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href="#Scientific_viewpoints"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Scientific viewpoints</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Scientific_viewpoints-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Scientific viewpoints subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Scientific_viewpoints-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Anthropology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anthropology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Anthropology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anthropology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evolutionary_explanations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolutionary_explanations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Evolutionary explanations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evolutionary_explanations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neurobiology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neurobiology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Neurobiology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neurobiology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Psychology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Psychology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Psychology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Psychology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genetics_and_environment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetics_and_environment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Genetics and environment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genetics_and_environment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sociology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sociology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Sociology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sociology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religious_viewpoints" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religious_viewpoints"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Religious viewpoints</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Religious_viewpoints-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Religious viewpoints subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Religious_viewpoints-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Buddhism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Buddhism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Buddhism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Buddhism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jainism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jainism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Jainism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jainism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Christianity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Christianity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Christianity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Christianity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Islam" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Islam"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Islam</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Islam-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Judaism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Judaism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Judaism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Judaism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sikhism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sikhism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Sikhism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sikhism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hinduism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hinduism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Hinduism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hinduism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Philosophy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Philosophy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Philosophy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Effective_altruism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effective_altruism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Effective altruism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effective_altruism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Extreme_altruism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Extreme_altruism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Extreme altruism</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Extreme_altruism-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Extreme altruism subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Extreme_altruism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pathological_altruism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pathological_altruism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Pathological altruism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pathological_altruism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Characteristics_of_extreme_altruists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Characteristics_of_extreme_altruists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Characteristics of extreme altruists</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Characteristics_of_extreme_altruists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Possible_explanations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Possible_explanations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Possible explanations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Possible_explanations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Digital_altruism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Digital_altruism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Digital altruism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Digital_altruism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Altruism</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 77 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-77" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">77 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altru%C3%AFsme" title="Altruïsme – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Altruïsme" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruismus" title="Altruismus – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Altruismus" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A5%D9%8A%D8%AB%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="إيثار – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="إيثار" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altru%C3%ADsmu" title="Altruísmu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Altruísmu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruizm" title="Altruizm – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Altruizm" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C4%AB-tha%E2%81%BF-ch%C3%BA-g%C4%AB" title="Lī-thaⁿ-chú-gī – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Lī-thaⁿ-chú-gī" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Альтруізм – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Альтруізм" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Альтруізм – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Альтруізм" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruismo" title="Altruismo – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Altruismo" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B8%D0%B7%D1%8A%D0%BC" title="Алтруизъм – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Алтруизъм" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%82%E0%BD%9E%E0%BD%93%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%95%E0%BD%93%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%82%E0%BE%B1%E0%BD%B2%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%96%E0%BD%A6%E0%BD%98%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%94%E0%BC%8D" title="གཞན་ཕན་གྱི་བསམ་པ། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="གཞན་ཕན་གྱི་བསམ་པ།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>བོད་ཡིག</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruizam" title="Altruizam – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Altruizam" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruisme" title="Altruisme – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Altruisme" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruismus" title="Altruismus – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Altruismus" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruisme" title="Altruisme – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Altruisme" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruismus" title="Altruismus – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Altruismus" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruism" title="Altruism – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Altruism" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%BB%CF%84%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82" title="Αλτρουισμός – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Αλτρουισμός" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruismo" title="Altruismo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Altruismo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruismo" title="Altruismo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Altruismo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruismo" title="Altruismo – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Altruismo" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%AB%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="ایثار – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ایثار" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruisme" title="Altruisme – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Altruisme" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altru%C3%ADsmo" title="Altruísmo – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Altruísmo" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%B4%ED%83%80%EC%A3%BC%EC%9D%98" title="이타주의 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="이타주의" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%B5%D5%AC%D5%A1%D5%BD%D5%AB%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Այլասիրություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Այլասիրություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6" title="परहितवाद – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="परहितवाद" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruizam" title="Altruizam – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Altruizam" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruisme" title="Altruisme – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Altruisme" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%93s%C3%A9rpl%C3%A6gni" title="Ósérplægni – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Ósérplægni" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruismo" title="Altruismo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Altruismo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%96%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%AA%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%AA" title="זולתנות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="זולתנות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AA%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%B9%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%A4_%E0%B2%9A%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%A4%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%86" title="ಪರಹಿತ ಚಿಂತನೆ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಪರಹಿತ ಚಿಂತನೆ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A3%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="ალტრუიზმი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ალტრუიზმი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Альтруизм – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Альтруизм" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Альтруизм – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Альтруизм" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruismus" title="Altruismus – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Altruismus" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruisms" title="Altruisms – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Altruisms" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruizmas" title="Altruizmas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Altruizmas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruizmus" title="Altruizmus – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Altruizmus" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Алтруизам – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Алтруизам" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%82%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B7" title="പരോപകാരകാംക്ഷ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="പരോപകാരകാംക്ഷ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%83%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BE" title="निःस्वार्थीपणा – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="निःस्वार्थीपणा" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruisme" title="Altruisme – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Altruisme" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altru%C3%AFsme" title="Altruïsme – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Altruïsme" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%88%A9%E4%BB%96%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="利他主義 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="利他主義" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruisme" title="Altruisme – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Altruisme" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruisme" title="Altruisme – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Altruisme" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruisme" title="Altruisme – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Altruisme" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruizm" title="Altruizm – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Altruizm" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruizm" title="Altruizm – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Altruizm" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altru%C3%ADsmo" title="Altruísmo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Altruísmo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruism" title="Altruism – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Altruism" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Альтруизм – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Альтруизм" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%83" title="परोपकारः – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="परोपकारः" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruizmi" title="Altruizmi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Altruizmi" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruism" title="Altruism – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Altruism" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%AB%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%BE%D8%B3%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%8A" title="ايثارپسندي – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="ايثارپسندي" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruizmus" title="Altruizmus – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Altruizmus" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruizem" title="Altruizem – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Altruizem" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samotaliye" title="Samotaliye – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Samotaliye" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Доброчинство – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Доброчинство" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruizam" title="Altruizam – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Altruizam" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruismi" title="Altruismi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Altruismi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruism" title="Altruism – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Altruism" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruismo" title="Altruismo – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Altruismo" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%92%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%88" title="ஒப்புரவாண்மை – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="ஒப்புரவாண்மை" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BA" title="Альтруистлык – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Альтруистлык" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%96%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%A1" title="ปรัตถนิยม – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ปรัตถนิยม" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Алтруизм – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Алтруизм" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Di%C4%9Ferk%C3%A2ml%C4%B1k" title="Diğerkâmlık – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Diğerkâmlık" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83%D1%97%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Альтруїзм – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Альтруїзм" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DB%92_%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AB%DB%8C" title="بے لوثی – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="بے لوثی" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%A7_ngh%C4%A9a_v%E1%BB%8B_tha" title="Chủ nghĩa vị tha – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Chủ nghĩa vị tha" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%88%A9%E4%BB%96%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="利他主义 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="利他主义" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%88%A9%E4%BB%96%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="利他主義 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="利他主義" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%88%A9%E4%BB%96%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="利他主义 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="利他主义" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a 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id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Principle or practice of concern for the welfare of others</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Otherism" redirects here. For the philosophical concept, see <a href="/wiki/Other_(philosophy)" title="Other (philosophy)">Other (philosophy)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the concept in behavioral ecology, see <a href="/wiki/Altruism_(biology)" title="Altruism (biology)">Altruism (biology)</a>. For the ethical doctrine, see <a href="/wiki/Altruism_(ethics)" title="Altruism (ethics)">Altruism (ethics)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Belisaire_demandant_l%27aumone_Jacques-Louis_David.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Belisaire_demandant_l%27aumone_Jacques-Louis_David.jpg/220px-Belisaire_demandant_l%27aumone_Jacques-Louis_David.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Belisaire_demandant_l%27aumone_Jacques-Louis_David.jpg/330px-Belisaire_demandant_l%27aumone_Jacques-Louis_David.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Belisaire_demandant_l%27aumone_Jacques-Louis_David.jpg/440px-Belisaire_demandant_l%27aumone_Jacques-Louis_David.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2280" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>Giving <a href="/wiki/Alms" title="Alms">alms</a> to the poor is often considered an altruistic action.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Altruism</b> is the <a href="/wiki/Moral_principle" class="mw-redirect" title="Moral principle">principle</a> and <a href="/wiki/Moral_behavior" class="mw-redirect" title="Moral behavior">practice</a> of concern for the <a href="/wiki/Well-being" title="Well-being">well-being</a> and/or <a href="/wiki/Happiness" title="Happiness">happiness</a> of other <a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">humans</a> or animals largely independent of that person's opinion of or reaction to oneself. While objects of altruistic concern vary, it is an important moral value in many <a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">cultures</a> and <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religions</a>. It may be considered a synonym of selflessness, the opposite of <a href="/wiki/Self-centeredness" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-centeredness">self-centeredness</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The word <i>altruism</i> was popularised (and possibly coined) by the French philosopher <a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a> in French, as <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">altruisme</i></span>, for an <a href="/wiki/Antonym" class="mw-redirect" title="Antonym">antonym</a> of <a href="/wiki/Egoism" title="Egoism">egoism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He derived it from the Italian <span title="Italian-language text"><i lang="it">altrui</i></span>, which in turn was derived from Latin <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">alteri</i></span>, meaning "<a href="/wiki/Alterity" title="Alterity">other people</a>" or "somebody else".<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Altruism, as observed in populations of organisms, is when an individual performs an action at a cost to itself (in terms of e.g. pleasure and quality of life, time, probability of survival or reproduction) that benefits, directly or indirectly, another individual, without the expectation of reciprocity or compensation for that action.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Altruism can be distinguished from feelings of <a href="/wiki/Loyalty" title="Loyalty">loyalty</a> or concern for the <a href="/wiki/Common_good" title="Common good">common good</a>. The latter are predicated upon social relationships, whilst altruism does not consider relationships. Whether "true" altruism is possible in human psychology is a subject of debate. The theory of <a href="/wiki/Psychological_egoism" title="Psychological egoism">psychological egoism</a> suggests that no act of <a href="/wiki/Sharing" title="Sharing">sharing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Helping_behavior" title="Helping behavior">helping</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Self-sacrifice" title="Self-sacrifice">sacrificing</a> can be truly altruistic, as the actor may receive an intrinsic reward in the form of personal <a href="/wiki/Gratification" title="Gratification">gratification</a>. The validity of this argument depends on whether such <a href="/wiki/Motivation#Incentive_theories:_intrinsic_and_extrinsic_motivation" title="Motivation">intrinsic rewards</a> qualify as "benefits".<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The term <i><a href="/wiki/Altruism_(ethics)" title="Altruism (ethics)">altruism</a> can</i> also refer to an ethical doctrine that claims that individuals are morally obliged to benefit others. Used in this sense, it is usually contrasted with <a href="/wiki/Ethical_egoism" title="Ethical egoism">egoism</a>, which claims individuals are morally obligated to serve themselves first.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Effective_altruism" title="Effective altruism">Effective altruism</a> is the use of evidence and reason to determine the most effective ways to benefit others.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_notion_of_altruism">The notion of altruism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Altruism&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: The notion of altruism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The concept of altruism has a history in <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethical</a> thought. The term was coined in the 19th century by the founding <a href="/wiki/Sociologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociologist">sociologist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Philosopher_of_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosopher of science">philosopher of science</a> <a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a>, and has become a major topic for <a href="/wiki/Psychologists" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychologists">psychologists</a> (especially <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">evolutionary psychology</a> researchers), <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biologists" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary biologists">evolutionary biologists</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ethology" title="Ethology">ethologists</a>. Whilst ideas about altruism from one field can affect the other fields, the different methods and focuses of these fields always lead to different perspectives on altruism. In simple terms, altruism is caring about the welfare of other people and acting to help them, above oneself. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Scientific_viewpoints">Scientific viewpoints</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Altruism&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Scientific viewpoints"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anthropology">Anthropology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Altruism&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Anthropology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Altruism&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2023</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Alms" title="Alms">Alms</a> and <a href="/wiki/Altruism_(ethics)" title="Altruism (ethics)">Altruism (ethics)</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Marcel_Mauss" title="Marcel Mauss">Marcel Mauss</a>'s essay <i><a href="/wiki/The_Gift_(essay)" title="The Gift (essay)">The Gift</a></i> contains a passage called "Note on alms". This note describes the evolution of the notion of alms (and by extension of altruism) from the notion of sacrifice. In it, he writes: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Alms are the fruits of a moral notion of the gift and of fortune on the one hand, and of a notion of sacrifice, on the other. Generosity is an obligation, because Nemesis avenges the poor and the gods for the superabundance of happiness and wealth of certain people who should rid themselves of it. This is the ancient morality of the gift, which has become a principle of justice. The gods and the spirits accept that the share of wealth and happiness that has been offered to them and had been hitherto destroyed in useless sacrifices should serve the poor and children.</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evolutionary_explanations">Evolutionary explanations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Altruism&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Evolutionary explanations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Altruism_(biology)" title="Altruism (biology)">Altruism (biology)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_morality" title="Evolution of morality">Evolution of morality</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ethics" title="Evolutionary ethics">Evolutionary ethics</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Manner_of_Francis_Wheatley,_Giving_alms_to_beggar_children.