{2}}{q_{k}-q_{0}}}ds=\displaystyle \int _{p_{0}}^{p}H(s)ds}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/13b3fefe6b5ce78e6247284089d22f16c60fc7b7" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.838ex; width:25.697ex; height:6.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \displaystyle \int _{q_{0}}^{q}{\tfrac {N^{2}}{q_{k}-q_{0}}}ds=\displaystyle \int _{p_{0}}^{p}H(s)ds}">. Moreover, based on the definition of a function, the Gray level histogram method is like finding a function <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle f}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>f</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle f}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/132e57acb643253e7810ee9702d9581f159a1c61" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.279ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle f}"> that satisfies f(p)=q. <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Improvement method </th> <th>Issue </th> <th>Before improvement </th> <th>Process </th> <th>After improvement </th></tr> <tr> <td>Smoothing method </td> <td>noise with Matlab, salt & pepper with 0.01 parameter is added to the original image in order to create a noisy image. </td> <td><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Helmet_with_noise.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Helmet_with_noise.jpg/220px-Helmet_with_noise.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Helmet_with_noise.jpg/330px-Helmet_with_noise.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Helmet_with_noise.jpg/440px-Helmet_with_noise.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1764" data-file-height="1376" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> </td> <td> <ol><li>read image and convert image into grayscale</li> <li>convolution the graysale image with the mask <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}1/9&1/9&1/9\\1/9&1/9&1/9\\1/9&1/9&1/9\end{bmatrix}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow> <mo>[</mo> <mtable rowspacing="4pt" columnspacing="1em"> <mtr> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mn>9</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mn>9</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mn>9</mn> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mn>9</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mn>9</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mn>9</mn> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mn>9</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mn>9</mn> </mtd> <mtd> <mn>1</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mn>9</mn> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> <mo>]</mo> </mrow> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}1/9&1/9&1/9\\1/9&1/9&1/9\\1/9&1/9&1/9\end{bmatrix}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9a61c215b24aa9c824f9615efbedb4edf03ab15c" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -4.338ex; width:18.959ex; height:9.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}1/9&1/9&1/9\\1/9&1/9&1/9\\1/9&1/9&1/9\end{bmatrix}}}"></li> <li>denoisy image will be the result of step 2.</li></ol> </td> <td><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Helmet_without_noise.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Helmet_without_noise.jpg/220px-Helmet_without_noise.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Helmet_without_noise.jpg/330px-Helmet_without_noise.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Helmet_without_noise.jpg/440px-Helmet_without_noise.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1764" data-file-height="1376" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Histogram Equalization </td> <td>Gray level distribution too centralized </td> <td><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cave_scene_before_improvement.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Cave_scene_before_improvement.jpg/220px-Cave_scene_before_improvement.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Cave_scene_before_improvement.jpg/330px-Cave_scene_before_improvement.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Cave_scene_before_improvement.jpg/440px-Cave_scene_before_improvement.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1120" data-file-height="840" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> </td> <td>Refer to the <a href="/wiki/Histogram_equalization" title="Histogram equalization">Histogram equalization</a> </td> <td><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cave_scene_after_improvement.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Cave_scene_after_improvement.jpg/220px-Cave_scene_after_improvement.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Cave_scene_after_improvement.jpg/330px-Cave_scene_after_improvement.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Cave_scene_after_improvement.jpg/440px-Cave_scene_after_improvement.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1120" data-file-height="840" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Challenges">Challenges</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Digital_image_processing&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Challenges">edit</a>]</div> <ol><li>Noise and <a href="/wiki/Distortion" title="Distortion">Distortions</a>: Imperfections in images due to poor lighting, limited sensors, and file compression can result in unclear images that impact accurate image conversion.</li> <li>Variability in Image Quality: Variations in image quality and resolution, including blurry images and incomplete details, can hinder uniform processing across a database.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Object_detection" title="Object detection">Object Detection</a> and Recognition: Identifying and recognising objects within images, especially in complex scenarios with multiple objects and occlusions, poses a significant challenge.</li> <li>Data Annotation and Labelling: Labelling diverse and multiple images for machine recognition is crucial for further processing accuracy, as incorrect identification can lead to unrealistic results.</li> <li>Computational <a href="/wiki/Resource_intensity" title="Resource intensity">Resource Intensity</a>: Accessing adequate computational resources for image processing can be challenging and costly, hindering progress without sufficient resources.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Digital_image_processing&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digital_imaging" title="Digital imaging">Digital imaging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_graphics" title="Computer graphics">Computer graphics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_vision" title="Computer vision">Computer vision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CVIPtools" title="CVIPtools">CVIPtools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digitizing" class="mw-redirect" title="Digitizing">Digitizing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourier_transform" title="Fourier transform">Fourier transform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_boundary_condition" title="Free boundary condition">Free boundary condition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPGPU" class="mw-redirect" title="GPGPU">GPGPU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homomorphic_filtering" title="Homomorphic filtering">Homomorphic filtering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Image_analysis" title="Image analysis">Image analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IEEE_Intelligent_Transportation_Systems_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="IEEE Intelligent Transportation Systems Society">IEEE Intelligent Transportation