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<span>Troop types</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Troop_types-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Troop types subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Troop_types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Realms_in_the_Roman_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Realms_in_the_Roman_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Realms in the Roman Empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Realms_in_the_Roman_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gothic_society_and_forces_in_the_3rd_and_4th_centuries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gothic_society_and_forces_in_the_3rd_and_4th_centuries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Gothic society and forces in the 3rd and 4th centuries</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Gothic_society_and_forces_in_the_3rd_and_4th_centuries-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Gothic society and forces in the 3rd and 4th centuries subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Gothic_society_and_forces_in_the_3rd_and_4th_centuries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Difference_of_scale" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Difference_of_scale"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Difference of scale</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Difference_of_scale-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Defending_Gothic_settlements_(on_the_steppe)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Defending_Gothic_settlements_(on_the_steppe)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Defending Gothic settlements (on the steppe)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Defending_Gothic_settlements_(on_the_steppe)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Attacking_Roman_territory_(by_land)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Attacking_Roman_territory_(by_land)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Attacking Roman territory (by land)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Attacking_Roman_territory_(by_land)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Attacking_Roman_territory_(by_sea)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Attacking_Roman_territory_(by_sea)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Attacking Roman territory (by sea)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Attacking_Roman_territory_(by_sea)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Revolts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Revolts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Revolts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Revolts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gothic_and_Vandal_forces_in_the_Late_Roman_army" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gothic_and_Vandal_forces_in_the_Late_Roman_army"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Gothic and Vandal forces in the Late Roman army</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gothic_and_Vandal_forces_in_the_Late_Roman_army-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Germanic_forces_in_the_Hunnic_army" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Germanic_forces_in_the_Hunnic_army"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Germanic forces in the Hunnic army</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Germanic_forces_in_the_Hunnic_army-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Visigothic_armies_(396–507)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Visigothic_armies_(396–507)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Visigothic armies (396–507)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Visigothic_armies_(396–507)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Visigothic_armies_(507–711)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Visigothic_armies_(507–711)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Visigothic armies (507–711)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Visigothic_armies_(507–711)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vandal_armies_(406–534)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vandal_armies_(406–534)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Vandal armies (406–534)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vandal_armies_(406–534)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ostrogothic_armies_(489–553)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ostrogothic_armies_(489–553)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Ostrogothic armies (489–553)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ostrogothic_armies_(489–553)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Weapons_and_armor" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Weapons_and_armor"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Weapons and armor</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Weapons_and_armor-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Weapons and armor subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Weapons_and_armor-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Germanic_and_Roman_weapons_and_armor" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Germanic_and_Roman_weapons_and_armor"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Germanic and Roman weapons and armor</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Germanic_and_Roman_weapons_and_armor-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Experimental_evidence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" 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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1</span> <span>Individuals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Individuals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Units_(by_size)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Units_(by_size)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.2</span> <span>Units (by size)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Units_(by_size)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Weapons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Weapons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.3</span> <span>Weapons</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Weapons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div 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Statements consisting only of original research should be removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">December 2017</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> </div> </div><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Goths" title="Goths">Goths</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gepids" title="Gepids">Gepids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vandals" title="Vandals">Vandals</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Burgundians" title="Burgundians">Burgundians</a> were <a href="/wiki/East_Germanic_tribes" class="mw-redirect" title="East Germanic tribes">East Germanic groups</a> who appear in Roman records in <a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">late antiquity</a>. At times these groups warred against or allied with the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Huns" title="Huns">Huns</a>, and various <a href="/wiki/Germanic_tribes" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic tribes">Germanic tribes</a>. </p><p>The size and social composition of their armies remains controversial. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gothic_and_Vandal_warfare&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/3rd_Century_in_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="3rd Century in Germany">3rd century</a>, some Germanic people of the Baltic Sea (associated with the <a href="/wiki/Wielbark_culture" title="Wielbark culture">Wielbark culture</a>) followed the <a href="/wiki/Vistula" title="Vistula">Vistula</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bug_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Bug River">Bug</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dniester" title="Dniester">Dnestr</a> rivers and settled among the <a href="/wiki/Dacians" title="Dacians">Dacians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sarmatians" title="Sarmatians">Sarmatians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bastarnae" title="Bastarnae">Bastarnae</a>, and other peoples of the Black Sea steppes. These Germanic people brought their name and language to the Gothic people who emerged in the 3rd century (associated with the <a href="/wiki/Chernyakhov_Culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Chernyakhov Culture">Chernyakhov Culture</a>). </p><p>At the same time, other Germanic people of the Baltic Sea (associated with the <a href="/wiki/Przeworsk_culture" title="Przeworsk culture">Przeworsk culture</a>) followed other trade routes to the middle-Danubian plains (Vandals) or the <a href="/wiki/Main_(river)" title="Main (river)">Main river</a> (<a href="/wiki/Burgundians" title="Burgundians">Burgundians</a>). </p><p>Horse nomads with <a href="/wiki/Mounted_archery" title="Mounted archery">bow-armed cavalry</a> armies, including the Sarmatians (or <a href="/wiki/Iazyges" title="Iazyges">Iazyges</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roxolani" title="Roxolani">Roxolanni</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taifali" class="mw-redirect" title="Taifali">Taifali</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Alans" title="Alans">Alans</a>) had long ruled the plains north of the Danube and the steppes north of the Black Sea (since about 1200 BC). (The Goths and Vandals were mainly farmers with infantry armies). In some areas, the Sarmatians, Taifali, and Alans preserved their dominance until the Huns arrived. </p><p>The Gothic people had divided into two or more groups by the end of the 3rd century. These groups lasted from the late 3rd century to the late 4th century. The <a href="/wiki/Thervings" class="mw-redirect" title="Thervings">Thervingi</a> lived between the Danube and the Carpathians west of the <a href="/wiki/Dniester_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Dniester River">Dniester River</a>; the <a href="/wiki/Greuthungs" class="mw-redirect" title="Greuthungs">Greuthungi</a>, and possibly other groups, lived east of the Dniester River. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Jordanes" title="Jordanes">Jordanes</a>, a mid 6th-century historian, describes a large Greuthung kingdom in the late 4th century, but <a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus Marcellinus</a>, a late 4th-century historian, does not record this. Many modern historians, including <a href="/wiki/Peter_Heather" title="Peter Heather">Peter Heather</a> and <a href="/wiki/Michael_Kulikowski" title="Michael Kulikowski">Michael Kulikowski</a>, doubt that it was ever particularly extensive (and suggest one or more smaller kingdoms).<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Troop_types">Troop types</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gothic_and_Vandal_warfare&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Troop types"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Gothic armies were primarily composed of heavy infantry equipped with a shield, <a href="/wiki/Spatha" title="Spatha">spatha</a> or <a href="/wiki/Scramasax" class="mw-redirect" title="Scramasax">scramasax</a> and the occasional <a href="/wiki/Francisca" title="Francisca">francisca</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pike_(weapon)" title="Pike (weapon)">pike</a> formed in wedge formation, with a supporting heavy cavalry force equipped with lance and sword.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although Goths were the first of the Germanic tribes to place more honour in fighting on horse than on foot, equipping cavalrymen was expensive and infantry remained the larger force.<sup id="cite_ref-gotcav_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gotcav-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Visigoths had fewer cavalry, Ostrogoths had more cavalry than the Roman army, while Vandals were dominated by cavalry.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cavalry mainly took the form of heavy, close combat cavalry armed with sword and lance.<sup id="cite_ref-gotcav_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gotcav-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Goths and likely Vandals as well favoured a long heavy lance of Sarmatian origin, the <i>contus</i>, which stood at 3.74m long. The Goths also recruited mounted archers from the <a href="/wiki/Alans" title="Alans">Alans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sarmatians" title="Sarmatians">Sarmatians</a>, and light sword cavalry from the <a href="/wiki/Heruli" title="Heruli">Heruli</a> and <a href="/wiki/Taifali" class="mw-redirect" title="Taifali">Taifali</a>, although all of these also fielded lancers.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For a Gothic or Vandal nobleman the most common form of armour was a mail shirt, often reaching down to the knees, and an iron or steel helmet, often in a <a href="/wiki/Late_Roman_ridge_helmet" title="Late Roman ridge helmet">Roman Ridge helm</a> style. Some of the wealthiest warriors may have a worn a <a href="/wiki/Lamellar_armour" title="Lamellar armour">lamellar</a> cuirass over mail, and <a href="/wiki/Splinted_armour" class="mw-redirect" title="Splinted armour">splinted greaves and vambraces</a> on the forearms and forelegs. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Realms_in_the_Roman_Empire">Realms in the Roman Empire</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gothic_and_Vandal_warfare&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Realms in the Roman Empire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>This Gothic society faced internal strife and <a href="/wiki/Huns" title="Huns">Hunnish</a> attacks in the late 4th century. As a result, several groups sought refuge in the Roman Empire; two of the more successful groups, the <a href="/wiki/Thervings" class="mw-redirect" title="Thervings">Thervings</a> and <a href="/wiki/Greuthungs" class="mw-redirect" title="Greuthungs">Greuthungs</a>, absorbed smaller groups and gained independence within the Roman Empire. Another group, the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_Goths" title="Crimean Goths">Crimean Goths</a>, survived on the Black Sea. The <a href="/wiki/Vandals" title="Vandals">Vandals</a> and <a href="/wiki/Burgundians" title="Burgundians">Burgundians</a> shared similar histories. </p><p>The Visigothic and Burgundian kingdoms in Gaul fell to <a href="/wiki/Clovis_I" title="Clovis I">Clovis</a>' Frankish invasions in the early 6th century;<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the Vandal kingdom in north Africa and the Ostrogothic kingdom in Italy and Illyria fell to <a href="/wiki/Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian I</a>'s Byzantine invasions by the mid 6th century.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Visigothic kingdom in Hispania survived (despite losing most of their old Gallic territory) until the Islamic conquest of Hispania in the early 8th century. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gothic_society_and_forces_in_the_3rd_and_4th_centuries">Gothic society and forces in the 3rd and 4th centuries</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gothic_and_Vandal_warfare&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Gothic society and forces in the 3rd and 4th centuries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:10_2023_-_Palazzo_Altemps,_Roma,_Lazio,_00186,_Italia_-_Sarcofago_Grande_Ludovisi_(Grande_Ludovisi_sarcophagus)_-_Arte_Romana_-_Photo_Paolo_Villa_FO232047_ombre_gimp_bis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/10_2023_-_Palazzo_Altemps%2C_Roma%2C_Lazio%2C_00186%2C_Italia_-_Sarcofago_Grande_Ludovisi_%28Grande_Ludovisi_sarcophagus%29_-_Arte_Romana_-_Photo_Paolo_Villa_FO232047_ombre_gimp_bis.jpg/250px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/10_2023_-_Palazzo_Altemps%2C_Roma%2C_Lazio%2C_00186%2C_Italia_-_Sarcofago_Grande_Ludovisi_%28Grande_Ludovisi_sarcophagus%29_-_Arte_Romana_-_Photo_Paolo_Villa_FO232047_ombre_gimp_bis.jpg/375px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/10_2023_-_Palazzo_Altemps%2C_Roma%2C_Lazio%2C_00186%2C_Italia_-_Sarcofago_Grande_Ludovisi_%28Grande_Ludovisi_sarcophagus%29_-_Arte_Romana_-_Photo_Paolo_Villa_FO232047_ombre_gimp_bis.jpg/500px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="10569" data-file-height="7000" /></a><figcaption>Roman relief panel on the <a href="/wiki/Ludovisi_Battle_sarcophagus" title="Ludovisi Battle sarcophagus">Ludovisi Battle sarcophagus</a> depicting a battle between Goths and Romans, circa 260.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Gothic_War_(376%E2%80%93382)" title="Gothic War (376–382)">Gothic War (376–382)</a></div> <p>The Gothic tribes did not have long-term standing armies but relied on short-term levies or volunteers. Most would return to their farms after some time. Most came on foot and fought as infantry, though some brought horses and fought as cavalry. Like their Roman opponents, most soldiers had thrusting spears, throwing spears, and shields, though swords and bows were also used. Unlike their Roman opponents, few could afford metal armor.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd>Major wars: <ul><li>Gothic raid on <a href="/wiki/Histria_(ancient_city)" title="Histria (ancient city)">Histria</a> (238)<sup id="cite_ref-Kulikowski,_Michael_2007,_p._18_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kulikowski,_Michael_2007,_p._18-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Gothic raid on <a href="/wiki/Marcianople" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcianople">Marcianople</a> (249)<sup id="cite_ref-Kulikowski,_Michael_2007,_p._18_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kulikowski,_Michael_2007,_p._18-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cniva" title="Cniva">Cniva</a>'s Gothic raid on <a href="/wiki/Plovdiv" title="Plovdiv">Philippopolis</a> (250–251)<sup id="cite_ref-Kulikowski,_Michael_2007,_p._18_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kulikowski,_Michael_2007,_p._18-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Seaborne raids on the Balkans (c. 252)<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Seaborne raids on Asia Minor (c. 256)<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Seaborne raid on the Aegean (c. 268)<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Gothic raids on the Balkans (c. 270)<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurelian" title="Aurelian">Aurelian</a>'s Roman raids north of the Danube (c. 271)<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Gothic raids on Asia Minor (c. 275)<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_12-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Gothic (?) raids in the Balkans (c. 330?)<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_II_(emperor)" title="Constantine II (emperor)">Constantine II</a>'s Roman invasion north of the Danube (332)<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian</a>'s Roman invasion of <a href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persia</a> (363) (?)