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Manner_of_Francis_Wheatley%2C_Giving_alms_to_beggar_children.jpg/170px-Manner_of_Francis_Wheatley%2C_Giving_alms_to_beggar_children.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Manner_of_Francis_Wheatley%2C_Giving_alms_to_beggar_children.jpg/255px-Manner_of_Francis_Wheatley%2C_Giving_alms_to_beggar_children.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d0/Manner_of_Francis_Wheatley%2C_Giving_alms_to_beggar_children.jpg 2x" data-file-width="295" data-file-height="384" /></a><figcaption>Giving alms to beggar children</figcaption></figure> <p>In the Science of <a href="/wiki/Ethology" title="Ethology">ethology</a> (the study of animal behaviour), and more generally in the study of <a href="/wiki/Sociocultural_evolution" title="Sociocultural evolution">social evolution</a>, altruism refers to behavior by an individual that increases the <a href="/wiki/Fitness_(biology)" title="Fitness (biology)">fitness</a> of another individual while decreasing the fitness of the actor.<sup id="cite_ref-Bell2008_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bell2008-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">evolutionary psychology</a> this term may be applied to a wide range of human behaviors such as <a href="/wiki/Charity_(practice)" title="Charity (practice)">charity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Emergency_aid" class="mw-redirect" title="Emergency aid">emergency aid</a>, help to coalition partners, <a href="/wiki/Gratuity" title="Gratuity">tipping</a>, <a href="/wiki/Courtship" title="Courtship">courtship</a> gifts, production of <a href="/wiki/Public_good_(economics)" title="Public good (economics)">public goods</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">environmentalism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-AEP1_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AEP1-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Theories of apparently altruistic behavior were <span class="cleanup-needed-content" style="padding-left:0.1em; padding-right:0.1em; color:var(--color-subtle, #54595d); border:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle, #c8ccd1);">accelerated</span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="what does it mean for a theory to accelerate? How does a need accelerate a theory? (July 2023)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> by the need to produce ideas compatible with evolutionary origins. Two related strands of research on altruism have emerged from traditional evolutionary analyses and <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_game_theory" title="Evolutionary game theory">evolutionary game theory</a>: a mathematical model and analysis of behavioral strategies. </p><p>Some of the proposed mechanisms are: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kin_selection" title="Kin selection">Kin selection</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That animals and humans are more altruistic towards close kin than to distant kin and non-kin has been confirmed in numerous studies across many different cultures. Even subtle cues indicating kinship may unconsciously increase altruistic behavior. One kinship cue is facial resemblance. One study found that slightly altering photographs to resemble the faces of study participants more closely increased the trust the participants expressed regarding depicted persons. Another cue is having the same family name, especially if rare, which has been found to increase helpful behavior. Another study found more cooperative behavior, the greater the number of perceived kin in a group. Using kinship terms in political speeches increased audience agreement with the speaker in one study. This effect was powerful for firstborns, who are typically close to their families.<sup id="cite_ref-AEP1_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AEP1-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Vested interests. People are likely to suffer if their friends, allies and those from similar social <a href="/wiki/Ingroup" class="mw-redirect" title="Ingroup">ingroups</a> suffer or disappear. Helping such group members may, therefore, also benefit the altruist. Making ingroup membership more noticeable increases cooperativeness. Extreme self-sacrifice towards the ingroup may be adaptive if a hostile <a href="/wiki/Ingroups_and_outgroups" class="mw-redirect" title="Ingroups and outgroups">outgroup</a> threatens the entire ingroup.<sup id="cite_ref-AEP1_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AEP1-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reciprocal_altruism" title="Reciprocal altruism">Reciprocal altruism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> See also <a href="/wiki/Reciprocity_(evolution)" title="Reciprocity (evolution)">Reciprocity (evolution)</a>. <ul><li>Direct <a href="/wiki/Reciprocity_(social_psychology)" title="Reciprocity (social psychology)">reciprocity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Research shows that it can be beneficial to help others if there is a chance that they will reciprocate the help. The effective <a href="/wiki/Tit_for_tat" title="Tit for tat">tit for tat</a> strategy is one <a href="/wiki/Game_theory" title="Game theory">game theoretic</a> example. Many people seem to be following a similar strategy by cooperating if and only if others cooperate in return.<sup id="cite_ref-AEP1_10-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AEP1-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <dl><dd>One consequence is that people are more cooperative with one another if they are more likely to interact again in the future. People tend to be less cooperative if they perceive that the frequency of helpers in the population is lower. They tend to help less if they see non-cooperativeness by others, and this effect tends to be stronger than the opposite effect of seeing cooperative behaviors. Simply changing the cooperative framing of a proposal may increase cooperativeness, such as calling it a "Community Game" instead of a "Wall Street Game".<sup id="cite_ref-AEP1_10-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AEP1-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd> <dd>A tendency towards reciprocity implies that people feel obligated to respond if someone helps them. This has been used by charities that give small gifts to potential donors hoping to induce reciprocity. Another method is to announce publicly that someone has given a large donation. The tendency to reciprocate can even generalize, so people become more helpful toward others after being helped. On the other hand, people will avoid or even retaliate against those perceived not to be cooperating. People sometimes mistakenly fail to help when they intended to, or their helping may not be noticed, which may cause unintended conflicts. As such, it may be an optimal strategy to be slightly forgiving of and have a slightly generous interpretation of non-cooperation.<sup id="cite_ref-AEP1_10-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AEP1-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd> <dd>People are more likely to cooperate on a task if they can communicate with one another first. This may be due to better cooperativeness assessments or promises exchange. They are more cooperative if they can gradually build trust instead of being asked to give extensive help immediately. Direct reciprocity and cooperation in a group can be increased by changing the focus and incentives from intra-group competition to larger-scale competitions, such as between groups or against the general population. Thus, giving grades and promotions based only on an individual's performance relative to a small local group, as is common, may reduce cooperative behaviors in the group.<sup id="cite_ref-AEP1_10-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AEP1-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl></li> <li>Indirect reciprocity.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because people avoid poor reciprocators and cheaters, a person's <a href="/wiki/Reputation" title="Reputation">reputation</a> is important. A person esteemed for their reciprocity is more likely to receive assistance, even from individuals they have not directly interacted with before.<sup id="cite_ref-AEP1_10-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AEP1-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strong_reciprocity" title="Strong reciprocity">Strong reciprocity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This form of reciprocity is expressed by people who invest more resources in cooperation and punishment than what is deemed optimal based on established theories of altruism.</li> <li>Pseudo-reciprocity.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An organism behaves altruistically and the recipient does not reciprocate but has an increased chance of acting in a way that is selfish but also as a byproduct benefits the altruist.</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signalling_theory" title="Signalling theory">Costly signaling</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Handicap_principle" title="Handicap principle">handicap principle</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Altruism, by diverting resources from the altruist, can act as an "honest signal" of available resources and the skills to acquire them. This may signal to others that the altruist is a valuable potential partner. It may also signal interactive and cooperative intentions, since someone who does not expect to interact further in the future gains nothing from such costly signaling. While it's uncertain if costly signaling can predict long-term cooperative traits, people tend to trust helpers more. Costly signaling loses its value when everyone shares identical traits, resources, and cooperative intentions, but it gains significance as population variability in these aspects increases.<sup id="cite_ref-AEP1_10-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AEP1-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <dl><dd>Hunters who <a href="/wiki/Sharing" title="Sharing">share</a> meat display a costly signal of ability. The research found that good hunters have higher reproductive success and more adulterous relations even if they receive no more of the hunted meat than anyone else. Similarly, holding large feasts and giving large donations are ways of demonstrating one's resources. <a href="/wiki/Hero" title="Hero">Heroic</a> risk-taking has also been interpreted as a costly signal of ability.<sup id="cite_ref-AEP1_10-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AEP1-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FEMA_-_15337_-_Photograph_by_Andrea_Booher_taken_on_09-10-2005_in_Texas.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/FEMA_-_15337_-_Photograph_by_Andrea_Booher_taken_on_09-10-2005_in_Texas.jpg/220px-FEMA_-_15337_-_Photograph_by_Andrea_Booher_taken_on_09-10-2005_in_Texas.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/FEMA_-_15337_-_Photograph_by_Andrea_Booher_taken_on_09-10-2005_in_Texas.jpg/330px-FEMA_-_15337_-_Photograph_by_Andrea_Booher_taken_on_09-10-2005_in_Texas.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/FEMA_-_15337_-_Photograph_by_Andrea_Booher_taken_on_09-10-2005_in_Texas.jpg/440px-FEMA_-_15337_-_Photograph_by_Andrea_Booher_taken_on_09-10-2005_in_Texas.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1803" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Volunteers assist Hurricane victims at the <a href="/wiki/Houston_Astrodome" class="mw-redirect" title="Houston Astrodome">Houston Astrodome</a>, following <a href="/wiki/Hurricane_Katrina" title="Hurricane Katrina">Hurricane Katrina</a>.</figcaption></figure> <dl><dd>Both indirect reciprocity and costly signaling depend on reputation value and tend to make similar predictions. One is that people will be more helpful when they know that their helping behavior will be communicated to people they will interact with later, publicly announced, discussed, or observed by someone else. This has been documented in many studies. The effect is sensitive to subtle cues, such as people being more helpful when there were stylized eyespots instead of a logo on a computer screen. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute"><span title="failed to replicate: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8494318/ (July 2023)">dubious</span></a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Altruism#Dubious" title="Talk:Altruism">discuss</a></i>]</sup> Weak reputational cues such as eyespots may become unimportant if there are stronger cues present and may lose their effect with continued exposure unless reinforced with real reputational effects.<sup id="cite_ref-AEP1_10-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AEP1-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Public displays such as public weeping for dead celebrities and participation in demonstrations may be influenced by a desire to be seen as generous. People who know that they are publicly monitored sometimes even wastefully donate the money they know is not needed by the recipient because of reputational concerns.<sup id="cite_ref-AEP2_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AEP2-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <dl><dd>Typically, women find altruistic men to be attractive partners. When women look for a long-term partner, altruism may be a trait they prefer as it may indicate that the prospective partner is also willing to <a href="/wiki/Sharing" title="Sharing">share</a> resources with her and her children. Men perform charitable acts in the early stages of a romantic relationship or simply when in the presence of an attractive woman. While both sexes state that kindness is the most preferable trait in a partner, there is some evidence that men place less value on this than women and that women may not be more altruistic in the presence of an attractive man. Men may even avoid altruistic women in short-term relationships, which may be because they expect less success.<sup id="cite_ref-AEP1_10-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AEP1-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-AEP2_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AEP2-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <dl><dd>People may compete for the social benefit of a burnished reputation, which may cause <a href="/wiki/Competitive_altruism" title="Competitive altruism">competitive altruism</a>. On the other hand, in some experiments, a proportion of people do not seem to care about reputation and do not help more, even if this is conspicuous. This may be due to reasons such as <a href="/wiki/Psychopathy" title="Psychopathy">psychopathy</a> or that they are so attractive that they need not be seen as altruistic. The reputational benefits of altruism occur in the future compared to the immediate costs of altruism. While humans and other organisms generally place less value on future costs/benefits as compared to those in the present, some have shorter time horizons than others, and these people tend to be less cooperative.<sup id="cite_ref-AEP1_10-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AEP1-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <dl><dd>Explicit <a href="/wiki/Extrinsic" class="mw-redirect" title="Extrinsic">extrinsic</a> rewards and punishments have sometimes been found to have a counterintuitively inverse effect on behaviors when compared to intrinsic rewards. This may be because such extrinsic incentives may replace (partially or in whole) intrinsic and reputational incentives, motivating the person to focus on obtaining the extrinsic rewards, which may make the thus-incentivized behaviors less desirable. People prefer altruism in others when it appears to be due to a personality characteristic rather than overt reputational concerns; simply pointing out that there are reputational benefits of action may reduce them. This may be used as a derogatory tactic against altruists ("you're just <a href="/wiki/Virtue_signalling" title="Virtue signalling">virtue signalling</a>"), especially by those who are non-cooperators. A counterargument is that doing good due to reputational concerns is better than doing no good.<sup id="cite_ref-AEP1_10-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AEP1-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Group_selection" title="Group selection">Group selection</a>. It has controversially been argued by some evolutionary scientists such as <a href="/wiki/David_Sloan_Wilson" title="David Sloan Wilson">David Sloan Wilson</a> that natural selection can act at the level of non-kin groups to produce adaptations that benefit a non-kin group, even if these adaptations are detrimental at the individual level. Thus, while altruistic persons may under some circumstances be outcompeted by less altruistic persons at the individual level, according to group selection theory, the opposite may occur at the group level where groups consisting of the more altruistic persons may outcompete groups consisting of the less altruistic persons. Such altruism may only extend to ingroup members while directing prejudice and antagonism against outgroup members (see also <a href="/wiki/In-group_favoritism" title="In-group favoritism">in-group favoritism</a>). Many other evolutionary scientists have criticized group selection theory.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Helping_the_homeless_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Helping_the_homeless_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Helping_the_homeless_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Helping_the_homeless_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Helping_the_homeless_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Helping_the_homeless_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Helping_the_homeless_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2037" data-file-height="1993" /></a><figcaption>Helping the <a href="/wiki/Homelessness" title="Homelessness">homeless</a> in New York City</figcaption></figure> <p>Such explanations do not imply that humans consciously calculate how to increase their <a href="/wiki/Inclusive_fitness" title="Inclusive fitness">inclusive fitness</a> when doing altruistic acts. Instead, evolution has shaped psychological mechanisms, such as emotions, that promote certain altruistic behaviors.<sup id="cite_ref-AEP1_10-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AEP1-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The benefits for the altruist may be increased, and the costs reduced by being more altruistic towards certain groups. Research has found that people are more altruistic to kin than to no-kin, to friends than strangers, to those attractive than to those unattractive, to non-competitors than competitors, and to members in-groups than to members of out-groups.<sup id="cite_ref-AEP1_10-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AEP1-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The study of altruism was the initial impetus behind <a href="/wiki/George_R._Price" title="George R. Price">George R. Price</a>'s development of the <a href="/wiki/Price_equation" title="Price equation">Price equation</a>, a mathematical equation used to study genetic evolution. An interesting example of altruism is found in the cellular <a href="/wiki/Slime_mould" class="mw-redirect" title="Slime mould">slime moulds</a>, such as <i><a href="/wiki/Dictyostelid" title="Dictyostelid">Dictyostelium</a> mucoroides</i>. These protists live as individual <a href="/wiki/Amoeba" title="Amoeba">amoebae</a> until starved, at which point they aggregate and form a multicellular fruiting body in which some cells sacrifice themselves to promote the survival of other cells in the fruiting body.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Selective investment theory proposes that close social bonds, and associated emotional, cognitive, and neurohormonal mechanisms, evolved to facilitate long-term, high-cost altruism between those closely depending on one another for survival and reproductive success.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Such cooperative behaviors have sometimes been seen as arguments for left-wing politics, for example, by the Russian <a href="/wiki/Zoology" title="Zoology">zoologist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">anarchist</a> <a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Peter Kropotkin</a> in his 1902 book <i><a href="/wiki/Mutual_Aid:_A_Factor_of_Evolution" title="Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution">Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution</a></i> and <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Moral Philosopher</a> <a href="/wiki/Peter_Singer" title="Peter Singer">Peter Singer</a> in his book <i><a href="/wiki/A_Darwinian_Left" title="A Darwinian Left">A Darwinian Left</a></i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neurobiology">Neurobiology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Altruism&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Neurobiology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Compassion" title="Compassion">Compassion</a></div> <p>Jorge Moll and <a href="/wiki/Jordan_Grafman" title="Jordan Grafman">Jordan Grafman</a>, neuroscientists at the <a href="/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health" title="National Institutes of Health">National Institutes of Health</a> and LABS-D'Or Hospital Network, provided the first evidence for the neural bases of altruistic giving in normal healthy volunteers, using <a href="/wiki/Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Functional magnetic resonance imaging">functional magnetic resonance imaging</a>. In their research,<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> they showed that both pure monetary rewards and charitable donations activated the <a href="/wiki/Mesolimbic_pathway" title="Mesolimbic pathway">mesolimbic</a> reward pathway, a primitive part of the brain that usually responds to food and sex. However, when volunteers generously placed the interests of others before their own by making charitable donations, another <a href="/wiki/Brain_circuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Brain circuit">brain circuit</a> was selectively activated: the subgenual cortex/<a href="/wiki/Septal_region" class="mw-redirect" title="Septal region">septal region</a>. These structures <span class="cleanup-needed-content" style="padding-left:0.1em; padding-right:0.1em; color:var(--color-subtle, #54595d); border:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle, #c8ccd1);">are related to</span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Vagueness" title="Wikipedia:Vagueness"><span title="This information is too vague. (July 2023)">vague</span></a></i>]</sup> social attachment and bonding in other species. The experiment suggested that altruism is not a higher moral faculty overpowering innate selfish desires, but a fundamental, ingrained, and enjoyable trait in the brain.<sup id="cite_ref-brain_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brain-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One brain region, the subgenual <a href="/wiki/Anterior_cingulate_cortex" title="Anterior cingulate cortex">anterior cingulate cortex</a>/<a href="/wiki/Basal_forebrain" title="Basal forebrain">basal forebrain</a>, contributes to learning altruistic behavior, especially in people with <span class="cleanup-needed-content" style="padding-left:0.1em; padding-right:0.1em; color:var(--color-subtle, #54595d); border:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle, #c8ccd1);">trait</span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="what means this nounish adjective? (July 2023)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> <a href="/wiki/Empathy" title="Empathy">empathy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-PMID_27528669_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PMID_27528669-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The same study identified <span class="cleanup-needed-content" style="padding-left:0.1em; padding-right:0.1em; color:var(--color-subtle, #54595d); border:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle, #c8ccd1);">a link between</span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Vagueness" title="Wikipedia:Vagueness"><span title="This information is too vague. (July 2023)">vague</span></a></i>]</sup> giving to charity and <span class="cleanup-needed-content" style="padding-left:0.1em; padding-right:0.1em; color:var(--color-subtle, #54595d); border:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle, #c8ccd1);">the promotion</span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="how? by whom? (July 2023)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> of social bonding.<sup id="cite_ref-neurons_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-neurons-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Bill Harbaugh, a <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oregon" title="University of Oregon">University of Oregon</a> economist, in an fMRI scanner test conducted with his psychologist colleague Dr. Ulrich Mayr, reached the same conclusions as Jorge Moll and Jordan Grafman about giving to charity, although they were able to divide the study group into two groups: "egoists" and "altruists". One of their discoveries was that, though rarely, even some of the considered "egoists" sometimes gave more than expected because that would help others, leading to the conclusion that there are other factors in charity, such as a person's environment and values.<sup id="cite_ref-neurons_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-neurons-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A recent meta-analysis of fMRI studies conducted by Shawn Rhoads, Jo Cutler, and Abigail Marsh analyzed the results of prior studies of generosity in which participants could freely choose to give or not give resources to someone else.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The results of this study confirmed that altruism is supported by distinct mechanisms from giving motivated by reciprocity or by fairness. This study also confirmed that the right ventral striatum is recruited during altruistic giving, as well as the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, bilateral <a href="/wiki/Anterior_cingulate_cortex" title="Anterior cingulate cortex">anterior cingulate cortex</a>, and bilateral anterior <a href="/wiki/Insular_cortex" title="Insular cortex">insula</a>, which are regions previously implicated in <a href="/wiki/Empathy" title="Empathy">empathy</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Abigail_Marsh" title="Abigail Marsh">Abigail Marsh</a> has conducted studies of real-world altruists that have also identified an important role for the <a href="/wiki/Amygdala" title="Amygdala">amygdala</a> in human altruism. In real-world altruists, such as people who have donated kidneys to strangers, the amygdala is larger than in typical adults. Altruists' amygdalas are also more responsive than those of typical adults to the sight of others' distress, which is thought to reflect an empathic response to distress.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This structure may also be involved in altruistic choices due to its role in encoding the value of outcomes for others.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is consistent with the findings of research in non-human animals, which has identified neurons within the amygdala that specifically encode the value of others' outcomes, activity in which appears to drive altruistic choices in monkeys.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Psychology">Psychology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Altruism&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Psychology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences defines <i>psychological altruism</i> as "a motivational state to increase another's welfare". Psychological altruism is contrasted with <i>psychological egoism</i>, which refers to the motivation to increase one's welfare.