Systems Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Least-squares_spectral_analysis" title="Least-squares spectral analysis">Least-squares spectral analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multidimensional_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Multidimensional systems">Multidimensional systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relaxation_labelling" title="Relaxation labelling">Relaxation labelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remote_sensing_software" title="Remote sensing software">Remote sensing software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_test_image" title="Standard test image">Standard test image</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superresolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Superresolution">Superresolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Total_variation_denoising" title="Total variation denoising">Total variation denoising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machine_Vision" class="mw-redirect" title="Machine Vision">Machine Vision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bounded_variation" title="Bounded variation">Bounded variation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiomics" title="Radiomics">Radiomics</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Digital_image_processing&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFChakravorty2018" class="citation journal cs1">Chakravorty, Pragnan (2018). 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IEEE Access. 10: 19215–19231. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022IEEEA..1019215N">2022IEEEA..1019215N</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FACCESS.2022.3151361">10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3151361</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2169-3536">2169-3536</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:246895876">246895876</a>. <q>Medical imaging systems produce increasingly accurate images with improved quality using higher spatial resolutions and color bit-depth. 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Retrieved 26 March 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Affine+Transformations&rft.series=Foundations+of+Physically+Based+Modeling+%26+Animation&rft.pub=A+K+Peters%2FCRC+Press&rft.date=2016-12-06&rft.isbn=978-1-4822-3460-2&rft.au=House%2C+Keyser&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpeople.cs.clemson.edu%2F~dhouse%2Fcourses%2F401%2Fnotes%2Faffines-matrices.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADigital+image+processing" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: <code class="cs1-code">|website=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.beanblossom.in.us/larryy/cgi.html">A Brief, Early History of Computer Graphics in Film</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120717074134/http://www.beanblossom.in.us/larryy/cgi.html">Archived</a> 17 July 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Larry_Yaeger" title="Larry Yaeger">Larry Yaeger</a>, 16 August 2002 (last update), retrieved 24 March 2010 </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Digital_image_processing&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSolomon,_C.J.Breckon,_T.P.2010" class="citation book cs1">Solomon, C.J.; Breckon, T.P. (2010). Fundamentals of Digital Image Processing: A Practical Approach with Examples in Matlab. Wiley-Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9780470689776">10.1002/9780470689776</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-84473-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-470-84473-1"><bdi>978-0-470-84473-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fundamentals+of+Digital+Image+Processing%3A+A+Practical+Approach+with+Examples+in+Matlab&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9780470689776&rft.isbn=978-0-470-84473-1&rft.au=Solomon%2C+C.J.&rft.au=Breckon%2C+T.P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADigital+image+processing" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilhelm_BurgerMark_J._Burge2007" class="citation book cs1">Wilhelm Burger; Mark J. Burge (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.imagingbook.com/">Digital Image Processing: An Algorithmic Approach Using Java</a>. <a href="/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media" title="Springer Science+Business Media">Springer</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84628-379-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84628-379-6"><bdi>978-1-84628-379-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Digital+Image+Processing%3A+An+Algorithmic+Approach+Using+Java&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-84628-379-6&rft.au=Wilhelm+Burger&rft.au=Mark+J.+Burge&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.imagingbook.com%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADigital+image+processing" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFR._FisherK_Dawson-HoweA._FitzgibbonC._Robertson2005" class="citation book cs1">R. Fisher; K Dawson-Howe; A. Fitzgibbon; C. Robertson; E. Trucco (2005). Dictionary of Computer Vision and Image Processing. John Wiley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-01526-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-470-01526-1"><bdi>978-0-470-01526-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Computer+Vision+and+Image+Processing&rft.pub=John+Wiley&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-470-01526-1&rft.au=R.+Fisher&rft.au=K+Dawson-Howe&rft.au=A.+Fitzgibbon&rft.au=C.+Robertson&rft.au=E.+Trucco&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADigital+image+processing" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRafael_C._GonzalezRichard_E._WoodsSteven_L._Eddins2004" class="citation book cs1">Rafael C. Gonzalez; Richard E. Woods; Steven L. Eddins (2004). Digital Image Processing using MATLAB. Pearson Education. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-7758-898-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-7758-898-9"><bdi>978-81-7758-898-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Digital+Image+Processing+using+MATLAB&rft.pub=Pearson+Education&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-81-7758-898-9&rft.au=Rafael+C.+Gonzalez&rft.au=Richard+E.+Woods&rft.au=Steven+L.+Eddins&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADigital+image+processing" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTim_Morris2004" class="citation book cs1">Tim Morris (2004). Computer Vision and Image Processing. Palgrave Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-99451-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-99451-1"><bdi>978-0-333-99451-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Computer+Vision+and+Image+Processing&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-333-99451-1&rft.au=Tim+Morris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADigital+image+processing" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVipin_Tyagi2018" class="citation book cs1">Vipin Tyagi (2018). Understanding Digital Image Processing. Taylor and Francis CRC Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-11-3856-6842" title="Special:BookSources/978-11-3856-6842"><bdi>978-11-3856-6842</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Understanding+Digital+Image+Processing&rft.pub=Taylor+and+Francis+CRC+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-11-3856-6842&rft.au=Vipin+Tyagi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADigital+image+processing" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMilan_SonkaVaclav_HlavacRoger_Boyle1999" class="citation book cs1">Milan Sonka; Vaclav Hlavac; Roger Boyle (1999). Image Processing, Analysis, and Machine Vision. PWS Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-534-95393-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-534-95393-5"><bdi>978-0-534-95393-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Image+Processing%2C+Analysis%2C+and+Machine+Vision&rft.pub=PWS+Publishing&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-534-95393-5&rft.au=Milan+Sonka&rft.au=Vaclav+Hlavac&rft.au=Roger+Boyle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADigital+image+processing" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGonzalezWoods2008" class="citation book cs1">Gonzalez, Rafael C.; Woods, Richard E. (2008). Digital image processing. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-168728-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-13-168728-8"><bdi>978-0-13-168728-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/137312858">137312858</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Digital+image+processing&rft.place=Upper+Saddle+River%2C+N.J.&rft.pub=Prentice+Hall&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F137312858&rft.isbn=978-0-13-168728-8&rft.aulast=Gonzalez&rft.aufirst=Rafael+C.&rft.au=Woods%2C+Richard+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADigital+image+processing" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKovalevsky2019" class="citation book cs1">Kovalevsky, Vladimir (2019). Modern algorithms for image processing: computer imagery by example using C#. [New York, New York]. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4842-4237-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4842-4237-7"><bdi>978-1-4842-4237-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1080084533">1080084533</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+algorithms+for+image+processing%3A+computer+imagery+by+example+using+C%23&rft.place=%5BNew+York%2C+New+York%5D&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1080084533&rft.isbn=978-1-4842-4237-7&rft.aulast=Kovalevsky&rft.aufirst=Vladimir&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADigital+image+processing" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Digital_image_processing&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/Lectures_on_Image_Processing">Lectures on Image Processing</a>, by Alan Peters. Vanderbilt University. Updated 7 January 2016.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mathworks.com/discovery/digital-image-processing.html">Processing digital images with computer algorithms</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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vision">Geometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Image_sensor_technology_in_computer_vision" title="Category:Image sensor technology in computer vision">Image sensor technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Learning_in_computer_vision" title="Category:Learning in computer vision">Learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_morphology" title="Mathematical morphology">Morphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Motion_in_computer_vision" title="Category:Motion in computer vision">Motion analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Image_noise_reduction_techniques" title="Category:Image noise reduction techniques">Noise reduction techniques</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Object_recognition_and_categorization" title="Category:Object recognition and categorization">Recognition and categorization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Computer_vision_research_infrastructure" title="Category:Computer vision research infrastructure">Research infrastructure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Computer_vision_researchers" title="Category:Computer vision researchers">Researchers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Image_segmentation" title="Category:Image segmentation">Segmentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Computer_vision_software" title="Category:Computer vision software">Software</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Technologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_stereo_vision" title="Computer stereo vision">Computer stereo vision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motion_capture" title="Motion capture">Motion capture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_object_recognition" title="Outline of object recognition">Object recognition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/3D_object_recognition" title="3D object recognition">3D object recognition</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Applications_of_computer_vision" title="Category:Applications of computer vision">Applications</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="3D_reconstruction" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/3D_reconstruction" title="3D reconstruction">3D reconstruction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/3D_reconstruction_from_multiple_images" title="3D reconstruction from multiple images">3D reconstruction from multiple images</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2D_to_3D_conversion" title="2D to 3D conversion">2D to 3D conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaussian_splatting" title="Gaussian splatting">Gaussian splatting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neural_radiance_field" title="Neural radiance field">Neural radiance field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shape_from_focus" title="Shape from focus">Shape from focus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simultaneous_localization_and_mapping" title="Simultaneous localization and mapping">Simultaneous localization and mapping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structure_from_motion" title="Structure from motion">Structure from motion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/View_synthesis" title="View synthesis">View synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_hull" title="Visual hull">Visual hull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/4D_reconstruction" title="4D reconstruction">4D reconstruction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Free_viewpoint_television" title="Free viewpoint television">Free viewpoint television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volumetric_capture" title="Volumetric capture">Volumetric capture</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/3D_pose_estimation" title="3D pose estimation">3D pose estimation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Activity_recognition" title="Activity recognition">Activity recognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audio-visual_speech_recognition" title="Audio-visual speech recognition">Audio-visual speech recognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automatic_image_annotation" title="Automatic image annotation">Automatic image annotation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automatic_number-plate_recognition" title="Automatic number-plate recognition">Automatic number-plate recognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automated_species_identification" title="Automated species identification">Automated species identification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augmented_reality" title="Augmented reality">Augmented reality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioimage_informatics" title="Bioimage informatics">Bioimage informatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blob_detection" title="Blob detection">Blob detection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer-aided_diagnosis" title="Computer-aided diagnosis">Computer-aided diagnosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Content-based_image_retrieval" title="Content-based image retrieval">Content-based image retrieval</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_image_search" title="Reverse image search">Reverse image search</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eye_tracking" title="Eye tracking">Eye tracking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facial_recognition_system" title="Facial recognition system">Face recognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreground_detection" title="Foreground detection">Foreground detection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gesture_recognition" title="Gesture recognition">Gesture recognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Image_denoising" class="mw-redirect" title="Image denoising">Image denoising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Image_restoration_by_artificial_intelligence" title="Image restoration by artificial intelligence">Image restoration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landmark_detection" title="Landmark detection">Landmark detection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_image_computing" title="Medical image computing">Medical image computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Object_detection" title="Object detection">Object detection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moving_object_detection" title="Moving object detection">Moving object detection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_object_detection" title="Small object detection">Small object detection</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_character_recognition" title="Optical character recognition">Optical character recognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pose_tracking" title="Pose tracking">Pose tracking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remote_sensing" title="Remote sensing">Remote sensing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robotic_mapping" title="Robotic mapping">Robotic mapping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-driving_car" title="Self-driving car">Autonomous vehicles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_content_analysis" title="Video content analysis">Video content analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_motion_analysis" title="Video motion analysis">Video motion analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence_for_video_surveillance" title="Artificial intelligence for video surveillance">Video surveillance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_tracking" title="Video tracking">Video tracking</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Category:Computer_vision" title="Category:Computer vision">Main category</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Digital_signal_processing" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Digital_signal_processing" title="Template:Digital signal processing"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Digital_signal_processing" title="Template talk:Digital signal processing"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Digital_signal_processing" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Digital signal processing"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Digital_signal_processing" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Digital_signal_processing" title="Digital signal processing">Digital signal processing</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Detection_theory" title="Detection theory">Detection theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrete_time_and_continuous_time" title="Discrete time and continuous time">Discrete signal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estimation_theory" title="Estimation theory">Estimation theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyquist%E2%80%93Shannon_sampling_theorem" title="Nyquist–Shannon sampling theorem">Nyquist–Shannon sampling theorem</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sub-fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Audio_signal_processing" title="Audio signal processing">Audio signal processing</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Digital image processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech_processing" title="Speech processing">Speech processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_signal_processing" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical signal processing">Statistical signal processing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Z-transform" title="Z-transform">Z-transform</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_z-transform" title="Advanced z-transform">Advanced z-transform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matched_Z-transform_method" title="Matched Z-transform method">Matched Z-transform method</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bilinear_transform" title="Bilinear transform">Bilinear transform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constant-Q_transform" title="Constant-Q transform">Constant-Q transform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrete_cosine_transform" title="Discrete cosine transform">Discrete cosine transform</a> (DCT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrete_Fourier_transform" title="Discrete Fourier transform">Discrete Fourier transform</a> (DFT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrete-time_Fourier_transform" title="Discrete-time Fourier transform">Discrete-time Fourier transform</a> (DTFT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impulse_invariance" title="Impulse invariance">Impulse invariance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integral_transform" title="Integral transform">Integral transform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laplace_transform" title="Laplace transform">Laplace transform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%27s_inversion_formula" class="mw-redirect" title="Post's inversion formula">Post's inversion formula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Starred_transform" title="Starred transform">Starred transform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zak_transform" title="Zak transform">Zak transform</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sampling_(signal_processing)" title="Sampling (signal processing)">Sampling</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aliasing" title="Aliasing">Aliasing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-aliasing_filter" title="Anti-aliasing filter">Anti-aliasing filter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Downsampling_(signal_processing)" title="Downsampling (signal processing)">Downsampling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyquist_rate" title="Nyquist rate">Nyquist rate</a> / <a href="/wiki/Nyquist_frequency" title="Nyquist frequency">frequency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oversampling" title="Oversampling">Oversampling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantization_(signal_processing)" title="Quantization (signal processing)">Quantization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sampling_rate" class="mw-redirect" title="Sampling rate">Sampling rate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Undersampling" title="Undersampling">Undersampling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upsampling" title="Upsampling">Upsampling</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Information_processing" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Informatics" title="Template:Informatics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Informatics" title="Template