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vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_public"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.2</span> <span>The public</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_public-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_mass" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_mass"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.3</span> <span>The mass</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_mass-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_social_movement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_social_movement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.4</span> <span>The social movement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_social_movement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theories_developed_to_explain_collective_behavior" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theories_developed_to_explain_collective_behavior"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Theories developed to explain collective behavior</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theories_developed_to_explain_collective_behavior-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" 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interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kollektives_Verhalten" title="Kollektives Verhalten – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Kollektives Verhalten" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%81%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%AC%D9%85%D8%B9%DB%8C" title="رفتار جمعی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="رفتار جمعی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%B8%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%AE%E0%AB%82%E0%AA%B9%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%95_%E0%AA%B5%E0%AA%B0%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%A4%E0%AA%A8" title="સામૂહિક વર્તન – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="સામૂહિક વર્તન" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ગુજરાતી</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A7%91%EB%8B%A8%ED%96%89%EB%8F%99" title="집단행동 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="집단행동" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comportamento_collettivo" title="Comportamento collettivo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Comportamento collettivo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%83%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%9A%D0%B5" title="Колективно однесување – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Колективно однесување" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collectief_gedrag" title="Collectief gedrag – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Collectief gedrag" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9B%86%E5%9B%A3%E6%85%8B%E5%BA%A6" title="集団態度 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="集団態度" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolektif_davran%C4%B1%C5%9F" title="Kolektif davranış – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Kolektif davranış" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Колективна поведінка – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Колективна поведінка" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9B%86%E9%AB%94%E8%A1%8C%E7%82%BA" title="集體行為 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="集體行為" data-language-autonym="粵語" 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a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Complex_systems" title="Template:Complex systems"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Complex_systems" title="Template talk:Complex systems"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Complex_systems" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Complex systems"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p> The expression <b>collective behavior</b> was first used by <a href="/wiki/Franklin_Henry_Giddings" title="Franklin Henry Giddings">Franklin Henry Giddings</a><sup id="cite_ref-Giddings1908_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Giddings1908-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and employed later by <a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Park" title="Robert E. Park">Robert Park</a> and Ernest Burgess,<sup id="cite_ref-ParkBurgess1921_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ParkBurgess1921-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Blumer" title="Herbert Blumer">Herbert Blumer</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Blumer1939_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blumer1939-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ralph_H._Turner" title="Ralph H. Turner">Ralph H. Turner</a> and Lewis Killian,<sup id="cite_ref-TurnerKillian1957_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TurnerKillian1957-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Neil_Smelser" title="Neil Smelser">Neil Smelser</a><sup id="cite_ref-Smelser1962_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smelser1962-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to refer to social processes and events which do not reflect existing <a href="/wiki/Social_structure" title="Social structure">social structure</a> (<a href="/wiki/Laws" class="mw-redirect" title="Laws">laws</a>, conventions, and <a href="/wiki/Institutions" class="mw-redirect" title="Institutions">institutions</a>), but which emerge in a "spontaneous" way. Use of the term has been expanded to include reference to cells, <a href="/wiki/Social_animals" class="mw-redirect" title="Social animals">social animals</a> like birds and fish, and insects including <a href="/wiki/Ants" class="mw-redirect" title="Ants">ants</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Gordon2014_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gordon2014-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Collective behavior takes many forms but generally violates societal norms.<sup id="cite_ref-Miller2000_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miller2000-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Locher2002_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Locher2002-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Collective behavior can be tremendously destructive, as with riots or mob violence, silly, as with fads, or anywhere in between. Collective behavior is always driven by group dynamics, encouraging people to engage in acts they might consider unthinkable under typical social circumstances.