<sup id="cite_ref-encyclopedia_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-encyclopedia-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In keeping with this, research in real-world altruists, including altruistic kidney donors, bone marrow donors, humanitarian aid workers, and <a href="/wiki/Hero" title="Hero">heroic</a> rescuers findings that these altruists are primarily distinguished from other adults by unselfish traits and decision-making patterns. This suggests that human altruism reflects genuinely high valuation of others' outcomes.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There has been some debate on whether humans are capable of psychological altruism.<sup id="cite_ref-batson3_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-batson3-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some definitions specify a self-sacrificial nature to altruism and a lack of external rewards for altruistic behaviors.<sup id="cite_ref-prosocial_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-prosocial-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, because altruism ultimately benefits the self in many cases, the selflessness of altruistic acts is difficult to prove. The <a href="/wiki/Social_exchange_theory" title="Social exchange theory">social exchange theory</a> postulates that altruism only exists when the benefits outweigh the costs to the self.<sup id="cite_ref-noaltruism_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-noaltruism-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Batson" title="Daniel Batson">Daniel Batson</a>, a psychologist, examined this question and argued against the social exchange theory. He identified four significant motives: to ultimately benefit the self (egoism), to ultimately benefit the other person (altruism), to benefit a group (collectivism), or to uphold a moral principle (<a href="/wiki/Principlism" title="Principlism">principlism</a>). Altruism that ultimately serves selfish gains is thus differentiated from selfless altruism, but the general conclusion has been that <a href="/wiki/Empathy" title="Empathy">empathy</a>-induced altruism can be genuinely selfless.<sup id="cite_ref-baston2_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-baston2-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i><a href="/wiki/Empathy-altruism" title="Empathy-altruism">empathy-altruism</a> hypothesis</i> states that psychological altruism exists and is evoked by the empathic desire to help someone suffering. Feelings of empathic concern are contrasted with personal distress, which compels people to reduce their unpleasant emotions and increase their positive ones by helping someone in need. Empathy is thus not selfless since altruism works either as a way to avoid those negative, unpleasant feelings and have positive, pleasant feelings when triggered by others' need for help or as a way to gain social reward or avoid social punishment by helping. People with empathic concern help others in distress even when exposure to the situation could be easily avoided, whereas those lacking in empathic concern avoid allowing it unless it is difficult or impossible to avoid exposure to another's suffering.<sup id="cite_ref-encyclopedia_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-encyclopedia-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Helping behavior is seen in humans from about two years old when a toddler can understand subtle emotional cues.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Peace_Corps_Volunteer_swearing_in_Cambodia,_2007.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Peace_Corps_Volunteer_swearing_in_Cambodia%2C_2007.jpg/220px-Peace_Corps_Volunteer_swearing_in_Cambodia%2C_2007.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="108" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Peace_Corps_Volunteer_swearing_in_Cambodia%2C_2007.jpg/330px-Peace_Corps_Volunteer_swearing_in_Cambodia%2C_2007.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Peace_Corps_Volunteer_swearing_in_Cambodia%2C_2007.jpg/440px-Peace_Corps_Volunteer_swearing_in_Cambodia%2C_2007.jpg 2x" data-file-width="711" data-file-height="348" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Peace_Corps" title="Peace Corps">Peace Corps</a> trainees swearing in as volunteers in <a href="/wiki/Cambodia" title="Cambodia">Cambodia</a>, 4 April 2007</figcaption></figure> <p>In psychological research on altruism, studies often observe altruism as demonstrated through <a href="/wiki/Prosocial_behavior" title="Prosocial behavior">prosocial behaviors</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Helping_behavior" title="Helping behavior">helping</a>, comforting, <a href="/wiki/Sharing" title="Sharing">sharing</a>, cooperation, <a href="/wiki/Philanthropy" title="Philanthropy">philanthropy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Community_service" title="Community service">community service</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-prosocial_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-prosocial-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> People are most likely to help if they recognize that a person is in need and feel personal responsibility for reducing the person's distress. The number of bystanders witnessing pain or suffering affects the likelihood of helping (the <i><a href="/wiki/Bystander_effect" title="Bystander effect">Bystander effect</a></i>). More significant numbers of bystanders decrease individual feelings of responsibility.<sup id="cite_ref-encyclopedia_32-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-encyclopedia-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, a witness with a high level of empathic concern is likely to assume personal responsibility entirely regardless of the number of bystanders.<sup id="cite_ref-encyclopedia_32-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-encyclopedia-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many studies have observed the effects of <a href="/wiki/Volunteering" title="Volunteering">volunteerism</a> (as a form of altruism) on happiness and health and have consistently found that those who exhibit volunteerism also have better current and future health and well-being.<sup id="cite_ref-volunteer1_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-volunteer1-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a study of older adults, those who volunteered had higher life satisfaction and will to live, and less <a href="/wiki/Depression_(mood)" title="Depression (mood)">depression</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anxiety_(mood)" class="mw-redirect" title="Anxiety (mood)">anxiety</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Somatization" title="Somatization">somatization</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Volunteerism and helping behavior have not only been shown to improve mental health but physical health and longevity as well, attributable to the activity and social integration it encourages.<sup id="cite_ref-volunteer1_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-volunteer1-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-volunteer5_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-volunteer5-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One study examined the physical health of mothers who volunteered over 30 years and found that 52% of those who did not belong to a volunteer organization experienced a major illness while only 36% of those who did volunteer experienced one.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A study on adults aged 55 and older found that during the four-year study period, people who volunteered for two or more organizations had a 63% lower likelihood of dying. After controlling for prior health status, it was determined that volunteerism accounted for a 44% reduction in mortality.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Merely being aware of kindness in oneself and others is also associated with greater well-being. A study that asked participants to count each act of kindness they performed for one week significantly enhanced their subjective happiness. Happier people are kinder and more grateful, kinder people are happier and more grateful and more grateful people are happier and kinder, the study suggests.<sup id="cite_ref-countingkindness_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-countingkindness-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While research supports the idea that altruistic acts bring about happiness, it has also been found to work in the opposite direction—that happier people are also kinder. The relationship between altruistic behavior and happiness is bidirectional. Studies found that <a href="/wiki/Generosity" title="Generosity">generosity</a> increases linearly from sad to happy affective states.<sup id="cite_ref-moodandgenerosity_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-moodandgenerosity-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Feeling over-taxed by the needs of others has negative effects on health and happiness.<sup id="cite_ref-volunteer5_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-volunteer5-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, one study on volunteerism found that feeling overwhelmed by others' demands had an even stronger negative effect on mental health than helping had a positive one (although positive effects were still significant).<sup id="cite_ref-overwhelmed_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-overwhelmed-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Older humans were found to have higher altruism.<sup id="cite_ref-w730_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-w730-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genetics_and_environment">Genetics and environment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Altruism&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Genetics and environment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Both genetics and environment have been implicated in influencing pro-social or altruistic behavior.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Candidate genes include OXTR (<a href="/wiki/Gene_polymorphism" title="Gene polymorphism">polymorphisms</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Oxytocin_receptor" title="Oxytocin receptor">oxytocin receptor</a>),<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/CD38" title="CD38">CD38</a>, <a href="/wiki/COMT" class="mw-redirect" title="COMT">COMT</a>, <a href="/wiki/DRD4" class="mw-redirect" title="DRD4">DRD4</a>, <a href="/wiki/DRD5" class="mw-redirect" title="DRD5">DRD5</a>, <a href="/wiki/IGF2" class="mw-redirect" title="IGF2">IGF2</a>, <a href="/wiki/AVPR1A" class="mw-redirect" title="AVPR1A">AVPR1A</a><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/GABRB2" title="GABRB2">GABRB2</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is theorized that some of these genes influence altruistic behavior by modulating levels of neurotransmitters such as <a href="/wiki/Serotonin" title="Serotonin">serotonin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dopamine" title="Dopamine">dopamine</a>. </p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Boehm" title="Christopher Boehm">Christopher Boehm</a>, altruistic behaviour evolved as a way of surviving within a group.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sociology">Sociology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Altruism&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Sociology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Public_sociology" title="Public sociology">Public sociology</a></div> <p>"Sociologists have long been concerned with how to build the good society".<sup id="cite_ref-ASA-AMSS_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ASA-AMSS-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The structure of our societies and how individuals come to exhibit charitable, philanthropic, and other pro-social, altruistic actions for the <a href="/wiki/Common_good" title="Common good">common good</a> is a commonly researched topic within the field. The American Sociology Association (ASA) acknowledges <a href="/wiki/Public_sociology" title="Public sociology">public sociology</a> saying, "The intrinsic scientific, policy, and public relevance of this field of investigation in helping to construct 'good societies' is unquestionable".<sup id="cite_ref-ASA-AMSS_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ASA-AMSS-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This type of sociology seeks contributions that aid popular and theoretical understandings of what motivates altruism and how it is organized, and promotes an altruistic focus in order to benefit the world and people it studies. </p><p>How altruism is framed, organized, carried out, and what motivates it at the group level is an area of focus that sociologists investigate in order to contribute back to the groups it studies and "build the good society". The motivation of altruism is also the focus of study; for example, one study links the occurrence of moral outrage to altruistic compensation of victims.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Studies show that <a href="/wiki/Generosity" title="Generosity">generosity</a> in laboratory and in online experiments is contagious – people imitate the generosity they observe in others.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Religious_viewpoints">Religious viewpoints</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Altruism&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Religious viewpoints"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_origin_of_religion" title="Evolutionary origin of religion">Evolutionary origin of religion</a></div> <p>Most, if not all, of the world's religions promote altruism as a very important moral value. <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sikhism" title="Sikhism">Sikhism</a>, etc., place particular emphasis on altruistic morality. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Buddhism">Buddhism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Altruism&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Buddhism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Monks_collecting_alms_-_Bun_Vat_Phu.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Monks_collecting_alms_-_Bun_Vat_Phu.JPG/220px-Monks_collecting_alms_-_Bun_Vat_Phu.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Monks_collecting_alms_-_Bun_Vat_Phu.JPG/330px-Monks_collecting_alms_-_Bun_Vat_Phu.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Monks_collecting_alms_-_Bun_Vat_Phu.JPG/440px-Monks_collecting_alms_-_Bun_Vat_Phu.JPG 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption>Monks collecting alms</figcaption></figure> <p>Altruism figures prominently in Buddhism. <a href="/wiki/Love" title="Love">Love</a> and <a href="/wiki/Compassion" title="Compassion">compassion</a> are components of all forms of Buddhism, and are focused on all beings equally: love is the wish that all beings be happy, and compassion is the wish that all beings be free from suffering. "Many illnesses can be cured by the one medicine of love and compassion. These qualities are the ultimate source of human happiness, and the need for them lies at the very core of our being" (<a href="/wiki/Dalai_Lama" title="Dalai Lama">Dalai Lama</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Speech_by_the_Dalai_Lama_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Speech_by_the_Dalai_Lama-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The notion of altruism is modified in such a world-view, since the belief is that such a practice promotes the practitioner's own happiness: "The more we care for the happiness of others, the greater our own sense of well-being becomes" (Dalai Lama).<sup id="cite_ref-Speech_by_the_Dalai_Lama_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Speech_by_the_Dalai_Lama-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Buddhism, a person's actions cause karma, which consists of consequences proportional to the moral implications of their actions. Deeds considered to be bad are punished, while those considered to be good are rewarded.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jainism">Jainism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Altruism&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Jainism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Ahimsa_in_Jainism" title="Ahimsa in Jainism">Ahimsa in Jainism</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ahinsa.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Ahinsa.jpg/220px-Ahinsa.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Ahinsa.jpg/330px-Ahinsa.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Ahinsa.jpg/440px-Ahinsa.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3103" data-file-height="1656" /></a><figcaption>Sculpture depicting the Jain concept of <span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn">ahimsa</i></span> (non-injury)</figcaption></figure> <p>The fundamental principles of <a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a> revolve around altruism, not only for<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="does "for" mean "towards" or "by" in this phrase? (July 2023)">ambiguous</span></a></i>]</sup> humans but for all sentient beings. Jainism preaches <span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Ahimsa" title="Ahimsa">ahimsa</a></i></span> – to live and let live, not harming sentient beings, i.e. uncompromising reverence for all life. It also considers all living things to be equal<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="equal in what way, on what dimension? (July 2023)">specify</span></a></i>]</sup>. The first <span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Tirthankara" title="Tirthankara">Tirthankara</a></i></span>, <a href="/wiki/Rishabhdev" class="mw-redirect" title="Rishabhdev">Rishabhdev</a>, introduced the concept of altruism for all living beings, from extending knowledge and experience to others to donation, giving oneself up for others, non-violence, and compassion for all living things.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The principle of nonviolence seeks to minimize karmas which limit the capabilities of the soul. Jainism views every <a href="/wiki/Soul_(Jainism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Soul (Jainism)">soul</a> as worthy of respect because it has the potential to become <span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn">Siddha</i></span> (<a href="/wiki/God_in_Jainism" title="God in Jainism">God in Jainism</a>). Because all living beings possess a soul, great care and awareness is essential in one's actions. Jainism emphasizes the equality of all life, advocating harmlessness towards all, whether the creatures are great or small. This policy extends even to microscopic organisms. Jainism acknowledges that every person has different capabilities and capacities to practice and therefore accepts different levels of compliance for ascetics and householders.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Christianity">Christianity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Altruism&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Christianity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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href="/wiki/File:Emblem_of_the_Papacy_SE.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Emblem_of_the_Papacy_SE.svg/25px-Emblem_of_the_Papacy_SE.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Emblem_of_the_Papacy_SE.svg/38px-Emblem_of_the_Papacy_SE.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Emblem_of_the_Papacy_SE.svg/50px-Emblem_of_the_Papacy_SE.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="815" data-file-height="1105" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Catholic_philosophers" title="Category:Catholic philosophers">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Catholic philosophy</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" 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/></span></span><div class="sidebar-caption"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Duns_Scotus" title="Duns Scotus">Scotus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">Ockham</a></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:gold;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Catholic_moral_theology" title="Catholic moral theology">Ethics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cardinal_virtues" title="Cardinal virtues">Cardinal virtues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Just_price" title="Just price">Just price</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Just_war_theory#Catholic_doctrine" title="Just war theory">Just war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_double_effect" title="Principle of double effect">Principle of Double Effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casuistry" title="Casuistry">Casuistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_probabilism" title="Catholic probabilism">Probabilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law#Catholic_natural_law_jurisprudence" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_personalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic personalism">Personalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_social_teaching" title="Catholic social teaching">Social teaching</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberation_Theology" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberation Theology">Liberation Theology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Humanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian Humanism">Christian Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Works_of_mercy" title="Works of mercy">Works of mercy</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:gold;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conceptualism" title="Conceptualism">Conceptualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moderate_realism" title="Moderate realism">Moderate realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quiddity" title="Quiddity">Quiddity</a> (<a href="/wiki/Essence" title="Essence">essence</a> / <a href="/wiki/Nature_(philosophy)" title="Nature (philosophy)">nature</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haecceity" title="Haecceity">Haecceity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Ways_(Aquinas)" title="Five Ways (Aquinas)">Quinque Viae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predestination" title="Predestination">Predestination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theological_determinism" title="Theological determinism">Theological determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compatibilism" title="Compatibilism">Compatibilism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attributes_of_God_in_Christianity" title="Attributes of God in Christianity">Divine Attributes</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:gold;color: var(--color-base)">Schools</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Augustinianism" title="Augustinianism">Augustinianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Saint_Victor" title="School of Saint Victor">Victorines</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Llullism" class="mw-redirect" title="Llullism">Llullism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism_and_Christianity" title="Neoplatonism and Christianity">Christian Neoplatonism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Friends_of_God" title="Friends of God">Friends of God</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molinism" title="Molinism">Molinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nouvelle_th%C3%A9ologie" title="Nouvelle théologie">Ressourcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occamism" title="Occamism">Occamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_scholasticism" title="Second scholasticism">Second scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-scholasticism" title="Neo-scholasticism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotism" title="Scotism">Scotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Thomism" title="Analytical Thomism">Analytic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Salamanca" title="School of Salamanca">Salamanca</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:gold;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Catholic_philosophers_and_theologians" title="List of Catholic philosophers and theologians">Philosophers</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:gold;color: var(--color-base)">Ancient</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ambrose" title="Ambrose">Ambrose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athenagoras_of_Athens" title="Athenagoras of Athens">Athenagoras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athanasius_of_Alexandria" title="Athanasius of Alexandria">Athanasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benedict_of_Nursia" title="Benedict of Nursia">Benedict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clement_of_Alexandria" title="Clement of Alexandria">Clement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyprian" title="Cyprian">Cyprian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyril_of_Alexandria" title="Cyril of Alexandria">Cyril</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregory_of_Nazianzus" title="Gregory of Nazianzus">Gregory (of Nazianzus)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregory_of_Nyssa" title="Gregory of Nyssa">Gregory (of Nyssa)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irenaeus" title="Irenaeus">Irenaeus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Cassian" title="John Cassian">Cassian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Chrysostom" title="John Chrysostom">Chrysostom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Climacus" title="John Climacus">Climacus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_of_Damascus" title="John of Damascus">John of Damascus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_Martyr" title="Justin Martyr">Justin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximus_the_Confessor" title="Maximus the Confessor">Maximus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Dionysius_the_Areopagite" title="Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite">Dionysius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_the_Apostle" title="Paul the Apostle">Paul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:gold;color: var(--color-base)">Medieval</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Abelard" title="Peter Abelard">Abelard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albertus_Magnus" title="Albertus Magnus">Albert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcuin" title="Alcuin">Alcuin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_of_Hales" title="Alexander of Hales">Alexander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_of_Autrecourt" title="Nicholas of Autrecourt">Autrecourt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bede" title="Bede">Bede</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berengar_of_Tours" title="Berengar of Tours">Berengar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_of_Clairvaux" title="Bernard of Clairvaux">Bernard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bonaventure" title="Bonaventure">Bonaventure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Buridan" title="Jean Buridan">Buridan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catherine_of_Siena" title="Catherine of Siena">Catherine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_of_Cusa" title="Nicholas of