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class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Diving behavior and performance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diving_behavior_and_performance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Childbirth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Childbirth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Childbirth</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Childbirth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span 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class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Aquatic ape hypothesis</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" 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Available in 23 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-23" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">23 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%B6%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%B1%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%8A" title="فرضية القرد المائي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="فرضية القرد المائي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypot%C3%A9za_vodn%C3%AD_opice" title="Hypotéza vodní opice – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Hypotéza vodní opice" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vandabe-hypotesen" title="Vandabe-hypotesen – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Vandabe-hypotesen" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wasseraffen-Theorie" title="Wasseraffen-Theorie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Wasseraffen-Theorie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hip%C3%B3tesis_del_simio_acu%C3%A1tico" title="Hipótesis del simio acuático – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Hipótesis del simio acuático" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A9orie_du_primate_aquatique" title="Théorie du primate aquatique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Théorie du primate aquatique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipotesis_monyet_air" title="Hipotesis monyet air – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Hipotesis monyet air" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scimmia_acquatica" title="Scimmia acquatica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Scimmia acquatica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%AA%D7%90%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%A3_%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%9D" title="תאוריית קוף המים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="תאוריית קוף המים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%ADzimajom-elm%C3%A9let" title="Vízimajom-elmélet – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Vízimajom-elmélet" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%BE_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%87%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%82" title="Акватичко потекло на човекот – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Акватичко потекло на човекот" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%85%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%8F%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%B9%E0%B5%88%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D" title="അക്വാട്ടിക് ഏപ് ഹൈപ്പോത്തിസിസ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="അക്വാട്ടിക് ഏപ് ഹൈപ്പോത്തിസിസ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%B8%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%B1%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%89" title="نظرية القرد المائى – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="نظرية القرد المائى" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wateraaphypothese" title="Wateraaphypothese – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Wateraaphypothese" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A2%E3%82%AF%E3%82%A2%E8%AA%AC" title="アクア説 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="アクア説" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipoteza_wodnej_ma%C5%82py" title="Hipoteza wodnej małpy – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Hipoteza wodnej małpy" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hip%C3%B3tese_do_macaco_aqu%C3%A1tico" title="Hipótese do macaco aquático – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Hipótese do macaco aquático" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Акватическая теория – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Акватическая теория" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Te%C3%B3ria_vodnej_opice" title="Teória vodnej opice – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Teória vodnej opice" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vesiapinahypoteesi" title="Vesiapinahypoteesi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Vesiapinahypoteesi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vattenapahypotesen" title="Vattenapahypotesen – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Vattenapahypotesen" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link 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							cdx-fr-css-icon--close"></span></button></header><div class="cdx-dialog__body">This is the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Pending_changes" title="Wikipedia:Pending changes">latest accepted revision</a>, <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Log&type=review&page=Aquatic_ape_hypothesis">reviewed</a> on <i>19 February 2025</i>.</div></div><div tabindex="0"></div></div></div></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Proposal that humans evolved certain features due to filling a semi-aquatic niche</div> <p> The <b>aquatic ape hypothesis</b> (<b>AAH</b>), also referred to as <b>aquatic ape theory</b> (<b>AAT</b>) or the <b>waterside hypothesis</b> of <a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">human evolution</a>, postulates that the ancestors of <a href="/wiki/Modern_human" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern human">modern humans</a> took a divergent evolutionary pathway from the other <a href="/wiki/Hominidae" title="Hominidae">great apes</a> by becoming <a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">adapted</a> to a more <a href="/wiki/Aquatic_mammals" class="mw-redirect" title="Aquatic mammals">aquatic</a> habitat.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the hypothesis has some popularity with the lay public, it is generally ignored or classified as <a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">pseudoscience</a> by <a href="/wiki/Anthropologist" title="Anthropologist">anthropologists</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-hold_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hold-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pseudo_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pseudo-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The theory developed before major discoveries of ancient <a href="/wiki/Hominini" title="Hominini">hominin</a> fossils in <a href="/wiki/Human_evolution#The_East_African_fossils" title="Human evolution">East Africa</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hawks_blog_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hawks_blog-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-foley_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-foley-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The hypothesis was initially proposed by the English <a href="/wiki/Marine_biology" title="Marine biology">marine biologist</a> <a href="/wiki/Alister_Hardy" title="Alister Hardy">Alister Hardy</a> in 1960, who argued that a branch of apes was forced by competition over terrestrial habitats to hunt for food such as <a href="/wiki/Shellfish" title="Shellfish">shellfish</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Coast" title="Coast">coast</a> and <a href="/wiki/Seabed" title="Seabed">seabed</a>, leading to adaptations that explained distinctive characteristics of modern humans such as functional hairlessness and <a href="/wiki/Bipedalism" title="Bipedalism">bipedalism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hardy_1960_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hardy_1960-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The popular science writer <a href="/wiki/Elaine_Morgan" title="Elaine Morgan">Elaine Morgan</a> supported this hypothesis in her 1972 book <i><a href="/wiki/The_Descent_of_Woman" title="The Descent of Woman">The Descent of Woman</a></i>. In it, she contrasted the theory with zoologist and ethnologist <a href="/wiki/Desmond_Morris" title="Desmond Morris">Desmond Morris</a>'s theories of sexuality, which she believed to be rooted in sexism.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorgan19723-9_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorgan19723-9-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Anthropologists do not take the hypothesis seriously: John Langdon characterized it as an "umbrella hypothesis" (a hypothesis that tries to explain many separate traits of humans as a result of a single adaptive pressure) that was not consistent with the fossil record, and said that its claim that it was <a href="/wiki/Occam%27s_razor" title="Occam's razor">simpler and therefore more likely to be true</a> than traditional explanations of human evolution was not true.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELangdon1997_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELangdon1997-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to anthropologist John Hawkes, the AAH is not consistent with the fossil record. Traits that the hypothesis tries to explain evolved at vastly different times, and distributions of soft tissue the hypothesis alleges are unique to humans are common among other primates.<sup id="cite_ref-Hawks_blog_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hawks_blog-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aquatic_ape_hypothesis&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table id="Container" role="presentation" class="nomobile toccolours searchaux" style="text-align:left;padding:0 0.5em;border-style:solid;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.3em 0 0.8em 1.4em;overflow:hidden;min-width:29.760em"><tbody><tr><td colspan="3" id="Title" 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class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;pointer-events:none;top:48.500em;height:0.500em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0.1em;pointer-events:none"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5;pointer-events:initial"><i><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Nakalipithecus" title="Nakalipithecus">Nakalipithecus</a></span></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;pointer-events:none;top:46.500em;height:1.000em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.5em;left:0.6em;pointer-events:none"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.500em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5;pointer-events:initial"><i><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Samburupithecus" title="Samburupithecus">Samburupithecus</a></span></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;pointer-events:none;top:44.500em;height:0.500em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0.2em;pointer-events:none"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5;pointer-events:initial"><i><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Ouranopithecus" title="Ouranopithecus">Ouranopithecus</a></span></i><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><i>(<a href="/wiki/Ouranopithecus_turkae" title="Ouranopithecus turkae">Ou. turkae</a>)</i><br /><i>(<a href="/wiki/Ouranopithecus_macedoniensis" title="Ouranopithecus macedoniensis">Ou. macedoniensis</a>)</i></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;pointer-events:none;top:39.500em;height:0.500em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.1em;left:0.4em;pointer-events:none"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5;pointer-events:initial"><i><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Chororapithecus" title="Chororapithecus">Chororapithecus</a></span></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;pointer-events:none;top:35.000em;height:10.000em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:-1.75em;left:-0.2em;pointer-events:none"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-5.000em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5;pointer-events:initial"><i><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Oreopithecus" title="Oreopithecus">Oreopithecus</a></span></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;pointer-events:none;top:39.500em;height:0.500em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:1.75em;left:-0.4em;pointer-events:none"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5;pointer-events:initial"><i><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Sivapithecus" title="Sivapithecus">Sivapithecus</a></span></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;pointer-events:none;top:34.500em;height:0.500em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.5em;left:0.3em;pointer-events:none"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5;pointer-events:initial"><i><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Sahelanthropus" title="Sahelanthropus">Sahelanthropus</a></span></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;pointer-events:none;top:34.500em;height:0.500em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:2em;left:0.3em;pointer-events:none"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5;pointer-events:initial"><i><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Graecopithecus" title="Graecopithecus">Graecopithecus</a></span></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;pointer-events:none;top:29.500em;height:0.500em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.5em;left:-1.5em;pointer-events:none"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5;pointer-events:initial"><i><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Orrorin" title="Orrorin">Orrorin</a></span></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;pointer-events:none;top:29.500em;height:0.500em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:2.5em;left:0.15em;pointer-events:none"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5;pointer-events:initial"><span style="font-size:85%;"><i>(<a href="/wiki/Orrorin" title="Orrorin">O. praegens</a>)</i><br /><i>(<a href="/wiki/Orrorin" title="Orrorin">O. tugenensis</a>)</i></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;pointer-events:none;top:22.000em;height:6.850em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:-3.75em;left:-0.3em;pointer-events:none"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-3.425em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5;pointer-events:initial"><i><b><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Ardipithecus" title="Ardipithecus">Ardipithecus</a></span></b></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;pointer-events:none;top:27.700em;height:1.150em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.75em;left:0em;pointer-events:none"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.575em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5;pointer-events:initial"><span style="font-size:85%;"><i>(<a href="/wiki/Ardipithecus_kadabba" title="Ardipithecus kadabba">Ar. kadabba</a>)</i></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;pointer-events:none;top:21.500em;height:1.000em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:1em;left:0em;pointer-events:none"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.500em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5;pointer-events:initial"><span style="font-size:85%;"><i>(<a href="/wiki/Ardipithecus_ramidus" title="Ardipithecus ramidus">Ar. ramidus</a>)</i></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;pointer-events:none;top:6.000em;height:16.500em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:3em;left:0em;pointer-events:none"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-8.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5;pointer-events:initial"><i><b><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus" title="Australopithecus">Australopithecus</a></span></b></i><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><i>(<a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_africanus" title="Australopithecus africanus">Au. africanus</a>)</i><br /><i>(<a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_afarensis" title="Australopithecus afarensis">Au. afarensis</a>)</i><br /><i>(<a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_anamensis" title="Australopithecus anamensis">Au. anamensis</a>)</i></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#DCEEFF;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;pointer-events:none;top:8.250em;height:5.750em;left:2.600em;width:10.400em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.9em;left:-0.5em;pointer-events:none"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-2.875em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5;pointer-events:initial"><i><b><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Homo_habilis" title="Homo habilis">H. habilis</a></span></b></i><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><i>(<a href="/wiki/Homo_rudolfensis" title="Homo rudolfensis">H. rudolfensis</a>)</i><br /><i>(<a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_garhi" title="Australopithecus garhi">Au. garhi</a>)</i></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FFE4F1;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;pointer-events:none;top:0.570em;height:9.430em;left:3.900em;width:9.100em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:1.5em;left:-1em;pointer-events:none"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-4.715em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5;pointer-events:initial"><i><b><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Homo_erectus" title="Homo erectus">H. erectus</a></span></b></i><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><i>(<a href="/wiki/Homo_antecessor" title="Homo antecessor">H. antecessor</a>)</i><br /><i>(<a href="/wiki/Homo_ergaster" title="Homo ergaster">H. ergaster</a>)</i><br /><i>(<a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_sediba" title="Australopithecus sediba">Au. sediba</a>)</i></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FFE4F1;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;pointer-events:none;top:6.000em;height:2.500em;left:2.600em;width:10.400em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em;pointer-events:none"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5;pointer-events:initial"></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#7DFFFF;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;pointer-events:none;top:1.000em;height:2.500em;left:2.600em;width:10.400em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:1em;left:-0.2em;pointer-events:none"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5;pointer-events:initial"><i><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Homo_heidelbergensis" title="Homo heidelbergensis">H. heidelbergensis</a></span></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#F3F300;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;pointer-events:none;top:0.000em;height:1.500em;left:3.900em;width:9.100em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:-0.7em;pointer-events:none"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.750em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5;pointer-events:initial"><i><b><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Anatomically_modern_human" class="mw-redirect" title="Anatomically modern human">Homo sapiens</a></span></b></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#F3F300;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;pointer-events:none;top:0.000em;height:0.200em;left:1.300em;width:3.900em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em;pointer-events:none"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.100em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5;pointer-events:initial"></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#7DFFFF;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;pointer-events:none;top:0.200em;height:1.050em;left:2.600em;width:1.300em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:1.8em;left:2.6em;pointer-events:none"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.525em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5;pointer-events:initial"><span class="nowrap"><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Neanderthal" title="Neanderthal">Neanderthals</a></span></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#F3F300;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;pointer-events:none;top:0.200em;height:0.370em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em;pointer-events:none"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.185em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5;pointer-events:initial"></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#7DFFFF;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;pointer-events:none;top:0.200em;height:0.370em;left:2.600em;width:1.300em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:1.4em;left:2.8em;pointer-events:none"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.185em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5;pointer-events:initial"><span class="nowrap"><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Denisovan" title="Denisovan">Denisovans</a></span></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;pointer-events:none;top:6.000em;height:8.500em;left:11.700em;width:1.300em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em;pointer-events:none"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-4.