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Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Court era recognizing Native American tribal rights</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p><p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Marshall_by_Henry_Inman,_1832.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/John_Marshall_by_Henry_Inman%2C_1832.jpg/220px-John_Marshall_by_Henry_Inman%2C_1832.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="273" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/John_Marshall_by_Henry_Inman%2C_1832.jpg/330px-John_Marshall_by_Henry_Inman%2C_1832.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/John_Marshall_by_Henry_Inman%2C_1832.jpg/440px-John_Marshall_by_Henry_Inman%2C_1832.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1059" data-file-height="1312" /></a><figcaption>Chief Justice <a href="/wiki/John_Marshall" title="John Marshall">John Marshall</a> composed several early and influential opinions on <a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States" title="Aboriginal title in the United States">aboriginal title in the United States</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Court" title="Marshall Court">Marshall Court</a> (1801–1835) issued some of the earliest and most influential opinions by the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court of the United States</a> on the status of <a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States" title="Aboriginal title in the United States">aboriginal title in the United States</a>, several of them written by Chief Justice <a href="/wiki/John_Marshall" title="John Marshall">John Marshall</a> himself. However, without exception, the remarks of the Court on <a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title" title="Aboriginal title">aboriginal title</a> during this period are <i><a href="/wiki/Dicta" class="mw-redirect" title="Dicta">dicta</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Only one indigenous litigant ever appeared before the Marshall Court, and there, Marshall dismissed the case for lack of <a href="/wiki/Original_jurisdiction" title="Original jurisdiction">original jurisdiction</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i><a href="/wiki/Fletcher_v._Peck" title="Fletcher v. Peck">Fletcher v. Peck</a></i> (1810) and <i><a href="/wiki/Johnson_v._McIntosh" title="Johnson v. McIntosh">Johnson v. McIntosh</a></i> (1823), the first and the most detailed explorations of the subject by Marshall, respectively, both arose out of <a href="/wiki/Collusive_lawsuit" title="Collusive lawsuit">collusive lawsuits</a>, where land speculators presented an artificial <a href="/wiki/Case_or_Controversy_Clause" title="Case or Controversy Clause">case and controversy</a> in order to elicit the desired precedent.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <i><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Nation_v._Georgia" title="Cherokee Nation v. Georgia">Cherokee Nation v. Georgia</a></i> (1831) and <i><a href="/wiki/Worcester_v._Georgia" title="Worcester v. Georgia">Worcester v. Georgia</a></i> (1832), the <i>dicta</i> of Marshall and the dissenting justices embraced a far broader view of <a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title" title="Aboriginal title">aboriginal title</a>. </p><p><i>Johnson</i> involved a pre-Revolutionary private conveyances from 1773 and 1775; <i>Mitchell v. United States</i> (1835) involved 1804 and 1806 conveyances in Florida under Spanish rule. However, in both cases, the Marshall Court continued to apply the rule that aboriginal title was <a href="/wiki/Alienation_(property_law)" title="Alienation (property law)">inalienable</a>, except to <a href="/wiki/The_Crown" title="The Crown">The Crown</a>. This inalienability principle—whether embodied by the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Proclamation_of_1763" title="Royal Proclamation of 1763">Royal Proclamation of 1763</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Confederation_Congress_Proclamation_of_1783" title="Confederation Congress Proclamation of 1783">Confederation Congress Proclamation of 1783</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Nonintercourse_Act" title="Nonintercourse Act">Nonintercourse Acts</a> of 1790, 1793, 1796, 1799, 1802, or 1833, or the <a href="/wiki/Federal_common_law" title="Federal common law">federal common law</a>—remains the crux of the modern Indian land claim litigation. </p><p>Several other cases involved disputes between non-Indians holding land grants from different states or <a href="/wiki/Nonintercourse_Act#State_nonintercourse_acts" title="Nonintercourse Act">state nonintercourse acts</a>; federal courts had subject-matter jurisdiction over such disputes as "Controversies . . . between Citizens of the same State claiming Lands under Grants of different States."<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, <i>Preston v. Browder</i> (1816), <i>Danforth's Lessee v. Thomas</i> (1816), and <i>Danforth v. Wear</i> (1824) involved conflicting land grants from the states of North Carolina and Tennessee. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title_in_the_Marshall_Court&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Earlier_Supreme_Court_decisions">Earlier Supreme Court decisions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title_in_the_Marshall_Court&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Earlier Supreme Court decisions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Sims%27_Lessee_v._Irvine" title="Sims' Lessee v. Irvine">Sims' Lessee v. Irvine</a></i> (1799) was the first Supreme Court decision to discuss aboriginal title (albeit briefly), and the only such decision before the Marshall Court. The Court found <a href="/wiki/Ejectment" title="Ejectment">ejectment</a> jurisdiction over certain lands, notwithstanding the defendant's claim (in the alternative to the claim that the defendant himself held title) that the lands were still held in aboriginal title because: </p> <blockquote><p>Without confessing the aboriginal title of the Indian tribes, it is enough for the lessor of the Plaintiff to allege . . . that before the year 1779, they had abandoned and relinquished all the lands . . . and that in pursuance of treaties, they have since receded very distantly from that boundary. Lands may be acquired by conquest; and a relinquishment, in consequence of hostilities, is tantamount to conquest.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="State_court_decisions">State court decisions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title_in_the_Marshall_Court&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: State court decisions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The "first known American case to address the issue" of the validity of state land grands to land over which the aboriginal title had not been extinguished was <i>Marshall v. Clark</i> (Va. 1791), decided by the <a href="/wiki/Virginia_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="Virginia Supreme Court">Virginia Supreme Court</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The plaintiff was John Marshall's father, Thomas Marshall, challenging (on behalf of the state militia's claim to the same land) the validity of a land grant to Revolutionary War veteran <a href="/wiki/George_Rogers_Clark" title="George Rogers Clark">George Rogers Clark</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-b162_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-b162-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Marshall argued that the grant could not be valid because the aboriginal title was not extinguished; the Virginia Supreme Court disagreed: </p> <blockquote><p>The Indian title did not impede . . . the power of the legislature to grant the land. [The grantee] must risque the event of the Indian claim, and yield to it, if finally established, or have the benefit of a former or future extinction thereof.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="Pennsylvania Supreme Court">Pennsylvania Supreme Court</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tennessee_Supreme_Court" title="Tennessee Supreme Court">Tennessee Supreme Court</a> soon issued opinions to the same effect, holding that states could grant land that the federal government had not yet purchased from Indians.<sup id="cite_ref-b162_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-b162-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such transactions, already common, increased in the wake of these decisions; the assumption was that the Indians held fee simple to their land, but that future <a href="/wiki/Executory_interest" class="mw-redirect" title="Executory interest">executory interests</a> could be sold, representing a promise of the state to transfer the land should it ever come into their possession.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A second, competing view was that the Indians possessed only a possessory right of occupancy, not fee simple to their land. "The first reported American court decision holding that unsold Indian land was owned by the government, subject only to the lesser right of 'possession' or 'occupancy' held by Indians" was <i>Strother v. Cathey</i> (N.C. 1807), decided by the <a href="/wiki/North_Carolina_Supreme_Court" title="North Carolina Supreme Court">North Carolina Supreme Court</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There, the North Carolina court decided that the fee title to the land was held by the state, subject to the tribe's right of occupancy, and that—while the federal government could terminate that right occupancy—the federal government could not acquire fee title by doing so.<sup id="cite_ref-b169_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-b169-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <i>Jackson v. Hudson</i> (N.Y. 1808) held that the nature of Indian title was an undecided question in New York, and avoided deciding the issue because neither party claimed its chain of title traced to Indians.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The next term, when a party before the court claimed to derive title deeds from Indian sellers, the New York court held that such deeds were insufficient in <i>Van Gorden v. Jackson</i> (N.Y. 1809):<sup id="cite_ref-b170_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-b170-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>Though Indian deeds were obtained for the purpose of proving that the rights of the natives were extinguished, [such deeds] were never admitted, as of themselves, to be a source of legal title. [Indian deeds] were presented to government as an inducement to extend its boundary by grant, but the firm and unbending principle has uniformly been, that all titles must be derived, either mediately or immediately, actually or presumptively, from <a href="/wiki/The_Crown" title="The Crown">the Crown</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Following <i><a href="/wiki/Fletcher_v._Peck" title="Fletcher v. Peck">Fletcher v. Peck</a></i> (1810), the latter view prevailed over the former in additional state courts.