<sup id="cite_ref-Locher2002_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Locher2002-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Defining_the_field">Defining the field</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Collective_behavior&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Defining the field"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Collective_animal_behavior" title="Collective animal behavior">Collective animal behavior</a></div> <p>Turner and Killian were the first sociologists to back their theoretical propositions with visual evidence in the form of photographs and motion pictures of collective behavior in action.<sup id="cite_ref-TurnerKillian1957_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TurnerKillian1957-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prior to that sociologists relied heavily upon eyewitness accounts, which turned out to be far less reliable than one would hope. </p><p>Turner and Killian's approach is based largely upon the arguments of Blumer, who argued that social "forces" are not really forces. The actor is active: He creates an interpretation of the acts of others, and acts on the basis of this interpretation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Examples">Examples</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Collective_behavior&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Examples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Here are some instances of collective behavior: the Los Angeles riot of 1992, the hula-hoop fad of 1958, the stock market crashes of 1929, and the "<a href="/wiki/Mad_Gasser_of_Mattoon" title="Mad Gasser of Mattoon">phantom gasser</a>" episodes in Virginia in 1933–34 and Mattoon, IL in 1944.<sup id="cite_ref-Locher2002_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Locher2002-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Miller2000_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miller2000-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The claim that such diverse episodes all belong to a single field of inquiry is a theoretical assertion, and not all sociologists would agree with it. But Blumer and <a href="/wiki/Neil_Smelser" title="Neil Smelser">Neil Smelser</a> did agree, as did others, indicating that the formulation has satisfied some leading sociological thinkers. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Four_forms">Four forms</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Collective_behavior&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Four forms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although there are several other schema that may be used to classify forms of collective behavior the following four categories from Blumer are generally considered useful by most sociologists.<sup id="cite_ref-Blumer1939_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blumer1939-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_crowd">The crowd</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Collective_behavior&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: The crowd"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Scholars differ about what classes of social events fall under the rubric of collective behavior. In fact, the only class of events which all authors include is crowds. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Clark_McPhail&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Clark McPhail (page does not exist)">Clark McPhail</a> is one of those who treats crowds and collective behavior as synonyms. Although some consider McPhail's work<sup id="cite_ref-McPhail1991_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McPhail1991-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> overly simplistic,<sup id="cite_ref-Locher2002_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Locher2002-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> his important contribution is to have gone beyond the speculations of others to carry out pioneering empirical studies of crowds. He finds them to form an elaborate set of types. </p><p>The classic treatment of crowds is <a href="/wiki/Gustave_LeBon" class="mw-redirect" title="Gustave LeBon">Gustave LeBon</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Crowd:_A_Study_of_the_Popular_Mind" title="The Crowd: A Study of the Popular Mind">The Crowd: A Study of the Popular Mind</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-LeBon1896_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LeBon1896-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in which the author interpreted the crowds of the French Revolution as irrational reversions to animal emotion, and inferred from this that such reversion is characteristic of crowds in general. LeBon believed that crowds somehow induced people to lose their ability to think rationally and to somehow recover this ability once they had left the crowd. He speculated, but could not explain how this might occur. <a href="/wiki/Freud" class="mw-redirect" title="Freud">Freud</a> expressed a similar view in <i><a href="/wiki/Group_Psychology_and_the_Analysis_of_the_Ego" title="Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego">Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Freud1922_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Freud1922-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such authors have thought that their ideas were confirmed by various kinds of crowds, one of these being the <a href="/wiki/Economic_bubble" title="Economic bubble">economic bubble</a>. In Holland, during the <a href="/wiki/Tulip_mania" title="Tulip mania">tulip mania</a> (1637), the prices of tulip bulbs rose to astronomical heights. An array of such crazes and other historical oddities is narrated in Charles MacKay's <i><a href="/wiki/Extraordinary_Popular_Delusions_and_the_Madness_of_Crowds" title="Extraordinary Popular Delusions and the Madness of Crowds">Extraordinary Popular Delusions and the Madness of Crowds</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-MacKay1841_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MacKay1841-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Park" title="Robert E. Park">Robert Park</a> and Herbert Blumer agreed with the speculations of LeBon and other that