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5;pointer-events:initial"> </div></div></div></td><td id="Annotations" style="padding:0;margin:0.7em 0 0.7em 0;float:left;position:relative;width:10.860em;height:50em;pointer-events:none"><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:50.000em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0;pointer-events:initial"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_human_evolution#Hominidae" title="Timeline of human evolution">Earlier apes</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:45.000em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0;pointer-events:initial"><a href="/wiki/Gorilla%E2%80%93human_last_common_ancestor" title="Gorilla–human last common ancestor">Gorilla split</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:42.500em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0;pointer-events:initial"><a href="/wiki/Chimpanzee%E2%80%93human_last_common_ancestor" title="Chimpanzee–human last common ancestor">Chimpanzee split</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:35.000em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0;pointer-events:initial"><a href="/wiki/Human_skeletal_changes_due_to_bipedalism" title="Human skeletal changes due to bipedalism">Earliest bipedal</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:29.000em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0;pointer-events:initial"><a href="/wiki/Ardipithecus_kadabba" title="Ardipithecus kadabba">Earliest sign of <i>Ardipithecus</i></a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:22.500em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0;pointer-events:initial"><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_anamensis" title="Australopithecus anamensis">Earliest sign of <i>Australopithecus</i></a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:17.000em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0;pointer-events:initial"><a href="/wiki/Stone_Age#Beginning_of_the_Stone_Age" title="Stone Age">Earliest stone tools</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:14.000em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.25em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0;pointer-events:initial"><a href="/wiki/LD_350-1" title="LD 350-1">Earliest sign of<br /> <i>Homo</i></a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:10.600em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.25em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0;pointer-events:initial"><a href="/wiki/Early_expansions_of_hominins_out_of_Africa" title="Early expansions of hominins out of Africa">Dispersal beyond Africa</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:9.550em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0;pointer-events:initial"><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_language" title="Origin of language">Earliest language</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:8.500em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0;pointer-events:initial"><a href="/wiki/Control_of_fire_by_early_humans" title="Control of fire by early humans">Earliest fire</a> / <a href="/wiki/Cooking#History" title="Cooking">cooking</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:1.000em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.6em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0;pointer-events:initial"><span style="font-size:95%;"><a href="/wiki/Rock_art#East_Asia" title="Rock art">Earliest rock art</a></span></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:0.625em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.1em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0;pointer-events:initial"><span style="font-size:95%;"><a href="/wiki/Clothing#Origin_and_history" title="Clothing">Earliest clothes</a></span></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:0.250em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.4em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0;pointer-events:initial"><span style="font-size:95%;"><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_modernity" title="Behavioral modernity">Modern humans</a></span></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto;font-size:100%;position:absolute;text-align:center;pointer-events:none;margin-top:21.000em"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;text-align:left;pointer-events:none;top:0.25em;left:-5em;width:7em"><div style="position:relative;width:auto;z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);vertical-align:middle;line-height:105%;bottom:0;pointer-events:initial"><span style="display:block; text-align:center; font-size:110%"><b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1231500821" /><span class="ts-vertical-text" style=""><a href="/wiki/Hominidae" title="Hominidae">H o m i n i d s</a></span></b></span></div></div></div><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto;font-size:100%;position:absolute;text-align:center;pointer-events:none;margin-top:3.000em"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;text-align:left;pointer-events:none;top:3.25em;left:-5em;width:7em"><div style="position:relative;width:auto;z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);vertical-align:middle;line-height:105%;bottom:0;pointer-events:initial"><span style="display:block; text-align:center; font-size:85%;"><b><span style="font-size: 85%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1231500821" /><span class="ts-vertical-text" style=""><a href="/wiki/Paranthropus" title="Paranthropus">P a r a n t h r o p u s</a></span></span></b></span></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><td id="Caption" colspan="3" style="padding:0;margin:0 0.2em 0.7em 0.2em"><div id="Caption" class="toccolours" style="margin:0 0.5em;border-style:none;clear:both;text-align:center;width:26.000em"><div style="float:left;font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Myr" class="mw-redirect" title="Myr">million years ago</a>)</div></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In 1942 the German <a href="/wiki/Pathologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Pathologist">pathologist</a> <a href="/wiki/Max_Westenh%C3%B6fer" title="Max Westenhöfer">Max Westenhöfer</a> (1871–1957) discussed various human characteristics (<a href="/wiki/Body_hair#Evolution_of_less_body_hair" title="Body hair">hairlessness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Subcutaneous_tissue#Subcutaneous_fat" title="Subcutaneous tissue">subcutaneous fat</a>, the regression of the <a href="/wiki/Olfaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Olfaction">olfactory organ</a>, <a href="/wiki/Webbed_fingers_or_toes" class="mw-redirect" title="Webbed fingers or toes">webbed fingers</a>, direction of the <a href="/wiki/Body_hair" title="Body hair">body hair</a> etc.) that could have derived from an aquatic past, quoting several other authors who had made similar speculations. As he did not believe human beings were <a href="/wiki/Apes" class="mw-redirect" title="Apes">apes</a>, he believed this might have been during the <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</a>, contrary to what is possible given the geologic and evolutionary biology evidence available at the time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWestenhöfer1942148_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWestenhöfer1942148-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He stated: "The postulation of an aquatic mode of life during an early stage of human evolution is a tenable hypothesis, for which further inquiry may produce additional supporting evidence."<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He later abandoned the concept.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Independently of Westenhöfer's writings, the <a href="/wiki/Marine_biologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine biologist">marine biologist</a> <a href="/wiki/Alister_Hardy" title="Alister Hardy">Alister Hardy</a> had since 1930 also hypothesized that humans may have had ancestors more aquatic than previously imagined, although his work, unlike Westenhöfer's, was rooted in the <a href="/wiki/Darwinism" title="Darwinism">Darwinian</a> consensus. On the advice of his colleagues, Hardy delayed presenting the hypothesis for approximately thirty years.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHardy1960_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHardy1960-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After he had become a respected academic and knighted for contributions to marine biology, Hardy finally voiced his thoughts in a speech to the <a href="/wiki/British_Sub-Aqua_Club" title="British Sub-Aqua Club">British Sub-Aqua Club</a> in <a href="/wiki/Brighton" title="Brighton">Brighton</a> on 5 March 1960. Several national newspapers reported sensational presentations of Hardy's ideas, which he countered by explaining them more fully in an article in <i><a href="/wiki/New_Scientist" title="New Scientist">New Scientist</a></i> on 17 March 1960: "My thesis is that a branch of this primitive ape-stock was forced by competition from life in the trees to feed on the sea-shores and to hunt for food, <a href="/wiki/Shell_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Shell fish">shellfish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sea_urchin" title="Sea urchin">sea-urchins</a> etc., in the shallow waters off the coast."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHardy1960_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHardy1960-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The idea was generally ignored by the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_community" title="Scientific community">scientific community</a> after the article was published. Some interest was received, notably from the geographer <a href="/wiki/Carl_Sauer" class="mw-redirect" title="Carl Sauer">Carl Sauer</a> whose views on the role of the seashore in human evolution<sup id="cite_ref-Sauer1960_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sauer1960-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "stimulated tremendous progress in the study of coastal and aquatic adaptations" inside <a href="/wiki/Marine_archaeology" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine archaeology">marine archaeology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1967, the hypothesis was mentioned in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Naked_Ape" title="The Naked Ape">The Naked Ape</a></i>, a popular book by the zoologist <a href="/wiki/Desmond_Morris" title="Desmond Morris">Desmond Morris</a>, who reduced Hardy's phrase "more aquatic ape-like ancestors" to the bare "aquatic ape", commenting that "despite its most appealing indirect evidence, the aquatic theory lacks solid support".<sup id="cite_ref-Morris1967_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Morris1967-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While traditional descriptions of 'savage' existence identified three common sources of sustenance: gathering of fruit and nuts, fishing, and hunting,<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in the 1950s, the anthropologist <a href="/wiki/Raymond_Dart" title="Raymond Dart">Raymond Dart</a> focused on <a href="/wiki/Hunter-gatherer" title="Hunter-gatherer">hunting and gathering</a> as the likely organizing concept of human society in prehistory,<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and hunting was the focus of the <a href="/wiki/Screenwriter" title="Screenwriter">screenwriter</a> <a href="/wiki/Robert_Ardrey" title="Robert Ardrey">Robert Ardrey</a>'s 1961 best-seller <i><a href="/wiki/African_Genesis" title="African Genesis">African Genesis</a></i>. Another screenwriter, Elaine Morgan, responded to this focus in her 1972 <i>Descent of Woman</i>, which parodied the conventional picture of "the Tarzanlike figure of the prehominid who came down from the trees, saw a grassland teeming with game, picked up a weapon and became a Mighty Hunter,"<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorgan197211_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorgan197211-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and pictured a more peaceful scene of humans by the seashore. She took her lead from a section in Morris's 1967 book which referred to the possibility of an <i>Aquatic Ape</i> period in evolution, his name for the speculation by the biologist <a href="/wiki/Alister_Hardy" title="Alister Hardy">Alister Hardy</a> in 1960. When it aroused no reaction in the academic community, she dropped the feminist criticism and wrote a series of books–<i>The Aquatic Ape</i> (1982), <i>The Scars of Evolution</i> (1990), <i>The Descent of the Child</i> (1994), <i>The Aquatic Ape Hypothesis</i> (1997) and <i>The Naked Darwinist</i> (2008)–which explored the issues in more detail. Books published on the topic since then have avoided the contentious term <i>aquatic</i> and used <i>waterside</i> instead.<sup id="cite_ref-Vaneechoutte_2011_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vaneechoutte_2011-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rhys-Evans_2019_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rhys-Evans_2019-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_Hardy/Morgan_hypothesis"><span id="The_Hardy.2FMorgan_hypothesis"></span>The Hardy/Morgan hypothesis</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aquatic_ape_hypothesis&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: The Hardy/Morgan hypothesis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Hardy's hypothesis as outlined in <i><a href="/wiki/New_Scientist" title="New Scientist">New Scientist</a></i> was: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>My thesis is that a branch of this primitive <a href="/wiki/Ape" title="Ape">ape</a>-stock was forced by competition from life in the trees to feed on the sea-shores and to hunt for food, <a href="/wiki/Shell_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Shell fish">shell fish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sea_urchin" title="Sea urchin">sea-urchins</a> etc., in the shallow waters off the coast. I suppose that they were forced into the water just as we have seen happen in so many other groups of terrestrial animals. I am imagining this happening in the warmer parts of the world, in the tropical seas where Man could stand being in the water for relatively long periods, that is, several hours at a stretch.<sup id="cite_ref-Hardy_1960_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hardy_1960-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Hardy argued a number of features of modern humans are characteristic of aquatic adaptations. He pointed to humans' lack of body hair as being analogous to the same lack seen in <a href="/wiki/Whale" title="Whale">whales</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hippopotamus" title="Hippopotamus">hippopotamuses</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorgan199069–79_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorgan199069–79-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELangdon1997483_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELangdon1997483-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and noted the layer of <a href="/wiki/Subcutaneous_fat" class="mw-redirect" title="Subcutaneous fat">subcutaneous fat</a> humans have that Hardy believed other apes lacked, although it has been shown that captive apes with ample access to food have levels of subcutaneous fat similar to humans.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELangdon1997487_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELangdon1997487-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additional features cited by Hardy include the location of the <a href="/wiki/Trachea" title="Trachea">trachea</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Throat" title="Throat">throat</a> rather than the nasal cavity, the human propensity for front-facing <a href="/wiki/Human_reproduction#Copulation" title="Human reproduction">copulation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tears" title="Tears">tears</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eccrine_sweating" class="mw-redirect" title="Eccrine sweating">eccrine sweating</a>, though these claimed pieces of evidence have alternative evolutionary adaptationist explanations that do not invoke an aquatic context.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Diving_reflex" title="Diving reflex">diving reflex</a> is sometimes cited as evidence. This is exhibited strongly in <a href="/wiki/Aquatic_mammal" title="Aquatic mammal">aquatic mammals</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Pinniped" title="Pinniped">seals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Otter" title="Otter">otters</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dolphin" title="Dolphin">dolphins</a>. It also exists as a lesser response in other animals, including human babies up to 6 months old (see <a href="/wiki/Infant_swimming" title="Infant swimming">infant swimming</a>). However adult humans generally exhibit a mild response. </p><p>Hardy additionally posited that <a href="/wiki/Bipedalism" title="Bipedalism">bipedalism</a> evolved first as an aid to <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/wade" class="extiw" title="wikt:wade">wading</a> before becoming the usual means of human locomotion,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHardy1960645_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHardy1960645-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELangdon1997481_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELangdon1997481-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Primate#Tool_use_and_manufacture" title="Primate">tool use</a> evolved out of the use of rocks to crack open <a href="/wiki/Shellfish" title="Shellfish">shellfish</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHardy1960645_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHardy1960645-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELangdon1997487_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELangdon1997487-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These last arguments were cited by later proponents of AAH as an inspiration for their <a href="#Related_academic_and_independent_research">research programs</a>. </p><p>Morgan summed up her take on the hypothesis in 2011: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Waterside hypotheses of human evolution assert that selection from wading, swimming and diving and procurement of food from aquatic habitats have significantly affected the evolution of the lineage leading to <i>Homo sapiens</i> as distinct from that leading to <i><a href="/wiki/Pan_(genus)" title="Pan (genus)">Pan</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reactions">Reactions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aquatic_ape_hypothesis&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Reactions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AAT_Confer_3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/AAT_Confer_3.jpg/220px-AAT_Confer_3.