<sup id="cite_ref-b176_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-b176-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other state courts disagreed.<sup id="cite_ref-b177_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-b177-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Opinions">Opinions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title_in_the_Marshall_Court&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Opinions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fletcher_v._Peck_(1810)"><span id="Fletcher_v._Peck_.281810.29"></span><i>Fletcher v. Peck</i> (1810)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title_in_the_Marshall_Court&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Fletcher v. Peck (1810)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fletcher_v._Peck" title="Fletcher v. Peck">Fletcher v. Peck</a></div> <dl><dt>Oral arguments</dt></dl> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Fletcher_v._Peck" title="Fletcher v. Peck">Fletcher v. Peck</a></i> (1810) is famous as the "first of the great nineteenth-century <a href="/wiki/Contract_Clause" title="Contract Clause">Contract Clause</a> cases"; Marshall's majority, at the very end, "included only two sentence about the Indians, but they would prove to be influential."<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Fletcher</i> was "[t]he first of the Marshall Court decisions to consider the relative rights of an Indian people and a state government in aboriginal lands," and "the first time the Supreme Court of the United States was called on to consider this issue."<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/Oral_argument" title="Oral argument">oral argument</a>, Peck's lawyer "launched into the first discussion of the nature of Indian landownership ever to take place before the U.S. Supreme Court":<sup id="cite_ref-b172_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-b172-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>What is the Indian title? It is a mere occupancy for the purpose of hunting. It is not like our tenures; they have no idea of a title to the soil itself. It is overrun by them, rather than inhabited. It is not a true and legal possession. <a href="/wiki/Emerich_de_Vattel" class="mw-redirect" title="Emerich de Vattel">Vattel</a>, b. 1. § 81. p. 37. and § 209. b. 2. § 97. <a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Secondat,_baron_de_Montesquieu" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles de Secondat, baron de Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a>, b. 18. c. 12. <a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith's</a> <a href="/wiki/The_Wealth_of_Nations" title="The Wealth of Nations">Wealth of Nations</a>, b. 5. c. 1. It is a right not to be transferred but extinguished. It a right regulated by treaties, not by deeds of conveyance. It depends upon the law of nations, not upon municipal right.<br /> Although the power to extinguish this right by treaty, is vested in congress, yet Georgia had a right to sell subject to the Indian claim. The point has never been decided in the courts of the United States, because it has never before been questioned.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Peck's lawyer raised the point in response to a question from the bench, almost certainly from Justice Johnson.<sup id="cite_ref-b172_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-b172-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Vattel, Montesquieu, and Smith all had two things in common: they falsely believed that Native Americans did not practice agriculture; and, they had never travelled to North America. Marshall did not cite these sources in his opinion in <i>Fletcher</i>, but he would cite all three in <i>Johnson</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt>Marshall's majority</dt></dl> <p>Marshall addressed the arguments raised by Peck's lawyers and Johnson's dissent at the very end of his majority opinion: </p> <blockquote><p>It was doubted whether a state can be seised in fee of lands, subject to the Indian title, and whether a decision that they were seised in fee, might not be construed to amount to a decision that their grantee might maintain an <a href="/wiki/Ejectment" title="Ejectment">ejectment</a> for them, notwithstanding that title.<br /> The majority of the court is of opinion that the nature of the Indian title, which is certainly to be respected by all courts, until it be legitimately extinguished, is not such as to be absolutely repugnant to <a href="/wiki/Seisin" title="Seisin">seisin</a> in fee on the part of the state.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Marshall's formulation is actually a compromise: responding to Johnson's concern that Georgian land owners with such grants could evict Indians, while still trying to preserve the validity of the dominant form of land grant in the United States at the time.<sup id="cite_ref-b174_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-b174-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In doing so, Marshall in effect adopted the newer view of Indian title promulgated in state courts for two decades that the Indians did not own fee simple to their lands.<sup id="cite_ref-b174_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-b174-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Marshall's opinion did not spell out which methods could legitimately extinguish Indian title, or even whether the power resided with the state or federal government.<sup id="cite_ref-b174_30-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-b174-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt>Johnson's dissent</dt></dl> <p>Dissents were rare on the Marshall Court; Justice <a href="/wiki/William_Johnson_(judge)" title="William Johnson (judge)">William Johnson</a> dissented more frequently than most, but still quite rarely by modern standards.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> First, although Johnson agreed that the Georgia legislature could not revoke its land grant, he located such a prohibition in <a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">natural law</a>, rather than the Contract Clause.<sup id="cite_ref-b175_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-b175-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More substantively, Johnson's opinion advocated the older view (from the state courts and colonial custom) that Indians held fee simple to their land, and that state land grants constituted a future executory interest.<sup id="cite_ref-b175_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-b175-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt>Later history</dt></dl> <p>In the oral arguments for <i>Meigs v. M'Clung's Lessee</i> (1815),<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Marshall asked a litigant about the validity of state grants before the extinguishment of aboriginal title; before the lawyer could finish responding that the question did not arise, Justice <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Story" title="Joseph Story">Joseph Story</a> interrupted: "That question has been decided in the case of <i>Fletcher v. Peck</i>."<sup id="cite_ref-b176_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-b176-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Two years later, <a href="/wiki/Riding_circuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Riding circuit">riding the Massachusetts Circuit</a>, Story cited <i>Fletcher</i> for the proposition that states owned Indian land in fee simple before extinguishment.<sup id="cite_ref-b176_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-b176-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Justice <a href="/wiki/Bushrod_Washington" title="Bushrod Washington">Bushrod Washington</a>, riding in Pennsylvania gave the same as a jury instruction.<sup id="cite_ref-b176_19-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-b176-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Litigants in the Supreme Court and state high courts cited <i>Fletcher</i> to similar effect.<sup id="cite_ref-b176_19-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-b176-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-preston_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-preston-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fairfax's_Devisee_v._Hunter's_Lessee_(1813)"><span id="Fairfax.27s_Devisee_v._Hunter.27s_Lessee_.281813.29"></span><i>Fairfax's Devisee v. Hunter's Lessee</i> (1813)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title_in_the_Marshall_Court&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Fairfax's Devisee v. Hunter's Lessee (1813)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Fairfax%27s_Devisee_v._Hunter%27s_Lessee" title="Fairfax's Devisee v. Hunter's Lessee">Fairfax's Devisee v. Hunter's Lessee</a></i> (1813) considered the rights of British aliens, holding title from a Royal grant, defending against an ejectment action pursuant to a Virginia statute. The Court (with Justices Marshall and Todd absent) held that the treaty between the United States and Great British, ratified subsequent to the ejectment judgement in the lower court but prior to the Virginia Supreme Court decision, should have prevented the ejectment.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Preston_v._Browder_(1816)"><span id="Preston_v._Browder_.281816.29"></span><i>Preston v. Browder</i> (1816)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title_in_the_Marshall_Court&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Preston v. Browder (1816)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Preston v. Browder</i> (1816) upheld North Carolina's <a href="/wiki/Nonintercourse_Act#State_nonintercourse_acts" title="Nonintercourse Act">nonintercourse act</a>; both the statute and the conduct in question dated to the post-Revolution, pre-Articles of Confederation period.<sup id="cite_ref-preston_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-preston-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There, a plaintiff had acquired land in the western territory of North Carolina (part of Tennessee at the time of suit) in 1778 in violation of a 1777 North Carolina statute.