Cusa">Cusa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meister_Eckhart" title="Meister Eckhart">Eckhart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Scotus_Eriugena" title="John Scotus Eriugena">Eriugena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giles_of_Rome" title="Giles of Rome">Giles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_I" title="Pope Gregory I">Gregory I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Grosseteste" title="Robert Grosseteste">Grosseteste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominicus_Gundissalinus" title="Dominicus Gundissalinus">Gundissalinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hildegard_of_Bingen" title="Hildegard of Bingen">Hildegard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_of_Saint_Victor" title="Hugh of Saint Victor">Hugh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isidore_of_Seville" title="Isidore of Seville">Isidore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramon_Llull" title="Ramon Llull">Llull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Lombard" title="Peter Lombard">Lombard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_of_Braga" title="Martin of Braga">Martin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">Ockham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicole_Oresme" title="Nicole Oresme">Oresme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paschasius_Radbertus" title="Paschasius Radbertus">Paschasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roscellinus" title="Roscellinus">Roscellinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duns_Scotus" title="Duns Scotus">Scotus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siger_of_Brabant" title="Siger of Brabant">Siger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symeon_the_New_Theologian" title="Symeon the New Theologian">Symeon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thierry_of_Chartres" title="Thierry of Chartres">Thierry</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:gold;color: var(--color-base)">Modern</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Arnauld" title="Antoine Arnauld">Arnauld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teresa_of_%C3%81vila" title="Teresa of Ávila">Ávila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mart%C3%ADn_de_Azpilcueta" title="Martín de Azpilcueta">Azpilcueta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bellarmine" title="Robert Bellarmine">Bellarmine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Bonald" title="Louis de Bonald">Bonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques-B%C3%A9nigne_Bossuet" title="Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet">Bossuet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Brentano" title="Franz Brentano">Brentano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Botero" title="Giovanni Botero">Botero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cajetan" title="Thomas Cajetan">Cajetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Ren%C3%A9_de_Chateaubriand" title="François-René de Chateaubriand">Chateaubriand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Donoso_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Juan Donoso Cortés">Cortés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_F%C3%A9nelon" title="François Fénelon">Fénelon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltasar_Graci%C3%A1n" title="Baltasar Gracián">Gracián</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Ko%C5%82%C5%82%C4%85taj" title="Hugo Kołłątaj">Kołłątaj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignacy_Krasicki" title="Ignacy Krasicki">Krasicki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9licit%C3%A9_de_La_Mennais" title="Félicité de La Mennais">La Mennais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alphonsus_Liguori" title="Alphonsus Liguori">Liguori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Maistre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Malebranche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_de_Mariana" title="Juan de Mariana">Mariana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexius_Meinong" title="Alexius Meinong">Meinong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom%C3%A1s_de_Mercado" title="Tomás de Mercado">Mercado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luis_de_Molina" title="Luis de Molina">Molina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Henry_Newman" title="John Henry Newman">Newman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Pascal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Rosmini" title="Antonio Rosmini">Rosmini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_de_Sales" title="Francis de Sales">Sales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domingo_de_Soto" title="Domingo de Soto">Soto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Suárez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giambattista_Vico" title="Giambattista Vico">Vico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_de_Vitoria" title="Francisco de Vitoria">Vitoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Caramuel_y_Lobkowitz" title="Juan Caramuel y Lobkowitz">Caramuel</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:gold;color: var(--color-base)">Contemporary</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mortimer_J._Adler" title="Mortimer J. Adler">Adler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">Anscombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Urs_von_Balthasar" title="Hans Urs von Balthasar">Balthasar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Barron" title="Robert Barron">Barron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Benedict_XVI" title="Pope Benedict XVI">Benedict XVI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Blondel" title="Maurice Blondel">Blondel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._K._Chesterton" title="G. K. Chesterton">Chesterton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yves_Congar" title="Yves Congar">Congar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Copleston" title="Frederick Copleston">Copleston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Finnis" title="John Finnis">Finnis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9ginald_Garrigou-Lagrange" title="Réginald Garrigou-Lagrange">Garrigou-Lagrange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Geach" title="Peter Geach">Geach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Gilson" title="Étienne Gilson">Gilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Girard" title="René Girard">Girard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustavo_Guti%C3%A9rrez" title="Gustavo Gutiérrez">Gutiérrez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicol%C3%A1s_G%C3%B3mez_D%C3%A1vila" title="Nicolás Gómez Dávila">Dávila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano_Guardini" title="Romano Guardini">Guardini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Haldane_(philosopher)" title="John Haldane (philosopher)">Haldane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dietrich_von_Hildebrand" title="Dietrich von Hildebrand">Hildebrand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_II" title="Pope John Paul II">John Paul II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lonergan" title="Bernard Lonergan">Lonergan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_de_Lubac" title="Henri de Lubac">Lubac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">MacIntyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Marcel" title="Gabriel Marcel">Marcel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Luc_Marion" title="Jean-Luc Marion">Marion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Maritain" title="Jacques Maritain">Maritain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_McLuhan" title="Marshall McLuhan">McLuhan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Mounier" title="Emmanuel Mounier">Mounier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josef_Pieper" title="Josef Pieper">Pieper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Rahner" title="Karl Rahner">Rahner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edith_Stein" title="Edith Stein">Stein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:046CupolaSPietro.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/046CupolaSPietro.jpg/16px-046CupolaSPietro.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/046CupolaSPietro.jpg/24px-046CupolaSPietro.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/046CupolaSPietro.jpg/32px-046CupolaSPietro.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Catholicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Portal:Catholicism">Catholicism portal</a></li><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" 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href="/wiki/Template:Catholic_philosophy" title="Template:Catholic philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Catholic_philosophy" title="Template talk:Catholic philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Catholic_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Catholic philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a> interprets the biblical phrase "You should love your neighbour as yourself"<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as meaning that love for ourselves is the exemplar of love for others.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Considering that "the love with which a man loves himself is the form and root of friendship", he quotes Aristotle that "the origin of friendly relations with others lies in our relations to ourselves",.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aquinas concluded that though we are not bound to love others more than ourselves, we naturally seek the <a href="/wiki/Common_good" title="Common good">common good</a>, the good of the whole, more than any private good, the good of a part. However, he thought we should love God more than ourselves and our neighbours, and more than our bodily life—since the ultimate purpose of loving our neighbour is to share in eternal <a href="/wiki/Beatitudes" title="Beatitudes">beatitude</a>: a more desirable thing than bodily well-being. In coining the word "altruism", as stated above, <a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a> was probably opposing this Thomistic doctrine, which is present in some theological schools within Catholicism. The aim and focus of Christian life is a life that glorifies God, with obeying Christ's command to treat others equally, caring for them and understanding eternity in heaven is what Jesus' Resurrection at Calvary was all about. </p><p>Many biblical authors draw a strong connection between love of others and love of God. <a href="/wiki/John_1:4" title="John 1:4">John 1:4</a> states that for one to love God one must love his fellow man, and that hatred of one's fellow man is the same as hatred of God. <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jay_Oord" title="Thomas Jay Oord">Thomas Jay Oord</a> has argued in several books that altruism is but one possible form of love. An altruistic action is not always a loving action. Oord defines altruism as acting for the other's good, and he agrees with feminists who note that sometimes love requires acting for one's own good when the other's demands undermine overall well-being. </p><p>German philosopher <a href="/wiki/Max_Scheler" title="Max Scheler">Max Scheler</a> distinguishes two ways in which the strong can help the weak. One way is a sincere expression of Christian love, "motivated by a powerful feeling of security, strength, and inner salvation, of the invincible fullness of one's own life and existence".<sup id="cite_ref-Ressentiment_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ressentiment-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 88–89">: 88–89 </span></sup> Another way is merely "one of the many modern substitutes for love,... nothing but the urge to turn away from oneself and to lose oneself in other people's business".<sup id="cite_ref-Ressentiment_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ressentiment-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 95–96">: 95–96 </span></sup> At its worst, Scheler says, "love for the small, the poor, the weak, and the oppressed is really disguised hatred, repressed envy, an impulse to detract, etc., directed against the opposite phenomena: wealth, strength, power, largesse."<sup id="cite_ref-Ressentiment_67-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ressentiment-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 96–97">: 96–97 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Islam">Islam</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Altruism&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Islam"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic language</a>, "<span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">'iythar</i></span>" (إيثار) means "preferring others to oneself".<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On the topic of donating blood to non-Muslims (a controversial topic within the faith), the <a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shia</a> religious professor, <a href="/wiki/Fadhil_al-Milani" title="Fadhil al-Milani">Fadhil al-Milani</a> has provided theological evidence that makes it positively justifiable. In fact, he considers it a form of religious sacrifice and <i>ithar</i> (altruism).<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For <a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">Sufis</a>, 'iythar means devotion to others through complete forgetfulness of one's own concerns, where concern for others is deemed as a demand made by <a href="/wiki/God_in_Islam" title="God in Islam">God</a> on the human body, considered to be property of God alone. The importance of 'iythar (also known as <span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">īthār</i></span>) lies in sacrifice for the sake of the greater good; <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> considers those practicing <span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">īthār</i></span> as abiding by the highest degree of nobility.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is similar to the notion of <a href="/wiki/Chivalry_in_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Chivalry in Islam">chivalry</a>. A constant concern for God results in a careful attitude towards people, animals, and other things in this world.<sup id="cite_ref-Neusner2005_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Neusner2005-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Judaism">Judaism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Altruism&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Judaism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Judaism defines altruism as the desired goal of creation.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Rabbi <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Isaac_Kook" title="Abraham Isaac Kook">Abraham Isaac Kook</a> stated that love is the most important attribute in humanity.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Love is defined as <a href="/wiki/Tzedakah" title="Tzedakah">bestowal</a>, or giving, which is the intention of altruism. This can be altruism towards humanity that leads to altruism towards the creator or God. <a href="/wiki/Kabbalah" title="Kabbalah">Kabbalah</a> defines God as the force of giving in <a href="/wiki/Existence" title="Existence">existence</a>. Rabbi <a href="/wiki/Moshe_Chaim_Luzzatto" title="Moshe Chaim Luzzatto">Moshe Chaim Luzzatto</a> focused on the "purpose of creation" and how the will of God was to bring creation into perfection and adhesion with this force of giving.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Modern <a href="/wiki/Kabbalah" title="Kabbalah">Kabbalah</a> developed by Rabbi <a href="/wiki/Yehuda_Ashlag" title="Yehuda Ashlag">Yehuda Ashlag</a>, in his writings about the <a href="/wiki/Future_generation" class="mw-redirect" title="Future generation">future generation</a>, focuses on how society could achieve an altruistic social framework.<sup id="cite_ref-Ashlag_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ashlag-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 120–130">: 120–130 </span></sup> Ashlag proposed that such a framework is the purpose of creation, and everything that happens is to raise humanity to the level of altruism, love for one another. Ashlag focused on society and its relation to <a href="/wiki/Divinity" title="Divinity">divinity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ashlag_74-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ashlag-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 175–180">: 175–180 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sikhism">Sikhism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Altruism&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Sikhism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Altruism is essential to the <a href="/wiki/Sikhism" title="Sikhism">Sikh</a> religion. The central faith in Sikhism is that the greatest deed anyone can do is to imbibe and live the godly qualities such as love, affection, sacrifice, patience, harmony, and truthfulness. <span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Sev%C4%81" title="Sevā">Sevā</a></i></span>, or <a href="/wiki/Selfless_service" class="mw-redirect" title="Selfless service">selfless service</a> to the community for its own sake, is an important concept in Sikhism.<sup id="cite_ref-DictofSikhism_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DictofSikhism-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The fifth <a href="/wiki/Guru" title="Guru">Guru</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guru_Arjan" title="Guru Arjan">Guru Arjun</a>, sacrificed his life to uphold "22 carats of pure truth, the greatest gift to humanity", according to the <a href="/wiki/Guru_Granth_Sahib" title="Guru Granth Sahib">Guru Granth Sahib</a>. The ninth Guru, <a href="/wiki/Tegh_Bahadur" class="mw-redirect" title="Tegh Bahadur">Tegh Bahadur</a>, sacrificed his life to protect weak and defenseless people against atrocity. </p><p>In the late seventeenth century, <a href="/wiki/Guru_Gobind_Singh" title="Guru Gobind Singh">Guru Gobind Singh</a> (the tenth Guru in Sikhism), was at war with the <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal</a> rulers to protect the people of different faiths when a fellow Sikh, <a href="/wiki/Bhai_Kanhaiya" title="Bhai Kanhaiya">Bhai Kanhaiya</a>, attended the troops of the enemy.<sup id="cite_ref-GobindSingh_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GobindSingh-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He gave water to both friends and foes who were wounded on the battlefield. Some of the enemy began to fight again and some Sikh warriors were annoyed by Bhai Kanhaiya as he was helping their enemy. Sikh soldiers brought Bhai Kanhaiya before Guru Gobind Singh, and complained of his action that they considered counterproductive to their struggle on the battlefield. "What were you doing, and why?" asked the Guru. "I was giving water to the wounded because I saw your face in all of them", replied Bhai Kanhaiya. The Guru responded, "Then you should also give them ointment to heal their wounds. You were practicing what you were coached in the house of the Guru." </p><p>Under the tutelage of the Guru, Bhai Kanhaiya subsequently founded a volunteer corps for altruism, which is still engaged today in doing good to others and in training new recruits for this service.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hinduism">Hinduism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Altruism&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Hinduism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Hinduism, selflessness (<span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn">Atmatyag</i></span>), love (<span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn">Prema</i></span>), kindness (<span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn">Daya</i></span>), and forgiveness (<span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn">Kshama</i></span>) are considered as the highest acts of humanity or "<span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn">Manushyattva</i></span>". Giving alms to the beggars or poor people is considered as a divine act or "<span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn">Punya</i></span>" and Hindus believe it will free their souls from guilt or "<span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn">Paapa</i></span>" and will led them to heaven or "<span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn">Swarga</i></span>" in afterlife. Altruism is also the central act of various Hindu mythology and religious poems and songs. Mass donation of clothes to poor people (<span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn">Vastraseva</i></span>), or blood donation camp or mass food donation (<span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn">Annaseva</i></span>) for poor people is common in various Hindu religious ceremonies.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita" title="Bhagavad Gita">Bhagavad Gita</a> supports the doctrine of karma yoga (achieving oneness with God through action) and <a href="/wiki/Nishkama_Karma" title="Nishkama Karma">Nishkama Karma</a> or action without expectation or desire for personal gain which can be said to encompass altruism. Altruistic acts are generally celebrated and well received in Hindu literature and are central to Hindu morality.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Philosophy">Philosophy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Altruism&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Altruism_(ethics)" title="Altruism (ethics)">Altruism (ethics)</a></div> <p>There is a wide range of philosophical views on humans' obligations or motivations to act altruistically. Proponents of <a href="/wiki/Altruism_(ethics)" title="Altruism (ethics)">ethical altruism</a> maintain that individuals are morally obligated to act altruistically.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The opposing view is <a href="/wiki/Ethical_egoism" title="Ethical egoism">ethical egoism</a>, which maintains that moral agents should always act in their own self-interest. Both ethical altruism and ethical egoism contrast with <a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">utilitarianism</a>, which maintains that each agent should act in order to maximise the efficacy of their function and the benefit to both themselves and their co-inhabitants. </p><p>A related concept in <a href="/wiki/Descriptive_ethics" title="Descriptive ethics">descriptive ethics</a> is <a href="/wiki/Psychological_egoism" title="Psychological egoism">psychological egoism</a>, the thesis that humans always act in their own self-interest and that true altruism is impossible. <a href="/wiki/Rational_egoism" title="Rational egoism">Rational egoism</a> is the view that <a href="/wiki/Rationality" title="Rationality">rationality</a> consists in acting in one's self-interest (without specifying how this affects one's moral obligations). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effective_altruism">Effective altruism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Altruism&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Effective altruism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Effective_altruism" title="Effective altruism">Effective altruism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Earning_to_give" title="Earning to give">Earning to give</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Giving_What_We_Can" title="Giving What We Can">Giving What We Can</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Effective_altruism" title="Effective altruism">Effective altruism</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Social_movement" title="Social movement">social movement</a> that uses evidence and reasoning to determine the most effective ways to benefit others.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Effective altruism encourages individuals to consider all causes and actions and to act in the way that brings about the greatest positive impact, based upon their values.<sup id="cite_ref-vox_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vox-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is the broad, evidence-based, and cause-neutral approach that distinguishes effective altruism from traditional altruism or <a href="/wiki/Charity_(practice)" title="Charity (practice)">charity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-bcg_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bcg-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Effective altruism is part of the larger movement towards <a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_practices" class="mw-redirect" title="Evidence-based practices">evidence-based practices</a>. </p><p>While a substantial proportion of effective altruists have focused on the <a href="/wiki/Nonprofit_sector" class="mw-redirect" title="Nonprofit sector">nonprofit sector</a>, the philosophy of effective altruism applies more broadly to prioritizing the scientific projects, companies, and policy initiatives which can be estimated to save lives, help people, or otherwise have the biggest benefit.<sup id="cite_ref-doing-good-better_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-doing-good-better-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> People associated with the movement include philosopher <a href="/wiki/Peter_Singer" title="Peter Singer">Peter Singer</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-blog.ted.com_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-blog.ted.com-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Facebook co founder <a href="/wiki/Dustin_Moskovitz" title="Dustin Moskovitz">Dustin Moskovitz</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Washington_Post_on_Dustin_Moskovitz_and_Cari_Tuna_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Washington_Post_on_Dustin_Moskovitz_and_Cari_Tuna-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Cari_Tuna" title="Cari Tuna">Cari Tuna</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oxford" title="University of Oxford">Oxford</a>-based researchers <a href="/wiki/William_MacAskill" title="William MacAskill">William MacAskill</a><sup id="cite_ref-The_Atlantic_article_The_Greatest_Good_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Atlantic_article_The_Greatest_Good-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Toby_Ord" title="Toby Ord">Toby Ord</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Peter_Singer_The_Most_Good_You_Can_Do_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peter_Singer_The_Most_Good_You_Can_Do-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and professional poker player <a href="/wiki/Liv_Boeree" title="Liv Boeree">Liv Boeree</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Extreme_altruism">Extreme altruism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Altruism&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Extreme altruism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pathological_altruism">Pathological altruism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Altruism&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Pathological altruism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Pathological altruism is altruism taken to an unhealthy extreme, such that it either harms the altruistic person or the person's well-intentioned actions cause more harm than good. </p><p>The term "pathological altruism" was popularised by the book <i><a href="/wiki/Pathological_Altruism" title="Pathological Altruism">Pathological Altruism</a></i>. </p><p>Examples include <a href="/wiki/Depression_(mood)" title="Depression (mood)">depression</a> and <a href="/wiki/Occupational_burnout" title="Occupational burnout">burnout</a> seen in healthcare professionals, an unhealthy focus on others to the detriment of one's own needs, <a href="/wiki/Animal_hoarding" title="Animal hoarding">animal hoarding</a>, and ineffective philanthropic and social programs that ultimately worsen the situations they are meant to aid.