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/AAT_Confer_3.jpg/330px-AAT_Confer_3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/AAT_Confer_3.jpg/440px-AAT_Confer_3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="704" data-file-height="472" /></a><figcaption>Aquatic Ape Conference delegates in Valkenburg, 1987</figcaption></figure> <p>The AAH is generally ignored by anthropologists, although it has a following outside academia and conferences on the topic have received celebrity endorsement, for example from <a href="/wiki/David_Attenborough" title="David Attenborough">David Attenborough</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-hold_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hold-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite being debunked, it returns periodically, being promoted as recently as 2019.<sup id="cite_ref-pseudo_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pseudo-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> Academics who have commented on the aquatic ape hypothesis include categorical opponents (generally members of the community of academic <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a>) who reject almost all of the claims related to the hypothesis. Other academics have argued that the rejection of Hardy and Morgan is partially unfair given that other explanations which suffer from similar problems are not so strongly opposed. A conference devoted to the subject was held at <a href="/wiki/Valkenburg_(city)" class="mw-redirect" title="Valkenburg (city)">Valkenburg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a>, in 1987.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its 22 participants included academic proponents and opponents of the hypothesis and several neutral observers headed by the anthropologist <a href="/wiki/Vernon_Reynolds" title="Vernon Reynolds">Vernon Reynolds</a> of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oxford" title="University of Oxford">University of Oxford</a>. His summary at the end was:<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Overall, it will be clear that I do not think it would be correct to designate our early hominid ancestors as 'aquatic'. But at the same time there does seem to be evidence that not only did they take to water from time to time but that the water (and by this I mean inland lakes and rivers) was a habitat that provided enough extra food to count as an agency for selection.<sup id="cite_ref-Reynolds1991_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reynolds1991-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Critiques">Critiques</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aquatic_ape_hypothesis&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Critiques"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The AAH is considered to be a classic example of pseudoscience among the scholarly community,<sup id="cite_ref-Dunsworth2007_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dunsworth2007-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-McNeill_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McNeill-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Trauth_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Trauth-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and has been met with significant skepticism.<sup id="cite_ref-Graham2008_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Graham2008-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i><a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a></i> editor and paleontologist <a href="/wiki/Henry_Gee" title="Henry Gee">Henry Gee</a> has argued that the hypothesis has equivalent merit to <a href="/wiki/Creationism" title="Creationism">creationism</a>, and should be similarly dismissed.<sup id="cite_ref-foley_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-foley-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In a 1997 critique, anthropologist John Langdon considered the AAH under the heading of an "umbrella hypothesis" and argued that the <a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">difficulty of ever disproving</a> such a thing meant that although the idea has the appearance of being a <a href="/wiki/Parsimonious_explanation" class="mw-redirect" title="Parsimonious explanation">parsimonious explanation</a>, it actually was no more powerful an explanation than the <a href="/wiki/Null_hypothesis" title="Null hypothesis">null hypothesis</a> that human evolution is not particularly guided by interaction with bodies of water. Langdon argued that however popular the idea was with the public, the "umbrella" nature of the idea means that it cannot serve as a proper <a href="/wiki/Scientific_hypothesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific hypothesis">scientific hypothesis</a>. Langdon also objected to Morgan's blanket opposition to the "<a href="/wiki/Savannah_hypothesis" title="Savannah hypothesis">savannah hypothesis</a>" which he took to be the "collective discipline of paleoanthropology". He observed that some anthropologists had regarded the idea as not worth the trouble of a rebuttal. In addition, the evidence cited by AAH proponents mostly concerned developments in <a href="/wiki/Soft_tissue" title="Soft tissue">soft tissue</a> anatomy and physiology, whilst paleoanthropologists rarely speculated on evolutionary development of anatomy beyond the musculoskeletal system and brain size as revealed in fossils. After a brief description of the issues under 26 different headings, he produced a summary critique of these with mainly negative judgments. His main conclusion was that the AAH was unlikely ever to be disproved on the basis of comparative anatomy, and that the one body of data that could potentially disprove it was the fossil record.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELangdon1997_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELangdon1997-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In a blog post originally published in 2005 and continually updated since, anthropologist <a href="/wiki/John_D._Hawks" title="John D. Hawks">John D. Hawks</a> said that anthropologists don't accept the AAH for several reasons. Hardy and Morgan situated the alleged aquatic period of human nature in a period of the fossil record that is now known not to contain any aquatic ancestors. The traits the AAH tries to explain actually evolved at wildly different time periods. The AAH claims that the alleged aquatic nature of humanity is responsible for human patterns of hair, fat, and sweat, but actually all of these things are similar in humans to other primates. To the extent they are exceptional in any primate relative to other primates, or in primates relative to other mammals, they are exceptional for well-understood thermodynamic reasons.<sup id="cite_ref-Hawks_blog_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hawks_blog-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Palaeontologist <a href="/wiki/Riley_Black" title="Riley Black">Riley Black</a> concurred with the pseudoscience label, and described the AAH as a "classic case of picking evidence that fits a preconceived conclusion and ignoring everything else".<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Physical anthropologist <a href="/wiki/Eugenie_Scott" title="Eugenie Scott">Eugenie Scott</a> has described the aquatic ape hypothesis as an instance of "crank anthropology" akin to other pseudoscientific ideas in anthropology such as alien-human interbreeding and <a href="/wiki/Bigfoot" title="Bigfoot">Bigfoot</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-scott_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-scott-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <i>The Accidental Species: Misunderstandings of Human Evolution</i> (2013), Henry Gee remarked on how a seafood diet can aid in the development of the human brain. He nevertheless criticized the AAH because "it's always a problem identifying features [such as body fat and hairlessness] that humans have now and inferring that they must have had some adaptive value in the past." Also "it's notoriously hard to infer habits [such as swimming] from anatomical structures".<sup id="cite_ref-Gee_2013_115_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gee_2013_115-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Popular support for the AAH has become an embarrassment to some anthropologists, who want to explore the effects of water on human evolution without engaging with the AAH, which they consider "emphasizes adaptations to deep water (or at least underwater) conditions". Foley and Lahr suggest that "to flirt with anything watery in paleoanthropology can be misinterpreted", but argue "there is little doubt that throughout our evolution we have made extensive use of terrestrial habitats adjacent to fresh water, since we are, like many other terrestrial mammals, a heavily water-dependent species." But they allege that "under pressure from the mainstream, AAH supporters tended to flee from the core arguments of Hardy and Morgan towards a more generalized emphasis on fishy things."<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In "The Waterside Ape", a pair of 2016 BBC Radio documentaries, <a href="/wiki/David_Attenborough" title="David Attenborough">David Attenborough</a> discussed what he thought was a "move towards mainstream acceptance" for the AAH in the light of new research findings. He interviewed scientists supportive of the idea, including Kathlyn Stewart and Michael Crawford who had published papers in a special issue of the <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Human_Evolution" title="Journal of Human Evolution">Journal of Human Evolution</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> on "The Role of Freshwater and Marine Resources in the Evolution of the Human Diet, Brain and Behavior".<sup id="cite_ref-Attenborough_2016_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Attenborough_2016-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Responding to the documentaries in a newspaper article, paleoanthropologist <a href="/wiki/Alice_Roberts" title="Alice Roberts">Alice Roberts</a> criticized Attenborough's promotion of AAH and dismissed the idea as a distraction "from the emerging story of human evolution that is more interesting and complex". She argued that AAH had become "a theory of everything" that is simultaneously "too extravagant and too simple".<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Philosopher <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Daniel Dennett</a>, in his discussion of evolutionary philosophy,<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> commented "During the last few years, when I have found myself in the company of distinguished biologists, evolutionary theorists, paleoanthropologists and other experts, I have often asked them to tell me, please, exactly why Elaine Morgan must be wrong about the aquatic theory. I haven't yet had a reply worth mentioning, aside from those who admit, with a twinkle in their eyes, that they have also wondered the same thing." He challenged both Elaine Morgan and the scientific establishment in that "Both sides are indulging in adapt[at]ionist <a href="/wiki/Just-so_story" title="Just-so story">Just So stories</a>". Along the same lines, historian <a href="/w/index.php?title=Erika_Lorraine_Milam&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Erika Lorraine Milam (page does not exist)">Erika Lorraine Milam</a> noted that independent of Morgan's work, certain standard explanations of human development in paleoanthropology have been roundly criticized for lacking evidence, while being based on sexist assumptions.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Anatomy lecturer <a href="/wiki/Bruce_Charlton" title="Bruce Charlton">Bruce Charlton</a> gave Morgan's book <i>Scars of Evolution</i> an enthusiastic review in the <a href="/wiki/British_Medical_Journal" class="mw-redirect" title="British Medical Journal">British Medical Journal</a> in 1991, calling it "exceptionally well written" and "a good piece of science".<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1995, paleoanthropologist <a href="/wiki/Phillip_Tobias" title="Phillip Tobias">Phillip Tobias</a> declared that the savannah hypothesis was dead, because the open conditions did not exist when humanity's precursors stood upright and that therefore the conclusions of the Valkenburg conference were no longer valid. Tobias praised Morgan's book <i>Scars of Evolution</i> as a "remarkable book", though he said that he did not agree with all of it.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tobias and his student further criticised the orthodox hypothesis by arguing that the coming out of the forest of man's precursors had been an unexamined assumption of evolution since the days of <a href="/wiki/Lamarck" class="mw-redirect" title="Lamarck">Lamarck</a>, and followed by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Darwin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Russel_Wallace" title="Alfred Russel Wallace">Wallace</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Haeckel" title="Ernst Haeckel">Haeckel</a>, well before <a href="/wiki/Raymond_Dart" title="Raymond Dart">Raymond Dart</a> used it.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reactions_of_Hardy_and_Morgan">Reactions of Hardy and Morgan</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aquatic_ape_hypothesis&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Reactions of Hardy and Morgan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Alister Hardy was astonished and mortified in 1960 when the national Sunday papers carried banner headlines "Oxford professor says man a sea ape", causing problems with his Oxford colleagues.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorgan200812_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorgan200812-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As he later said to his ex-pupil <a href="/wiki/Desmond_Morris" title="Desmond Morris">Desmond Morris</a>, "Of course I then had to write an article to refute this saying no this is just a guess, a rough hypothesis, this isn't a proven fact. And of course we're not related to <a href="/wiki/Dolphins" class="mw-redirect" title="Dolphins">dolphins</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-Attenborough_2016_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Attenborough_2016-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Elaine Morgan's 1972 book <i>Descent of Woman</i> became an international best-seller, a <a href="/wiki/Book_of_the_Month_Club" class="mw-redirect" title="Book of the Month Club">Book of the Month</a> selection in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> and was translated into ten languages.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorgan200815_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorgan200815-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The book was praised for its feminism but <a href="/wiki/Paleoanthropologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Paleoanthropologist">paleoanthropologists</a> were disappointed with its promotions of the AAH.<sup id="cite_ref-el_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-el-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Morgan removed the feminist critique and left her AAH ideas intact, publishing the book as <i>The Aquatic Ape</i> 10 years later, but it did not garner any more positive reaction from scientists.<sup id="cite_ref-el_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-el-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Related_academic_and_independent_research">Related academic and independent research</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aquatic_ape_hypothesis&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Related academic and independent research"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wading_and_bipedalism">Wading and bipedalism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aquatic_ape_hypothesis&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Wading and bipedalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>AAH proponent Algis Kuliukas, performed experiments to measure the comparative energy used when lacking <a href="/wiki/Orthograde_posture" title="Orthograde posture">orthograde posture</a> with using fully upright posture. Although it is harder to walk upright with bent knees on land, this difference gradually diminishes as the depth of water increases<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and is still practical in thigh-high water.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In a critique of the AAH, <a href="/wiki/Henry_Gee" title="Henry Gee">Henry Gee</a> questioned any link between bipedalism and diet. Gee writes that early humans have been bipedal for 5 million years, but our ancestors' "fondness for seafood" <a href="/wiki/History_of_seafood" title="History of seafood">emerged a mere 200,000 years ago</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Diet">Diet</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aquatic_ape_hypothesis&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Diet"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sapiens_neanderthal_comparison_en_blackbackground.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Sapiens_neanderthal_comparison_en_blackbackground.png/220px-Sapiens_neanderthal_comparison_en_blackbackground.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="114" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Sapiens_neanderthal_comparison_en_blackbackground.png/330px-Sapiens_neanderthal_comparison_en_blackbackground.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Sapiens_neanderthal_comparison_en_blackbackground.png/440px-Sapiens_neanderthal_comparison_en_blackbackground.png 2x" data-file-width="1025" data-file-height="533" /></a><figcaption>Neanderthal skull (right) compared with modern human</figcaption></figure> <p>Evidence supports aquatic food consumption in <i><a href="/wiki/Homo" title="Homo">Homo</a></i> as early as the <a href="/wiki/Pliocene" title="Pliocene">Pliocene</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but its linkage to brain evolution remains controversial.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further, there is no evidence that humans ate fish in significant amounts earlier than tens to hundreds of thousands of years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Supporters argue that the avoidance of <a href="/wiki/Taphonomy#Taphonomic_biases_in_the_fossil_record" title="Taphonomy">taphonomic bias</a> is the problem, as most hominin fossils occur in lake-side environments, and the presence of fish remains is therefore not proof of fish consumption.