talk:Informatics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Informatics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Informatics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Information_processing" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Information_technology" title="Information technology">Information processing</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Information processes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">information processes by function</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attention" title="Attention">attention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_influence" title="Social influence">influence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remote_control" title="Remote control">operating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communication" title="Communication">communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reasoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Learning" title="Learning">learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_storage" class="mw-redirect" title="Information storage">storing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decision-making" title="Decision-making">decision-making</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">information processing abstractions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Event_processing" class="mw-redirect" title="Event processing">event processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">sign processesing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signal" title="Signal">signal processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_processing" title="Data processing">data processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stream_processing" title="Stream processing">stream processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multi-agent_system" title="Multi-agent system">agent processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_(computer_science)" title="State (computer science)">state processing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Information processors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">natural</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_computing#Nature_as_information_processing" title="Natural computing">nature as information processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_processing_theory#Humans_as_Information_Processing_Systems" title="Information processing theory">humans as information processing systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_information_processing" title="Social information processing">society as information processing system</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">mixed</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mixed_reality" title="Mixed reality">mixed reality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface" title="Brain–computer interface">brain–computer interface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_computing" title="Physical computing">physical computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human%E2%80%93computer_interaction" title="Human–computer interaction">human–computer interaction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">artificial</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Processor_(computing)" title="Processor (computing)">processors</a> and <a href="/wiki/Process_(computing)" title="Process (computing)">processes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bio-inspired_computing" title="Bio-inspired computing">bio-inspired computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubiquitous_computing" title="Ubiquitous computing">ubiquitous computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_brain" title="Artificial brain">artificial brain</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mind_uploading" title="Mind uploading">mind uploading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_reality" title="Virtual reality">virtual reality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_world" title="Virtual world">virtual world</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Information processing theories and concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">in biology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computational_biology" title="Computational biology">computational</a> and <a href="/wiki/Systems_biology" title="Systems biology">systems biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genome_informatics" title="Genome informatics">genetic informatics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cellular_computing" class="mw-redirect" title="Cellular computing">cellular computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_neuroscience" title="Computational neuroscience">computational neuroscience</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neurocomputing" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurocomputing">neurocomputing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">in cognitive psychology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Information_processing_theory" title="Information processing theory">information processing theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">mind</a> and <a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_informatics" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive informatics">cognitive informatics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neuroinformatics" title="Neuroinformatics">neuroinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavior_informatics" title="Behavior informatics">behavior informatics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">in computer science</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neural_computation" title="Neural computation">neural computation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_computation" title="Theory of computation">computation theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algorithms" class="mw-redirect" title="Algorithms">algorithms</a> and <a href="/wiki/Information_structure" title="Information structure">information structures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circuit_(computer_science)" title="Circuit (computer science)">computational circuits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">artificial intelligence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">in philosophy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computational_theory_of_mind" title="Computational theory of mind">computational theory of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">philosophy of information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Philosophy of artificial intelligence">philosophy of artificial intelligence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">interdisciplinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Information_theory" title="Information theory">information theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decision_theory" title="Decision theory">decision theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_theory" title="Systems theory">systems theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Infosphere" title="Infosphere">infosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inforg" title="Inforg">inforg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decoding_the_Universe" title="Decoding the Universe">Decoding the Universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_overload" title="Information overload">information overload</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1070689#identifiers" title="Edit this at 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