<sup id="cite_ref-preston_36-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-preston-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The circuit court for the district of East Tennessee denied the plaintiff <a href="/wiki/Ejectment" title="Ejectment">ejectment</a> against another non-Indian, and the Supreme Court affirmed the ruling.<sup id="cite_ref-preston_36-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-preston-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Justice <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Todd" title="Thomas Todd">Thomas Todd</a>, writing for a unanimous court, said the follow about aboriginal title: </p> <blockquote><p>North Carolina, at the time of passing this act, . . . had, but a short time before, shaken off her colonial government, and assumed a sovereign independent . . . . [D]uring the colonial system, . . . the citizens were restrained and prohibited from extending their settlements to the westward, so as to encroach on lands set apart for the Indian tribes . . . . [By treaty,] a boundary between the state and the said Indians was established. [The North Carolina nonintercourse act of November 1777 restriction the acquisition of lands] ‘which have accrued, or shall accrue, to this state, by treaty or conquest.’ . . . . It is not to be presumed, that the legislature intended, so shortly after making the treaty, to violate it, by permitting entries to be made west of the line fixed by the treaty. . . . [T]he legislative intention, to prohibit and restrict entries from being made on lands reserved for Indian tribes, may be discerned. [Amendments to the act passed after the acquisition in question] expressly forbid[] the entering or surveying any lands within the Indian hunting grounds, recognises the western boundary as fixed by the above-mentioned treaty, and declares void all entries and surveys which have been, or shall thereafter be made within the Indian boundary.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Danforth's_Lessee_v._Thomas_(1816)"><span id="Danforth.27s_Lessee_v._Thomas_.281816.29"></span><i>Danforth's Lessee v. Thomas</i> (1816)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title_in_the_Marshall_Court&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Danforth's Lessee v. Thomas (1816)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Danforth's Lessee v. Thomas</i> (1816) was a companion case to <i>Preston v. Browder</i>, involving a similar dispute; this time, the relevant North Carolina statute was passed in 1783, during the Articles of Confederation period.<sup id="cite_ref-danforth_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-danforth-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Cherokee's aboriginal title to the lands in question had been extinguished by the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Holston" title="Treaty of Holston">Treaty of Holston</a> (1791), and the plaintiff seeking ejectment had acquired a state land grant from North Carolina that same year; the defendant held a state land grant from Tennessee issued in 1809.<sup id="cite_ref-danforth_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-danforth-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The plaintiff's land grant had been excluded from evidence, and the jury had thus returned a verdict for the defendant.<sup id="cite_ref-danforth_40-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-danforth-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Justice Todd, again writing for a unanimous court, affirmed.<sup id="cite_ref-danforth_40-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-danforth-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The court was able to decide the case without reaching the question of aboriginal title: </p> <blockquote><p>Whether the legislature had the power, or intended to give the Indians a right of property in the soil, or merely the use and enjoyment of it, need not be inquired into, nor decided, by this court; for it is perfectly clear, that the [1983 act] prohibits all persons from making entries or surveys for any lands within the bounds set apart for the Cherokee Indians, and declares all such entries and grants thereupon, if any should be made, utterly void. [The defendant argues] that the mere extinguishment of the Indian title did not subject the land to appropriation, until an act of the legislature authorized or permitted it. Whatever doubts this court might entertain on this subject, were they now construing these laws upon the first impression, that doubt would be removed [by North Carolina case law].<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Johnson_v._McIntosh_(1823)"><span id="Johnson_v._McIntosh_.281823.29"></span><i>Johnson v. McIntosh</i> (1823)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title_in_the_Marshall_Court&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Johnson v. McIntosh (1823)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Johnson_v._McIntosh" title="Johnson v. McIntosh">Johnson v. McIntosh</a></div> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Johnson_v._McIntosh" title="Johnson v. McIntosh">Johnson v. McIntosh</a></i> (1823),<sup id="cite_ref-jvm_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jvm-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> thirteen years after <i>Fletcher</i>, was the Supreme Court's "first detailed discussion of the subject" of indigenous title, today "remembered as the origin of the right of occupancy."<sup id="cite_ref-b178_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-b178-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Johnson</i> remains "perhaps the best known of the Court's judgments on aboriginal title."<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The primary effect of the <i>Johnson</i> decision was to remove the <a href="/wiki/Cloud_of_title" class="mw-redirect" title="Cloud of title">cloud of title</a>, or the title to property, over the large number of state land grants on land which the indigenous title had not yet been taken away.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many quotes from <i>Johnson</i> have reverberated in legal quotations and law review titles for 200 years, including: "Conquest gives title which the Courts of the conquer cannot deny, whatever the private and speculative opinions of individuals may be, respecting the original justice of the claim."<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Because the pre-Revolutionary transactions had taken place after the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Proclamation_of_1763" title="Royal Proclamation of 1763">Royal Proclamation of 1763</a>, Marshall could have decided the case simply by reliance on the proclamation; instead, he based his ruling on <a href="/wiki/Custom_(law)" class="mw-redirect" title="Custom (law)">custom</a>, looking equally to the <a href="/wiki/Law_of_nations" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of nations">law of nations</a> of all hierarchy powers, not just the Natives.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Building upon the brief afterthought in the <i>Fletcher</i> decision, the <i>Johnson</i> decision added to the idea that indigenous nations did not hold <a href="/wiki/Fee_simple" title="Fee simple">fee simple</a>, or unconditional ownership of their lands with the right to control or transfer them as they chose. Justice Johnson, still on the court, did not dissent again.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The influence of the <i>Johnson</i> became grew during the "golden age of American legal treatises" that followed; the case figured prominently in, inter alia, <a href="/wiki/James_Kent_(jurist)" title="James Kent (jurist)">James Kent</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Commentaries_on_American_Law" title="Commentaries on American Law">Commentaries on American Law</a></i> (c. 1820) and <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Story" title="Joseph Story">Joseph Story</a>'s <i>Commentaries on the Constitution</i> (1833).<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Danforth_v._Wear_(1824)"><span id="Danforth_v._Wear_.281824.29"></span><i>Danforth v. Wear</i> (1824)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title_in_the_Marshall_Court&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Danforth v. Wear (1824)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Danforth v. Wear</i> (1824), like <i>Preston v. Browder</i> and <i>Danforth's Lessee v. Thomas</i>, involved conflicting land grants issued by North Carolina and Tennessee.<sup id="cite_ref-wear_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wear-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The plaintiff's North Carolina land grant included both "a tract of country over which the Indian title had been extinguished" and "a large body of land, over which the Indian title existed at the time of the survey, but has since been extinguished."<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Once again, the trial court had deemed the plaintiff's grant void and excluded it from evidence; the Court observed that such a ruling "could only be sustained upon the ground that it was wholly void, or wholly inadmissible in that cause. For if the grant was good but for an acre of the land claimed in the action, the Court could not have withheld it from the jury."<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Justice <a href="/wiki/William_Johnson_(judge)" title="William Johnson (judge)">William Johnson</a> delivered the opinion of the unanimous court.<sup id="cite_ref-wear_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wear-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Court cited <i>Preston</i> and <i>Danforth's Lessee</i> for the proposition that "the inviolability of the Indian territory is fully recognised."<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the Court reversed the judgment below and held that the grant should have been admissible in relation to the land over which aboriginal title had been extinguished at the time of the survey.<sup id="cite_ref-wear_50-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wear-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Harcourt_v._Gaillard_(1827)"><span id="Harcourt_v._Gaillard_.281827.29"></span><i>Harcourt v. Gaillard</i> (1827)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title_in_the_Marshall_Court&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Harcourt v. Gaillard (1827)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <i>Harcourt v. Gaillard</i> (1827), a case involving British land grants, the Court distinguished between conquest and change of sovereignty.