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They also claim that the archaeological record of human fishing and coastal settlement is fundamentally deficient due to <a href="/wiki/Postglacial" class="mw-redirect" title="Postglacial">postglacial</a> <a href="/wiki/Past_sea_level" title="Past sea level">sea level rise</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In their 1989 book <i>The Driving Force: Food, Evolution and The Future</i>, Michael Crawford and David Marsh claimed that <a href="/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid" title="Omega-3 fatty acid">omega-3 fatty acids</a> were vital for the development of the brain:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrawfordMarsh1989162_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrawfordMarsh1989162-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>A branch of the line of primitive ancestral apes was forced by competition to leave the trees and feed on the seashore. Searching for oysters, mussels, crabs, crayfish and so on they would have spent much of their time in the water and an upright position would have come naturally.</p></blockquote><p> Crawford and Marsh opined that the brain size in aquatic mammals is similar to humans, and that other primates and carnivores lost relative brain capacity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrawfordMarsh1989159_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrawfordMarsh1989159-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cunnane, Stewart, Crawford, and colleagues published works arguing a correlation between aquatic diet and human brain evolution in their "shore-based diet scenario",<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECunnaneStewart2010_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECunnaneStewart2010-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> acknowledging the Hardy/Morgan's thesis as a foundation work of their model.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECunnaneStewart2010xiii–xvii_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECunnaneStewart2010xiii–xvii-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As evidence, they describe health problems in landlocked communities, such as <a href="/wiki/Cretinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Cretinism">cretinism</a> in the Alps and <a href="/wiki/Goitre" title="Goitre">goitre</a> in parts of Africa due to salt-derived <a href="/wiki/Iodine_deficiency" title="Iodine deficiency">iodine deficiency</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBroadhurstWangCrawfordCunnane2002659–660_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroadhurstWangCrawfordCunnane2002659–660-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and state that inland habitats cannot naturally meet human iodide requirements.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECunnaneStewart201047_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECunnaneStewart201047-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Biologists Caroline Pond and Dick Colby were highly critical, saying that the work provided "no significant new information that would be of interest to biologists" and that its style was "speculative, theoretical and in many places so imprecise as to be misleading."<sup id="cite_ref-pond_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pond-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> British palaeontologist <a href="/wiki/Henry_Gee" title="Henry Gee">Henry Gee</a>, who remarked on how a seafood diet can aid in the development of the human brain, nevertheless criticized AAH because inferring aquatic behavior from body fat and hairlessness patterns is an unjustifiable leap.<sup id="cite_ref-Gee_2013_115_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gee_2013_115-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Diving_behavior_and_performance">Diving behavior and performance</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aquatic_ape_hypothesis&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Diving behavior and performance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Professor of animal physiology and experienced <a href="/wiki/Scuba_diving" title="Scuba diving">scuba</a> and <a href="/wiki/Freediving" title="Freediving">freediver</a> Erika Schagatay researches human diving abilities and oxygen stress. She suggests that such abilities are consistent with selective pressure for underwater foraging during human evolution, and discussed other anatomical traits speculated as diving adaptations by Hardy/Morgan.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> John Langdon suggested that such traits could be enabled by a human <a href="/wiki/Developmental_plasticity" title="Developmental plasticity">developmental plasticity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Childbirth">Childbirth</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aquatic_ape_hypothesis&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Childbirth"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Vernix_caseosa" title="Vernix caseosa">Vernix caseosa</a></i>, the thin skin found on newborn babies, is also found on seals, beavers, and otters, but not on other primates. Furthermore, <a href="/wiki/Human_placentophagy" title="Human placentophagy">human placentophagy</a> seems to have disappeared at a very early point in the human species, as it was practiced by no known culture; <a href="/wiki/Placentophagy" title="Placentophagy">placentophagy</a> is common in primates, but not among seals or dolphins. Notably, placentophagy is also not seen in camels, which like aquatic mammals commonly consume salty substances.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aquatic_ape_hypothesis&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Endurance_running_hypothesis" title="Endurance running hypothesis">Endurance running hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunting_hypothesis" title="Hunting hypothesis">Hunting hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoned_ape_theory" title="Stoned ape theory">Stoned ape theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surfer%27s_ear" title="Surfer's ear">Surfer's ear</a>, bone growth found in modern swimmers and surfers in frequent contact with cold water and also in some Neanderthals and <i>Homo erectus</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triune_brain" title="Triune brain">Triune brain</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aquatic_ape_hypothesis&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFRhys-Evans2019" class="citation book cs1">Rhys-Evans P (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.crcpress.com/The-Waterside-Ape-An-Alternative-Account-of-Human-Evolution/Evans/p/book/9780367145484#googlePreviewContainer"><i>The Waterside Ape: An Alternative Account of Human Evolution</i></a>. CRC Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">7–</span>9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-367-14548-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-367-14548-4"><bdi>978-0-367-14548-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Waterside+Ape%3A+An+Alternative+Account+of+Human+Evolution&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E7-%3C%2Fspan%3E9&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-0-367-14548-4&rft.aulast=Rhys-Evans&rft.aufirst=P&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.crcpress.com%2FThe-Waterside-Ape-An-Alternative-Account-of-Human-Evolution%2FEvans%2Fp%2Fbook%2F9780367145484%23googlePreviewContainer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAquatic+ape+hypothesis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hold-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-hold_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hold_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRaeKoppe2014" class="citation journal cs1">Rae TC, Koppe T (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fevan.21408">"Sinuses and flotation: does the aquatic ape theory hold water?"</a>. <i>Evolutionary Anthropology</i>. <b>23</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">60–</span>4. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fevan.21408">10.1002/evan.21408</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24753346">24753346</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:5456280">5456280</a>. <q>most practicing anthropologists are unbothered by the Aquatic Ape Theory (AAT) and its advocates, except perhaps when a student brings it up in lecture</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Evolutionary+Anthropology&rft.atitle=Sinuses+and+flotation%3A+does+the+aquatic+ape+theory+hold+water%3F&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E60-%3C%2Fspan%3E4&rft.date=2014&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A5456280%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24753346&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fevan.21408&rft.aulast=Rae&rft.aufirst=TC&rft.au=Koppe%2C+T&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1002%252Fevan.21408&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAquatic+ape+hypothesis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pseudo-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pseudo_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pseudo_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRafferty2022" class="citation book cs1">Rafferty SM (2022). "Chapter 6: Biological anthropology and pseudoscience". <i>Misanthropology – Science, Pseudoscience, and the Study of Humanity</i> (1st ed.). Routledge. pp. <span class="nowrap">100–</span>112. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781003276166-6">10.4324/9781003276166-6</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781032231778" title="Special:BookSources/9781032231778"><bdi>9781032231778</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+6%3A+Biological+anthropology+and+pseudoscience&rft.btitle=Misanthropology+%26ndash%3B%26%2332%3BScience%2C+Pseudoscience%2C+and+the+Study+of+Humanity&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E100-%3C%2Fspan%3E112&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9781003276166-6&rft.isbn=9781032231778&rft.aulast=Rafferty&rft.aufirst=SM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAquatic+ape+hypothesis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRegal2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Brian_Regal" title="Brian Regal">Regal, Brian</a> (2009). <i>Pseudoscience: A Critical Encyclopedia</i>. Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood Press (ABC-CLIO). pp. <span class="nowrap">25–</span>27. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-35507-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-35507-3"><bdi>978-0-313-35507-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pseudoscience%3A+A+Critical+Encyclopedia&rft.place=Santa+Barbara%2C+CA&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E25-%3C%2Fspan%3E27&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press+%28ABC-CLIO%29&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-313-35507-3&rft.aulast=Regal&rft.aufirst=Brian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAquatic+ape+hypothesis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hawks_blog-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hawks_blog_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hawks_blog_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hawks_blog_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHawks_JD2009" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_D._Hawks" title="John D. Hawks">Hawks JD</a> (4 August 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://johnhawks.net/weblog/topics/pseudoscience/aquatic_ape_theory.html">"Why anthropologists don't accept the Aquatic Ape Theory"</a> (Blog post).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Why+anthropologists+don%27t+accept+the+Aquatic+Ape+Theory&rft.date=2009-08-04&rft.au=Hawks+JD&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjohnhawks.net%2Fweblog%2Ftopics%2Fpseudoscience%2Faquatic_ape_theory.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAquatic+ape+hypothesis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-foley-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-foley_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-foley_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFoleyLahr2014" class="citation journal cs1">Foley R, Lahr MM (2014). "The role of "the aquatic" in human evolution: constraining the aquatic ape hypothesis". <i>Evolutionary Anthropology</i>. <b>23</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">56–</span>9. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fevan.21405">10.1002/evan.21405</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24753345">24753345</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:849419">849419</a>. <q>Where does this leave us? The AAH has been around for more than 50 years. No significant evidence has accumulated in its favor over that time, and the expansion of the fossil and archeological record has filled many of the gaps that made Hardy's original idea seem plausible.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Evolutionary+Anthropology&rft.atitle=The+role+of+%22the+aquatic%22+in+human+evolution%3A+constraining+the+aquatic+ape+hypothesis&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E56-%3C%2Fspan%3E9&rft.date=2014&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A849419%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24753345&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fevan.21405&rft.aulast=Foley&rft.aufirst=R&rft.au=Lahr%2C+MM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAquatic+ape+hypothesis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hardy_1960-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hardy_1960_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hardy_1960_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHardy1960">Hardy 1960</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorgan19723-9-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorgan19723-9_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMorgan1972">Morgan 1972</a>, p. 3-9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELangdon1997-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELangdon1997_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELangdon1997_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLangdon1997">Langdon 1997</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWestenhöfer1942148-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWestenhöfer1942148_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWestenhöfer1942">Westenhöfer 1942</a>, p. 148.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWestenhöfer1942" class="citation book cs1">Westenhöfer M (1942). <i>Der Eigenweg des Menschen. Dargestellt auf Grund von vergleichend morphologischen Untersuchungen über die Artbildung und Menschwerdung</i>. Berlin: Verlag der Medizinischen Welt, W. Mannstaedt & Co. pp. <span class="nowrap">309–</span>312. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/311692900">311692900</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Der+Eigenweg+des+Menschen.+Dargestellt+auf+Grund+von+vergleichend+morphologischen+Untersuchungen+%C3%BCber+die+Artbildung+und+Menschwerdung&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E309-%3C%2Fspan%3E312&rft.pub=Verlag+der+Medizinischen+Welt%2C+W.+Mannstaedt+%26+Co.&rft.date=1942&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F311692900&rft.aulast=Westenh%C3%B6fer&rft.aufirst=M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAquatic+ape+hypothesis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWestenhöfer1948" class="citation book cs1">Westenhöfer M (1948). <i>Die Grundlagen meiner Theorie vom Eigenweg des Menschen: Entwicklung, Menschwerdung, Weltanschauung</i>. Heidelberg: Carl Winter. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-533-01969-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-533-01969-5"><bdi>978-3-533-01969-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Die+Grundlagen+meiner+Theorie+vom+Eigenweg+des+Menschen%3A+Entwicklung%2C+Menschwerdung%2C+Weltanschauung&rft.place=Heidelberg&rft.pub=Carl+Winter&rft.date=1948&rft.isbn=978-3-533-01969-5&rft.aulast=Westenh%C3%B6fer&rft.aufirst=M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAquatic+ape+hypothesis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFReeve1992" class="citation journal cs1">Reeve E (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0016672300030184">"Book review: The Aquatic Ape: Fact or Fiction?"</a>. <i>Genetics Research</i>. <b>59</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">64–</span>66. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0016672300030184">10.1017/S0016672300030184</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Genetics+Research&rft.atitle=Book+review%3A+The+Aquatic+Ape%3A+Fact+or+Fiction%3F&rft.volume=59&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E64-%3C%2Fspan%3E66&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0016672300030184&rft.aulast=Reeve&rft.aufirst=E&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1017%252FS0016672300030184&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAquatic+ape+hypothesis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHardy1960-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHardy1960_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHardy1960_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHardy1960">Hardy 1960</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sauer1960-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sauer1960_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSauer1960" class="citation journal cs1">Sauer CO (1960). 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McGraw-Hill. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/nakedapezoologis00morr/page/29">29</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-09-948201-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-09-948201-7"><bdi>978-0-09-948201-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Naked+Ape&rft.pages=29&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=1967&rft.isbn=978-0-09-948201-7&rft.aulast=Morris&rft.aufirst=D&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnakedapezoologis00morr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAquatic+ape+hypothesis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMorgan1877" class="citation book cs1">Morgan LH (1877). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ancientsocietyo00morggoog"><i>Ancient Society</i></a>. New York: Henry Holt & Co. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ancientsocietyo00morggoog/page/n32">10</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 October</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Society&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=10&rft.pub=Henry+Holt+%26+Co&rft.date=1877&rft.aulast=Morgan&rft.aufirst=LH&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fancientsocietyo00morggoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAquatic+ape+hypothesis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDart1953" class="citation journal cs1">Dart RA (1953). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.users.miamioh.edu/erlichrd/350website/classrel/dart.html">"The Predatory Transition from Ape to Man"</a>. <i>International Anthropological and Linguistic Review</i>. <b>1</b> (4)<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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CRC Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-367-14548-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-367-14548-4"><bdi>978-0-367-14548-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Waterside+Ape%3A+An+alternative+Account+of+Human+Evolution&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-0-367-14548-4&rft.aulast=Rhys-Evans&rft.aufirst=P&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.crcpress.com%2FThe-Waterside-Ape-An-Alternative-Account-of-Human-Evolution%2FEvans%2Fp%2Fbook%2F9780367145484%23googlePreviewContainer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAquatic+ape+hypothesis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorgan199069–79-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorgan199069–79_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMorgan1990">Morgan 1990</a>, pp. 69–79.