crowds are indeed emotional. But to them a crowd is capable of any emotion, not only the negative ones of anger and fear. </p><p>A number of authors modify the common-sense notion of the crowd to include episodes during which the participants are not assembled in one place but are dispersed over a large area. Turner and Killian refer to such episodes as <i>diffuse</i> crowds, examples being <a href="/wiki/Billy_Graham" title="Billy Graham">Billy Graham</a>'s revivals, panics about sexual perils, witch hunts and Red scares. Their expanded definition of the crowd is justified if propositions which hold true among compact crowds do so for diffuse crowds as well. </p><p>Some psychologists have claimed that there are three fundamental human emotions: fear, joy, and anger. <a href="/wiki/Neil_Smelser" title="Neil Smelser">Neil Smelser</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Lofland_(sociologist)" title="John Lofland (sociologist)">John Lofland</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Lofland1985_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lofland1985-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and others have proposed three corresponding forms of the crowd: the panic (an expression of fear), the craze (an expression of joy), and the hostile outburst (an expression of anger). Each of the three emotions can characterize either a <i>compact</i> or a <i>diffuse</i> crowd, the result being a scheme of six types of crowds. Lofland has offered the most explicit discussion of these types. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_public">The public</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Collective_behavior&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: The public"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Boom distinguishes the <b>crowd</b>, which expresses a <i>common emotion</i>, from a <b>public</b>, which discusses a <i>single issue</i>. Thus, a public is not equivalent to all of the members of a society. Obviously, this is not the usual use of the word, "public." To Park and Blumer, there are as many publics as there are issues. A public comes into being when discussion of an issue begins, and ceases to be when it reaches a decision on it. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_mass">The mass</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Collective_behavior&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: The mass"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>To the crowd and the public Blumer adds a third form of collective behavior, the <b>mass.</b> It differs from both the crowd and the public in that it is defined not by a form of interaction but by the efforts of those who use the mass media to address an audience. The first mass medium was printing. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_social_movement">The social movement</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Collective_behavior&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: The social movement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Social_movement" title="Social movement">Social movement</a></div> <p>We change intellectual gears when we confront Blumer's final form of collective behavior, the social movement. He identifies several types of these, among which are <i>active</i> social movements such as the French Revolution and <i>expressive</i> ones such as Alcoholics Anonymous. An active movement tries to change society; an expressive one tries to change its own members. </p><p>The social movement is the form of collective behavior which satisfies least well the first definition of it which was offered at the beginning of this article. These episodes are less fluid than the other forms, and do not change as often as other forms do. Furthermore, as can be seen in the history of the labor movement and many religious sects, a social movement may begin as collective behavior but over time become firmly established as a social institution. </p><p>For this reason, social movements are often considered a separate field of sociology. The books and articles about them are far more numerous than the sum of studies of all the other forms of collective behavior put together. Social movements are considered in many Wikipedia articles, and an article on the field of social movements as a whole would be much longer than this essay. </p><p>The study of collective behavior spun its wheels for many years, but began to make progress with the appearance of Turner and Killian's "Collective Behavior"<sup id="cite_ref-TurnerKillian1957_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TurnerKillian1957-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Smelser's <i>Theory of Collective Behavior</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Smelser1962_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smelser1962-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both books pushed the topic of collective behavior back into the consciousness of American sociologists and both theories contributed immensely to our understanding of collective behavior.<sup id="cite_ref-Locher2002_8-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Locher2002-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Miller2000_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miller2000-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Social disturbances in the U. S. and elsewhere in the late '60s and early '70s inspired another surge of interest in crowds and social movements. These studies presented a number of challenges to the armchair sociology of earlier students of collective behavior. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theories_developed_to_explain_collective_behavior">Theories developed to explain collective behavior</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Collective_behavior&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Theories developed to explain collective behavior"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Social scientists have developed various theories to explain crowd behavior. </p> <ol><li><b>Contagion theory</b> – according to the contagion theory as formulated by French thinker <a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Gustave Le Bon</a> (1841-1931), crowds exert a hypnotic influence over their members. Shielded by anonymity, large numbers of people abandon personal responsibility and surrender to the contagious emotions of the crowd. A crowd thus assumes a <a href="/wiki/Existence" title="Existence"> life</a> of its own, stirring up emotions and driving people toward irrational, even violent action.