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As to conquest, the Court noted: "War is a suit prosecuted by the sword; and where the question to be decided is one of original claim to territory, grants of soil made <i>flagrante bello</i> by the party that fails, can only derive validity from treaty stipulations. It is not necessary here to consider the rights of the conqueror in case of actual conquest; since the views previously presented put the acquisition of such rights out of this case."<sup id="cite_ref-h528_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-h528-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yet, the Court continued to recognize the principle that "a change of sovereignty produces no change in individual property, yet it imputes to them only a modified validity."<sup id="cite_ref-h528_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-h528-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The relevant statute provided that British land grants that were not accompanied by possession must be filed with a commission, and the Harcourt grant was not.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cherokee_Nation_v._Georgia_(1831)"><span id="Cherokee_Nation_v._Georgia_.281831.29"></span><i>Cherokee Nation v. Georgia</i> (1831)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title_in_the_Marshall_Court&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (1831)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Nation_v._Georgia" title="Cherokee Nation v. Georgia">Cherokee Nation v. Georgia</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Attorney_General_William_Wirt.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Attorney_General_William_Wirt.jpg/220px-Attorney_General_William_Wirt.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="259" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Attorney_General_William_Wirt.jpg/330px-Attorney_General_William_Wirt.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Attorney_General_William_Wirt.jpg/440px-Attorney_General_William_Wirt.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1357" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/William_Wirt_(Attorney_General)" class="mw-redirect" title="William Wirt (Attorney General)">William Wirt</a>, the lawyer for the Cherokee Nation, and later, for Samuel Worcester</figcaption></figure> <dl><dt>Background</dt></dl> <p><i>Fletcher</i> and <i>Johnson</i> had established one principle that Native Americans soon hoped to be able to enforce: that a <a href="/wiki/U.S._state" title="U.S. state">state government</a> could not extinguish aboriginal title.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/William_Wirt_(Attorney_General)" class="mw-redirect" title="William Wirt (Attorney General)">William Wirt</a>, former U.S. attorney general, tried three times in three years to get a case regarding <a href="/wiki/Cherokee_removal" title="Cherokee removal">Cherokee removal</a> to the Supreme Court.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In December 1830, Marshall granted a <a href="/wiki/Writ_of_error" class="mw-redirect" title="Writ of error">writ of error</a> to a criminal case regarding a murder committed by a Cherokee, <a href="/wiki/George_%22Corn%22_Tassel" title="George "Corn" Tassel">George Tassel</a>, against another tribe member on Cherokee land, but Georgia executed him and mooted the case before Marshall could hear oral arguments.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt>Marshall's majority</dt></dl> <p>In <i><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Nation_v._Georgia" title="Cherokee Nation v. Georgia">Cherokee Nation v. Georgia</a></i>, Wirt filed directly in the Supreme Court seeking to invoke the Court's <a href="/wiki/Original_jurisdiction" title="Original jurisdiction">original jurisdiction</a> to void the 1820s Georgia statutes declared unconstitutional, contrary to treaties between the U.S. and the Cherokees, or contrary to the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Intercourse_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Intercourse Act">Nonintercourse Act</a> of 1802. Marshall decided that the Cherokee were a "domestic dependent nation," not a foreign state, and thus dismissed the case for lack of jurisdiction.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt>Thompson and Story's dissent</dt></dl> <p>Justices <a href="/wiki/Smith_Thompson" title="Smith Thompson">Smith Thompson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Story" title="Joseph Story">Joseph Story</a> dissented on the jurisdictional question, and thus reached the merits, siding with the Cherokee. According to <a href="/wiki/Richard_Peters_(reporter)" title="Richard Peters (reporter)">Richard Peters</a>, the court reporter, this dissent was written with the explicit encouragement and assistance of Marshall.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, Marshall "encourage[d] Peters to publish a separate report" that included the dissents, oral arguments, treaties, and the opinion of <a href="/wiki/James_Kent_(jurist)" title="James Kent (jurist)">James Kent</a> for the Cherokees.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Thompson, with whom Story concurred, noted that although the U.S. had promised in a compact with Georgia to extinguish the aboriginal title, it had not done so yet, and thus: "[T]he state has not even a reversionary interest in the soil. . . . [U]ntil this is done, the state can have no claim to the lands."<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If the U.S. never extinguished the title, Thompson opined, Georgia could not force the U.S. to <a href="/wiki/Specifically_perform" class="mw-redirect" title="Specifically perform">specifically perform</a> the compact.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thompson would have <a href="/wiki/Enjoined" class="mw-redirect" title="Enjoined">enjoined</a> the Georgia laws because: "The complaint is not of a mere private trespass, admitting of compensation in damages; but of injuries which go to the total destruction of the whole right of the complainants."<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Worcester_v._Georgia_(1832)"><span id="Worcester_v._Georgia_.281832.29"></span><i>Worcester v. Georgia</i> (1832)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title_in_the_Marshall_Court&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Worcester v. Georgia (1832)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Worcester_v._Georgia" title="Worcester v. Georgia">Worcester v. Georgia</a></div> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Worcester_v._Georgia" title="Worcester v. Georgia">Worcester v. Georgia</a></i> (1832) was the third case by Wirt, appealing the conviction of <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Worcester" title="Samuel Worcester">Samuel Worcester</a> for illegally residing on Cherokee lands without a license from the state.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the holding of the opinion reached only the question of criminal jurisdiction, its <i>dicta</i> was far more pro-Indian than <i>Fletcher</i> or <i>Johnson</i>:<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>The extravagant and absurd idea, that the feeble settlements made on the sea coast, or the companies under whom they were made, acquired legitimate power by them to govern the people, or occupy the lands from sea to sea, did not enter the mind of any man. They were well understood to convey the title which, according to the common law of European sovereigns respecting America, they might rightfully convey, and no more. This was the exclusive right of purchasing such lands as the natives were willing to sell. The Crown could not be understood to grant what the Crown did not affect to claim, nor was it so understood.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Of course, the "extravagant and absurd" idea was one "that Marshall himself had played an important role in propagating nine years earlier in <i>Johnson v. McIntosh</i>."<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Worcester</i> eventually resulted in the freeing of Samuel Worcester, but the decision did not invalidate any state or federal law, or impose any lingering obligation on the state or federal government.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Three years later, the U.S. government signed the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_New_Echota" title="Treaty of New Echota">Treaty of New Echota</a> (1835) with a "group of dissent Cherokees" and forced them on what became known as the "trail of tears."<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States_v._Percheman_(1833)"><span id="United_States_v._Percheman_.281833.29"></span><i>United States v. Percheman</i> (1833)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title_in_the_Marshall_Court&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: United States v. Percheman (1833)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>United States v. Percheman</i> (1833) involved a Spanish land grant in Florida (and a non-indigenous plaintiff). Marshall, for a unanimous Court, reaffirmed the principle that (at least as far as European property owners—who gained U.S. citizenship—were concerned) the transfer of sovereignty—in Florida, from Spain to the United States—did not disturb private property rights.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Marshall wrote: </p> <blockquote><p>[I]t is very unusual, even in cases of conquest, for the conqueror to do more than to displace the sovereign and assume dominion over the country. The modern usage of nations, which has become law, would be violated; that sense of justice and of right which is acknowledged and felt by the whole civilized world would be outraged, if private property should be generally confiscated, and private rights annulled. The people change their allegiance; their relation to their ancient sovereign is dissolved; but their relations to each other, and their rights of property, remain undisturbed. If this be the modern rule, even in cases of conquest, who can doubt its application to the case of an amicable cession of territory? Had Florida changed its sovereign by an act containing no stipulation respecting the property of individuals, the right of property in all those who became subjects or citizens of the new government would have been unaffected by the change; it would have remained the same as under the ancient sovereign. . . . A cession of territory is never understood to be a cession of the property belonging to its inhabitants. The king cedes that only which belonged to him; lands he had previously granted, were not his to cede. Neither party could so understand the cession; neither party could consider itself as attempting a wrong to individuals, condemned by the practice of the whole civilized world. The cession of a territory, by its name, from one sovereign to another, conveying the compound idea of surrendering at the same time the lands and the people who inhabit them, would be necessarily understood to pass the sovereignty only, and not to interfere with private property.