<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Roman Civil War between Procopius and <a href="/wiki/Valens" title="Valens">Valens</a> (365)<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceB_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valens" title="Valens">Valens</a>' raids on the <a href="/wiki/Thervings" class="mw-redirect" title="Thervings">Thervings</a> (367–369)<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceC_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceC-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Hunnic raids on the <a href="/wiki/Greuthungs" class="mw-redirect" title="Greuthungs">Greuthungs</a> (c. 370)<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceB_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceD_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceD-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceE_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceE-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceF_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceF-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Heather,_Peter_1998,_pp._98-104_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heather,_Peter_1998,_pp._98-104-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kulikowski,_Michael_2007,_pp._124-128_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kulikowski,_Michael_2007,_pp._124-128-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Hunnic raids on the <a href="/wiki/Thervings" class="mw-redirect" title="Thervings">Thervings</a> (c. 376)<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceB_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Heather,_Peter_1998,_pp._98-104_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heather,_Peter_1998,_pp._98-104-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kulikowski,_Michael_2007,_pp._124-128_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kulikowski,_Michael_2007,_pp._124-128-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceD_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceD-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceE_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceE-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceF_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceF-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_War_(376-382)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gothic War (376-382)">Gothic revolt in the Balkans</a> (c. 376–382)<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceB_23-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceE_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceE-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Gothic Civil War between <a href="/wiki/Fritigern" title="Fritigern">Fritigern</a> & <a href="/wiki/Athanaric" title="Athanaric">Athanaric</a> (?)<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceF_29-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceF-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odotheus" title="Odotheus">Odotheus</a>' crossing of the Danube (?)<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></dd></dl> <dl><dd>Notable battles: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Abrittus" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Abrittus">Abrittus</a> (251)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Naissus" title="Battle of Naissus">Naissus</a> (268)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Marcianople" title="Battle of Marcianople">Marcianople</a> (376/77)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Willows" title="Battle of the Willows">Ad Salices</a> (377)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Adrianople_(378)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Adrianople (378)">Adrianople (378)</a></li></ul></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Difference_of_scale">Difference of scale</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gothic_and_Vandal_warfare&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Difference of scale"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The 3rd- and 4th-century Gothic tribes could not match the population or extent of the Roman Empire. The 4th-century <a href="/wiki/Thervings" class="mw-redirect" title="Thervings">Thervingi</a> settled over about 100,000 km<sup>2</sup> between the Carpathian mountains, Olt river, Danube river, and Pruth river. (The Eastern Roman Empire held about 1,500,000 km<sup>2</sup> in round numbers). The destruction of one Gothic army would leave its tribe vulnerable to Roman attacks; the destruction of one Roman army could be countered by other Roman armies moving into the war zone (as happened after Adrianople). Therefore, 3rd- and 4th-century Gothic armies could not take as many risks as Roman armies could. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Defending_Gothic_settlements_(on_the_steppe)"><span id="Defending_Gothic_settlements_.28on_the_steppe.29"></span>Defending Gothic settlements (on the steppe)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gothic_and_Vandal_warfare&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Defending Gothic settlements (on the steppe)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Goths" title="Goths">Gothic people</a> generally settled in unwalled farming settlements along the main rivers. These settlements were vulnerable to Roman, Hunnish, or other attacks, even by small raiding parties.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Valens" title="Valens">Valens</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Roman_army" title="Roman army">Roman army</a> invaded Therving lands in 367 and 369. <a href="/wiki/Athanaric" title="Athanaric">Athanaric</a> and his supporters avoided battle; his army abandoned the Danubian plains and retreated into the Carpathian Mountains. The Goths could not defeat the Romans in battle and defend their homes.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceC_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceC-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Alan and <a href="/wiki/Huns" title="Huns">Hunnic</a> raiders attacked various Gothic lands in the 370s; they attacked Therving lands c. 375. <a href="/wiki/Athanaric" title="Athanaric">Athanaric</a> and his supporters sought battle; the main Gothic army assembled on the <a href="/wiki/Dnestr" class="mw-redirect" title="Dnestr">Dnestr</a> river, with forward units scouted 30 km ahead. The Hunnic raiders avoided the scouts and attacked the main army at night.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceD_27-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceD-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Attacking_Roman_territory_(by_land)"><span id="Attacking_Roman_territory_.28by_land.29"></span>Attacking Roman territory (by land)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gothic_and_Vandal_warfare&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Attacking Roman territory (by land)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> fortified most of its cities and frontier garrisons in the 3rd and 4th centuries. Fortified settlements were relatively safe from Gothic attacks.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Gothic attackers could choose unfortified targets; these included many cities in the 3rd century, but were generally restricted to smaller towns and <a href="/wiki/Villa" title="Villa">villae</a> by the 4th century, as more cities were fortified. Alternatively, they could attack fortified targets, relying on surprise, on treachery, or on siege warfare. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Attacking_Roman_territory_(by_sea)"><span id="Attacking_Roman_territory_.28by_sea.29"></span>Attacking Roman territory (by sea)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gothic_and_Vandal_warfare&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Attacking Roman territory (by sea)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the 3rd century, several Gothic campaigns went by sea. In the 4th century, few, if any, Gothic campaigns went by sea. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Revolts">Revolts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gothic_and_Vandal_warfare&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Revolts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As soon as large Gothic groups settled on Roman territory, they faced military conflicts with the Roman government (as in the <a href="/wiki/Gothic_War_(376%E2%80%93382)" title="Gothic War (376–382)">Gothic War (376–382)</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gothic_and_Vandal_forces_in_the_Late_Roman_army">Gothic and Vandal forces in the Late Roman army</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gothic_and_Vandal_warfare&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Gothic and Vandal forces in the Late Roman army"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Late_Roman_army" title="Late Roman army">Late Roman army</a> (or <a href="/wiki/East_Roman_army" class="mw-redirect" title="East Roman army">East Roman army</a> for the east) often recruited non-Roman soldiers into regular military units, as well as separate allied contingents (of <i><a href="/wiki/Laeti" title="Laeti">laeti</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Foederati" title="Foederati">foederati</a></i>). Most soldiers were probably Romans, many were probably non-Roman.