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELangdon1997483-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELangdon1997483_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLangdon1997">Langdon 1997</a>, pp. 483.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELangdon1997487-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELangdon1997487_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELangdon1997487_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLangdon1997">Langdon 1997</a>, pp. 487.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWood1929" class="citation book cs1">Wood FJ (1929). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mYI3AAAAIAAJ"><i>Man's Place among the Mammals</i></a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 February</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Man%27s+Place+among+the+Mammals&rft.pages=309&rft.pub=Longmans%2C+Green+%26+co.&rft.date=1929&rft.aulast=Wood&rft.aufirst=FJ&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmYI3AAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAquatic+ape+hypothesis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSterelnyFitness2004" class="citation book cs1">Sterelny K, Fitness J (1 March 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rnGLp3QMiJYC"><i>From Mating to Mentality: Evaluating Evolutionary Psychology</i></a>. Psychology Press. p. 250. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-43212-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-135-43212-6"><bdi>978-1-135-43212-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Mating+to+Mentality%3A+Evaluating+Evolutionary+Psychology&rft.pages=250&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=2004-03-01&rft.isbn=978-1-135-43212-6&rft.aulast=Sterelny&rft.aufirst=K&rft.au=Fitness%2C+J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrnGLp3QMiJYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAquatic+ape+hypothesis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHardy1960645-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHardy1960645_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHardy1960645_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHardy1960">Hardy 1960</a>, p. 645.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELangdon1997481-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELangdon1997481_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLangdon1997">Langdon 1997</a>, pp. 481.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKuliukasMorgan2011" class="citation book cs1">Kuliukas AV, Morgan E (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ebooks.benthamscience.com/book/9781608052448/chapter/51560/"><i>Aquatic Scenarios in the Thinking on Human Evolution: What are they and How do they Compare?</i></a>. 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University of Chicago Press. p. 115. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-04498-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-04498-9"><bdi>978-0-226-04498-9</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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The <a href="/wiki/I_(British_newspaper)" class="mw-redirect" title="I (British newspaper)"><i>i</i> Newspaper</a>, 17 September 2016, page 23</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMaslinRoberts2018" class="citation web cs1">Maslin M, <a href="/wiki/Alice_Roberts" title="Alice Roberts">Roberts A</a> (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://theconversation.com/sorry-david-attenborough-we-didnt-evolve-from-aquatic-apes-heres-why-65570">"Sorry David Attenborough, we didn't evolve from 'aquatic apes' – here's why"</a>. theconversation.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Bentham Publishers. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2174%2F97816080524481110101">10.2174/97816080524481110101</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60805-244-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60805-244-8"><bdi>978-1-60805-244-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Obstetrical+Implications+of+the+Aquatic+Ape+Hypothesis&rft.btitle=Was+Man+More+Aquatic+in+the+Past%3F&rft.pub=Bentham+Publishers&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2174%2F97816080524481110101&rft.isbn=978-1-60805-244-8&rft.aulast=Odent&rft.aufirst=Michel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbenthambooks.com%2Fbook%2F9781608052448%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAquatic+ape+hypothesis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aquatic_ape_hypothesis&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAttenborough2016" class="citation web cs1">Attenborough D (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b07w4y98/episodes/player">"The Waterside Ape"</a>. <i>BBC Radio 4</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BBC+Radio+4&rft.atitle=The+Waterside+Ape&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Attenborough&rft.aufirst=D&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fprogrammes%2Fb07w4y98%2Fepisodes%2Fplayer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAquatic+ape+hypothesis" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBroadhurstWangCrawfordCunnane2002" class="citation journal cs1">Broadhurst, C. Leigh; Wang, Yiqun; Crawford, Michael A.; Cunnane, Stephen C.; et al. (2002). "Brain-specific lipids from marine, lacustrine, or terrestrial food resources: potential impact on early African Homo sapiens". <i>Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part B: Biochemistry and Molecular Biology</i>. <b>131</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">653–</span>673. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS1096-4959%2802%2900002-7">10.1016/S1096-4959(02)00002-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11923081">11923081</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Comparative+Biochemistry+and+Physiology+Part+B%3A+Biochemistry+and+Molecular+Biology&rft.atitle=Brain-specific+lipids+from+marine%2C+lacustrine%2C+or+terrestrial+food+resources%3A+potential+impact+on+early+African+Homo+sapiens&rft.volume=131&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E653-%3C%2Fspan%3E673&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS1096-4959%2802%2900002-7&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11923081&rft.aulast=Broadhurst&rft.aufirst=C.+Leigh&rft.au=Wang%2C+Yiqun&rft.au=Crawford%2C+Michael+A.&rft.au=Cunnane%2C+Stephen+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAquatic+ape+hypothesis" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCrawfordMarsh1989" class="citation book cs1">Crawford M, Marsh D (1989). <i>The Driving Force</i>. London: Heinemann.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Driving+Force&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Heinemann&rft.date=1989&rft.aulast=Crawford&rft.aufirst=M&rft.au=Marsh%2C+D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAquatic+ape+hypothesis" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCunnaneStewart2010" class="citation book cs1">Cunnane SC, Stewart K, eds. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gfkRnv20GtsC"><i>Human Brain Evolution: The Influence of Freshwater and Marine Food Resources</i></a>. Wiley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-60987-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-470-60987-3"><bdi>978-0-470-60987-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Human+Brain+Evolution%3A+The+Influence+of+Freshwater+and+Marine+Food+Resources&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-470-60987-3&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgfkRnv20GtsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAquatic+ape+hypothesis" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHardy1960" class="citation journal cs1">Hardy A (17 March 1960). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qUi12M-fpMsC">"Was Man More Aquatic in the Past?"</a>. <i>New Scientist</i>. <b>7</b> (174): <span class="nowrap">642–</span>45.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+Scientist&rft.atitle=Was+Man+More+Aquatic+in+the+Past%3F&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=174&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E642-%3C%2Fspan%3E45&rft.date=1960-03-17&rft.aulast=Hardy&rft.aufirst=A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqUi12M-fpMsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAquatic+ape+hypothesis" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged March 2024">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLangdon1997" class="citation journal cs1">Langdon JH (October 1997). "Umbrella hypotheses and parsimony in human evolution: a critique of the Aquatic Ape Hypothesis". <i>Journal of Human Evolution</i>. <b>33</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">479–</span>94. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1997JHumE..33..479L">1997JHumE..33..479L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1006%2Fjhev.1997.0146">10.1006/jhev.1997.0146</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9361254">9361254</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Human+Evolution&rft.atitle=Umbrella+hypotheses+and+parsimony+in+human+evolution%3A+a+critique+of+the+Aquatic+Ape+Hypothesis&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E479-%3C%2Fspan%3E94&rft.date=1997-10&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9361254&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1006%2Fjhev.1997.0146&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1997JHumE..33..479L&rft.aulast=Langdon&rft.aufirst=JH&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAquatic+ape+hypothesis" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMorgan1972" class="citation book cs1">Morgan E (1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WTw5AAAAQBAJ"><i>The Descent of Woman</i></a>. London: Souvenir Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-285-63984-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-285-63984-3"><bdi>978-0-285-63984-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Descent+of+Woman&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Souvenir+Press&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=978-0-285-63984-3&rft.aulast=Morgan&rft.aufirst=E&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWTw5AAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAquatic+ape+hypothesis" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMorgan1982" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a href="/wiki/Elaine_Morgan" title="Elaine Morgan">Morgan E</a> (1982). <i>The Aquatic Ape: A Theory of Human Evolution</i>. Vol. Foreword by Sir <a href="/wiki/Alister_Hardy" title="Alister Hardy">Alister Hardy</a>. Souvenir Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-285-62509-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-285-62509-9"><bdi>978-0-285-62509-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Aquatic+Ape%3A+A+Theory+of+Human+Evolution&rft.pub=Souvenir+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-0-285-62509-9&rft.aulast=Morgan&rft.aufirst=E&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAquatic+ape+hypothesis" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMorgan1990" class="citation book cs1">Morgan E (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JkXvp0eAhAoC"><i>The Scars of Evolution</i></a>. London: Souvenir Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-509431-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-509431-2"><bdi>978-0-19-509431-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Scars+of+Evolution&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Souvenir+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-19-509431-2&rft.aulast=Morgan&rft.aufirst=E&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJkXvp0eAhAoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAquatic+ape+hypothesis" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMorgan1994" class="citation book cs1">Morgan E (1994). <i>The Descent of the Child</i>. London: Souvenir Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Descent+of+the+Child&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Souvenir+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Morgan&rft.aufirst=E&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAquatic+ape+hypothesis" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMorgan1997" class="citation book cs1">Morgan E (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=le-bKIl85EAC"><i>The Aquatic Ape Hypothesis</i></a>. London: Souvenir Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-285-63981-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-285-63981-2"><bdi>978-0-285-63981-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Aquatic+Ape+Hypothesis&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Souvenir+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-285-63981-2&rft.aulast=Morgan&rft.aufirst=E&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dle-bKIl85EAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAquatic+ape+hypothesis" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMorgan2008" class="citation book cs1">Morgan E (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YSUSAQAAIAAJ"><i>The Naked Darwinist</i></a>. Eildon Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9525620-3-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9525620-3-0"><bdi>978-0-9525620-3-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Naked+Darwinist&rft.pub=Eildon+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-9525620-3-0&rft.aulast=Morgan&rft.aufirst=E&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYSUSAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAquatic+ape+hypothesis" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRoedeWindPatrickReynolds1991" class="citation book cs1">Roede M, Wind J, Patrick J, Reynolds V, eds. (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Yy20AAAAIAAJ"><i>Aquatic Ape: Fact or Fiction? Proceedings from the Valkenburg Conference</i></a>. Souvenir Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-285-63033-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-285-63033-8"><bdi>978-0-285-63033-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aquatic+Ape%3A+Fact+or+Fiction%3F+Proceedings+from+the+Valkenburg+Conference&rft.pub=Souvenir+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-285-63033-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYy20AAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAquatic+ape+hypothesis" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFVaneechoutteKuliukasVerhaegen2011" class="citation book cs1">Vaneechoutte M, Kuliukas AV, Verhaegen M, eds. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KX5XuWYKsLYC"><i>Was Man More Aquatic in the Past? Fifty Years After Alister Hardy - Waterside Hypotheses of Human Evolution</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Bentham_Science_Publishers" title="Bentham Science Publishers">Bentham Science Publishers</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60805-244-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60805-244-8"><bdi>978-1-60805-244-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Was+Man+More+Aquatic+in+the+Past%3F+Fifty+Years+After+Alister+Hardy+-+Waterside+Hypotheses+of+Human+Evolution&rft.pub=Bentham+Science+Publishers&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-60805-244-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKX5XuWYKsLYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAquatic+ape+hypothesis" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" 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tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Pseudoscience225" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Pseudoscience" title="Template:Pseudoscience"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Pseudoscience" title="Template talk:Pseudoscience"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Pseudoscience" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Pseudoscience"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Pseudoscience225" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience" title="List of topics characterized as pseudoscience">List of topics characterized as pseudoscience</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Terminology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cargo_cult_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Cargo cult science">Cargo cult science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlatan" title="Charlatan">Charlatan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crank_(person)" title="Crank (person)">Crank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fringe_theory" title="Fringe theory">Fringe theory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fringe_science" title="Fringe science">Fringe science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoarchaeology" title="Pseudoarchaeology">Pseudoarchaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudohistory" title="Pseudohistory">Pseudohistory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudomathematics" title="Pseudomathematics">Pseudomathematics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Junk_science" title="Junk science">Junk science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paranormal" title="Paranormal">Paranormal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathological_science" title="Pathological science">Pathological science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quackery" title="Quackery">Quackery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snake_oil" title="Snake oil">Snake oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superseded_theories_in_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Superseded theories in science">Superseded scientific theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/True-believer_syndrome" title="True-believer syndrome">True-believer syndrome</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Voodoo_Science" title="Voodoo Science">Voodoo Science</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience" title="List of topics characterized as pseudoscience">Topics <br />characterized as <br />pseudoscience</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medicine</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acupuncture" title="Acupuncture">Acupuncture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aromatherapy" title="Aromatherapy">Aromatherapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrenal_fatigue" title="Adrenal fatigue">Adrenal fatigue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_medicine" title="Alternative medicine">Alternative medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthroposophic_medicine" title="Anthroposophic medicine">Anthroposophic medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_kinesiology" title="Applied kinesiology">Applied kinesiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayurveda" title="Ayurveda">Ayurveda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bates_method" title="Bates method">Bates method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biorhythm_(pseudoscience)" title="Biorhythm (pseudoscience)">Biorhythms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bloodletting" title="Bloodletting">Bloodletting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_memory" title="Body memory">Body memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiropractic" title="Chiropractic">Chiropractic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromotherapy" title="Chromotherapy">Chromotherapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correactology" title="Correactology">Correactology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryonics" title="Cryonics">Cryonics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystal_healing" title="Crystal healing">Crystal healing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cupping_therapy" title="Cupping therapy">Cupping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detoxification_(alternative_medicine)" title="Detoxification (alternative medicine)">Detoxification</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colon_cleansing" title="Colon cleansing">Colon cleansing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctrine_of_signatures" title="Doctrine of signatures">Doctrine of signatures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doktor_Koster%27s_Antigaspills" title="Doktor Koster's Antigaspills">Doktor Koster's Antigaspills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ear_candling" title="Ear candling">Ear candling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_hypersensitivity" title="Electromagnetic hypersensitivity">Electromagnetic hypersensitivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_medicine" title="Energy medicine">Energy medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fad_diet" title="Fad diet">Fad diet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FasciaBlaster" title="FasciaBlaster">FasciaBlaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germ_theory_denialism" title="Germ theory denialism">Germ theory denialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_denialism" title="HIV/AIDS denialism">HIV/AIDS denialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeopathy" title="Homeopathy">Homeopathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humorism" title="Humorism">Humorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iridology" title="Iridology">Iridology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leaky_gut_syndrome" title="Leaky gut syndrome">Leaky gut syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_chemicals_conspiracy_theory" title="LGBTQ chemicals conspiracy theory">LGBTQ chemicals conspiracy theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunar_effect" title="Lunar effect">Lunar effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrobiotic_diet" title="Macrobiotic diet">Macrobiotic diet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnet_therapy" title="Magnet therapy">Magnet therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miracle_Mineral_Supplement" title="Miracle Mineral Supplement">Miracle Mineral Supplement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturopathy" title="Naturopathy">Naturopathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palmistry" title="Palmistry">Palmistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panchagavya" title="Panchagavya">Panchagavya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patent_medicine" title="Patent medicine">Patent medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phrenology" title="Phrenology">Phrenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primal_therapy" title="Primal therapy">Primal therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radionics" title="Radionics">Radionics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reiki" title="Reiki">Reiki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_medicine" title="Traditional medicine">Traditional medicine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine" title="Traditional Chinese medicine">Traditional Chinese medicine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trepanning" title="Trepanning">Trepanning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertebral_subluxation" title="Vertebral subluxation">Vertebral subluxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_turbine_syndrome" title="Wind turbine syndrome">Wind turbine syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Young_blood_transfusion" title="Young blood transfusion">Young blood transfusion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Social science</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2012_phenomenon" title="2012 phenomenon">2012 phenomenon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_astronauts" title="Ancient astronauts">Ancient astronauts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamal_Salibi#Arabian_Judah_theory" title="Kamal Salibi">Arabian Judah theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catastrophism" title="Catastrophism">Catastrophism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_theory" title="Conspiracy theory">Conspiracy theory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/5G#Misinformation_and_controversy" title="5G">5G conspiracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/9/11_conspiracy_theories" title="9/11 conspiracy theories">9/11 conspiracy theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemtrail_conspiracy_theory" title="Chemtrail conspiracy theory">Chemtrail conspiracy theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_denial" title="Climate change denial">Climate change denial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation" title="COVID-19 misinformation">COVID-19 misinformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moon_landing_conspiracy_theories" title="Moon landing conspiracy theories">Moon landing conspiracy theories</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversion_therapy" title="Conversion therapy">Conversion therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generation#Generational_theory" title="Generation">Generational theory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Generationism" title="Generationism">Generationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strauss%E2%80%93Howe_generational_theory" title="Strauss–Howe generational theory">Strauss–Howe generational theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hollow_Earth" title="Hollow Earth">Hollow Earth theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigo_children" title="Indigo children">Indigo children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japhetic_theory" title="Japhetic theory">Japhetic theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediumship" title="Mediumship">Mediumship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_archaeology" title="Nazi archaeology">Nazi archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nibiru_cataclysm" title="Nibiru cataclysm">Nibiru cataclysm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parapsychology" title="Parapsychology">Parapsychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoarchaeology" title="Pseudoarchaeology">Pseudoarchaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudohistory" title="Pseudohistory">Pseudohistory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_denial" title="Genocide denial">Genocide denial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_negationism" title="Historical negationism">Historical negationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_denial" title="Holocaust denial">Holocaust denial</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudolaw" title="Pseudolaw">Pseudolaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recovered-memory_therapy" title="Recovered-memory therapy">Recovered-memory therapy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Past_life_regression" title="Past life regression">Past life regression</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">Scientific racism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aryan_race" title="Aryan race">Aryan race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melanin_theory" title="Melanin theory">Melanin theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myers%E2%80%93Briggs_Type_Indicator" title="Myers–Briggs Type Indicator">Myers–Briggs Type Indicator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enneagram_of_Personality" title="Enneagram of Personality">Enneagram of Personality</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Physics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-gravity" title="Anti-gravity">Anti-gravity‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_fusion" title="Cold fusion">Cold fusion‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faster-than-light" title="Faster-than-light">Faster-than-light travel</a>‎</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_motion" title="Perpetual motion">Perpetual motion</a>‎</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_mysticism" title="Quantum mysticism">Quantum mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reactionless_drive" title="Reactionless drive">Reactionless drive</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dean_drive" title="Dean drive">Dean drive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EmDrive" title="EmDrive">EMDrive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teleportation" title="Teleportation">Teleportation‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tractor_beam" title="Tractor beam">Tractor beam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water-fueled_car" class="mw-redirect" title="Water-fueled car">Water-fueled car</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">Alchemy</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Aquatic ape hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrology" title="Astrology">Astrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biodynamic_agriculture" title="Biodynamic agriculture">Biodynamic agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_transmutation" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological transmutation">Biological transmutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creation_science" title="Creation science">Creation science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptozoology" title="Cryptozoology">Cryptozoology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dianetics" title="Dianetics">Dianetics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auditing_(Scientology)" title="Auditing (Scientology)">Auditing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dowsing" title="Dowsing">Dowsing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_voice_phenomenon" title="Electronic voice phenomenon">Electronic voice phenomenon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">Eugenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facilitated_communication" title="Facilitated communication">Facilitated communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feng_shui" title="Feng shui">Feng shui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flat_Earth" title="Flat Earth">Flat Earth theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graphology" title="Graphology">Graphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligent_design" title="Intelligent design">Intelligent design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laundry_ball" title="Laundry ball">Laundry ball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_attraction_(New_Thought)" title="Law of attraction (New Thought)">Law of attraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levitation_(paranormal)" title="Levitation (paranormal)">Levitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lysenkoism" title="Lysenkoism">Lysenkoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numerology" title="Numerology">Numerology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orgone" title="Orgone">Orgone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polygraph" title="Polygraph">Polygraph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscientific_metrology" title="Pseudoscientific metrology">Pseudoscientific metrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapid_prompting_method" title="Rapid prompting method">Rapid prompting method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statement_analysis" title="Statement analysis">Statement analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ufology" title="Ufology">Ufology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voice_stress_analysis" title="Voice stress analysis">Voice stress analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_memory" title="Water memory">Water memory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Promoters of<br />pseudoscience</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sucharit_Bhakdi" title="Sucharit Bhakdi">Sucharit Bhakdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Del_Bigtree" title="Del Bigtree">Del Bigtree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igor_and_Grichka_Bogdanoff" title="Igor and Grichka Bogdanoff">Igor and Grichka Bogdanoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brigitte_Boisselier" title="Brigitte Boisselier">Brigitte Boisselier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhonda_Byrne" title="Rhonda Byrne">Rhonda Byrne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Charroux" title="Robert Charroux">Robert Charroux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deepak_Chopra" title="Deepak Chopra">Deepak Chopra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clonaid" title="Clonaid">Clonaid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernon_Coleman" title="Vernon Coleman">Vernon Coleman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignatius_L._Donnelly" title="Ignatius L. Donnelly">Ignatius L. Donnelly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaia,_Inc." title="Gaia, Inc.">Gaia, Inc.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Gerson" title="Max Gerson">Max Gerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Gonzalez_(physician)" title="Nicholas Gonzalez (physician)">Nicholas Gonzalez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goop_(company)" title="Goop (company)">Goop (company)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graham_Hancock" title="Graham Hancock">Graham Hancock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Icke" title="David Icke">David Icke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Donald_Kelley" title="William Donald Kelley">William Donald Kelley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Kennedy_Jr." title="Robert F. Kennedy Jr.">Robert F. Kennedy Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corentin_Louis_Kervran" title="Corentin Louis Kervran">Corentin Louis Kervran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Light_(newspaper)" title="The Light (newspaper)">The Light (newspaper)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mike_Lindell" title="Mike Lindell">Mike Lindell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jenny_McCarthy" title="Jenny McCarthy">Jenny McCarthy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Mercola" title="Joseph Mercola">Joseph Mercola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judy_Mikovits" title="Judy Mikovits">Judy Mikovits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Ayush" title="Ministry of Ayush">Ministry of Ayush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_Morell" title="Theodor Morell">Theodor Morell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Alfred_Nieper" title="Hans Alfred Nieper">Hans Alfred Nieper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mehmet_Oz" title="Mehmet Oz">Mehmet Oz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ra%C3%ABl" title="Raël">Raël</a> (<a href="/wiki/Claude_Vorilhon" class="mw-redirect" title="Claude Vorilhon">Claude Vorilhon</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robby_Starbuck" title="Robby Starbuck">Robby Starbuck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randolph_Stone" title="Randolph Stone">Randolph Stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Joseph_Watson" title="Paul Joseph Watson">Paul Joseph Watson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Wakefield" title="Andrew Wakefield">Andrew Wakefield</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bogdanov_affair" title="Bogdanov affair">Bogdanov affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bourgeois_pseudoscience" title="Bourgeois pseudoscience">Bourgeois pseudoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suppressed_research_in_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Suppressed research in the Soviet Union">Suppressed research in the Soviet Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Resources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Committee_for_Skeptical_Inquiry" title="Committee for Skeptical Inquiry">Committee for Skeptical Inquiry</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cults_of_Unreason" title="Cults of Unreason">Cults of Unreason</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/An_Encyclopedia_of_Claims,_Frauds,_and_Hoaxes_of_the_Occult_and_Supernatural" title="An Encyclopedia of Claims, Frauds, and Hoaxes of the Occult and Supernatural">An Encyclopedia of Claims, Frauds, and Hoaxes of the Occult and Supernatural</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fads_and_Fallacies_in_the_Name_of_Science" title="Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science">Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fortean_Times" title="Fortean Times">Fortean Times</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Randi_Educational_Foundation" title="James Randi Educational Foundation">James Randi Educational Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quackwatch" title="Quackwatch">Quackwatch</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Skeptical_Inquirer" title="Skeptical Inquirer">Skeptical Inquirer</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Demon-Haunted_World" title="The Demon-Haunted World">The Demon-Haunted World</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Natural_History_of_Quackery" class="mw-redirect" title="The Natural History of Quackery">The Natural History of Quackery</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Psychology_of_the_Occult" title="The Psychology of the Occult">The Psychology of the Occult</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Ragged_Edge_of_Science" title="The Ragged Edge of Science">The Ragged Edge of Science</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Skeptic_Encyclopedia_of_Pseudoscience" title="The Skeptic Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience">The Skeptic Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Skeptic%27s_Dictionary" title="The Skeptic's Dictionary">The Skeptic's Dictionary</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Aquatic_ecosystems487" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Aquatic_ecosystems" title="Template:Aquatic ecosystems"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Aquatic_ecosystems" title="Template talk:Aquatic ecosystems"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Aquatic_ecosystems" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Aquatic ecosystems"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Aquatic_ecosystems487" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_ecosystem" title="Aquatic ecosystem">Aquatic ecosystems</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="General_components_and_freshwater_ecosystems487" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">General components and <a href="/wiki/Freshwater_ecosystem" title="Freshwater ecosystem">freshwater ecosystems</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acoustic_ecology" title="Acoustic ecology">Acoustic ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algal_bloom" title="Algal bloom">Algal bloom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anoxic_waters" title="Anoxic waters">Anoxic waters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_adaptation" class="mw-redirect" title="Aquatic adaptation">Aquatic adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_animal" title="Aquatic animal">Aquatic animal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_insect" title="Aquatic