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Marshall interpreted the provision of the Florida land act requiring Spanish grants to be filed within one year narrowly. Marshall stated: “It is impossible to suppose, that Congress intended to forfeit real titles, not exhibited to their commissioners within so short a period.”<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He interpreted this provision to mean only that the commissioners could not grant title after one year, not that the property rights held by virtue of the Spanish grants were void.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mitchel_v._United_States_(1835)"><span id="Mitchel_v._United_States_.281835.29"></span><i>Mitchel v. United States</i> (1835)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title_in_the_Marshall_Court&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Mitchel v. United States (1835)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Mitchel v. United States</i> (1835), authored by Justice <a href="/wiki/Henry_Baldwin_(judge)" title="Henry Baldwin (judge)">Henry Baldwin</a>, was the last Marshall Court opinion on aboriginal title.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At issue was 1,200,00 acres of land in <a href="/wiki/Florida" title="Florida">Florida</a> alienated to the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_crown" class="mw-redirect" title="Spanish crown">Spanish crown</a> in 1804 and 1806, and then granted to private parties. Baldwin, for a unanimous court, upheld those transactions. Noting that the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Proclamation_of_1763" title="Royal Proclamation of 1763">Royal Proclamation of 1763</a> applied while Florida was <a href="/wiki/History_of_Florida" title="History of Florida">under British rule from 1763 to 1783</a>, Baldwin held that Spanish law (which he perceived to be materially the same as British law in this respect) governed the extinguishment of aboriginal title when the territory reverted to Spanish rule from 1783 to 1821.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="International_legacy">International legacy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title_in_the_Marshall_Court&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: International legacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title" title="Aboriginal title">Aboriginal title</a></div> <p>According to Canadian lawyer John Hurley, the Marshall Court's decisions regarding aboriginal title "established the fundamental principles of aboriginal rights by which courts of many jurisdictions have guided themselves ever since."<sup id="cite_ref-h407_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-h407-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Hurley: </p> <dl><dd>Delivered over a period of thirty-five years, the judgements bear witness to the evolution of the Marshall Court's thinking on aboriginal rights, culminating in an appraisal of them as full rights of beneficial ownership of the land and internal self-government. In order to understand the Marshall Court's assessment of aboriginal rights, it is essential to appreciate the progression in its treatment of the topic. Failure to do so, by placing excessive weight on the earlier and neglecting the later of these decisions, has sometimes led to distortions of the Marshall Court's views on aboriginal rights.<sup id="cite_ref-h407_79-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-h407-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Canada">Canada</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title_in_the_Marshall_Court&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Canada"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Aboriginal_law" title="Canadian Aboriginal law">Canadian Aboriginal law</a></div> <p>According to Hurley, "[t]he Marshall Court's judgments on aboriginal rights are of particular importance for Canada" because, as emphasized by decisions of the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Canada" title="Supreme Court of Canada">Supreme Court of Canada</a>, "they were founded upon a policy towards indigenous peoples and their lands applied consistently by the imperial British government throughout its North American dominions."<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hurley argues: </p> <dl><dd>Given the repeated reliance upon the Marshall Court's decisions by Canadian courts in adjudicating aboriginal claims, the authority of those decisions in Canada must now be accepted as certain. They have been so often applied by the Canadian courts that they may now be considered as virtually incorporated into Canadian common law.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <p>Hurley concludes: </p> <dl><dd>Elegant in language and persuasive in logic, the five classic judgments [<i>Fletcher v. Peck</i>, <i>Johnson v. McIntosh</i>, <i>Cherokee Nation v. Georgia</i>, <i>Worcester v. Georgia</i>, and <i>Mitchel v. United States</i>] of the Marshall Court on aboriginal rights remain as compelling today was when they were written. They provide simple and workable principles for the definition and reconciliation of respective Indian and Canadian state rights of territory and government. These principles flow from the Court's consideration of the law of nations and British colonial policy regarding relations with the aboriginal peoples of North America. They are not specific to the constitutional context of the United States of America, but apply equally within Canada.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title_in_the_Marshall_Court&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r920966791">.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps{font-variant:small-caps}.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps-smaller{font-size:85%}</style><span class="smallcaps">Banner</span>, 2005, at 180 ("<i>Johnson</i> could have been a very easy case, decided in a very short opinion. The company's purchases were obviously void under any relevant law—whether that of Britain, Virginia, or the United States—regardless of the nature of Indian property rights. Even if the Indians were deemed the fee simple owners of their unsold land, the purchases would still have been unlawful. Rather than decide the case quickly and easily, however, John Marshall embarked on an extended discussion of the history of the colonization of North America, and a detailed elaboration of Indian property rights. None of this was necessary to dispose of the claims of the United Illinois and Wabash Company.").</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Berman, 1978, at 637 ("Many of the early cases that established important precedents in the development of Indian law were not litigated by the Indian nations.").</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Banner</span>, 2005, at 171–72 ("[N]either side had any incentive to argue that the Indians were the land's owners. The litigation was collusive; both Fletcher and Peck were veteran speculators who stood to gain if the corrupt 1795 grant were upheld. . . . The object of the suit for both sides was for Fletcher to lose—that is, for the 1795 sale to be upheld. . . . The Indians, of course had no voice in <i>Fletcher v. Peck</i>, so no one argued that the land was owned by the Indians. Both sides could accordingly adopt the newer view of Indian property rights without the older view being heard. . . . The litigation was well funded, and both sides wanted Peck to win, so Peck's lawyers were an all-star team <a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams" title="John Quincy Adams">John Quincy Adams</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Story" title="Joseph Story">Joseph Story</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Goodloe_Harper" title="Robert Goodloe Harper">Robert Goodloe Harper</a> . . . . Fletcher's lawyer, the elderly and alcoholic <a href="/wiki/Luther_Martin" title="Luther Martin">Luther Martin</a>, . . . was being paid to lose."); <i>id.</i> at 179 ("The litigation was collusive, just like <i>Fletcher v. Peck</i>. The speculators' nominal opponent was an Illinois resident who was alleged to own a parcel with out of the Wabash tracts, which he purchased from the federal government, which in turn had bought much of the same land from the same tribes in the first decade of the nineteenth century.").</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kades, 2000, at 1092 ("Mapping the United Companies' claims alongside McIntosh's purchases, as enumerated in the district court records, shows that the litigants' land claims did not overlap. Hence there was no real 'case or controversy,' and <i>M'ntosh</i>, like another leading early Supreme Court land case, <i>Fletcher v. Peck</i>, appears to have been a sham." (footnotes omitted)); <i>id.</i> at 1093 ("McIntosh did not contest a single fact alleged in the complaint, jurisdictional or otherwise. Perhaps he participated in framing the complaint, which became the stipulated facts of the case. Neither the district court nor the Supreme Court questioned any of these facts. Everyone involved, it seems, wanted a decision on the legal question of the validity of private purchases from the Indians." (footnote omitted)).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">U.S. Const.</span> Art. III, § 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Sims%27_Lessee_v._Irvine" title="Sims' Lessee v. Irvine">Sims' Lessee v. Irvine</a>, 3 U.S. (3 Dall.) 425, 452 (1799).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Marshall v. Clark, 8 Va. 268 (1791).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Banner</span>, 2006, at 161.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-b162-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-b162_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-b162_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Banner</span>, 2005, at 162.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Marshall</i>, 8 Va. at 273.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Glasgow's Lessee v. Smith, 1 Tenn. 144 (1805); Weiser's Lesee v. Moody, 2 Yeates 127 (Pa. 1796).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Banner</span>, 2005, at 162–68.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Banner</span>, 2005, at 169 (citing Strother v. Cathey, 5 N.C. 162 (1807)).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-b169-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-b169_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Banner</span>, 2005, at 169.