<sup id="cite_ref-LeBon1896_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LeBon1896-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Le Bon's theory, although one of the earliest explanations of crowd behavior, is still accepted by many people outside of sociology. <sup id="cite_ref-CastellanoFortunatoLoreto2009_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CastellanoFortunatoLoreto2009-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, critics argue that the "<a href="/wiki/Collective_mind" class="mw-redirect" title="Collective mind">collective mind</a>" has not been documented by systematic studies. Furthermore, although collective behavior may involve strong emotions, such feelings are not necessarily irrational. Turner and Killian argue convincingly that the "contagion" never actually occurs and that participants in collective behavior do not lose their ability to think rationally.<sup id="cite_ref-TurnerKillian1957_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TurnerKillian1957-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Convergence theory</b> – whereas the contagion theory suggests that crowds cause people to act in a certain way, convergence theory states that people who want to act in a certain way come together to form crowds. Developed by <a href="/wiki/Floyd_Henry_Allport" title="Floyd Henry Allport"> Floyd Allport</a> (1890-1979)<sup id="cite_ref-Allport1924_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Allport1924-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and later expanded upon by <a href="/wiki/Neal_E._Miller" title="Neal E. Miller"> Neal Miller</a> (1909-2002) and <a href="/wiki/John_Dollard" title="John Dollard">John Dollard</a> (1900-1980) as <a href="/wiki/Social_learning_theory" title="Social learning theory"> "Learning Theory"</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-MillerDollard1941_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MillerDollard1941-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the central argument of all convergence theories is that collective behavior reveals the otherwise hidden tendencies of the individuals who take part in the episode. The theory asserts that people with similar attributes find other like-minded persons with whom they can release these underlying tendencies. People sometimes do things in a crowd that they would not have the courage to do alone - because crowds can diffuse responsibility - but the behavior itself is claimed to originate within the individuals. Crowds, in addition, can intensify a sentiment simply by creating a critical mass of like-minded people.</li> <li><b>Emergent-norm theory</b> – according to sociologists <a href="/wiki/Ralph_H._Turner" title="Ralph H. Turner">Ralph Turner</a> (1919-2014) and Lewis Killian,<sup id="cite_ref-TurnerKillian1957_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TurnerKillian1957-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> crowds begin as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_collectivity&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Social collectivity (page does not exist)"> collectivities</a> composed of people with mixed interests and motives.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Especially in the case of less-stable crowds — expressive, acting and protest crowds — norms may be vague and changing, as when one person decides to break the glass windows of a store and others join in and begin looting merchandise. When people find themselves in a situation that is vague, ambiguous, or confusing, new norms "emerge" on the spot and people follow those emergent norms, which may be at odds with normal social behavior. Turner and Killian further argue that there are several different categories of participants, all of whom follow different patterns of behavior due to their differing motivations.</li> <li><b>Value-added theory</b> – Professor <a href="/wiki/Neil_Smelser" title="Neil Smelser">Neil Smelser</a> (1930-2017) argues that collective behavior is actually a sort of release-valve for built-up tension ("strain") within a social system, community, or group.<sup id="cite_ref-Smelser1962_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smelser1962-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If the proper determinants are present then collective behavior becomes inevitable. Conversely, if any of the key determinants are not present no collective behavior will occur unless and until the missing determinants fall into place. These are primarily social, although physical factors such as location and weather may also contribute to or hinder the development of collective behavior.</li> <li><b>Complex Adaptive Systems theory</b> – Dutch scholar <a href="/wiki/Jaap_van_Ginneken" title="Jaap van Ginneken">Jaap van Ginneken</a> (1943- ) claims that contagion, convergence and emergent norms are just instances of the synergy, emergence and autopoiesis or self-creation of patterns and new entities typical for the newly discovered meta-category of <a href="/wiki/Complex_adaptive_system" title="Complex adaptive system">complex adaptive systems</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ginneken2003_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ginneken2003-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This also helps explain the key role of salient details and path-dependence in rapid shifts.</li> <li><b>Shared intentionality theory</b> – Cognitive psychologist Professor <a href="/wiki/Michael_Tomasello" title="Michael Tomasello">Michael Tomasello</a> (1950- ) developed the psychological construct of <a href="/wiki/Shared_intentionality" title="Shared intentionality">shared intentionality</a> through his insights into <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cognition" title="Evolution of cognition"> cognition evolution</a> and, specifically, the knowledge development about the contribution of <a href="/wiki/Shared_intentionality" title="Shared intentionality">shared intentionality</a> to the formation of a <a href="/wiki/Social_reality" title="Social reality">social reality</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shared intentionality provides unaware processes in mother-child dyads during social learning when young organisms can only manifest simple reflexes.