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd>Notable battles: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Frigidus" title="Battle of the Frigidus">Frigidus River</a> (394)</li></ul></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Germanic_forces_in_the_Hunnic_army">Germanic forces in the Hunnic army</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gothic_and_Vandal_warfare&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Germanic forces in the Hunnic army"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By the early 5th century, <a href="/wiki/Huns" title="Huns">Hunnic</a> elites established their hegemony in Eastern and Central Europe by subduing or dislodging the local elites. The Hunnic rulers had thus an empire at their disposal with the resources of subject people who were required to supply additional forces for their ongoing raids and conquests. The most memorable of their rulers became <a href="/wiki/Attila" title="Attila">Attila</a>, who eventually challenged the Roman Empire for supremacy. </p><p>After the death of Attila, one of his subject rulers, <a href="/wiki/Ardaric" title="Ardaric">Ardaric</a>, waged a successful civil war against the heirs of Attila, helping several tribes to break apart and regain their independence. </p> <dl><dd>Notable battles: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chalons" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Chalons">Chalons</a> (451)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nedao" title="Battle of Nedao">Nedao River</a> (454)</li></ul></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Visigothic_armies_(396–507)"><span id="Visigothic_armies_.28396.E2.80.93507.29"></span>Visigothic armies (396–507)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gothic_and_Vandal_warfare&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Visigothic armies (396–507)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/Gothic_War_(377%E2%80%93382)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gothic War (377–382)">Gothic revolt of 376</a>, a mixed Gothic group settled in <a href="/wiki/Moesia" title="Moesia">Moesia</a>. By the 390s <a href="/wiki/Alaric_I" title="Alaric I">Alaric</a> had become the client king of the <a href="/wiki/Visigoths" title="Visigoths">Visigoths</a> under the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>. </p><p>Between 395 and 418, <a href="/wiki/Alaric_I" title="Alaric I">Alaric</a>, Athawulf, and their immediate successors fought several campaigns, seeking offices for themselves and support for their followers. They transferred their base of operations from the eastern Balkans (395) to the western Balkans (397), Italy (408), and Aquitaine (c. 415). </p><p>These successive movements may have divided the army from much of its population base. </p> <dl><dd>Notable battles: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pollentia" title="Battle of Pollentia">Pollentia</a> (402)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Verona_(402)" title="Battle of Verona (402)">Verona</a> (402)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Narbonne_(436)" title="Battle of Narbonne (436)">Narbonne (436)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chalons" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Chalons">Chalons</a> (451)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Vouille" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Vouille">Voglada</a> (507)</li></ul></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Visigothic_armies_(507–711)"><span id="Visigothic_armies_.28507.E2.80.93711.29"></span>Visigothic armies (507–711)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gothic_and_Vandal_warfare&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Visigothic armies (507–711)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dd>Notable battles: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Guadalete" title="Battle of Guadalete">Guadalete</a> (711)</li></ul></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Vandal_armies_(406–534)"><span id="Vandal_armies_.28406.E2.80.93534.29"></span>Vandal armies (406–534)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gothic_and_Vandal_warfare&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Vandal armies (406–534)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dd>Notable battles: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Rome_(455)" title="Sack of Rome (455)">Sack of Rome (455)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ad_Decimum" title="Battle of Ad Decimum">Ad Decimum</a> (533)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tricamarum" title="Battle of Tricamarum">Tricameron</a> (533)</li></ul></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ostrogothic_armies_(489–553)"><span id="Ostrogothic_armies_.28489.E2.80.93553.29"></span>Ostrogothic armies (489–553)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gothic_and_Vandal_warfare&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Ostrogothic armies (489–553)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Ostrogothic armies may have had the same organizational structure (with separate field armies and frontier armies) as contemporary Byzantine armies. </p><p>Ostrogothic Italy, like the Late Roman Empire, fortified its cities and military bases.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Italian-Ostrogothic army, like the Late Roman and Byzantine army, could transport food and other military supplies from secure areas to war zones. This allowed the Ostrogothic army to assemble more troops in one place (than earlier Gothic armies) without consuming as much of the local food supply.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd>Notable battles: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Isonzo_(489)" title="Battle of Isonzo (489)">Isonzo (489)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Verona_(489)" title="Battle of Verona (489)">Verona (489)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Faventia_(542)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Faventia (542)">Faventia (542)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Taginae" title="Battle of Taginae">Taginae</a> (552)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mons_Lactarius" title="Battle of Mons Lactarius">Mons Lactarius</a> (553)</li></ul></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Weapons_and_armor">Weapons and armor</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gothic_and_Vandal_warfare&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Weapons and armor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There is little direct evidence for Gothic military equipment. There is more evidence for Vandal, Roman, and West Germanic military equipment, which provides the base for inferences about Gothic military equipment. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Germanic_and_Roman_weapons_and_armor">Germanic and Roman weapons and armor</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gothic_and_Vandal_warfare&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Germanic and Roman weapons and armor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Generally speaking, there was little difference between well-armed Germanic and Roman soldiers; furthermore, many Germanic soldiers served in the Roman forces. The Roman army was better able to equip its soldiers than the Germanic armies. </p><p>Late Roman representational evidence, including propaganda monuments, gravestones, tombs, and the Exodus fresco, often shows Late Roman soldiers with one or two spears; one tombstone shows a soldier with five shorter javelins.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Archaeological evidence, from Roman burials and Scandinavian bog-deposits, shows similar spearheads, though the shafts are rarely preserved.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Aside from the traditional mail and scale armour of Roman armies, it also known from archaeological finds that the Goths and Vandals commonly used <a href="/wiki/Lamellar_armour" title="Lamellar armour">lamellar armour</a>. Constructed of overlapping metal plates laced together, lamellar was more rigid than mail or scale armour and offered considerably greater protection against blunt force trauma from weapons such as maces or axes, commonly used by heavy cavalry of the time. </p><p>Late Roman representational evidence sometimes still shows Roman swords.<sup id="cite_ref-Stephenson,_I.P._2001,_pp._61-63_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stephenson,_I.P._2001,_pp._61-63-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Archaeological evidence shows that the gladius has disappeared; various short <i>semispathae</i> supplement the older <i>pugiones</i><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while medium-long <i>spathae</i> replace the medium-short <i>gladii</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Stephenson,_I.P._2001,_pp._61-63_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stephenson,_I.P._2001,_pp._61-63-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These have the same straight double-edged blades as older Roman swords.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Representational evidence and recovered laths, as well as arrowheads and bracers, show Roman use of composite bows.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Representational evidence, recovered bosses, and some complete shields from Dara, show that most Roman infantry and some Roman cavalry carried shields.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although the representational evidence, including gravestones and tombs, usually shows soldiers without armor, the archaeological evidence includes remains of scale armor, mail armor, and helmets.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Experimental_evidence">Experimental evidence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gothic_and_Vandal_warfare&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Experimental evidence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Modern blacksmiths, reenactors, and experimental archaeologists can duplicate Roman Age weapons and armor with Roman Age technology. </p><p>Basic spearheads (including javelinheads) take about three hours of forging time, while swords can take about 37 hours without <a href="/wiki/Pattern_welding" title="Pattern welding">pattern welding</a>, or about 110 hours with pattern welding (divided over several days or weeks of labor).