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Banner</span>, 2005, at 160–70.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jackson ex dem. Klock v. Hudson, 3 Johns. 375 (N.Y. Sup. 1808).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-b170-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-b170_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Banner</span>, 2005, at 170.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Van Gorden v. Jackson, 5 Johns. 440 (N.Y. 1809).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-b176-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-b176_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-b176_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-b176_19-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-b176_19-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-b176_19-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Banner</span>, 2005, at 176.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thompson v. Johnson, 6 Binn. 68 (Pa. 1813).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-b177-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-b177_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Banner</span>, 2005, at 177.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jackson ex dem. Gilbert v. Wood, 7 Johns. 290, 295 (N.Y. Sup. 1810) ("[it is] a fact too notorious to admit to discussion or to require proof, that the Oneida Indians still reside . . . upon lands which they have never alienated, but hold and enjoy as the original proprietors of the soil.").</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Banner</span>, 2005, at 171, 173.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hurley, 1982–1983, at 413.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-b172-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-b172_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-b172_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Banner</span>, 2005, at 172.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Fletcher_v._Peck" title="Fletcher v. Peck">Fletcher v. Peck</a>, 10 U.S. (6 Cranch) 87, 121 (1810).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">10 U.S. at 121 ("A doubt has been suggested whether this power extends to lands to which the Indian title has not been extinguished."); <i>id.</i> at 122 ("A question has been suggested from the bench whether the right which Georgia had before the extinguishment of the Indian title, is such a right as is susceptible of conveyance, and whether it can be said to be a title in fee-simple?").</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Banner</span>, 2005, at 153–54.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Fletcher</i>, 10 U.S. 87, 142–43.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-b174-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-b174_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-b174_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-b174_30-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Banner</span>, 2005, at 174.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Banner</span>, 2005, at 174–75.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-b175-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-b175_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-b175_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Banner</span>, 2005, at 175.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Meigs v. M'Clung's Lessee, 13 U.S. (9 Cranch) 11 (1815).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gilman v. Brown, 10 F. Cas. 392, 399 (C.C.D. Mass. 1817), <i>aff'd</i> 17 U.S. 255 (1819).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bleecker v. Bond, 3 F. Cas. 687, 692 (C.C.E.D. Pa. 1819).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-preston-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-preston_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-preston_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-preston_36-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-preston_36-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Preston v. Browder, 14 (1 Wheat.) U.S. 115 (1816).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Arnold v. Mundy, 6 N.J.L. 1, 17–18 (1821); People v. Godfrey, 17 Johns. 225, 229 (N.Y. Sup. 1819).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Fairfax%27s_Devisee_v._Hunter%27s_Lessee" title="Fairfax's Devisee v. Hunter's Lessee">Fairfax's Devisee v. Hunter's Lessee</a>, 11 U.S. (7 Cranch) 603 (1813). <i>See</i> James A. Frechter, <i>Alien Land Ownership in the United States: A Matter of State Control</i>, 14 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Brook J. Int'l L.</span> 147 (1988).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">14 U.S. at 121–22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-danforth-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-danforth_40-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-danforth_40-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-danforth_40-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-danforth_40-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Danforth's Lessee v. Thomas, 14 U.S. (1 Wheat.) 155 (1816).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">14 U.S. at 156–58.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-jvm-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-jvm_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Johnson_v._McIntosh" title="Johnson v. McIntosh">Johnson v. McIntosh</a>, 21 U.S. (8 Wheat.) 543 (1823).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-b178-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-b178_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Banner</span>, 2005, at 178.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hurley, 1982–1983, at 416.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Banner</span>, 2005, at 182–83 ("Marshall took the step for which <i>Johnson v. McIntosh</i> is famous, the step that was necessary to secure the titles of all the western settlers who had purchased land grants from states within areas not yet purchased from Indians. . . . With these sentences, Marshall firmed up thousands of western land titles and put the Supreme Court's stamp of approval on the transformation in legal thought that had taken place over the preceding three decades.").</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Banner</span>, 2005, at 185.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kades, 2000, at 1098 ("[T]he basis for the holding in M'Intosh: custom. Phrases like 'understood by all,' 'exercised uniformly,' and 'universal recognition' appeal to long-established practice, not to any specific constitutional, statutory, or common law rule.").</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Banner</span>, 2005, at 188 ("[Johnson] did not dissent as he had in <i>Fletcher v. Peck</i>, perhaps because he realized that the battle had been lost. There was no longer any point in sticking up for the old view of indigenous nations' property rights. Marshall was careful to repeat the assurances he had provided to Johnson in <i>Fletcher</i>, that the right of occupancy was substantial enough to prevent the Native Americans from being kicked off their land"); <i>id.</i> at 181 ("In the early nineteenth century the justices did not circulate drafts of opinions to one another before publication, as they do today, so the other members of the Court had no occasion to agree or disagree with Marshall's decision to expand <i>Johnson v. McIntosh</i> beyond the validity of the purchases of the United Illinois and Wabash Company. Marshall thus had more freedom to shape the opinion than a Supreme Court justice would have today.").</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Banner</span>, 2005, at 188.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-wear-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-wear_50-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wear_50-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wear_50-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Danforth v. Wear, 22 U.S. (9 Wheat.) 673 (1824).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">22 U.S. at 674.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">22 U.S. at 675.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">22 U.S. at 677.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Harcourt v. Gaillard, 25 U.S. (12 Wheat.) 523 (1827).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-h528-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-h528_55-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-h528_55-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">25 U.S. at 528.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">25 U.S. at 529.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Banner</span>, 2005, at 214 ("The seizure of Indian land was inconsistent with the Indians' right of occupancy. As the Supreme Court had held in <i>Fletcher v. Peck</i> and <i>Johnson v. McIntosh</i>, the only entity capable of extinguishing the right of occupancy was the federal government. John Marshall's opinion had been less than clear as to whether the federal government could seize upon Indian land over the Indians' objection, but the opinions had made it plain that a <i>state</i> could not do so.").</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Banner</span>, 2005, at 218.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Banner</span>, 2005, at 218–19.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Nation_v._Georgia" title="Cherokee Nation v. Georgia">Cherokee Nation v. Georgia</a>, 30 U.S. (5 Pet.) 1 (1831).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Bobbitt</span>, 1981, at 116 ("We now know that Marshall arranged the dissent from his own opinion. Story, writing a few weeks later to Peters, the Court reporter, said that 'neither Judge [Thompson] nor myself contemplated delivering a dissenting opinion, until the Chief Justice suggested to us the propriety of it, and his own desire that we should do it.'").</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Bobbitt</span>, 1981, at 116–17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Cherokee Nation</i>, 30 U.S. at 51.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">30 U.S. at 52.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">30 U.S. at 53.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Banner</span>, 2005, at 220.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Worcester_v._Georgia" title="Worcester v. Georgia">Worcester v. Georgia</a>, 31 U.S. (6 Pet.) 515 (1832).