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It increases the cognitive performance of children indwelling with mothers who know the correct answer. This interaction proceeds without communication within the dyad using sensory cues. Professor Igor Val Danilov argues that this performance succeeds due to sharing an essential stimulus during a single cognitive task in the shared ecological context.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, research shows that shared intentionality can appear even in groups of more mature organisms due to their physiological synchrony and group dynamics.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, this interaction can provide subliminal compliance of the participants to the group decisions, encouraging people to engage in acts they might consider unthinkable under typical social circumstances. The hypothesis of neurobiological processes occurring during shared intentionality explains how organisms can share relevant sensory stimuli without communication within the group using sensory cues.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Collective_behavior&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bandwagon_effect" title="Bandwagon effect">Bandwagon effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioengineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Bioengineering">Bioengineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_consciousness" title="Collective consciousness">Collective consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_effervescence" title="Collective effervescence">Collective effervescence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_intelligence" title="Collective intelligence">Collective intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_hysteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Collective hysteria">Collective hysteria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_narcissism" title="Collective narcissism">Collective narcissism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complex_adaptive_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Complex adaptive systems">Complex adaptive systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crowd_manipulation" title="Crowd manipulation">Crowd manipulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crowd_psychology" title="Crowd psychology">Crowd psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_behaviour" class="mw-redirect" title="Group behaviour">Group behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herd_behavior" title="Herd behavior">Herd behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herd_morality" class="mw-redirect" title="Herd morality">Herd morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keeping_up_with_the_Joneses" title="Keeping up with the Joneses">Keeping up with the Joneses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_panic" title="Moral panic">Moral panic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_buying" title="Panic buying">Panic buying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penis_panic" class="mw-redirect" title="Penis panic">Penis panic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peer_pressure" title="Peer pressure">Peer pressure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheeple" class="mw-redirect" title="Sheeple">Sheeple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shared_intentionality" title="Shared intentionality">Shared intentionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_comparison_theory" title="Social comparison theory">Social comparison theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiral_of_silence" title="Spiral of silence">Spiral of silence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swarm_behaviour" title="Swarm behaviour">Swarm behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_science" title="Systems science">Systems science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_of_political_behavior" title="Theories of political behavior">Theories of political behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viral_phenomena" class="mw-redirect" title="Viral phenomena">Viral phenomena</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Collective_behavior&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Giddings1908-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Giddings1908_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Franklin_Henry_Giddings" title="Franklin Henry Giddings">Giddings, Franklin</a> Henry. 1908. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=hvd.hnjjhg;view=1up;seq=3">Sociology</a></i>. New York: Columbia University Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ParkBurgess1921-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ParkBurgess1921_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Park" title="Robert E. Park">Park, Robert E.</a> and Ernest W. Burgess. 1921. <i>Introduction to the Science of Sociology</i> Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Blumer1939-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Blumer1939_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Blumer1939_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Blumer" title="Herbert Blumer">Blumer, Herbert</a>. 1939. Collective Behavior. In Robert E. Park, Ed., An Outline of the Principles of Sociology. New York: Barnes and Noble. pp. 219-280.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-TurnerKillian1957-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-TurnerKillian1957_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-TurnerKillian1957_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-TurnerKillian1957_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-TurnerKillian1957_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-TurnerKillian1957_4-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Ralph_H._Turner" title="Ralph H. Turner">Turner, Ralph H.</a>, and Lewis M. Killian, <i>Collective Behavior</i>, Englewood Cliffs, N. J., Prentice-Hall, 1957 1st ed., 2d ed., 1972; 3d. ed. 1987; 4th ed. 1993.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Smelser1962-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Smelser1962_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Smelser1962_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Smelser1962_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Smelser, Neil J. <i>Theory of Collective Behavior</i>, Free Press, Glencoe, Ill., 1962.