insect">Insect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_mammal" title="Aquatic mammal">Mammal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_bird" title="Water bird">Water bird</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_biomonitoring" title="Aquatic biomonitoring">Aquatic biomonitoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_plant" title="Aquatic plant">Aquatic plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agent-based_model_in_biology#Aquatic_population_dynamics" title="Agent-based model in biology">Aquatic population dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_predation" class="mw-redirect" title="Aquatic predation">Aquatic predation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_respiration" title="Aquatic respiration">Aquatic respiration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_science" title="Aquatic science">Aquatic science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_toxicology" title="Aquatic toxicology">Aquatic toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benthos" title="Benthos">Benthos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioluminescence" title="Bioluminescence">Bioluminescence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomass_(ecology)" title="Biomass (ecology)">Biomass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cascade_effect_(ecology)" title="Cascade effect (ecology)">Cascade effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colored_dissolved_organic_matter" title="Colored dissolved organic matter">Colored dissolved organic matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dead_zone_(ecology)" title="Dead zone (ecology)">Dead zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecohydrology" title="Ecohydrology">Ecohydrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutrophication" title="Eutrophication">Eutrophication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisheries_science" title="Fisheries science">Fisheries science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_chain" title="Food chain">Food chain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_web" title="Food web">Food web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GIS_and_aquatic_science" title="GIS and aquatic science">GIS and aquatic science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrobiology" title="Hydrobiology">Hydrobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypoxia_(environmental)" title="Hypoxia (environmental)">Hypoxia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrobenthos" title="Macrobenthos">Macrobenthos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meiobenthos" title="Meiobenthos">Meiobenthos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_ecology" title="Microbial ecology">Microbial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_food_web" title="Microbial food web">Microbial food web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_loop" title="Microbial loop">Microbial loop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nekton" title="Nekton">Nekton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuston" title="Neuston">Neuston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particle_(ecology)" title="Particle (ecology)">Particle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_zone" title="Pelagic zone">Pelagic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photic_zone" title="Photic zone">Photic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytoplankton" title="Phytoplankton">Phytoplankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plankton" title="Plankton">Plankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pleuston" class="mw-redirect" title="Pleuston">Pleuston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Productivity_(ecology)" title="Productivity (ecology)">Productivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramsar_Convention" title="Ramsar Convention">Ramsar Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sediment_trap" title="Sediment trap">Sediment trap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiaquatic" title="Semiaquatic">Semiaquatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoaling_and_schooling" title="Shoaling and schooling">Shoaling and schooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siltation" title="Siltation">Siltation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spawn_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Spawn (biology)">Spawn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isotope_analysis#Stable_isotope_analysis_in_aquatic_ecosystems" title="Isotope analysis">Stable isotope analysis in aquatic ecosystems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stream_metabolism" title="Stream metabolism">Stream metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substrate_(marine_biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Substrate (marine biology)">Substrate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_pollution" title="Thermal pollution">Thermal pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">Trophic level</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_camouflage" title="Underwater camouflage">Underwater camouflage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_column" title="Water column">Water column</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zooplankton" title="Zooplankton">Zooplankton</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg/250px-Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="202" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg/330px-Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg 2x" data-file-width="382" data-file-height="551" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Freshwater</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_biology" title="Freshwater biology">Freshwater biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_biome" class="mw-redirect" title="Freshwater biome">Freshwater biome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_environmental_quality_parameters" title="Freshwater environmental quality parameters">Freshwater environmental quality parameters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_fish" title="Freshwater fish">Freshwater fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyporheic_zone" title="Hyporheic zone">Hyporheic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limnology" title="Limnology">Limnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_ecosystem" title="Lake ecosystem">Lake ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_stratification" title="Lake stratification">Lake stratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Macrophyte">Macrophyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pond" title="Pond">Pond</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fish_pond" title="Fish pond">Fish pond</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rheotaxis" title="Rheotaxis">Rheotaxis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_ecosystem" title="River ecosystem">River ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stream_bed" title="Stream bed">Stream bed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stream_pool" title="Stream pool">Stream pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_state_index" title="Trophic state index">Trophic state index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upland_and_lowland" title="Upland and lowland">Upland and lowland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_garden" title="Water garden">Water garden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wetland" title="Wetland">Wetland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bog" title="Bog">Bog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brackish_marsh" title="Brackish marsh">Brackish marsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fen" title="Fen">Fen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_marsh" title="Freshwater marsh">Freshwater marsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_swamp_forest" title="Freshwater swamp forest">Freshwater swamp forest</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ecoregions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_freshwater_ecoregions_(WWF)" title="List of freshwater ecoregions (WWF)">List of freshwater ecoregions (WWF)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_freshwater_ecoregions_in_Africa_and_Madagascar" title="List of freshwater ecoregions in Africa and Madagascar">Africa and Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_freshwater_ecoregions_of_Latin_America_and_the_Caribbean" title="List of freshwater ecoregions of Latin America and the Caribbean">Latin America and the Caribbean</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_marine_ecoregions" title="List of marine ecoregions">List of marine ecoregions</a></li> <li>Specific examples <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geography_and_ecology_of_the_Everglades" title="Geography and ecology of the Everglades">Everglades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_ecology_of_Maharashtra" title="Freshwater ecology of Maharashtra">Maharashtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_of_the_North_Pacific_Subtropical_Gyre" title="Ecosystem of the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre">North Pacific Subtropical Gyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology_of_the_San_Francisco_Estuary" title="Ecology of the San Francisco Estuary">San Francisco Estuary</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Marine_ecosystems_(components)487" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Marine_ecosystem" title="Marine ecosystem">Marine ecosystems</a> (<a href="/wiki/Template:Marine_aquatic_ecosystems" title="Template:Marine aquatic ecosystems">components</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deep_scattering_layer" title="Deep scattering layer">Deep scattering layer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diel_vertical_migration" title="Diel vertical migration">Diel vertical migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F-ratio_(oceanography)" title="F-ratio (oceanography)">f-ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_fertilization" title="Iron fertilization">Iron fertilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Large_marine_ecosystem" class="mw-redirect" title="Large marine ecosystem">Large marine ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_biology" title="Marine biology">Marine biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_chemistry" title="Marine chemistry">Marine chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_food_web" title="Marine food web">Marine food web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_primary_production" title="Marine primary production">Marine primary production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_snow" title="Marine snow">Marine snow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_fertilization" title="Ocean fertilization">Ocean fertilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_physical-biological_process" title="Oceanic physical-biological process">Oceanic physical-biological process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_turbidity" title="Ocean turbidity">Ocean turbidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photophore" title="Photophore">Photophore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorson%27s_rule" title="Thorson's rule">Thorson's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upwelling" title="Upwelling">Upwelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viral_shunt" title="Viral shunt">Viral shunt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whale_fall" title="Whale fall">Whale fall</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Maldivesfish2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Maldivesfish2.jpg/140px-Maldivesfish2.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="95" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Maldivesfish2.jpg/210px-Maldivesfish2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Maldivesfish2.jpg/280px-Maldivesfish2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1818" data-file-height="1228" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_life" title="Marine life">Marine life</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Census_of_Marine_Life" title="Census of Marine Life">Census of Marine Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep-sea_community" title="Deep-sea community">Deep-sea community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep-water_coral" title="Deep-water coral">Deep-water coral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_fungi" title="Marine fungi">Marine fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_invertebrates" title="Marine invertebrates">Marine invertebrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_larval_ecology" title="Marine larval ecology">Marine larval ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seagrass" title="Seagrass">Seagrass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seashore_wildlife" title="Seashore wildlife">Seashore wildlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wild_fisheries" title="Wild fisheries">Wild fisheries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_microorganisms" title="Marine microorganisms">Microorganisms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_bacteriophage" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine bacteriophage">Marine bacteriophage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_prokaryotes" title="Marine prokaryotes">Marine prokaryotes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_protists" title="Marine protists">Marine protists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_viruses" title="Marine viruses">Marine viruses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_the_plankton" title="Paradox of the plankton">Paradox of the plankton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_vertebrate" title="Marine vertebrate">Vertebrates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_mammal" title="Marine mammal">Marine mammal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_reptile" title="Marine reptile">Marine reptile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saltwater_fish" title="Saltwater fish">Saltwater fish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_fish" title="Coastal fish">Coastal fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reef_fish" title="Coral reef fish">Coral reef fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep-sea_fish" title="Deep-sea fish">Deep-sea fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demersal_fish" title="Demersal fish">Demersal fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_fish" title="Pelagic fish">Pelagic fish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seabird" title="Seabird">Seabird</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_habitat" title="Marine habitat">Marine habitats</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bay_mud" title="Bay mud">Bay mud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_coastal_ecosystem" title="Marine coastal ecosystem">Marine coastal ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_biogeomorphology" title="Coastal biogeomorphology">Coastal biogeomorphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">Cold seep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">Coral reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Davidson_Seamount#Ecology" title="Davidson Seamount">Davidson Seamount § Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estuary" title="Estuary">Estuary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_ecology" title="Intertidal ecology">Intertidal ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_wetland" title="Intertidal wetland">Intertidal wetland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelp_forest" title="Kelp forest">Kelp forest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">Hydrothermal vent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lagoon" title="Lagoon">Lagoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mangrove" title="Mangrove">Mangrove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_biomes" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine biomes">Marine biomes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudflat" title="Mudflat">Mudflat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oyster_reef" title="Oyster reef">Oyster reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rocky_shore" title="Rocky shore">Rocky shore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_marsh" title="Salt marsh">Salt marsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_pannes_and_pools" title="Salt pannes and pools">Salt pannes and pools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seagrass_meadow" title="Seagrass meadow">Seagrass meadow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sponge_ground" title="Sponge ground">Sponge ground</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sponge_reef" title="Sponge reef">Sponge reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide_pool" title="Tide pool">Tide pool</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_conservation" title="Marine conservation">Conservation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coral_bleaching" title="Coral bleaching">Coral bleaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_values_of_mangroves" title="Ecological values of mangroves">Ecological values of mangroves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisheries_and_climate_change" class="mw-redirect" title="Fisheries and climate change">Fisheries and climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hotspot_Ecosystem_Research_and_Man%27s_Impact_On_European_Seas" title="Hotspot Ecosystem Research and Man's Impact On European Seas">HERMIONE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_marine_life" title="Human impact on marine life">Human impact on marine life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_conservation_activism" title="Marine conservation activism">Marine conservation activism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">Marine pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_protected_area" title="Marine protected area">Marine protected area</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="image" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Walden_Pond%2C_Massachusetts_on_June_27%2C_2012.png/20px-Walden_Pond%2C_Massachusetts_on_June_27%2C_2012.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Walden_Pond%2C_Massachusetts_on_June_27%2C_2012.png/40px-Walden_Pond%2C_Massachusetts_on_June_27%2C_2012.