<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mail armor takes well over 600 hours of forging time.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Military_terminology">Military terminology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gothic_and_Vandal_warfare&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Military terminology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Via <a href="/wiki/Ulfilas" title="Ulfilas">Wulfila's</a> <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">bible</a> translation we do know 4th-century Gothic military terms he used to describe the 1st-century <a href="/wiki/Roman_army" title="Roman army">Roman army</a>. These terms reflect the Gothic military organization that grew from its Germanic roots under Roman and Central Asian (Hunnic) influence. </p> <ul><li><i>Drauhtinon</i> ("to war")<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Individuals">Individuals</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gothic_and_Vandal_warfare&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Individuals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i>Gadrauhts</i> ("soldier, militiaman")<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i>Hundafaþs</i> (used to describe a Roman centurion)<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Common Germanic organization of troops of <a href="/wiki/Hundred_(county_division)" title="Hundred (county division)">a hundred armed men</a> (in the Scandinavian <i><a href="/wiki/Leidang" title="Leidang">leidang</a></i> it could refer to less than a hundred or several hundred organized and armed men), literally meaning 'group of a hundred'</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Units_(by_size)"><span id="Units_.28by_size.29"></span>Units (by size)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gothic_and_Vandal_warfare&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Units (by size)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i>Harjis</i> ("army")<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-bennettP154_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bennettP154-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i>Hansa</i> (used to describe a Roman cohort)<sup id="cite_ref-bennettP154_73-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bennettP154-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Germanic terms meaning a band (of warriors); a related term is the later used <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>: <i lang="de">Hanse</i>, <a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a>: <i lang="nl">Hanze</i>, <a href="/wiki/Estonian_language" title="Estonian language">Estonian</a>: <i lang="et">hansa</i>, <a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a>: <i lang="pl">Hanza</i>, <a href="/wiki/Swedish_language" title="Swedish language">Swedish</a>: <i lang="sv">Hansan</i> for the <a href="/wiki/Hanseatic_League" title="Hanseatic League">Hanseatic League</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Weapons">Weapons</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gothic_and_Vandal_warfare&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Weapons"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i>Hairus</i> ("sword")<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gothic_and_Vandal_warfare&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Migration_period_sword" class="mw-redirect" title="Migration period sword">Migration period sword</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Age_arms_and_armour" title="Viking Age arms and armour">Viking Age arms and armour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_warfare" title="Anglo-Saxon warfare">Anglo-Saxon warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Celtic warfare">Celtic warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_of_Carthage" title="Military of Carthage">Military of Carthage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dacian_warfare" title="Dacian warfare">Dacian warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_raid_warfare_and_tactics" title="Viking raid warfare and tactics">Viking raid warfare and tactics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_military_organization" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Saxon military organization">Anglo-Saxon military organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migration_period_spear" class="mw-redirect" title="Migration period spear">Migration period spear</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gothic_and_Vandal_warfare&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Heather, Peter, 1998, <i>The Goths</i>, Blackwell, Malden, pp. 53–55.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kulikowski, Michael, 2007, <i>Rome's Gothic Wars</i>, Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, pp. 54–56, 111–112.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFGabriel2007" class="citation book cs1">Gabriel, Richard A. (2007). <i>The Ancient World Volume 1 of Soldiers' lives through history</i>. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 268–269. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0313333484" title="Special:BookSources/978-0313333484"><bdi>978-0313333484</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ancient+World+Volume+1+of+Soldiers%27+lives+through+history&rft.pages=268-269&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0313333484&rft.aulast=Gabriel&rft.aufirst=Richard+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGothic+and+Vandal+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-gotcav-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-gotcav_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-gotcav_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichard_A._Gabriel2002" class="citation book cs1">Richard A. Gabriel (2002). <i>The Great Armies of Antiquity</i>. ABC-CLIO. pp. 274–275. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780313012693" title="Special:BookSources/9780313012693"><bdi>9780313012693</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+Armies+of+Antiquity&rft.pages=274-275&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9780313012693&rft.au=Richard+A.+Gabriel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGothic+and+Vandal+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKelly_DeVries,_Robert_D._Smith2007" class="citation book cs1">Kelly DeVries, Robert D. Smith (2007). <i>Medieval Weapons An Illustrated History of Their Impact</i>. ABC-CLIO. p. 26. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781851095315" title="Special:BookSources/9781851095315"><bdi>9781851095315</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+Weapons+An+Illustrated+History+of+Their+Impact&rft.pages=26&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9781851095315&rft.au=Kelly+DeVries%2C+Robert+D.+Smith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGothic+and+Vandal+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIlkka_Syvänne2015" class="citation book cs1">Ilkka Syvänne (2015). <i>A Military History of Late Rome 284 to 361</i>. Pen & Sword Military. pp. 78–79. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781848848559" title="Special:BookSources/9781848848559"><bdi>9781848848559</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Military+History+of+Late+Rome+284+to+361&rft.pages=78-79&rft.pub=Pen+%26+Sword+Military&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9781848848559&rft.au=Ilkka+Syv%C3%A4nne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGothic+and+Vandal+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Heather, Peter, 1998, <i>The Goths</i>, pp. 210–215 & 262.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Heather, Peter, 1998, <i>The Goths</i>, pp. 259–276.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Elton, Hugh, <i>Warfare in Roman Europe, AD 350–425</i>, pp. 57–59.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Todd, Malcolm, <i>The Early Germans</i>, pp. 36–37.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kulikowski,_Michael_2007,_p._18-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kulikowski,_Michael_2007,_p._18_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kulikowski,_Michael_2007,_p._18_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kulikowski,_Michael_2007,_p._18_11-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Kulikowski, Michael, 2007, <i>Rome's Gothic Wars</i>, p. 18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_12-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_12-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Zosimus, <i>Historia Nova</i>, book 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Philostorgius, <i>Church History</i>, book 2, chapter 5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kulikowski, Michael, 2007, <i>Rome's Gothic Wars</i>, pp. 18–19.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kulikowski, Michael, 2007, <i>Rome's Gothic Wars</i>, pp. 19–20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kulikowski, Michael, 2007, <i>Rome's Gothic Wars</i>, p. 20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kulikowski, Michael, 2007, <i>Rome's Gothic Wars</i>, pp. 20–21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Socrates Scholasticus, <i>Church History</i>, book 1, chapter 18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sozomen, <i>Church History</i>, book 1, chapter 8 & book 2, chapter 34.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kulikowski, Michael, 2007, <i>Rome's Gothic Wars</i>, pp. 83–84.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Zosimus, <i>Historia Nova</i>, book 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ammianus Marcellinus, <i>Historiae</i>, book 26, chapters 6–10.