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Extreme altruism also known as costly altruism, extraordinary altruism, or heroic behaviours (shall be distinguished from <a href="/wiki/Hero" title="Hero">heroism</a>), refers to selfless acts directed to a stranger which significantly exceed the normal altruistic behaviours, often involving risks or great cost to the altruists themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since acts of extreme altruism are often directed towards strangers, many commonly accepted models of simple altruism appear inadequate in explaining this phenomenon.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One of the initial concepts was introduced by Wilson in 1976, which he referred to as "hard-core" altruism.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This form is characterised by impulsive actions directed towards others, typically a stranger and lacking incentives for reward. Since then, several papers have mentioned the possibility of such altruism.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The current<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The time period mentioned near this tag is ambiguous. (April 2024)">when?</span></a></i>]</sup> slow progress in the field is due to general ethical guidelines that restrict exposing research participants to costly or risky decisions.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Consequently, much research has based their studies on living organ donations and the actions of <a href="/wiki/Carnegie_Hero_Fund" title="Carnegie Hero Fund">Carnegie Hero medal Recipients</a>, actions which involve high risk, high cost, and are of infrequent occurrences.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> A typical example of extreme altruism would be non-directed kidney donation—a living person donating one of their kidneys to a stranger without any benefits or knowing the recipient. </p><p>However, current research can only be carried out on a small population that meets the requirements of extreme altruism. Most of the time the research is also via the form of self-report which could lead to self-report biases.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Due to the limitations, the current gap between high stakes and normal altruism remains unknown.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Characteristics_of_extreme_altruists">Characteristics of extreme altruists</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Altruism&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Characteristics of extreme altruists"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Norms</li></ul> <p>In 1970, Schwartz hypothesised that extreme altruism is positively related to a person's moral norms and is not influenced by the cost associated with the action.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_95-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This hypothesis was supported in the same study examining bone marrow donors. Schwartz discovered that individuals with strong personal norms and those who attribute more responsibility to themselves are more inclined to participate in bone marrow donation.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_95-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similar findings were observed in a 1986 study by Piliavin and Libby focusing on blood donors.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These studies suggest that personal norms lead to the activation of moral norms, leading individuals to feel compelled to help others.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_95-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Enhanced Fear Recognition</li></ul> <p>Abigail Marsh has described psychopaths as the "opposite" group of people to extreme altruists<sup id="cite_ref-:8_96-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and has conducted a few research, comparing these two groups of individuals. Utilising techniques such as brain imaging and behavioural experiments, Marsh's team observed that kidney donors tend to have larger amygdala sizes and exhibit better abilities in recognizing fearful expressions compared to psychopathic individuals.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_27-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, an improved ability to recognize fear has been associated with an increase in prosocial behaviours, including greater charity contribution.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Fast Decisions when Perform Acts of Extreme Altruism</li></ul> <p>Rand and Epstein explored the behaviours of 51 Carnegie Hero Medal Recipients, demonstrating how extreme altruistic behaviours often stem from system I of the <a href="/wiki/Dual_process_theory" title="Dual process theory">Dual Process Theory</a>, which leads to rapid and intuitive behaviours.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, a separate by Carlson et al. indicated that such prosocial behaviours are prevalent in emergencies where immediate actions are required.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This discovery has led to ethical debates, particularly in the context of living organ donation, where laws regarding this issue differ by country.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As observed in extreme altruists, these decisions are made intuitively, which may reflect insufficient consideration. Critics are concerned about whether this rapid decision encompasses a thorough cost-benefit analysis and question the appropriateness of exposing donors to such risk.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Social discounting</li></ul> <p>One finding suggests how extreme altruists exhibit lower levels of social discounting as compared to others. With that meaning extreme altruists place a higher value on the welfare of strangers than a typical person does.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Low Social-Economic Status</li></ul> <p>Analysis of 676 <a href="/wiki/Carnegie_Hero_Fund" title="Carnegie Hero Fund">Carnegie Hero Award Recipients</a><sup id="cite_ref-:5_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and another study on 243 rescuing acts<sup id="cite_ref-:6_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> reveal that a significant proportion of rescuers come from lower socio-economic backgrounds. Johnson attributes the distribution to the high-risk occupations that are more prevalent between lower socioeconomic groups.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_103-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another hypothesis proposed by Lyons is that individuals from these groups may perceive they have less to lose when engaging in high-risk extreme altruistic behaviours.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_104-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Possible_explanations">Possible explanations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Altruism&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Possible explanations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Evolutionary theories such as the kin-selection, reciprocity, vested interest and punishment either contradict or do not fully explain the concept of extreme altruism.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, considerable research has attempted for a separate explanation for this behaviour. </p> <ul><li>Costly Signalling Theory for Extreme Behaviours</li></ul> <p>Research suggests that males are more likely to engage in heroic and risk-taking behaviours due to a preference among females for such traits.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These extreme altruistic behaviours could serve to act as an unconscious "signal" to showcase superior power and ability compared to ordinary individuals.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_105-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When an extreme altruist survives a high-risk situation, they send an "honest signal" of quality.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_105-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Three qualities hypothesized to be exhibited by extreme altruists, which could be interpreted as "signals", are: (1) traits that are difficult to fake, (2) a willingness to help, and (3) generous behaviours.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_105-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis</li></ul> <p>The empathy altruism hypothesis appears to align with the concept of extreme altruism without contradiction. The hypothesis was supported with further brain scanning research, which indicates how this group of people demonstrate a higher level of empathy concern. The level of empathy concern then triggers activation in specific brain regions, urging the individual to engage in heroic behaviours.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Mistakes and Outliers</li></ul> <p>While most altruistic behaviours offer some form of benefit, extreme altruism may sometimes result from a mistake where the victim does not reciprocate.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_105-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Considering the impulsive characteristic of extreme altruists, some researchers suggest that these individuals have made a wrong judgement during the cost-benefit analysis.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_98-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, extreme altruism might be a rare variation of altruism where they lie towards to ends of a normal distribution.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_105-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the US, the annual prevalence rate per capita is less than 0.00005%, this shows the rarity of such behaviours.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Digital_altruism">Digital altruism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Altruism&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Digital altruism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Digital altruism is the notion that some are willing to freely share information based on the principle of <a href="/wiki/Reciprocity_(social_psychology)" title="Reciprocity (social psychology)">reciprocity</a> and in the belief that in the end, everyone benefits from <a href="/wiki/Sharing" title="Sharing">sharing</a> information via the <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Klisanin_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Klisanin-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are three types of digital altruism: (1) "everyday digital altruism", involving expedience, ease, moral engagement, and conformity; (2) "creative digital altruism", involving creativity, heightened moral engagement, and cooperation; and (3) "co-creative digital altruism" involving creativity, moral engagement, and meta cooperative efforts.<sup id="cite_ref-Klisanin_108-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Klisanin-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Altruism&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Altruria,_California" title="Altruria, California">Altruria, California</a> – Utopian commune in California</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bounded_rationality" title="Bounded rationality">Bounded rationality</a> – Making of satisfactory, not optimal, decisions</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charitable_organization" title="Charitable organization">Charitable organization</a> – Nonprofit organization with charitable purpose</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consideration" title="Consideration">Consideration</a> – Concept in the common law of contracts</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egotism" title="Egotism">Egotism</a> – Drive to maintain and enhance favorable views of oneself</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_economics" title="Family economics">Family economics</a> – Application of economic concepts to the study of the family</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene-centered_view_of_evolution" title="Gene-centered view of evolution">Gene-centered view of evolution</a> – Theory of the "selfish gene"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Rule" title="Golden Rule">Golden Rule</a> – Principle of treating others as one wants to be treated</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanity_(virtue)" title="Humanity (virtue)">Humanity (virtue)</a> – Virtue linked with basic ethics</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misanthropy" title="Misanthropy">Misanthropy</a> – General dislike of humanity</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutual_aid_(organization_theory)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutual aid (organization theory)">Mutual aid (organization theory)</a> – Voluntary exchange of resources and services for mutual benefit<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non_nobis_solum" title="Non nobis solum">Non nobis solum</a> – Latin for "not for ourselves alone"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philanthropy" title="Philanthropy">Philanthropy</a> – Private efforts to increase public good</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisoner%27s_dilemma" title="Prisoner's dilemma">Prisoner's dilemma</a> – Standard example in game theory</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosocial_behavior" title="Prosocial behavior">Prosocial behavior</a> – Intent to benefit others</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Random_act_of_kindness" title="Random act of kindness">Random act of kindness</a> – Nonpremeditated act to cheer up another</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reciprocal_altruism" title="Reciprocal altruism">Reciprocal altruism</a> – Form of behaviour between organisms</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sign_of_contradiction" title="Sign of contradiction">Sign of contradiction</a> – Person who experiences strong hostility due to divine connection as defined in Catholic theology</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_preferences" title="Social preferences">Social preferences</a> – Human tendency to care about social outcomes</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">Social psychology</a> – Study of social effects on people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_support" title="Social support">Social support</a> – Support systems for individuals</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solidarity_(sociology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Solidarity (sociology)">Solidarity (sociology)</a> – Unity of feeling or action on a common interest<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spite_(game_theory)" title="Spite (game theory)">Spite (game theory)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tragedy_of_the_commons" title="Tragedy of the commons">Tragedy of the commons</a> – Self-interests causing depletion of a shared resource</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Altruism&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output 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Springer International Publishing. pp. 117–134. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-319-14011-7_7">10.1007/978-3-319-14011-7_7</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-14010-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-14010-0"><bdi>978-3-319-14010-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Contagion+of+Prosocial+Behavior+and+the+Emergence+of+Voluntary-Contribution+Communities&rft.btitle=Social+Phenomena%3A+From+Data+Analysis+to+Models&rft.pages=117-134&rft.pub=Springer+International+Publishing&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-319-14011-7_7&rft.isbn=978-3-319-14010-0&rft.aulast=Tsvetkova&rft.aufirst=Milena&rft.au=Macy%2C+Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAltruism" class="Z3988"></span></li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;margin-top:.5em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTagiewIgnatov2016" class="citation journal cs1">Tagiew, Rustam; Ignatov, Dmitry (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ceur-ws.org/Vol-1627/paper7.pdf">"Gift Ratios in Laboratory Experiments"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>CEUR Workshop Proceedings</i>. <b>1627</b>: 82–93. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://ceur-ws.org/Vol-1627/paper7.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 9 October 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CEUR+Workshop+Proceedings&rft.atitle=Gift+Ratios+in+Laboratory+Experiments&rft.volume=1627&rft.pages=82-93&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Tagiew&rft.aufirst=Rustam&rft.au=Ignatov%2C+Dmitry&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fceur-ws.org%2FVol-1627%2Fpaper7.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAltruism" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Speech_by_the_Dalai_Lama-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Speech_by_the_Dalai_Lama_61-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Speech_by_the_Dalai_Lama_61-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091003223717/http://www.dalailama.com/page.65.htm">"The Medicine of Altruism"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dalailama.com/page.65.htm">the original</a> on 3 October 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Medicine+of+Altruism&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dalailama.com%2Fpage.65.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAltruism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The phrase "core of our being" is <a href="/wiki/Freudian" class="mw-redirect" title="Freudian">Freudian</a>; see <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBettina_Bock_von_Wülfingen2013" class="citation journal cs1">Bettina Bock von Wülfingen (2013). "Freud's 'Core of our Being' Between Cytology and Psychoanalysis". <i>Berichte zur Wissenschaftsgeschichte</i>. <b>36</b> (3): 226–244. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fbewi.201301604">10.1002/bewi.201301604</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32545937">32545937</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Berichte+zur+Wissenschaftsgeschichte&rft.atitle=Freud%27s+%27Core+of+our+Being%27+Between+Cytology+and+Psychoanalysis&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=226-244&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fbewi.201301604&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F32545937&rft.au=Bettina+Bock+von+W%C3%BClfingen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAltruism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis2005" class="citation book cs1">Lewis, Todd (2005). "Chapter 5: Altruism in Classical Bhuddism". In Neusner, Jacob; Chilton, Bruce D (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://college.holycross.edu/faculty/tlewis/PDFs/Altruism_in_Classical_Buddhism.pdf"><i>Altruism in World Religions</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown UNiversity Press. p. 90.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+5%3A+Altruism+in+Classical+Bhuddism&rft.btitle=Altruism+in+World+Religions&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pages=90&rft.pub=Georgetown+UNiversity+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=Todd&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcollege.holycross.edu%2Ffaculty%2Ftlewis%2FPDFs%2FAltruism_in_Classical_Buddhism.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAltruism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Leviticus%2019&version=nrsv">Leviticus 19</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Matthew%2022&version=nrsv">Matthew 22</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thomas Aquinas, <i><a href="/wiki/Summa_Theologica" title="Summa Theologica">Summa Theologica</a></i>, II:II Quaestio 25, Article 4</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Aristotle, <a href="/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics" title="Nicomachean Ethics">Nicomachean Ethics</a> IX.4 1166a1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ressentiment-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ressentiment_67-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ressentiment_67-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ressentiment_67-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScheler1961" class="citation book cs1">Scheler, Max (1961). <i>Ressentiment</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ressentiment&rft.date=1961&rft.aulast=Scheler&rft.aufirst=Max&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAltruism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">'iythar <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/?sl=ar&tl=en&text=%D8%A5%D9%8A%D8%AB%D8%A7%D8%B1&op=translate">Google Translate</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchmiedelSmith2018" class="citation book cs1">Schmiedel, Ulrich; Smith, Graeme (15 February 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HJhMDwAAQBAJ&q=fadhil+al-milani&pg=PA296"><i>Religion in the European Refugee Crisis</i></a>. Springer. pp. 295–96. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-67961-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-67961-7"><bdi>978-3-319-67961-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religion+in+the+European+Refugee+Crisis&rft.pages=295-96&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2018-02-15&rft.isbn=978-3-319-67961-7&rft.aulast=Schmiedel&rft.aufirst=Ulrich&rft.au=Smith%2C+Graeme&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHJhMDwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dfadhil%2Bal-milani%26pg%3DPA296&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAltruism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGülen2004" class="citation book cs1">Gülen, M. Fethullah (2004). <i>Key Concepts in the Practice of Sufism: Emerald Hills of the Heart</i>. Rutherford, N.J.: Fountain. pp. 10–11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-932099-75-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-932099-75-1"><bdi>978-1-932099-75-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Key+Concepts+in+the+Practice+of+Sufism%3A+Emerald+Hills+of+the+Heart&rft.place=Rutherford%2C+N.J.&rft.pages=10-11&rft.pub=Fountain&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-932099-75-1&rft.aulast=G%C3%BClen&rft.aufirst=M.+Fethullah&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAltruism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Neusner2005-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Neusner2005_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeusner2005" class="citation book cs1">Neusner, Jacob Eds (2005). <i>Altruism in World Religions</i>. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown Univ. Press. pp. 79–80. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58901-065-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58901-065-9"><bdi>978-1-58901-065-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Altruism+in+World+Religions&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pages=79-80&rft.pub=Georgetown+Univ.+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-58901-065-9&rft.aulast=Neusner&rft.aufirst=Jacob+Eds&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAltruism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKookBokser1978" class="citation book cs1">Kook, Abraham Isaac; Bokser, Ben Zion (1978). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/abrahamisaackook00benz"><i>Abraham Isaac Kook: The lights of penitence, The moral principles, Lights of holiness, essays, letters, and poems</i></a></span>. Paulist Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/abrahamisaackook00benz/page/135">135–136</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8091-2159-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8091-2159-5"><bdi>978-0-8091-2159-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Abraham+Isaac+Kook%3A+The+lights+of+penitence%2C+The+moral+principles%2C+Lights+of+holiness%2C+essays%2C+letters%2C+and+poems&rft.pages=135-136&rft.pub=Paulist+Press&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=978-0-8091-2159-5&rft.aulast=Kook&rft.aufirst=Abraham+Isaac&rft.au=Bokser%2C+Ben+Zion&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fabrahamisaackook00benz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAltruism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLuzzatto1997" class="citation book cs1">Luzzatto, Moshe Ḥayyim (1997). <i>The way of God</i>. Feldheim Publishers. pp. 37–38. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87306-769-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87306-769-0"><bdi>978-0-87306-769-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+way+of+God&rft.pages=37-38&rft.pub=Feldheim+Publishers&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-87306-769-0&rft.aulast=Luzzatto&rft.aufirst=Moshe+%E1%B8%A4ayyim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAltruism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ashlag-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ashlag_74-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ashlag_74-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAshlag2006" class="citation book cs1">Ashlag, Yehuda (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kabbalah.info/eng/content/view/frame/3811?/eng/content/view/full/3811&main"><i>Building the Future Society</i></a>. Thornhill, Canada: Laitman Kabbalah Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-965-7065-34-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-965-7065-34-1"><bdi>978-965-7065-34-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Building+the+Future+Society&rft.place=Thornhill%2C+Canada&rft.pub=Laitman+Kabbalah+Publishers&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-965-7065-34-1&rft.aulast=Ashlag&rft.aufirst=Yehuda&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.kabbalah.info%2Feng%2Fcontent%2Fview%2Fframe%2F3811%3F%2Feng%2Fcontent%2Fview%2Ffull%2F3811%26main&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAltruism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-DictofSikhism-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-DictofSikhism_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCole,_W._OwenSambhi,_Piara_Singh1990" class="citation book cs1">Cole, W. Owen; Sambhi, Piara Singh (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/APopularDictionaryOfSikhism"><i>A Popular Dictionary of Sikhism</i></a>. Curzon Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/APopularDictionaryOfSikhism/page/n46">38</a>–39, 84<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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(May 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKellyDunbar2001" class="citation journal cs1">Kelly, Susan; Dunbar, R. I. M. (June 2001). 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/files/attachments/85256/internetaltruism-klisanin.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 9 October 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Media+Psychology+Review&rft.atitle=Is+the+Internet+Giving+Rise+to+New+Forms+of+Altruism&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-11&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Klisanin&rft.aufirst=Dana&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.psychologytoday.com%2Ffiles%2Fattachments%2F85256%2Finternetaltruism-klisanin.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAltruism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Altruism&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAxelrod1984" class="citation book cs1">Axelrod, Robert (1984). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/evolutionofcoope1984axel"><i>The Evolution of Cooperation</i></a></span>. New York: Basic Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-02121-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-465-02121-5"><bdi>978-0-465-02121-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Evolution+of+Cooperation&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-465-02121-5&rft.aulast=Axelrod&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fevolutionofcoope1984axel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAltruism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBatson1991" class="citation book cs1">Batson, Charles (1991). <i>The Altruism Question</i>. Mahwah: L. 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London: Kegan Paul.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Catechisme+positiviste+%28Catechism+of+Positivism%29&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Kegan+Paul&rft.date=1891&rft.aulast=Comte&rft.aufirst=Auguste&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAltruism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDawkins1989" class="citation book cs1">Dawkins, Richard (1989). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/selfishgene00dawkrich"><i>The Selfish Gene</i></a></span>. 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(2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lup.lub.lu.se/record/4091558">"Kinship and altruism: A cross-cultural experimental study"</a>. <i>British Journal of Psychology</i>. <b>98</b> (Pt 2): 339–359. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1348%2F000712606X129213">10.1348/000712606X129213</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17456276">17456276</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:18056028">18056028</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=British+Journal+of+Psychology&rft.atitle=Kinship+and+altruism%3A+A+cross-cultural+experimental+study&rft.volume=98&rft.issue=Pt+2&rft.pages=339-359&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A18056028%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17456276&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1348%2F000712606X129213&rft.aulast=Madsen&rft.aufirst=E.+A.&rft.au=Tunney%2C+R.+J.&rft.au=Fieldman%2C+G.&rft.au=Plotkin%2C+H.+C.&rft.au=Dunbar%2C+R.+I.+M.&rft.au=Richardson%2C+J.+M.&rft.au=McFarland%2C+D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flup.lub.lu.se%2Frecord%2F4091558&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAltruism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMonk-TurnerBlakeChnielForbes2002" class="citation journal cs1">Monk-Turner, Elizabeth; Blake, Victoria; Chniel, Fred; Forbes, Sarah; Lensey, Lisa; Madzuma, Jason (September 2002). "Helping hands: A study of altruistic behavior". <i>Gender Issues</i>. <b>20</b> (4): 65–70. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs12147-002-0024-2">10.1007/s12147-002-0024-2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Gender+Issues&rft.atitle=Helping+hands%3A+A+study+of+altruistic+behavior&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=65-70&rft.date=2002-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs12147-002-0024-2&rft.aulast=Monk-Turner&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth&rft.au=Blake%2C+Victoria&rft.au=Chniel%2C+Fred&rft.au=Forbes%2C+Sarah&rft.au=Lensey%2C+Lisa&rft.au=Madzuma%2C+Jason&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAltruism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNietzsche1886" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche, Friedrich</a> (1886). <a href="/wiki/Beyond_Good_and_Evil" title="Beyond Good and Evil"><i>Beyond Good and Evil</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beyond+Good+and+Evil&rft.date=1886&rft.aulast=Nietzsche&rft.aufirst=Friedrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAltruism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNowak2006" class="citation journal cs1">Nowak, M. A. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3279745">"Five Rules for the Evolution of Cooperation"</a>. <i>Science</i>. <b>314</b> (5805): 1560–1563. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006Sci...314.1560N">2006Sci...314.1560N</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1133755">10.1126/science.1133755</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3279745">3279745</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17158317">17158317</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Five+Rules+for+the+Evolution+of+Cooperation&rft.volume=314&rft.issue=5805&rft.pages=1560-1563&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3279745%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17158317&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1133755&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006Sci...314.1560N&rft.aulast=Nowak&rft.aufirst=M.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3279745&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAltruism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOlinerOliner1995" class="citation book cs1">Oliner, Samuel P.; Oliner, Pearl M. 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Philadelphia: Templeton Foundation Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-932031-70-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-932031-70-6"><bdi>978-1-932031-70-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+of+Love&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pub=Templeton+Foundation+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-932031-70-6&rft.aulast=Oord&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAltruism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOord2007" class="citation book cs1">Oord, Thomas (2007). <i>The Altruism Reader</i>. Philadelphia: Templeton Foundation Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59947-127-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59947-127-3"><bdi>978-1-59947-127-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Altruism+Reader&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pub=Templeton+Foundation+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-59947-127-3&rft.aulast=Oord&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAltruism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOord2010" class="citation book cs1">Oord, Thomas (2010). <i>Defining Love</i>. Grand Rapids: Brazos Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58743-257-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58743-257-6"><bdi>978-1-58743-257-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Defining+Love&rft.place=Grand+Rapids&rft.pub=Brazos+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-58743-257-6&rft.aulast=Oord&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAltruism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFProudhon1847" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Pierre-Joseph_Proudhon" title="Pierre-Joseph Proudhon">Proudhon, Pierre-Joseph</a> (1847). <i>The Philosophy of Poverty</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Philosophy+of+Poverty&rft.date=1847&rft.aulast=Proudhon&rft.aufirst=Pierre-Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAltruism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRidley1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Matt_Ridley" title="Matt Ridley">Ridley, Matt</a> (1996). <a href="/wiki/The_Origins_of_Virtue" title="The Origins of Virtue"><i>The Origins of Virtue</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origins+of+Virtue&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Ridley&rft.aufirst=Matt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAltruism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpooner1882" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lysander_Spooner" title="Lysander Spooner">Spooner, Lysander</a> (1882). <i>Natural Law</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Natural+Law&rft.date=1882&rft.aulast=Spooner&rft.aufirst=Lysander&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAltruism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWedekindMilinski1996" class="citation journal cs1">Wedekind, C.; Milinski, M. (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC39691">"Human Cooperation in the simultaneous and the alternating Prisoner's Dilemma: Pavlov versus Generous Tit-for-tat"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</i>. <b>93</b> (7): 2686–2689. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1996PNAS...93.2686W">1996PNAS...93.2686W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.93.7.2686">10.1073/pnas.93.7.2686</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC39691">39691</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11607644">11607644</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Human+Cooperation+in+the+simultaneous+and+the+alternating+Prisoner%27s+Dilemma%3A+Pavlov+versus+Generous+Tit-for-tat&rft.volume=93&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=2686-2689&rft.date=1996&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC39691%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11607644&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.93.7.2686&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1996PNAS...93.2686W&rft.aulast=Wedekind&rft.aufirst=C.&rft.au=Milinski%2C+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC39691&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAltruism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWright1995" class="citation book cs1">Wright, Robert (1995). <i>The Moral Animal</i>. New York: Vintage Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-679-76399-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-679-76399-4"><bdi>978-0-679-76399-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Moral+Animal&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Vintage+Books&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-679-76399-4&rft.aulast=Wright&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAltruism" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Altruism&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output 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class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/altruism" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:altruism">altruism</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br /> <b>Altruism</b> <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=altruism">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=altruism&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <link 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href="/wiki/In_Our_Time_(radio_series)" title="In Our Time (radio series)"><i>In Our Time</i></a> at the <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation episode cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wnycstudios.org/podcasts/radiolab/episodes/103951-the-good-show/">"The Good Show"</a>. <i>Radiolab</i>. Season 9. Episode 1. New York. 14 December 2011. WNYC.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Radiolab&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=Season+9.+Episode+1&rft.date=2011-12-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wnycstudios.org%2Fpodcasts%2Fradiolab%2Fepisodes%2F103951-the-good-show%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAltruism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKraut2020" class="citation web cs1">Kraut, Richard (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/altruism/">"Altruism"</a>. <i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Altruism&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Kraut&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Faltruism%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAltruism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOkasha2013" class="citation web cs1">Okasha, Samir (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/altruism-biological/">"Biological Altruism"</a>. <i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>.</cite><span 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style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Articles and topics related to Altruism</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-size:114%"><div style="padding:0px"> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Charitable_giving_and_practices" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Charity" title="Template:Charity"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Charity" title="Template talk:Charity"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Charity" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Charity"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Charitable_giving_and_practices" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Charity_(practice)" title="Charity (practice)">Charitable giving and practices</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Main topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alms" title="Alms">Alms</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Altruism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charity_(practice)" title="Charity (practice)">Charity (practice)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compassion" title="Compassion">Compassion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donation" title="Donation">Donation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empathy" title="Empathy">Empathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundraising" title="Fundraising">Fundraising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanity_(virtue)" title="Humanity (virtue)">Humanity (virtue)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philanthropy" title="Philanthropy">Philanthropy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volunteering" title="Volunteering">Volunteering</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types of <a href="/wiki/Charitable_organization" title="Charitable organization">charitable<br />organizations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charitable_trust" title="Charitable trust">Charitable trust / Registered charity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundation_(nonprofit)" title="Foundation (nonprofit)">Foundation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Private_foundation" title="Private foundation">Private</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crowdfunding" title="Crowdfunding">Crowdfunding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutual-benefit_nonprofit_corporation" title="Mutual-benefit nonprofit corporation">Mutual-benefit nonprofit corporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-governmental_organization" title="Non-governmental organization">Non-governmental organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonprofit_organization" title="Nonprofit organization">Nonprofit organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public-benefit_nonprofit_corporation" title="Public-benefit nonprofit corporation">Public-benefit nonprofit corporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Service_club" title="Service club">Service club</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_enterprise" title="Social enterprise">Social enterprise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_corporation" title="Religious corporation">Religious corporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voluntary_association" title="Voluntary association">Voluntary association</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Charity and religion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charity_(Christian_virtue)" title="Charity (Christian virtue)">Charity (Christian virtue)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C4%81na" title="Dāna">Dāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tithe" title="Tithe">Tithe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tzedakah" title="Tzedakah">Tzedakah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sadaqah" title="Sadaqah">Sadaqah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zakat" title="Zakat">Zakat</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Charity_evaluation" class="mw-redirect" title="Charity evaluation">Charity evaluation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aid_effectiveness" title="Aid effectiveness">Aid effectiveness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Charity_Evaluators" title="Animal Charity Evaluators">Animal Charity Evaluators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candid_(organization)" title="Candid (organization)">Candid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charity_assessment" title="Charity assessment">Charity assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charity_Navigator" title="Charity Navigator">Charity Navigator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CharityWatch" title="CharityWatch">CharityWatch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributional_cost-effectiveness_analysis" title="Distributional cost-effectiveness analysis">Distributional cost-effectiveness analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GiveWell" title="GiveWell">GiveWell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giving_Multiplier" title="Giving Multiplier">Giving Multiplier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giving_What_We_Can" title="Giving What We Can">Giving What We Can</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GreatNonprofits" title="GreatNonprofits">GreatNonprofits</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Further topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_giving" title="Alternative giving">Alternative giving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benefit_concert" title="Benefit concert">Benefit concert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caff%C3%A8_sospeso" title="Caffè sospeso">Caffè sospeso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charity_fraud" title="Charity fraud">Charity fraud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charity_shop" title="Charity shop">Charity / thrift / op shop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Click-to-donate_site" title="Click-to-donate site">Click-to-donate site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drive_(charity)" title="Drive (charity)">Drive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donor-advised_fund" title="Donor-advised fund">Donor-advised fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donor_intent" title="Donor intent">Donor intent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earning_to_give" title="Earning to give">Earning to give</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effective_altruism" title="Effective altruism">Effective altruism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_barriers_to_effective_altruism" title="Psychological barriers to effective altruism">Psychological barriers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_philanthropy" title="Ethics of philanthropy">Ethics of philanthropy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_charitable_foundations" title="List of charitable foundations">List of charitable foundations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wealthiest_charitable_foundations" title="List of wealthiest charitable foundations">wealthiest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master_of_Nonprofit_Organizations" class="mw-redirect" title="Master of Nonprofit Organizations">Master of Nonprofit Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matching_funds" title="Matching funds">Matching funds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telethon" title="Telethon">Telethon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visiting_the_sick" title="Visiting the sick">Visiting the sick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voluntary_sector" title="Voluntary sector">Voluntary sector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volunteer_grant" title="Volunteer grant">Volunteer grant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wall_of_kindness" title="Wall of kindness">Wall of kindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warm-glow_giving" title="Warm-glow giving">Warm-glow giving</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Defence_mechanisms" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Defence_mechanisms" title="Template:Defence mechanisms"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Defence_mechanisms" title="Template talk:Defence mechanisms"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Defence_mechanisms" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Defence mechanisms"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Defence_mechanisms" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Defence_mechanism" title="Defence mechanism">Defence mechanisms</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Defence_mechanisms#Level_1:_pathological" class="mw-redirect" title="Defence mechanisms">Level 1: Pathological</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Delusion" title="Delusion">Delusional projection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denial_(Freud)" title="Denial (Freud)">Denial or abnegation (German: <i>Verneinung</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denial" title="Denial">Psychotic denial or disavowal (German: <i>Verleugnung</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_distortion" title="Cognitive distortion">Distortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreclosure_(psychoanalysis)" title="Foreclosure (psychoanalysis)">Foreclosure or repudiation (German: <i>Verwerfung</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_projection" title="Psychological projection">Extreme projection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identification_with_the_Aggressor" title="Identification with the Aggressor">Identification with the Aggressor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Splitting_(psychology)" title="Splitting (psychology)">Splitting (Black-and-white thinking)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Defence_mechanisms#Level_2:_immature" class="mw-redirect" title="Defence mechanisms">Level 2: Immature</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acting_out" title="Acting out">Acting out</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fantasy_(psychology)" title="Fantasy (psychology)">Fantasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealization_and_devaluation" title="Idealization and devaluation">Idealization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Introjection" title="Introjection">Introjection (Internalization)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive-aggressive_behavior" title="Passive-aggressive behavior">Passive-aggression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_projection" title="Psychological projection">Projection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Projective_identification" title="Projective identification">Projective identification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somatization" title="Somatization">Somatization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Defence_mechanisms#Level_3:_neurotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Defence mechanisms">Level 3: Neurotic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Displacement_(psychology)" title="Displacement (psychology)">Displacement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissociation_(psychology)" title="Dissociation (psychology)">Dissociation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypochondriasis" title="Hypochondriasis">Hypochondriasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectualization" title="Intellectualization">Intellectualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isolation_(psychology)" title="Isolation (psychology)">Isolation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalization_(psychology)" title="Rationalization (psychology)">Rationalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reaction_formation" title="Reaction formation">Reaction formation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regression_(psychology)" title="Regression (psychology)">Regression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repression_(psychoanalysis)" title="Repression (psychoanalysis)">Repression (German: <i>Verdrängung</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Undoing_(psychology)" title="Undoing (psychology)">Undoing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Defence_mechanisms#Level_4:_mature" class="mw-redirect" title="Defence mechanisms">Level 4: Mature</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Altruism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anticipation" title="Anticipation">Anticipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humour" title="Humour">Humour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identification_(psychology)" title="Identification (psychology)">Identification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sublimation_(psychology)" title="Sublimation (psychology)">Sublimation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_self-regulation" title="Emotional self-regulation">Suppression</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compartmentalization_(psychology)" title="Compartmentalization (psychology)">Compartmentalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defensive_pessimism" title="Defensive pessimism">Defensive pessimism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minimisation_(psychology)" title="Minimisation (psychology)">Minimisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postponement_of_affect" title="Postponement of affect">Postponement of affect</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Effective_altruism" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Effective_altruism" title="Template:Effective altruism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Effective_altruism" title="Template talk:Effective altruism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Effective_altruism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Effective altruism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Effective_altruism" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Effective_altruism" title="Effective altruism">Effective altruism</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aid_effectiveness" title="Aid effectiveness">Aid effectiveness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charity_assessment" title="Charity assessment">Charity assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demandingness_objection" title="Demandingness objection">Demandingness objection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability-adjusted_life_year" title="Disability-adjusted life year">Disability-adjusted life year</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disease_burden" title="Disease burden">Disease burden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributional_cost-effectiveness_analysis" title="Distributional cost-effectiveness analysis">Distributional cost-effectiveness analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earning_to_give" title="Earning to give">Earning to give</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_consideration_of_interests" title="Equal consideration of interests">Equal consideration of interests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longtermism" title="Longtermism">Longtermism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marginal_utility" title="Marginal utility">Marginal utility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_circle_expansion" title="Moral circle expansion">Moral circle expansion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_barriers_to_effective_altruism" title="Psychological barriers to effective altruism">Psychological barriers to effective altruism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quality-adjusted_life_year" title="Quality-adjusted life year">Quality-adjusted life