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Banner</span>, 2005, at 220 ("Marshall must have been bothered by the way Georgia officials had relied on passages from his opinions in <i>Johnson v. McIntosh</i> and <i>Fletcher v. Peck</i>, because his opinion in <i>Worcester</i> included none of the ambiguity and vacillation of his earlier pronouncements.").</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Worcester</i>, 31 U.S. at 517.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Banner</span>, 2005, at 221.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Banner</span>, 2005, at 221–22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Banner</span>, 2005, at 223–24.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">United States v. Percheman, 32 U.S. (7 Pet.) 51 (1833).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">32 U.S. at 86–87.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">32 U.S. at 90.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">32 U.S. at 90 ("The provision, that claims not filed with the commissioners [within one year] should be void, can mean only that they should be held so by the commissioners, and not allowed by them. Their power should not extend to claims filed afterwards.”).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mitchel v. United States, 34 U.S. (9 Pet.) 711 (1835).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">34 U.S. at 738, 743, 746–51, 756–57.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-h407-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-h407_79-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-h407_79-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Hurley, 1982–1983, at 407.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hurley, 1982–1983, at 407–09.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hurley, 1982–1983, at 409.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hurley, 1982–1983, at 442.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title_in_the_Marshall_Court&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Stuart Banner, How the Indians Lost Their Land: Law and Power on the Frontier</span> (2005).</li> <li>Howard R. Berman, <i>The Concept of Aboriginal Rights in the Early Legal History of the United States</i>, 27 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Buff. L. Rev.</span> 637 (1978).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps"><a href="/wiki/Philip_Bobbitt" title="Philip Bobbitt">Philip Bobbitt</a>, Constitutional Fate: Theory of the Constitution</span> (1981).</li> <li>Hugh A. Broadkey, <i>Land Title Issues for Countries in Transition: The American Experience</i>, 29 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">John Marshall L. Rev.</span> 799 (1996).</li> <li>John Hurley, <i>Aboriginal Rights, the Constitution, and the Marshall Court</i>, 17 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Revu Juridique Theoretique</span> 403 (1982–1983).</li> <li>Eric Kades, <i>History and Interpretation of the Great Case of</i> Johnson v. M'Intosh, 19 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">L. & Hist. Rev.</span> 67 (2001).</li> <li>Eric Kades, <i>The Dark Side of Efficiency</i>: Johnson v. M'Intosh <i>and the Expropriation of American Indian Lands</i>, 148 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">U. Pa. L. Rev.</span> 1065 (2000).</li> <li>Blake A. Watson, <i>The Impact of the American Doctrine of Discovery on Native Land Rights in Australia, Canada, and New Zealand</i>, 34 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Seattle U. L. Rev.</span> 507 (2011).</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States" title="Aboriginal title in the United States">Aboriginal title in the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Statutes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title_statutes_in_the_Thirteen_Colonies" title="Aboriginal title statutes in the Thirteen Colonies">Colonial era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charter_of_Freedoms_and_Exemptions" title="Charter of Freedoms and Exemptions">Charter of Freedoms and Exemptions</a> (1629 New Netherland)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Proclamation_of_1763" title="Royal Proclamation of 1763">Royal Proclamation of 1763</a> (British North America)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederation_Congress_Proclamation_of_1783" title="Confederation Congress Proclamation of 1783">Confederation Congress Proclamation of 1783</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="2" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Treaty_of_Penn_with_Indians_by_Benjamin_West.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Treaty_of_Penn_with_Indians_by_Benjamin_West.jpg/150px-Treaty_of_Penn_with_Indians_by_Benjamin_West.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="104" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Treaty_of_Penn_with_Indians_by_Benjamin_West.jpg/225px-Treaty_of_Penn_with_Indians_by_Benjamin_West.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Treaty_of_Penn_with_Indians_by_Benjamin_West.jpg/300px-Treaty_of_Penn_with_Indians_by_Benjamin_West.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1150" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">United States</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Ordinance" title="Northwest Ordinance">Northwest Ordinance</a> (1787)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonintercourse_Act" title="Nonintercourse Act">Nonintercourse Act</a> (1790, 1793, 1796, 1799, 1802, and 1834)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Removal_Act" title="Indian Removal Act">Removal Act</a> (1830)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawes_Act" title="Dawes Act">Dawes Act</a> (1887)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diminishment" title="Diminishment">Diminishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curtis_Act_of_1898" title="Curtis Act of 1898">Curtis Act of 1898</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Reorganization_Act" title="Indian Reorganization Act">Reorganization Act</a> (1934)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Claims_Commission" title="Indian Claims Commission">Indian Claims Commission Act</a> (1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Land_Claims_Settlements" title="Indian Land Claims Settlements">Indian Land Claims Settlements</a> (1978–2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Claims_Limitations_Act" title="Indian Claims Limitations Act">Indian Claims Limitations Act</a> (1982)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Precedents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Marshall Court</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Johnson_v._McIntosh" title="Johnson v. McIntosh">Johnson v. McIntosh</a></i> (1823)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Nation_v._Georgia" title="Cherokee Nation v. Georgia">Cherokee Nation v. Georgia</a></i> (1831)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title_in_the_Taney_Court" title="Aboriginal title in the Taney Court">Taney Court</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Fellows_v._Blacksmith" title="Fellows v. Blacksmith">Fellows v. Blacksmith</a></i> (1857)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/New_York_ex_rel._Cutler_v._Dibble" title="New York ex rel. Cutler v. Dibble">New York ex rel. Cutler v. Dibble</a></i> (1858)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1890—1950</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Seneca_Nation_of_Indians_v._Christy" title="Seneca Nation of Indians v. Christy">Seneca Nation of Indians v. Christy</a></i> (1896)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Santa_Fe_Pacific_Railroad_Co." title="United States v. Santa Fe Pacific Railroad Co.">United States v. Santa Fe Pacific Railroad Co.</a></i> (1941)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Warren Court</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Tee-Hit-Ton_Indians_v._United_States" title="Tee-Hit-Ton Indians v. United States">Tee-Hit-Ton Indians v. United States</a></i> (1955)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Federal_Power_Commission_v._Tuscarora_Indian_Nation" title="Federal Power Commission v. Tuscarora Indian Nation">Federal Power Commission v. Tuscarora Indian Nation</a></i> (1960)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Burger Court</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Oneida_Indian_Nation_of_New_York_v._County_of_Oneida" title="Oneida Indian Nation of New York v. County of Oneida">Oneida Indian Nation of New York v. County of Oneida</a></i> (1974)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wilson_v._Omaha_Indian_Tribe&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wilson v. Omaha Indian Tribe (page does not exist)">Wilson v. Omaha Indian Tribe</a></i> (1979)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/County_of_Oneida_v._Oneida_Indian_Nation_of_New_York_State" title="County of Oneida v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York State">County of Oneida v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York State</a></i> (1985)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_v._Catawba_Indian_Tribe,_Inc." title="South Carolina v. Catawba Indian Tribe, Inc.">South Carolina v. Catawba Indian Tribe</a></i> (1986)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Rehnquist Court</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Idaho_v._Coeur_d%27Alene_Tribe_of_Idaho" title="Idaho v. Coeur d'Alene Tribe of Idaho">Idaho v. Coeur d'Alene Tribe of Idaho</a></i> (1997)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Idaho_v._United_States" title="Idaho v. United States">Idaho v. United States</a></i> (2001)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/City_of_Sherrill_v._Oneida_Indian_Nation_of_New_York" title="City of Sherrill v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York">City of Sherrill v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York</a></i> (2005)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By state</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alaska_Native_Claims_Settlement_Act" title="Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act">Alaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title_in_California" title="Aboriginal title in California">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Indigenous_land_rights_in_Hawaii" title="Category:Indigenous land rights in Hawaii">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_removals_in_Indiana" title="Indian removals in Indiana">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title_in_Louisiana" title="Aboriginal title in Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_Tribal_Council_of_the_Passamaquoddy_Tribe_v._Morton" title="Joint Tribal Council of the Passamaquoddy