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceB-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_23-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_23-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Zosimus, <i>Historia Nova</i>, book 4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kulikowski, Michael, 2007, <i>Rome's Gothic Wars</i>, pp. 114–115.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceC-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceC_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceC_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Ammianus Marcellinus, <i>Historiae</i>, book 27, chapter 5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kulikowski, Michael, 2007, <i>Rome's Gothic Wars</i>, pp. 115–116.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceD-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceD_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceD_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceD_27-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Ammianus Marcellinus, <i>Historiae</i>, book 31, chapter 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceE-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceE_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceE_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceE_28-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Philostorgius, <i>Church History</i>, book 9, chapter 17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceF-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceF_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceF_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceF_29-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Sozomen, <i>Church History</i>, book 6, chapter 37.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Heather,_Peter_1998,_pp._98-104-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Heather,_Peter_1998,_pp._98-104_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Heather,_Peter_1998,_pp._98-104_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Heather, Peter, 1998, <i>Goths</i>, pp. 98–104.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kulikowski,_Michael_2007,_pp._124-128-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kulikowski,_Michael_2007,_pp._124-128_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kulikowski,_Michael_2007,_pp._124-128_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Kulikowski, Michael, 2007, <i>Rome's Gothic Wars</i>, pp. 124–128.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ammianus Marcellinus, <i>Historiae</i>, book 31, chapters 5–16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Socrates Scholasticus, <i>Church History</i>, book 4, chapters 34–38 & book 5, chapter 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sozomen, <i>Church History</i>, book 6, chapters 37 & 40.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Heather, Peter, 1998, <i>Goths</i>, pp. 130–138.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kulikowski, Michael, 2007, <i>Rome's Gothic Wars</i>, pp. 130–153.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Socrates Scholasticus, <i>Church History</i>, book 4, chapter 33. (Socrates puts this before 376).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Zosimus, <i>Historia Nova</i>, book 4. (Zosimus puts this after 376).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Zosimus, <i>Historia Nova</i>, book 4. (Zosimus puts this before 383)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Philostorgius, <i>Church History</i>, book 10, chapter 6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Heather, Peter, 1998, <i>Goths</i>, pp. 103, 128 & 167</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Heather, Peter & Matthews, John, <i>The Goths in the Fourth Century</i>, pp. 56–59.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Elton, Hugh, <i>Warfare in Roman Europe, AD 350–425</i>, p 221-227</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Elton, Hugh, <i>Warfare in Roman Europe, AD 350–425</i>, pp. 155–174.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Elton, Hugh, 1996, <i>Warfare in Roman Europe</i>, pp. 145–152. [Elton argues from the proportion of Roman names to non-Roman names from 350 to 476]</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cassiodorus, <i>Variae</i>, book 1, number 17 & book 3, number 44.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cassiodorus, <i>Variae</i>, book 3, number 41.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stephenson, I.P., 2001, <i>Roman Infantry Equipment</i>, pp. 54–58.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bishop, M.C. & Coulston, J.C.N., 2006, <i>Roman Military Equipment: From the Punic Wars to the Fall of Rome</i>, pp. 151–152, 175 & 200–202.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stephenson, I.P., 2001, <i>Roman Infantry Equipment</i>, pp. 52–60.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bishop, M.C. & Coulston, J.C.N., 2006, <i>Roman Military Equipment: From the Punic Wars to the Fall of Rome</i>, pp. 151 & 200–202.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stephenson,_I.P._2001,_pp._61-63-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Stephenson,_I.P._2001,_pp._61-63_52-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stephenson,_I.P._2001,_pp._61-63_52-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Stephenson, I.P., 2001, <i>Roman Infantry Equipment</i>, pp. 61–63.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bishop, M.C. & Coulston, J.C.N., 2006, <i>Roman Military Equipment: From the Punic Wars to the Fall of Rome</i>, pp. 154–163 & 202–205.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stephenson, I.P., 2001, <i>Roman Infantry Equipment</i>, pp. 76–80.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bishop, M.C. & Coulston, J.C.N., 2006, <i>Roman Military Equipment: From the Punic Wars to the Fall of Rome</i>, pp. 154, 164 & 202.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bishop, M.C. & Coulston, J.C.N., 2006, <i>Roman Military Equipment: From the Punic Wars to the Fall of Rome</i>, pp. 154–157 & 202–205.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stephenson, I.P., 2001, <i>Roman Infantry Equipment</i>, pp. 61–80.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bishop, M.C. & Coulston, J.C.N., 2006, <i>Roman Military Equipment: From the Punic Wars to the Fall of Rome</i>, pp. 154–164 & 202–205.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stephenson, I.P., 2001, <i>Roman Infantry Equipment</i>, pp. 81–88.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bishop, M.C. & Coulston, J.C.N., 2006, <i>Roman Military Equipment: From the Punic Wars to the Fall of Rome</i>, pp. 164–168 & 205–206.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stephenson, I.P., 2001, <i>Roman Infantry Equipment</i>, pp. 15–24.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bishop, M.C. & Coulston, J.C.N., 2006, <i>Roman Military Equipment: From the Punic Wars to the Fall of Rome</i>, pp. 179–182 & 216–218.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stephenson, I.P., 2001, <i>Roman Infantry Equipment</i>, pp. 25–51.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bishop, M.C. & Coulston, J.C.N., 2006, <i>Roman Military Equipment: From the Punic Wars to the Fall of Rome</i>, pp. 170–178 & 208–216.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sim, David & Ridge, Isabel, 2002, <i>Iron for the Eagles: the Iron Industry of Roman Britain</i>, pp. 90–93.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sim, David & Ridge, Isabel, 2002, <i>Iron for the Eagles: the Iron Industry of Roman Britain</i>, pp. 98–103; the authors specify 300 hours to stamp ½ of the links and more time to draw and rivet the other ½ of the links.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wright, Joseph, <i>A Primer of the Gothic Language, with Grammar, Notes, and Glossary</i>, p. 217.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wright, Joseph, <i>A Primer of the Gothic Language, with Grammar, Notes, and Glossary</i>, p. 220.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bennett, William, <i>An Introduction to the Gothic Language</i>, p. 149.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wright, Joseph, <i>A Primer of the Gothic Language, with Grammar, Notes, and Glossary</i>, p. 224.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bennett, William, <i>An Introduction to the Gothic Language</i>, p. 155.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wright, Joseph, <i>A Primer of the Gothic Language, with Grammar, Notes, and Glossary</i>, p. 223.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-bennettP154-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bennettP154_73-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bennettP154_73-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Bennett, William, <i>An Introduction to the Gothic Language</i>, p. 154.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wright, Joseph, 1892, <i>A Primer of the Gothic Language, with Grammar, Notes, and Glossary</i>. Oxford: Clarendon Press, p. 223.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gothic_and_Vandal_warfare&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hugh_Elton&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hugh Elton (page does not exist)">Hugh Elton</a>, <i>Warfare in Roman Europe</i>, AD 350–425, Oxford: Clarendon, 1996 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0198152418" title="Special:BookSources/0198152418">0198152418</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Heather" title="Peter Heather">Peter Heather</a> and John Matthews, <i>The Goths in the Fourth Century</i>, Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1991 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0853234264" title="Special:BookSources/0853234264">0853234264</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus Marcellinus</a>, <i>Historiae</i>, book 27, unknown publisher, unknown year</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Wright_(linguist)" title="Joseph Wright (linguist)">Joseph Wright</a>, <i>A Primer of the Gothic Language, with Grammar, Notes, and Glossary</i>. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1892 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1402149719" title="Special:BookSources/1402149719">1402149719</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Bennett" title="William Bennett">William Bennett</a>, <i>An Introduction to the Gothic Language</i>, New York: Modern Language Association, 1980 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0873522958" title="Special:BookSources/0873522958">0873522958</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output 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td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Germanic_peoples" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#d5dcb0;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Germanic_peoples" title="Template:Germanic peoples"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Germanic_peoples" title="Template talk:Germanic peoples"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Germanic_peoples" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Germanic peoples"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Germanic_peoples" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic peoples</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:#d5dcb0;"><div><a href="/wiki/Ethnolinguistic_group" title="Ethnolinguistic group">Ethnolinguistic group</a> of <a href="/wiki/Northern_Europe" title="Northern Europe">Northern European</a> origin primarily identified as speakers of <a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic languages</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#d5dcb0;;width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_Bronze_Age" title="Nordic Bronze Age">Nordic Bronze Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germania" title="Germania">Germania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Roman_Iron_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Roman Iron Age">Pre-Roman Iron Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Iron_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Iron Age">Roman Iron Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano-Germanic_culture" title="Romano-Germanic culture">Romano-Germanic culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_Iron_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic Iron Age">Germanic Iron Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#d5dcb0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Early_Germanic_culture" title="Early Germanic culture">Early culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Germanic_architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Germanic architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period_art" title="Migration Period art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Germanic_calendars" title="Early Germanic calendars">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Germanic_clothing" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Germanic clothing">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_in_early_Germanic_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Family in early Germanic culture">Family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Germanic_festivals" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Germanic festivals">Festivals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_mythology" title="Germanic mythology">Folklore </a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_folklore" title="Proto-Germanic folklore">Proto-Germanic folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Saxon mythology">Anglo-Saxon mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Germanic_mythology" title="Continental Germanic mythology">Continental Germanic mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norse_mythology" title="Norse mythology">Norse mythology</a>)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Germanic_funerary_practices" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Germanic funerary practices">Funerary practices</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_burial_mounds" title="Anglo-Saxon burial mounds">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norse_funeral" title="Norse funeral">Norse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_law" title="Germanic law">Law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_law" title="Anglo-Saxon law">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Scandinavian_law" title="Medieval Scandinavian law">Norse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Germanic_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Germanic literature">Literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_English_literature" title="Old English literature">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_literature" title="Old Norse literature">Norse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_name" title="Germanic name">Names</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_name" title="Gothic name">Gothic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numbers_in_Germanic_paganism" title="Numbers in Germanic paganism">Numbers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Paganism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_paganism" title="Anglo-Saxon paganism">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_paganism" title="Gothic paganism">Gothic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_religion" title="Old Norse religion">Norse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rings_in_Germanic_paganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Rings in Germanic paganism">Rings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Germanic_culture#Scripts" title="Early Germanic culture">Scripts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_alphabet" title="Gothic alphabet">Gothic alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runes" class="mw-redirect" title="Runes">Runes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Germanic_symbols" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Germanic symbols">Symbology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Germanic_warfare" title="Early Germanic warfare">Warfare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_warfare" title="Anglo-Saxon warfare">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Gothic and Vandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_raid_warfare_and_tactics" title="Viking raid warfare and tactics">Viking</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#d5dcb0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_parent_language" title="Germanic parent language">Germanic parent language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_language" title="Proto-Germanic language">Proto-Germanic language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Germanic_languages" title="East Germanic languages">East Germanic languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North Germanic languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_languages" title="West Germanic languages">West Germanic languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#d5dcb0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_early_Germanic_peoples" title="List of early Germanic peoples">Groups</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alemanni" title="Alemanni">Alemanni</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brisigavi" title="Brisigavi">Brisgavi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bucinobantes" title="Bucinobantes">Bucinobantes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lentienses" title="Lentienses">Lentienses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raetovari" title="Raetovari">Raetovari</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrabaecampi" class="mw-redirect" title="Adrabaecampi">Adrabaecampi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angles_(tribe)" title="Angles (tribe)">Angles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxons" title="Anglo-Saxons">Anglo-Saxons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambrones" title="Ambrones">Ambrones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ampsivarii" title="Ampsivarii">Ampsivarii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angrivarii" title="Angrivarii">Angrivarii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armalausi" title="Armalausi">Armalausi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auiones" title="Auiones">Auiones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avarpi" title="Avarpi">Avarpi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baemi" title="Baemi">Baemi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baiuvarii" title="Baiuvarii">Baiuvarii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banochaemae" title="Banochaemae">Banochaemae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bastarnae" title="Bastarnae">Bastarnae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batavi_(Germanic_tribe)" title="Batavi (Germanic tribe)">Batavi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgae" title="Belgae">Belgae</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Germani_cisrhenani" title="Germani cisrhenani">Germani cisrhenani</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atuatuci" title="Atuatuci">Atuatuci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caerosi" title="Caerosi">Caeroesi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Condrusi" title="Condrusi">Condrusi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eburones" title="Eburones">Eburones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paemani" title="Paemani">Paemani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segni_(tribe)" title="Segni (tribe)">Segni</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morini" title="Morini">Morini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nervii" title="Nervii">Nervii</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bateinoi" title="Bateinoi">Bateinoi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baetasii" title="Baetasii">Betasii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brondings" title="Brondings">Brondings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bructeri" title="Bructeri">Bructeri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burgundians" title="Burgundians">Burgundians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buri_tribe" title="Buri tribe">Buri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cananefates" title="Cananefates">Cananefates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caritni" title="Caritni">Caritni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casuari" title="Casuari">Casuari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaedini" title="Chaedini">Chaedini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaemae" title="Chaemae">Chaemae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chamavi" title="Chamavi">Chamavi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chali" title="Chali">Chali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charudes" title="Charudes">Charudes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chasuarii" title="Chasuarii">Chasuarii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chattuarii" title="Chattuarii">Chattuarii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chatti" title="Chatti">Chatti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chauci" title="Chauci">Chauci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherusci" title="Cherusci">Cherusci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cimbri" title="Cimbri">Cimbri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cobandi" title="Cobandi">Cobandi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corconti" title="Corconti">Corconti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cugerni" title="Cugerni">Cugerni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danes_(tribe)" title="Danes (tribe)">Danes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dauciones" title="Dauciones">Dauciones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dulgubnii" title="Dulgubnii">Dulgubnii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Favonae" title="Favonae">Favonae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firaesi" title="Firaesi">Firaesi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fosi" title="Fosi">Fosi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Franks</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ripuarian_Franks" title="Ripuarian Franks">Ripuarian Franks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salian_Franks" title="Salian Franks">Salian Franks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frisiavones" title="Frisiavones">Frisiavones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frisii" title="Frisii">Frisii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gambrivii" title="Gambrivii">Gambrivii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geats" title="Geats">Geats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gepids" title="Gepids">Gepids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goths" title="Goths">Goths</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Goths" title="Crimean Goths">Crimean Goths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greuthungi" title="Greuthungi">Greuthungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutones" title="Gutones">Gutones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostrogoths" title="Ostrogoths">Ostrogoths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thervingi" title="Thervingi">Thervingi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thracian_Goths" title="Thracian Goths">Thracian Goths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visigoths" title="Visigoths">Visigoths</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutes" title="Gutes">Gutes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harii" title="Harii">Harii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermunduri" title="Hermunduri">Hermunduri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heruli" title="Heruli">Heruli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilleviones" title="Hilleviones">Hilleviones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ingaevones" title="Ingaevones">Ingaevones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irminones" title="Irminones">Irminones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Istvaeones" title="Istvaeones">Istvaeones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jutes" title="Jutes">Jutes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juthungi" title="Juthungi">Juthungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lacringi" title="Lacringi">Lacringi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lemovii" title="Lemovii">Lemovii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lombards" title="Lombards">Lombards</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hea%C3%B0obards" title="Heaðobards">Heaðobards</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lugii" title="Lugii">Lugii</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diduni" title="Diduni">Diduni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helisii" class="mw-redirect" title="Helisii">Helisii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helveconae" title="Helveconae">Helveconae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manimi" title="Manimi">Manimi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nahanarvali" title="Nahanarvali">Nahanarvali</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcomanni" title="Marcomanni">Marcomanni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsacii" title="Marsacii">Marsacii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsi_(Germanic_tribe)" title="Marsi (Germanic tribe)">Marsi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mattiaci" title="Mattiaci">Mattiaci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nemetes" title="Nemetes">Nemetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Njars" title="Njars">Njars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuithones" title="Nuithones">Nuithones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osi_(tribe)" title="Osi (tribe)">Osi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadi" title="Quadi">Quadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reudigni" title="Reudigni">Reudigni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rugii" title="Rugii">Rugii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rugini" title="Rugini">Rugini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saxons" title="Saxons">Saxons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semnones" title="Semnones">Semnones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sicambri" title="Sicambri">Sicambri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sciri" title="Sciri">Sciri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sitones" title="Sitones">Sitones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suarines" title="Suarines">Suarines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suebi" title="Suebi">Suebi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunici" title="Sunici">Sunici</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedes_(tribe)" title="Swedes (tribe)">Swedes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taifals" title="Taifals">Taifals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tencteri" title="Tencteri">Tencteri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teutons" title="Teutons">Teutons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thelir" title="Thelir">Thelir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thuringii" title="Thuringii">Thuringii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texandri" title="Texandri">Toxandri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treveri" title="Treveri">Treveri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triboci" title="Triboci">Triboci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tubantes" title="Tubantes">Tubantes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulingi" title="Tulingi">Tulingi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tungri" title="Tungri">Tungri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubii" title="Ubii">Ubii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usipetes" title="Usipetes">Usipetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vagoth" title="Vagoth">Vagoth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vandals" title="Vandals">Vandals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hasdingi" title="Hasdingi">Hasdingi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silingi" title="Silingi">Silingi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vangiones" title="Vangiones">Vangiones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varisci" title="Varisci">Varisci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victohali" title="Victohali">Victohali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vidivarii" 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Scandinavia">Christianization of Scandinavia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Iceland" title="Christianization of Iceland">Christianization of Iceland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:#d5dcb0;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Germanic_peoples" title="Category:Germanic peoples">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img 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