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gordon2014-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gordon2014_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFGordon2014" class="citation journal cs1">Gordon, Deborah M. (March 11, 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3949665">"The Ecology of Collective Behavior"</a>. <i>PLOS Biol</i>. <b>12</b> (3): e1001805. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.1001805">10.1371/journal.pbio.1001805</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3949665">3949665</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24618695">24618695</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+Biol&rft.atitle=The+Ecology+of+Collective+Behavior&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=e1001805&rft.date=2014-03-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3949665%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24618695&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.1001805&rft.aulast=Gordon&rft.aufirst=Deborah+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3949665&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACollective+behavior" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Miller2000-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Miller2000_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Miller2000_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Miller2000_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Miller, David L., <i>Introduction to Collective Behavior and Collective Action</i>, Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press, 2000 2d ed., 1985.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Locher2002-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Locher2002_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Locher2002_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Locher2002_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Locher2002_8-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Locher2002_8-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Locher, David A., <i>Collective Behavior</i>, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2002.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-McPhail1991-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-McPhail1991_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McPhail, Clark. <i>The Myth of the Madding Crowd</i>, New York, Aldine de Gruyter, 1991.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-LeBon1896-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-LeBon1896_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-LeBon1896_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">LeBon, Gustave</a>. 1896. <i>The Crowd: A Study of the Popular Mind</i>. Atlanta: Cherokee Publishing Company.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Freud1922-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Freud1922_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreud1921" class="citation book cs1">Freud, S. (1921). <i>Massenpsychologie und Ich-analyse</i>. Leipzig, Vienna, Zurich: Internationaler Psychoanalytischer Verlag.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Massenpsychologie+und+Ich-analyse&rft.place=Leipzig%2C+Vienna%2C+Zurich&rft.pub=Internationaler+Psychoanalytischer+Verlag&rft.date=1921&rft.aulast=Freud&rft.aufirst=S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACollective+behavior" class="Z3988"></span><br /> English translation: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreud1922" class="citation book cs1">Freud, Sigmund (1922). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/35877"><i>Group Psychology and The Analysis of The Ego</i></a>. Translated by James Strachey. London, Vienna: International Psycho-Analytical Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Group+Psychology+and+The+Analysis+of+The+Ego&rft.place=London%2C+Vienna&rft.pub=International+Psycho-Analytical+Press&rft.date=1922&rft.aulast=Freud&rft.aufirst=Sigmund&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gutenberg.org%2Febooks%2F35877&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACollective+behavior" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MacKay1841-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-MacKay1841_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">MacKay, Charles. <i><a href="/wiki/Extraordinary_Popular_Delusions_and_the_Madness_of_Crowds" title="Extraordinary Popular Delusions and the Madness of Crowds">Extraordinary Popular Delusions and the Madness of Crowds</a></i>, 1841.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lofland1985-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lofland1985_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLofland1985" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Lofland_(sociologist)" title="John Lofland (sociologist)">Lofland, John</a> (1985). <i>Protest - Studies of Collective Behaviour and Social Movements</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780887388767" title="Special:BookSources/9780887388767"><bdi>9780887388767</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Protest+-+Studies+of+Collective+Behaviour+and+Social+Movements&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=9780887388767&rft.aulast=Lofland&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACollective+behavior" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CastellanoFortunatoLoreto2009-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-CastellanoFortunatoLoreto2009_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Castellano, C.; Fortunato, S., & Loreto, V. (2009). Statistical physics of social dynamics. Rev Mod Phys <b>81</b>(2): 591–646.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Allport1924-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Allport1924_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Allport, Floyd. 1924. <i>Social Psychology</i>. Cambridge: Houghton Mifflin, The Riverside Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MillerDollard1941-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-MillerDollard1941_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Miller, Neil and John Dollard. 1941. <i>Social Learning and Imitation</i>. New Haven: Yale University Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTurnerKillian1987" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ralph_H._Turner" title="Ralph H. Turner">Turner, Ralph H</a>; Killian, Lewis M. (1987) [1957]. "Diffuse Collectivities". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=F5zZAAAAMAAJ"><i>Collective Behavior</i></a> (3 ed.). Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. p. 136. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780131406827" title="Special:BookSources/9780131406827"><bdi>9780131406827</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 15,</span> 2024</span>. <q>We shall refer to such a collectivity as a <i>diffuse</i> crowd.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Diffuse+Collectivities&rft.btitle=Collective+Behavior&rft.place=Englewood+Cliffs%2C+New+Jersey&rft.pages=136&rft.edition=3&rft.pub=Prentice-Hall&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=9780131406827&rft.aulast=Turner&rft.aufirst=Ralph+H&rft.au=Killian%2C+Lewis+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DF5zZAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACollective+behavior" class="Z3988"></span> </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ginneken2003-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ginneken2003_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Jaap_van_Ginneken" title="Jaap van Ginneken">Jaap van Ginneken</a>, <i>Collective behavior and public opinion – Rapid shifts in opinion and communication</i>, Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, 2003.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tomasello, M. <i>Becoming Human: A Theory of Ontogeny</i>. Cambridge, Massachusetts: <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>; 2019.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVal_DanilovMihailova2022" class="citation journal cs1">Val Danilov, Igor; Mihailova, Sandra (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9036231">"A New Perspective on Assessing Cognition in Children through Estimating Shared Intentionality"</a>. <i>Journal of Intelligence</i>. <b>10</b> (2): 21. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fjintelligence10020021">10.3390/jintelligence10020021</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2079-3200">2079-3200</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9036231">9036231</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35466234">35466234</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Intelligence&rft.atitle=A+New+Perspective+on+Assessing+Cognition+in+Children+through+Estimating+Shared+Intentionality&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=21&rft.date=2022&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9036231%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=2079-3200&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F35466234&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Fjintelligence10020021&rft.aulast=Val+Danilov&rft.aufirst=Igor&rft.au=Mihailova%2C+Sandra&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9036231&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACollective+behavior" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVal_Danilov2023" class="citation journal cs1">Val Danilov, Igor (February 17, 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lidsen.com/journals/neurobiology/neurobiology-07-01-156">"Theoretical Grounds of Shared Intentionality for Neuroscience in Developing Bioengineering Systems"</a>. <i>OBM Neurobiology</i>. <b>7</b> (1): 156. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.21926%2Fobm.neurobiol.2301156">10.21926/obm.neurobiol.2301156</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=OBM+Neurobiology&rft.atitle=Theoretical+Grounds+of+Shared+Intentionality+for+Neuroscience+in+Developing+Bioengineering+Systems&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=156&rft.date=2023-02-17&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.21926%2Fobm.neurobiol.2301156&rft.aulast=Val+Danilov&rft.aufirst=Igor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lidsen.com%2Fjournals%2Fneurobiology%2Fneurobiology-07-01-156&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACollective+behavior" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Val Danilov I, Mihailova S. <i>Empirical Evidence of Shared Intentionality: Towards Bioengineering Systems Development.</i> OBM Neurobiology 2023; 7(2): 167; doi:10.21926/obm.neurobiol.2302167. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.lidsen.com/journals/neurobiology/neurobiology-07-02-167">https://www.lidsen.com/journals/neurobiology/neurobiology-07-02-167</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVal_DanilovMihailovaSvajyan2022" class="citation journal cs1">Val Danilov, Igor; Mihailova, Sandra; Svajyan, Araksia (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lidsen.com/journals/neurobiology/neurobiology-06-03-137">"Computerized Assessment of Cognitive Development in Neurotypical and Neurodivergent Children"</a>. <i>OBM Neurobiology</i>. <b>6</b> (3): 1–8. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.21926%2Fobm.neurobiol.2203137">10.21926/obm.neurobiol.2203137</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=OBM+Neurobiology&rft.atitle=Computerized+Assessment+of+Cognitive+Development+in+Neurotypical+and+Neurodivergent+Children&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=1-8&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.21926%2Fobm.neurobiol.2203137&rft.aulast=Val+Danilov&rft.aufirst=Igor&rft.au=Mihailova%2C+Sandra&rft.au=Svajyan%2C+Araksia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lidsen.com%2Fjournals%2Fneurobiology%2Fneurobiology-06-03-137&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACollective+behavior" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVal_Danilov2022" class="citation book cs1">Val Danilov, Igor (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/10216436?fbclid=IwAR22GYUVlz-Ym4_oFbAVuhqi5Erf28JUR3abSitMv4cVNYIuBqfo3MSHa7c">"A Bioengineering System for Assessing Children's Cognitive Development by Computerized Evaluation of Shared Intentionality"</a>. <i>2022 International Conference on Computational Science and Computational Intelligence (CSCI)</i>. pp. 1583–1590. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FCSCI58124.2022.00284">10.1109/CSCI58124.2022.00284</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/979-8-3503-2028-2" title="Special:BookSources/979-8-3503-2028-2"><bdi>979-8-3503-2028-2</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 16,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+Bioengineering+System+for+Assessing+Children%27s+Cognitive+Development+by+Computerized+Evaluation+of+Shared+Intentionality&rft.btitle=2022+International+Conference+on+Computational+Science+and+Computational+Intelligence+%28CSCI%29&rft.pages=1583-1590&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FCSCI58124.2022.00284&rft.isbn=979-8-3503-2028-2&rft.aulast=Val+Danilov&rft.aufirst=Igor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fieeexplore.ieee.org%2Fdocument%2F10216436%3Ffbclid%3DIwAR22GYUVlz-Ym4_oFbAVuhqi5Erf28JUR3abSitMv4cVNYIuBqfo3MSHa7c&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACollective+behavior" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVal_DanilovSvajyanMihailova2023" class="citation journal cs1">Val Danilov, Igor; Svajyan, Araksia; Mihailova, Sandra (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lidsen.com/journals/neurobiology/neurobiology-07-04-189">"A New Computer-Aided Method for Assessing Children's Cognition in Bioengineering Systems for Diagnosing Developmental Delay"</a>. <i>OBM Neurobiology</i>. <b>7</b> (4): 1–15. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.21926%2Fobm.neurobiol.2304189">10.21926/obm.neurobiol.2304189</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=OBM+Neurobiology&rft.atitle=A+New+Computer-Aided+Method+for+Assessing+Children%27s+Cognition+in+Bioengineering+Systems+for+Diagnosing+Developmental+Delay&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=1-15&rft.date=2023&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.21926%2Fobm.neurobiol.2304189&rft.aulast=Val+Danilov&rft.aufirst=Igor&rft.au=Svajyan%2C+Araksia&rft.au=Mihailova%2C+Sandra&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lidsen.com%2Fjournals%2Fneurobiology%2Fneurobiology-07-04-189&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACollective+behavior" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVal_Danilov2023" class="citation journal cs1">Val Danilov, Igor (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lidsen.com/journals/neurobiology/neurobiology-07-04-185">"Shared Intentionality Modulation at the Cell Level: Low-Frequency Oscillations for Temporal Coordination in Bioengineering Systems"</a>. <i>OBM Neurobiology</i>. <b>7</b> (4): 1–17. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.21926%2Fobm.neurobiol.2304185">10.21926/obm.neurobiol.2304185</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=OBM+Neurobiology&rft.atitle=Shared+Intentionality+Modulation+at+the+Cell+Level%3A+Low-Frequency+Oscillations+for+Temporal+Coordination+in+Bioengineering+Systems&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=1-17&rft.date=2023&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.21926%2Fobm.neurobiol.2304185&rft.aulast=Val+Danilov&rft.aufirst=Igor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lidsen.com%2Fjournals%2Fneurobiology%2Fneurobiology-07-04-185&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACollective+behavior" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVal_Danilov2023" class="citation journal cs1">Val Danilov, Igor (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lidsen.com/journals/neurobiology/neurobiology-07-04-192">"Low-Frequency Oscillations for Nonlocal Neuronal Coupling in Shared Intentionality Before and After Birth: Toward the Origin of Perception"</a>. <i>OBM Neurobiology</i>. <b>7</b> (4): 1–17. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.21926%2Fobm.neurobiol.2304192">10.21926/obm.neurobiol.2304192</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=OBM+Neurobiology&rft.atitle=Low-Frequency+Oscillations+for+Nonlocal+Neuronal+Coupling+in+Shared+Intentionality+Before+and+After+Birth%3A+Toward+the+Origin+of+Perception&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=1-17&rft.date=2023&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.21926%2Fobm.neurobiol.2304192&rft.aulast=Val+Danilov&rft.aufirst=Igor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lidsen.com%2Fjournals%2Fneurobiology%2Fneurobiology-07-04-192&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACollective+behavior" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Collective_behavior&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Basco, Michael, <i>Socio Anthropology " Mendiola Manila.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (February 2019)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></i></li> <li>Blumer, Herbert. "Collective Behavior," in A. M. Lee, ed., <i>Principles of Sociology,</i> New York, Barnes & Noble, 1951, pp. 67–121.</li> <li>Lang, Kurt, and Gladys Lang, <i>Collective Dynamics</i><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (February 2019)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>Naldi, Giovanni, Lorenzo Pareschi, and Giuseppe Toscani, <i>Mathematical modelling of collective behavior in socio-economic and life sciences</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.springer.com/birkhauser/mathematics/book/978-0-8176-4945-6">Birkhauser, (2010).</a></li> <li>Rule, James B. <i>Theories of Civil Violence</i>, Berkeley, University of California, 1988.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Collective_behavior&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160519032344/http://groups.psych.indiana.edu/">Group Experiment Environments (GEE) project</a>, sponsored by the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cognitrn.psych.indiana.edu">Percepts and Concepts Laboratory</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061205021740/http://cognitrn.psych.indiana.edu/">Archived</a> December 5, 2006, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> at Indiana University.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output 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style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emergence" title="Emergence">Emergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-organization" title="Self-organization">Self-organization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Collective <br />behavior</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_dynamics" title="Social dynamics">Social dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_intelligence" title="Collective intelligence">Collective intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_action" title="Collective action">Collective action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_consciousness" title="Collective consciousness">Collective consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-organized_criticality" title="Self-organized criticality">Self-organized 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