year</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venture_philanthropy" title="Venture philanthropy">Venture philanthropy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Key figures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sam_Bankman-Fried" title="Sam Bankman-Fried">Sam Bankman-Fried</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liv_Boeree" title="Liv Boeree">Liv Boeree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nick_Bostrom" title="Nick Bostrom">Nick Bostrom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Greaves" title="Hilary Greaves">Hilary Greaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holden_Karnofsky" title="Holden Karnofsky">Holden Karnofsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_MacAskill" title="William MacAskill">William MacAskill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dustin_Moskovitz" title="Dustin Moskovitz">Dustin Moskovitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yew-Kwang_Ng" title="Yew-Kwang Ng">Yew-Kwang Ng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toby_Ord" title="Toby Ord">Toby Ord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Derek Parfit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Singer" title="Peter Singer">Peter Singer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cari_Tuna" title="Cari Tuna">Cari Tuna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliezer_Yudkowsky" title="Eliezer Yudkowsky">Eliezer Yudkowsky</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/80,000_Hours" title="80,000 Hours">80,000 Hours</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Against_Malaria_Foundation" title="Against Malaria Foundation">Against Malaria Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Charity_Evaluators" title="Animal Charity Evaluators">Animal Charity Evaluators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Ethics_(organization)" title="Animal Ethics (organization)">Animal Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centre_for_Effective_Altruism" title="Centre for Effective Altruism">Centre for Effective Altruism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centre_for_Enabling_EA_Learning_%26_Research" title="Centre for Enabling EA Learning & Research">Centre for Enabling EA Learning & Research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Center_for_High_Impact_Philanthropy" title="Center for High Impact Philanthropy">Center for High Impact Philanthropy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centre_for_the_Study_of_Existential_Risk" title="Centre for the Study of Existential Risk">Centre for the Study of Existential Risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_Media_International" title="Development Media International">Development Media International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence_Action" title="Evidence Action">Evidence Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faunalytics" title="Faunalytics">Faunalytics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fistula_Foundation" title="Fistula Foundation">Fistula Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future_of_Humanity_Institute" title="Future of Humanity Institute">Future of Humanity Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future_of_Life_Institute" title="Future of Life Institute">Future of Life Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Founders_Pledge" title="Founders Pledge">Founders Pledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GiveDirectly" title="GiveDirectly">GiveDirectly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GiveWell" title="GiveWell">GiveWell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giving_Multiplier" title="Giving Multiplier">Giving Multiplier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giving_What_We_Can" title="Giving What We Can">Giving What We Can</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_Food_Fund" title="Good Food Fund">Good Food Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Good_Food_Institute" title="The Good Food Institute">The Good Food Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_Ventures" title="Good Ventures">Good Ventures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Humane_League" title="The Humane League">The Humane League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercy_for_Animals" title="Mercy for Animals">Mercy for Animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machine_Intelligence_Research_Institute" title="Machine Intelligence Research Institute">Machine Intelligence Research Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaria_Consortium" title="Malaria Consortium">Malaria Consortium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_Threat_Initiative" title="Nuclear Threat Initiative">Nuclear Threat Initiative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Philanthropy_(organization)" class="mw-redirect" title="Open Philanthropy (organization)">Open Philanthropy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raising_for_Effective_Giving" title="Raising for Effective Giving">Raising for Effective Giving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentience_Institute" title="Sentience Institute">Sentience Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unlimit_Health" title="Unlimit Health">Unlimit Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wild_Animal_Initiative" title="Wild Animal Initiative">Wild Animal Initiative</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Focus areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biotechnology_risk" title="Biotechnology risk">Biotechnology risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultured_meat" title="Cultured meat">Cultured meat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_stability" title="Economic stability">Economic stability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existential_risk_from_artificial_general_intelligence" class="mw-redirect" title="Existential risk from artificial general intelligence">Existential risk from artificial general intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_catastrophic_risk" title="Global catastrophic risk">Global catastrophic risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_health" title="Global health">Global health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_poverty" class="mw-redirect" title="Global poverty">Global poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intensive_animal_farming" title="Intensive animal farming">Intensive animal farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_use" title="Land use">Land use reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_extension" title="Life extension">Life extension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaria_prevention" class="mw-redirect" title="Malaria prevention">Malaria prevention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_deworming" title="Mass deworming">Mass deworming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neglected_tropical_diseases" title="Neglected tropical diseases">Neglected tropical diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Risk_of_astronomical_suffering" title="Risk of astronomical suffering">Risk of astronomical suffering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wild_animal_suffering" title="Wild animal suffering">Wild animal suffering</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Literature</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Doing_Good_Better" title="Doing Good Better">Doing Good Better</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_End_of_Animal_Farming" title="The End of Animal Farming">The End of Animal Farming</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Famine,_Affluence,_and_Morality" title="Famine, Affluence, and Morality">Famine, Affluence, and Morality</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Life_You_Can_Save" title="The Life You Can Save">The Life You Can Save</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Living_High_and_Letting_Die" title="Living High and Letting Die">Living High and Letting Die</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Most_Good_You_Can_Do" title="The Most Good You Can Do">The Most Good You Can Do</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Practical_Ethics" title="Practical Ethics">Practical Ethics</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Precipice:_Existential_Risk_and_the_Future_of_Humanity" title="The Precipice: Existential Risk and the Future of Humanity">The Precipice</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Superintelligence:_Paths,_Dangers,_Strategies" title="Superintelligence: Paths, Dangers, Strategies">Superintelligence: Paths, Dangers, Strategies</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/What_We_Owe_the_Future" title="What We Owe the Future">What We Owe the Future</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effective_Altruism_Global" title="Effective Altruism Global">Effective Altruism Global</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ethics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ethics" title="Template:Ethics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ethics" title="Template talk:Ethics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ethics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ethics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ethics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deontological_ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Deontological ethics">Deontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_care" title="Ethics of care">Care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatic_ethics" title="Pragmatic ethics">Pragmatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Role_ethics" title="Role ethics">Role</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffering-focused_ethics" title="Suffering-focused ethics">Suffering-focused</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_ethics" title="Animal ethics">Animal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Ethics of artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioethics" title="Bioethics">Bio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_ethics" title="Business ethics">Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_ethics" title="Computer ethics">Computer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_ethics" title="Discourse ethics">Discourse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_ethics" title="Engineering ethics">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_ethics" title="Environmental ethics">Environmental</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land_ethic" title="Land ethic">Land</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_ethics" title="Legal ethics">Legal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machine_ethics" title="Machine ethics">Machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_eating_meat" title="Ethics of eating meat">Meat eating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_ethics" title="Media ethics">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_ethics" title="Medical ethics">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nursing_ethics" title="Nursing ethics">Nursing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_ethics" title="Professional ethics">Professional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programming_ethics" title="Programming ethics">Programming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research_ethics" title="Research ethics">Research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_ethics" title="Sexual ethics">Sexual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_technology" title="Ethics of technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_terraforming" title="Ethics of terraforming">Terraforming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_uncertain_sentience" title="Ethics of uncertain sentience">Uncertain sentience</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Metaethics" title="Metaethics">Meta</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiological_ethics" title="Axiological ethics">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitivism_(ethics)" title="Cognitivism (ethics)">Cognitivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Realism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_naturalism" title="Ethical naturalism">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_non-naturalism" title="Ethical non-naturalism">Non-naturalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_subjectivism" title="Ethical subjectivism">Subjectivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ideal_observer_theory" title="Ideal observer theory">Ideal observer theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_command_theory" title="Divine command theory">Divine command theory</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_constructivism" title="Moral constructivism">Constructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthyphro_dilemma" title="Euthyphro dilemma">Euthyphro dilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_intuitionism" title="Ethical intuitionism">Intuitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-cognitivism" title="Non-cognitivism">Non-cognitivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emotivism" title="Emotivism">Emotivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressivism" title="Expressivism">Expressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quasi-realism" title="Quasi-realism">Quasi-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_prescriptivism" title="Universal prescriptivism">Universal prescriptivism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_rationalism" title="Moral rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_relativism" title="Moral relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Value_pluralism" title="Value pluralism">Value monism – Value pluralism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicurean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_ethics" title="Feminist ethics">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_ethics" title="Islamic ethics">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethics" title="Jewish ethics">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kantian_ethics" title="Kantian ethics">Kantian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rousseauism" class="mw-redirect" title="Rousseauism">Rousseauian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Tao</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autonomy" title="Autonomy">Autonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_sense" title="Common sense">Common sense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compassion" title="Compassion">Compassion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscience" title="Conscience">Conscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consent" title="Consent">Consent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_life" title="Culture of life">Culture of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dignity" title="Dignity">Dignity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_standard" title="Double standard">Double standard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">Duty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etiquette" title="Etiquette">Etiquette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudaimonia" title="Eudaimonia">Eudaimonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_values" title="Family values">Family values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fidelity" title="Fidelity">Fidelity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_and_evil" title="Good and evil">Good and evil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Good" title="Good">Good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evil" title="Evil">Evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of evil</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Happiness" title="Happiness">Happiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honour" title="Honour">Honour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideal_(ethics)" title="Ideal (ethics)">Ideal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immorality" title="Immorality">Immorality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyalty" title="Loyalty">Loyalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_agency" title="Moral agency">Moral agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_courage" title="Moral courage">Moral courage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_hierarchy" title="Moral hierarchy">Moral hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_imperative" title="Moral imperative">Moral imperative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">Morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Norm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacifism" title="Pacifism">Pacifism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_freedom" title="Political freedom">Political freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precept" title="Precept">Precept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-discipline" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-discipline">Self-discipline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffering" title="Suffering">Suffering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stewardship" title="Stewardship">Stewardship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sympathy" title="Sympathy">Sympathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torture" title="Torture">Torture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trust_(social_science)" title="Trust (social science)">Trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Value (ethics)">Value</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intrinsic_value_(ethics)" title="Intrinsic value (ethics)">Intrinsic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_values" title="Japanese values">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Values_(Western_philosophy)" title="Values (Western philosophy)">Western</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice" title="Vice">Vice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue">Virtue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vow" title="Vow">Vow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wrongdoing" title="Wrongdoing">Wrong</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethicists" title="List of ethicists">Ethicists<br /></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes" title="Diogenes">Diogenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thiruvalluvar" title="Thiruvalluvar">Valluvar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xunzi_(philosopher)" title="Xunzi (philosopher)">Xunzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Butler" title="Joseph Butler">Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Sidgwick" title="Henry Sidgwick">Sidgwick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Barth" title="Karl Barth">Barth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tillich" title="Paul Tillich">Tillich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dietrich_Bonhoeffer" title="Dietrich Bonhoeffer">Bonhoeffer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippa_Foot" title="Philippa Foot">Foot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">Dewey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Williams" title="Bernard Williams">Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Mackie" title="J. L. Mackie">Mackie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">Anscombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Frankena" title="William Frankena">Frankena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">MacIntyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._M._Hare" title="R. M. Hare">Hare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Singer" title="Peter Singer">Singer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Parfit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nagel" title="Thomas Nagel">Nagel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Merrihew_Adams" title="Robert Merrihew Adams">Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joxe_Azurmendi" title="Joxe Azurmendi">Azurmendi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christine_Korsgaard" title="Christine Korsgaard">Korsgaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-style:italic;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics" title="Nicomachean Ethics">Nicomachean Ethics</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 322 BC)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_(Spinoza_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethics (Spinoza book)">Ethics (Spinoza)</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1677)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifteen_Sermons_Preached_at_the_Rolls_Chapel" title="Fifteen Sermons Preached at the Rolls Chapel">Fifteen Sermons Preached at the Rolls Chapel</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1726)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Treatise_of_Human_Nature" title="A Treatise of Human Nature">A Treatise of Human Nature</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1740)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Theory_of_Moral_Sentiments" title="The Theory of Moral Sentiments">The Theory of Moral Sentiments</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1759)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/An_Introduction_to_the_Principles_of_Morals_and_Legislation" title="An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation">An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1780)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwork_of_the_Metaphysics_of_Morals" title="Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals">Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1785)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Practical_Reason" title="Critique of Practical Reason">Critique of Practical Reason</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1788)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Right" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Right">Elements of the Philosophy of Right</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1820)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Either/Or_(Kierkegaard_book)" title="Either/Or (Kierkegaard book)">Either/Or</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1843)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism_(book)" title="Utilitarianism (book)">Utilitarianism</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1861)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Methods_of_Ethics" title="The Methods of Ethics">The Methods of Ethics</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1874)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Genealogy_of_Morality" title="On the Genealogy of Morality">On the Genealogy of Morality</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1887)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principia_Ethica" title="Principia Ethica">Principia Ethica</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1903)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1971)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practical_Ethics" title="Practical Ethics">Practical Ethics</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1979)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/After_Virtue" title="After Virtue">After Virtue</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1981)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reasons_and_Persons" title="Reasons and Persons">Reasons and Persons</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1984)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casuistry" title="Casuistry">Casuistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_ethics" title="Descriptive ethics">Descriptive ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_in_religion" title="Ethics in religion">Ethics in religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ethics" title="Evolutionary ethics">Evolutionary ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_ethics" title="History of ethics">History of ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">Ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_psychology" title="Moral psychology">Moral psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of law">Philosophy of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_ethics" title="Population ethics">Population ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rehabilitation_(penology)" title="Rehabilitation (penology)">Rehabilitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_ethics" title="Secular ethics">Secular ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Index_of_ethics_articles" title="Index of ethics articles">Index</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Ethics" title="Category:Ethics">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Good_and_evil" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Good_and_evil" title="Template:Good and evil"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Good_and_evil" title="Template talk:Good and evil"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Good_and_evil" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Good and evil"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Good_and_evil" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Good_and_evil" title="Good and evil">Good and evil</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Good" title="Good">Good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evil" title="Evil">Evil</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Greater good</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Summum_bonum" title="Summum bonum">Summum bonum</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesser_of_two_evils_principle" title="Lesser of two evils principle">Lesser of two evils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necessary_evil" title="Necessary evil">Necessary evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_wise_monkeys" title="Three wise monkeys">See no evil, hear no evil, speak no evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immorality" title="Immorality">Immorality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">Morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_theory" title="Value theory">Value theory</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Altruism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_evil" title="Radical evil">Radical evil</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_topics" title="Template:Philosophy topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_topics" title="Template talk:Philosophy topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Philosophy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">Philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Branches" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Branches</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy#Branches" title="Outline of philosophy">Branches</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_philosophy" title="Applied philosophy">Applied philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">Metaphilosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">Philosophy of information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">Philosophy of mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Philosophy of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practical_philosophy" title="Practical philosophy">Practical philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_philosophy" title="Theoretical philosophy">Theoretical philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_emotions" title="Aesthetic emotions">Aesthetic response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formalism_(art)" title="Formalism (art)">Formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_theory_of_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Institutional theory of art">Institutionalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_particularism" title="Epistemological particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deontology" title="Deontology">Deontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compatibilism" title="Compatibilism">Compatibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_determinism" title="Hard determinism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incompatibilism" title="Incompatibilism">Incompatibilism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_incompatibilism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hard incompatibilism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergentism" title="Emergentism">Emergentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Normativity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Event_(philosophy)" title="Event (philosophy)">Event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">Process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conceptualism" title="Conceptualism">Conceptualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_era" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By era</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">By era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculturalism" title="Agriculturalism">Agriculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">Logicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">Chinese naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangism" title="Yangism">Yangism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greco-</a><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Roman</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Presocratic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_School_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionian School (philosophy)">Ionians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">Sophists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academic_Skepticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic Skepticism">Academic Skepticism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Platonism" title="Middle Platonism">Middle Platonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_the_Sextii" title="School of the Sextii">School of the Sextii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagoreanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sophistic" title="Second Sophistic">Second Sophistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Mīmāṃsā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80j%C4%ABvika" title="Ājīvika">Ājīvika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aj%C3%B1ana" title="Ajñana">Ajñana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Cārvāka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anekantavada" title="Anekantavada">Anekantavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sy%C4%81dv%C4%81da" class="mw-redirect" title="Syādvāda">Syādvāda</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvāstivadā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pudgalavada" title="Pudgalavada">Pudgalavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sautr%C4%81ntika" title="Sautrāntika">Sautrāntika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svatantrika%E2%80%93Prasa%E1%B9%85gika_distinction" title="Svatantrika–Prasaṅgika distinction">Svatantrika and Prasangika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Śūnyatā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogacara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Persian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mazdakism" title="Mazdakism">Mazdakism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">East Asian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Neotaoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huayan" title="Huayan">Huayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Confucianism" title="Korean Confucianism">Korean Confucianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustinianism" title="Augustinianism">Augustinianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotism" title="Scotism">Scotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occamism" title="Occamism">Occamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Indian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achintya_Bheda_Abheda" title="Achintya Bheda Abheda">Acintya bheda abheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhedabheda" title="Bhedabheda">Bhedabheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dvaita_Vedanta" title="Dvaita Vedanta">Dvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimbarka_Sampradaya" title="Nimbarka Sampradaya">Nimbarka Sampradaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuddhadvaita" title="Shuddhadvaita">Shuddhadvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Nyāya">Navya-Nyāya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Illuminationism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">ʿIlm al-Kalām</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">Sufi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)" title="Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)">Judeo-Islamic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Realism" title="Classical Realism">Classical Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivism_and_individualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivism and individualism">Collectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edo_neo-Confucianism" title="Edo neo-Confucianism">Edo neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">Anti-</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">Absolute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objective_idealism" title="Objective idealism">Objective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">Subjective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokugaku" title="Kokugaku">Kokugaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-scholasticism" title="Neo-scholasticism">Neo-scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaardianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krausism" title="Krausism">Krausism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newtonianism" title="Newtonianism">Newtonianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzscheanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinozism" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Analytic feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Analytical Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_philosophy" title="Experimental philosophy">Experimental philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsificationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and externalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Moral realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Quinean naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postanalytic_philosophy" title="Postanalytic philosophy">Postanalytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawlsian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemics" title="Systemics">Systemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transactionalism" title="Transactionalism">Transactionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism#Developments_in_the_20th_century" title="Utilitarianism">Contemporary utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgensteinian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Marxism" title="Neo-Marxism">Neo-Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_historicism" title="New historicism">New Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posthumanism" title="Posthumanism">Posthumanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_philosophy" title="Postmodern philosophy">Postmodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western Marxism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kyoto_School" title="Kyoto School">Kyoto School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivism" title="Objectivism">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcritique" title="Postcritique">Postcritique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_cosmism" title="Russian cosmism">Russian cosmism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_region" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>By region</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy#Philosophic_traditions_by_region" title="Outline of philosophy">By region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ubuntu_philosophy" title="Ubuntu philosophy">Bantu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_philosophy" title="Ethiopian philosophy">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africana_philosophy" title="Africana philosophy">Africana</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_philosophy" title="Indonesian philosophy">Indonesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_philosophy" title="Japanese philosophy">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_philosophy" title="Korean philosophy">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Taiwan" title="Philosophy in Taiwan">Taiwanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_philosophy" title="Vietnamese 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class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_philosophy" title="American philosophy">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_philosophy" title="Australian philosophy">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_philosophy" title="British philosophy">British</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_philosophy" title="Scottish philosophy">Scottish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Canada" title="Philosophy in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_philosophy" title="Czech philosophy">Czech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_philosophy" title="Danish philosophy">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_philosophy" title="Dutch philosophy">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy_in_Finland" title="History of philosophy in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_philosophy" title="French philosophy">French</a></li> <li><a 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role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Virtues" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Virtues" title="Template:Virtues"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Virtues" title="Template talk:Virtues"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Virtues" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Virtues"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Virtues" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue">Virtues</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">About virtues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Endowment_(philosophy)" title="Endowment (philosophy)">Endowment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_character" title="Moral character">Moral character</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics" title="Nicomachean Ethics">Nicomachean Ethics</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_psychology" title="Positive psychology">Positive psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trait_theory" title="Trait theory">Trait theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue ethics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Virtue families</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Bodhipakkhiy%C4%81dhamm%C4%81" title="Bodhipakkhiyādhammā">Bodhipakkhiyā dhammā</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Brahmavihara" title="Brahmavihara">Brahmavihārās</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bushido" title="Bushido">Bushidō</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catalogue_of_Vices_and_Virtues" title="Catalogue of Vices and Virtues">Catalogue of Vices and Virtues</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Emi_Omo_Eso" title="Emi Omo Eso">Emi Omo Eso</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemic_virtue" title="Epistemic virtue">Epistemic virtues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_virtues" title="Five virtues">Five virtues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Cardinal_Principles_and_Eight_Virtues" title="Four Cardinal Principles and Eight Virtues">Four Cardinal Principles and Eight Virtues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_ethics#Intellectual_virtue" title="Aristotelian ethics">Intellectual virtues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_ethics#Moral_virtue" title="Aristotelian ethics">Moral virtues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nine_Noble_Virtues" title="Nine Noble Virtues">Nine Noble Virtues</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Omoluwabi" title="Omoluwabi">Omoluwabi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/P%C4%81ramit%C4%81" title="Pāramitā">Pāramīs</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prussian_virtues" title="Prussian virtues">Prussian virtues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scout_Law" title="Scout Law">Scout Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_virtues" title="Seven virtues">Seven virtues</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cardinal_virtues" title="Cardinal virtues">Cardinal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theological_virtues" title="Theological virtues">Theological</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teachings_of_the_Seven_Grandfathers" title="Teachings of the Seven Grandfathers">Teachings of the Seven Grandfathers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Treasures_(Taoism)" title="Three Treasures (Taoism)">Three Treasures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Values_in_Action_Inventory_of_Strengths" title="Values in Action Inventory of Strengths">Values in Action Inventory of Strengths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yamas" title="Yamas">Yamas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Individual virtues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accountability" title="Accountability">Accountability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alertness" title="Alertness">Alertness</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Altruism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authenticity_(philosophy)" title="Authenticity (philosophy)">Authenticity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calmness" title="Calmness">Calmness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charisma" title="Charisma">Charisma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charity_(practice)" title="Charity (practice)">Charity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chastity" title="Chastity">Chastity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chivalry" title="Chivalry">Chivalry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleanliness" title="Cleanliness">Cleanliness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compassion" title="Compassion">Compassion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscientiousness" title="Conscientiousness">Conscientiousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Courage" title="Courage">Courage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_courage" title="Civil courage">Civil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_courage" title="Moral courage">Moral</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Courtesy" title="Courtesy">Courtesy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diligence" title="Diligence">Diligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discernment_(Christianity)" title="Discernment (Christianity)">Discernment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discipline" title="Discipline">Discipline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">Duty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empathy" title="Empathy">Empathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endurance" title="Endurance">Endurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equanimity" title="Equanimity">Equanimity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etiquette" title="Etiquette">Etiquette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith" title="Faith">Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faithfulness" title="Faithfulness">Faithfulness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fidelity" title="Fidelity">Fidelity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foresight_(psychology)" title="Foresight (psychology)">Foresight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forgiveness" title="Forgiveness">Forgiveness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frugality" title="Frugality">Frugality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generosity" title="Generosity">Generosity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glory_(honor)" title="Glory (honor)">Glory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_faith" title="Good faith">Good faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gratitude" title="Gratitude">Gratitude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heroic_virtue" title="Heroic virtue">Heroism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honesty" title="Honesty">Honesty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honour" title="Honour">Honour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hope_(virtue)" title="Hope (virtue)">Hope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hospitality" title="Hospitality">Hospitality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanity_(virtue)" title="Humanity (virtue)">Humanity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humility" title="Humility">Humility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impartiality" title="Impartiality">Impartiality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Innocence" title="Innocence">Innocence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insight" title="Insight">Insight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrity" title="Integrity">Integrity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_intelligence" title="Emotional intelligence">Emotional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_intelligence" title="Social intelligence">Social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judgement" title="Judgement">Judgement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice_(virtue)" title="Justice (virtue)">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kindness" title="Kindness">Kindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Love" title="Love">Love</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyalty" title="Loyalty">Loyalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnanimity" title="Magnanimity">Magnanimity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnificence_(history_of_ideas)" title="Magnificence (history of ideas)">Magnificence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meekness" title="Meekness">Meekness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercy" title="Mercy">Mercy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moderation" title="Moderation">Moderation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modesty" title="Modesty">Modesty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonattachment_(philosophy)" title="Nonattachment (philosophy)">Nonattachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patience" title="Patience">Patience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriotism" title="Patriotism">Patriotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perspicacity" title="Perspicacity">Perspicacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philanthropy" title="Philanthropy">Philanthropy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piety" title="Piety">Piety</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Filial_piety" title="Filial piety">Filial</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pity" title="Pity">Pity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politeness" title="Politeness">Politeness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prudence" title="Prudence">Prudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punctuality" title="Punctuality">Punctuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_(virtue)" title="Religion (virtue)">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renunciation" title="Renunciation">Renunciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_resilience" title="Psychological resilience">Resilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respect" title="Respect">Respect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverence_(emotion)" title="Reverence (emotion)">Reverence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Righteous_indignation" title="Righteous indignation">Righteous indignation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Righteousness" title="Righteousness">Righteousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-control" title="Self-control">Self-control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-cultivation" title="Self-cultivation">Self-cultivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-transcendence" title="Self-transcendence">Self-transcendence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simple_living" title="Simple living">Simplicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sincerity" title="Sincerity">Sincerity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solidarity" title="Solidarity">Solidarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sportsmanship" title="Sportsmanship">Sportsmanship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sympathy" title="Sympathy">Sympathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_taste" title="Aesthetic taste">Taste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperance_(virtue)" title="Temperance (virtue)">Temperance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tranquillity" title="Tranquillity">Tranquillity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trust_(social_science)" title="Trust (social science)">Trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wisdom" title="Wisdom">Wisdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wit" title="Wit">Wit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workmanship" title="Workmanship">Workmanship</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Chinese</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="zh-Latn"><a href="/wiki/De_(Chinese)" title="De (Chinese)">De</a></i></span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jing_(philosophy)" title="Jing (philosophy)">Jing</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Li_(Confucianism)" title="Li (Confucianism)">Li</a></i></li> <li><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="zh-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Ren_(philosophy)" title="Ren (philosophy)">Ren</a></i></span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yi_(philosophy)" title="Yi (philosophy)">Yi</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Greek</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Agape" title="Agape">Agape</a></i></li> <li><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Arete" title="Arete">Arete</a></i></span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ataraxia" title="Ataraxia">Ataraxia</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eutrapelia" title="Eutrapelia">Eutrapelia</a></i></li> <li><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Philotimo" title="Philotimo">Philotimo</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Phronesis" title="Phronesis">Phronesis</a></i></span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sophia_(wisdom)" title="Sophia (wisdom)">Sophia</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sophrosyne" title="Sophrosyne">Sophrosyne</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Indian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Adhi%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%ADh%C4%81na" title="Adhiṭṭhāna">Adhiṭṭhāna</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ahimsa" title="Ahimsa">Ahimsa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Akrodha" title="Akrodha">Akrodha</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Non-possession" title="Non-possession">Aparigraha</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Arjava" title="Arjava">Ārjava</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Achourya" title="Achourya">Asteya</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Brahmacharya" title="Brahmacharya">Brahmacharya</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/D%C4%81na" title="Dāna">Dāna</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dhrti" title="Dhrti">Dhṛti</a></i></li> <li><span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Hr%C4%AB_(Buddhism)" title="Hrī (Buddhism)">Hrī</a></i></span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Karu%E1%B9%87%C4%81" title="Karuṇā">Karuṇā</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kshama" title="Kshama">Kshama</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kshanti" title="Kshanti">Kshanti</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Maitr%C4%AB" title="Maitrī">Mettā</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mudita" title="Mudita">Muditā</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Praj%C3%B1%C4%81_(Buddhism)" title="Prajñā (Buddhism)">Prajñā</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Satya" title="Satya">Satya</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shaucha" title="Shaucha">Shaucha</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sev%C4%81" title="Sevā">Sevā</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Faith_in_Hinduism" title="Faith in Hinduism">Śraddhā</a></i>/<i><a href="/wiki/Faith_in_Buddhism" title="Faith in Buddhism">Saddhā</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Upek%E1%B9%A3%C4%81" title="Upekṣā">Upekṣā</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/V%C4%ABrya" title="Vīrya">Vīrya</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Latin</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Auctoritas" title="Auctoritas">Auctoritas</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Charity_(Christian_virtue)" title="Charity (Christian virtue)">Caritas</a></i></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Decorum" title="Decorum">Decorum</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Dignitas_(Roman_concept)" title="Dignitas (Roman concept)">Dignitas</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Fides_(deity)" title="Fides (deity)">Fides</a></i></span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gravitas" title="Gravitas">Gravitas</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Humanitas" title="Humanitas">Humanitas</a></i></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Pietas" title="Pietas">Pietas</a></i></span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Virtus" title="Virtus">Virtus</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ganbaru" title="Ganbaru">Ganbaru</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Giri_(Japanese)" title="Giri (Japanese)">Giri</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sadaqah" title="Sadaqah">Sadaqah</a></i></li> <li><span title="Catalan-language text"><i lang="ca"><a href="/wiki/Seny" title="Seny">Seny</a></i></span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sisu" title="Sisu">Sisu</a></i></li> <li><span title="Italian-language text"><i lang="it"><a href="/wiki/Virt%C3%B9" title="Virtù">Virtù</a></i></span></li></ul> 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