Tribe v. Morton">Maine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Native_American_tribes_in_Michigan" title="Category:Native American tribes in Michigan">Michigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title_in_New_Mexico" title="Aboriginal title in New Mexico">New Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title_in_New_York" title="Aboriginal title in New York">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Former_Indian_reservations_in_Oklahoma" title="Former Indian reservations in Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narragansett_land_claim" title="Narragansett land claim">Rhode Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_v._Elliott" title="State v. Elliott">Vermont</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Compare</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_land_rights" title="Indigenous land rights">Indigenous land rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title" title="Aboriginal title">Aboriginal title</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Native_title_in_Australia" title="Native title in Australia">in Australia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_sovereignty_in_the_United_States" title="Tribal sovereignty in the United States">Tribal sovereignty in the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federally_recognized_tribes_in_the_contiguous_United_States" title="List of federally recognized tribes in the contiguous United States">List of federally recognized tribes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_federal_recognition_of_Native_Hawaiians" title="United States federal recognition of Native Hawaiians">Federal recognition of Native Hawaiians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Legal_status_of_Hawaii" title="Legal status of Hawaii">Legal status of Hawaii</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Marshall_Court_(1801–1835)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Marshall_Court" title="Template:Marshall Court"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Marshall_Court" title="Template talk:Marshall Court"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Marshall_Court" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Marshall Court"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Marshall_Court_(1801–1835)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Court" title="Marshall Court">Marshall Court</a> (1801–1835)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Justices</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Marshall" title="John Marshall">Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Cushing" title="William Cushing">Cushing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Paterson_(judge)" title="William Paterson (judge)">Paterson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Chase" title="Samuel Chase">Chase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bushrod_Washington" title="Bushrod Washington">Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Moore" title="Alfred Moore">Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Johnson_(judge)" title="William Johnson (judge)">Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Brockholst_Livingston" title="Henry Brockholst Livingston">Livingston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Todd" title="Thomas Todd">Todd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Duvall" title="Gabriel Duvall">Duvall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Story" title="Joseph Story">Story</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smith_Thompson" title="Smith Thompson">Thompson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Trimble" title="Robert Trimble">Trimble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_McLean" title="John McLean">McLean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Baldwin_(judge)" title="Henry Baldwin (judge)">Baldwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Moore_Wayne" class="mw-redirect" title="James Moore Wayne">Wayne</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Marshall_by_Henry_Inman,_1832.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/John_Marshall_by_Henry_Inman%2C_1832.jpg/90px-John_Marshall_by_Henry_Inman%2C_1832.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="112" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/John_Marshall_by_Henry_Inman%2C_1832.jpg/135px-John_Marshall_by_Henry_Inman%2C_1832.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/John_Marshall_by_Henry_Inman%2C_1832.jpg/180px-John_Marshall_by_Henry_Inman%2C_1832.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1059" data-file-height="1312" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Marshall_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Marshall Court">Decisions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By volume</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/William_Cranch" title="William Cranch">Cranch</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_5" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 5">5 (1)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_6" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 6">6 (2)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_7" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 7">7 (3)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_8" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 8">8 (4)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_9" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 9">9 (5)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_10" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 10">10 (6)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_11" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 11">11 (7)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_12" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 12">12 (8)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_13" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 13">13 (9)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Henry_Wheaton" title="Henry Wheaton">Wheat.</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_14" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 14">14 (1)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_15" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 15">15 (2)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_16" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 16">16 (3)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_17" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 17">17 (4)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_18" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 18">18 (5)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_19" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 19">19 (6)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_20" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 20">20 (7)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_21" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 21">21 (8)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_22" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 22">22 (9)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_23" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 23">23 (10)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_24" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 24">24 (11)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_25" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 25">25 (12)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Peters_(reporter)" title="Richard Peters (reporter)">Pet.</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_26" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 26">26 (1)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_27" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 27">27 (2)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_28" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 28">28 (3)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_29" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 29">29 (4)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_30" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 30">30 (5)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_31" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 31">31 (6)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_32" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 32">32 (7)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_33" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 33">33 (8)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_34" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 34">34 (9)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By topic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Aboriginal title</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_law_in_the_Marshall_Court" title="Criminal law in the Marshall Court">Criminal law</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_criminal_cases_in_the_Marshall_Court" title="List of criminal cases in the Marshall Court">list</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Statutes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_Act_of_1789" title="Judiciary Act of 1789">Judiciary Act of 1789</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimes_Act_of_1790" title="Crimes Act of 1790">Crimes Act of 1790</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_Act_of_1793" title="Judiciary Act of 1793">Judiciary Act of 1793</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midnight_Judges_Act" title="Midnight Judges Act">Midnight Judges Act</a> (1801)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_Act_of_1802" title="Judiciary Act of 1802">Judiciary Act of 1802</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimes_Act_of_1825" title="Crimes Act of 1825">Crimes Act of 1825</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Circuit_assignments_in_the_Marshall_Court" title="Circuit assignments in the Marshall Court">Circuit assignments</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title_in_the_Marshall_Court&oldid=1152009301">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aboriginal_title_in_the_Marshall_Court&oldid=1152009301</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Marshall_Court" title="Category:Marshall Court">Marshall Court</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Aboriginal_title_case_law_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Aboriginal title case law in the United States">Aboriginal title case law in the United States</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks 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