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Lakes" title="Portal:Lakes">Lakes portal</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/17px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="17" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/26px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/34px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1358" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Oceans" title="Portal:Oceans">Oceans portal</a></span></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Aquatic_ecology" title="Category:Aquatic ecology">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Human_evolution511" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Human_evolution" title="Template:Human evolution"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Human_evolution" title="Template talk:Human evolution"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Human_evolution" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Human evolution"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Human_evolution511" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">Human evolution</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_taxonomy" title="Human taxonomy">Taxonomy</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Hominini" title="Hominini">Hominins</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Most_recent_common_ancestor" title="Most recent common ancestor">Last common ancestors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chimpanzee%E2%80%93human_last_common_ancestor" title="Chimpanzee–human last common ancestor">Chimpanzee–human</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorilla%E2%80%93human_last_common_ancestor" title="Gorilla–human last common ancestor">Gorilla–human</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orangutan%E2%80%93human_last_common_ancestor" title="Orangutan–human last common ancestor">Orangutan–human</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gibbon%E2%80%93human_last_common_ancestor" title="Gibbon–human last common ancestor">Gibbon–human</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Australopithecine" title="Australopithecine">Australopithecines</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Nakalipithecus" title="Nakalipithecus">Nakalipithecus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Orrorin" title="Orrorin">Orrorin</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sahelanthropus" title="Sahelanthropus">Sahelanthropus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kenyanthropus" title="Kenyanthropus">Kenyanthropus</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><i><a href="/wiki/Ardipithecus" title="Ardipithecus">Ardipithecus</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ardipithecus_kadabba" title="Ardipithecus kadabba">A. kadabba</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ardipithecus_ramidus" title="Ardipithecus ramidus">A. ramidus</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><i><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus" title="Australopithecus">Australopithecus</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_afarensis" title="Australopithecus afarensis">A. afarensis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_africanus" title="Australopithecus africanus">A. africanus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_anamensis" title="Australopithecus anamensis">A. anamensis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_bahrelghazali" title="Australopithecus bahrelghazali">A. bahrelghazali</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_deyiremeda" title="Australopithecus deyiremeda">A. deyiremeda</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_garhi" title="Australopithecus garhi">A. garhi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_sediba" title="Australopithecus sediba">A. sediba</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><i><a href="/wiki/Paranthropus" title="Paranthropus">Paranthropus</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Paranthropus_aethiopicus" title="Paranthropus aethiopicus">P. aethiopicus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Paranthropus_boisei" title="Paranthropus boisei">P. boisei</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Paranthropus_robustus" title="Paranthropus robustus">P. robustus</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Homo" title="Homo">Humans and<br />proto-humans<br />(<i>Homo</i>)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Proto-humans</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_gautengensis" title="Homo gautengensis">H. gautengensis</a></i> (?)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_habilis" title="Homo habilis">H. habilis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_naledi" title="Homo naledi">H. naledi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_rudolfensis" title="Homo rudolfensis">H. rudolfensis</a></i> (?)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Penghu_1" title="Penghu 1">H. tsaichangensis</a></i> (?)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_erectus" title="Homo erectus">Homo erectus</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Java_Man" title="Java Man">H. e. erectus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dmanisi_hominins" title="Dmanisi hominins">H. e. georgicus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lantian_Man" title="Lantian Man">H. e. lantianensis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nanjing_Man" title="Nanjing Man">H. e. nankinensis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Peking_Man" title="Peking Man">H. e. pekinensis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Solo_Man" title="Solo Man">H. e. soloensis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tautavel_Man" title="Tautavel Man">H. e. tautavelensis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yuanmou_Man" title="Yuanmou Man">H. e. yuanmouensis</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Archaic_humans" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaic humans">Archaic humans</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_antecessor" title="Homo antecessor">H. antecessor</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denisovan" title="Denisovan">Denisovans</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_ergaster" title="Homo ergaster">H. ergaster</a></i> (?)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_floresiensis" title="Homo floresiensis">H. floresiensis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_heidelbergensis" title="Homo heidelbergensis">H. heidelbergensis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_longi" title="Homo longi">H. longi</a></i> (?)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_luzonensis" title="Homo luzonensis">H. luzonensis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Neanderthal" title="Neanderthal">H. neanderthalensis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_rhodesiensis" title="Homo rhodesiensis">H. rhodesiensis</a></i> (?)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">Modern humans</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Homo_sapiens26" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><i><a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">Homo sapiens</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_human" title="Early modern human"><i>H. s. sapiens</i> (archaic homo sapiens, anatomically modern humans)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jebel_Irhoud" title="Jebel Irhoud">Jebel Irhoud</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Herto_Man" title="Herto Man">H. s. idaltu</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cro-Magnon" title="Cro-Magnon">Cro-Magnon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manot_1" title="Manot 1">Manot people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tam_Pa_Ling_Cave" title="Tam Pa Ling Cave">Tam Pa Ling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Deer_Cave_people" title="Red Deer Cave people">Red Deer Cave people</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">Ancestors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_habilis" title="Homo habilis">Homo habilis</a></i> → <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_ergaster" title="Homo ergaster">Homo ergaster</a></i> / <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_erectus" title="Homo erectus">Homo erectus</a></i> (→ <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_antecessor" title="Homo antecessor">Homo antecessor</a></i>)<sup>?</sup> → <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_heidelbergensis" title="Homo heidelbergensis">Homo heidelbergensis</a></i> → <i>archaic Homo sapiens</i> → <i><a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">Homo sapiens</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Models</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General models</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hunting_hypothesis" title="Hunting hypothesis">Hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gathering_hypothesis" title="Gathering hypothesis">Gathering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endurance_running_hypothesis" title="Endurance running hypothesis">Endurance running</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Aquatic ape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection_in_humans" title="Sexual selection in humans">Sexual selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-domestication#In_humans" title="Self-domestication">Self-domestication</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Specific models</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Diet <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Control_of_fire_by_early_humans#The_cooking_hypothesis" title="Control of fire by early humans">Cooking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expensive_tissue_hypothesis" title="Expensive tissue hypothesis">Expensive tissue</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Diet">Shore-based</a></li></ul></li> <li>Drugs <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Drunken_monkey_hypothesis" title="Drunken monkey hypothesis">Drunken monkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_models_of_human_drug_use" title="Evolutionary models of human drug use">Evolutionary models of human drug use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoned_ape_theory" title="Stoned ape theory">Stoned ape theory</a></li></ul></li> <li>Behavior <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Killer_ape_theory" title="Killer ape theory">Killer ape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooperative_eye_hypothesis" title="Cooperative eye hypothesis">Cooperative eye</a></li></ul></li> <li>Life history <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grandmother_hypothesis" title="Grandmother hypothesis">Grandmother</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriarch_hypothesis" title="Patriarch hypothesis">Patriarch</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics<br /></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_bipedalism_in_humans" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of bipedalism in humans">Bipedalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_skeletal_changes_due_to_bipedalism" title="Human skeletal changes due to bipedalism">Skeleton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscular_evolution_in_humans" title="Muscular evolution in humans">Muscles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_skin_color" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of skin color">Skin color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_hair" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of hair">Hair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_and_heat_adaptations_in_humans" title="Cold and heat adaptations in humans">Thermoregulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_speech" title="Origin of speech">Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_language" title="Origin of language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_human_intelligence" title="Evolution of human intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_division_of_labour#Hypotheses_for_the_evolutionary_origins_of_SDL" title="Sexual division of labour">Gender roles</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_modern_humans" class="mw-redirect" title="Origin of modern humans">Origin of modern humans</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Recent_African_origin_of_modern_humans" title="Recent African origin of modern humans">Recent African origin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiregional_origin_of_modern_humans" title="Multiregional origin of modern humans">Multiregional origin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interbreeding_between_archaic_and_modern_humans" title="Interbreeding between archaic and modern humans">Archaic admixture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_modernity" title="Behavioral modernity">Behavioral modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_human_migrations" title="Early human migrations">Early migrations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recent_human_evolution" title="Recent human evolution">Recent evolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Timelines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_human_evolution" title="Timeline of human evolution">Human evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_prehistory" title="Timeline of prehistory">Human prehistory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Human_timeline" title="Template:Human timeline">Human timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Human_evolution_theorists" title="Category:Human evolution theorists">Theorists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Human_evolution_books" title="Category:Human evolution books">Books</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_human_evolution_fossils" title="List of human evolution fossils">Fossils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_anthropology" title="Evolutionary anthropology">Evolutionary anthropology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleoanthropology" title="Paleoanthropology">Paleoanthropology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Human evolutionary developmental biology">Human evolutionary developmental biology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Human_evolution" title="Category:Human evolution">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Human_evolution" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Human evolution">Commons</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/20px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/40px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Portal:Evolutionary_biology" title="Portal:Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology Portal</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Human_genetics235" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Human_genetics" title="Template:Human genetics"><abbr title="View this 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genetics">Evolutionary genetics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chimpanzee%E2%80%93human_last_common_ancestor" title="Chimpanzee–human last common ancestor">Human-chimp MRCA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neanderthal_genetics" title="Neanderthal genetics">Neanderthal genetics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neanderthal_genome_project" title="Neanderthal genome project">Neanderthal genome project</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_human_evolution" title="Timeline of human evolution">Timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_genetic_variation" title="Human genetic variation">Genetic variation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blood_type_distribution_by_country" title="Blood type distribution by country">Blood type distribution by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genealogical_DNA_test" title="Genealogical DNA test">Genealogical DNA test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_genealogy" title="Genetic genealogy">Genetic genealogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_genetics" title="Race and genetics">Race and genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recent_human_evolution" title="Recent human evolution">Recent evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surname_DNA_project" title="Surname DNA project">Surname DNA project</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_genetic_enhancement" title="Human genetic enhancement">Genetic enhancement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Archaeogenetics" title="Archaeogenetics">Genetic history</a> <br />by region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Africa" title="Genetic history of Africa">Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_North_Africa" title="Genetic history of North Africa">North Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_West_Africa" title="Genetic history of West Africa">West Africa‎‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Central_Africa" title="Genetic history of Central Africa">Central Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Eastern_Africa" title="Genetic history of Eastern Africa">Eastern Africa‎‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Southern_Africa" title="Genetic history of Southern Africa">Southern Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_the_African_diaspora" title="Genetic history of the African diaspora">African diaspora</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetics_and_archaeogenetics_of_South_Asia" title="Genetics and archaeogenetics of South Asia">South Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peopling_of_India" title="Peopling of India">India</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_the_Middle_East" title="Genetic history of the Middle East">Middle East</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Anatolian_farmers" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Anatolian farmers">Early Anatolian farmers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_the_Caucasus" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic history of the Caucasus">Caucasus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caucasus_hunter-gatherer" title="Caucasus hunter-gatherer">Caucasus hunter-gatherer</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Europe" title="Genetic history of Europe">Europe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_European_Farmers" title="Early European Farmers">Early European Farmers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_hunter-gatherer" title="Western hunter-gatherer">Western hunter-gatherer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_the_British_Isles" title="Genetic history of the British Isles">British Isles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_the_Iberian_Peninsula" title="Genetic history of the Iberian Peninsula">Iberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Italy" title="Genetic history of Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_hunter-gatherer" title="Eastern hunter-gatherer">Eastern hunter-gatherer</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Central_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic history of Central Asia">Central Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_North_Eurasian" title="Ancient North Eurasian">Ancient North Eurasian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_East_Asians" title="Genetic history of East Asians">East Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Northeast_Asian" title="Ancient Northeast Asian">Ancient Northeast Asian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Paleo-Siberian" title="Ancient Paleo-Siberian">Ancient Paleo-Siberian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peopling_of_China" title="Peopling of China">China</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peopling_of_Southeast_Asia" title="Peopling of Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peopling_of_Thailand" title="Peopling of Thailand">Thailand</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Genetic history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas">America</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Beringian" title="Ancient Beringian">Ancient Beringian</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population genetics</a> <br />by group</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Europe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_the_Basques" title="Origin of the Basques">Basques</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_studies_on_Bosniaks" title="Genetic studies on Bosniaks">Bosniaks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_studies_on_Bulgarians" title="Genetic studies on Bulgarians">Bulgarians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_studies_on_Croats" title="Genetic studies on Croats">Croats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_studies_on_Romanians" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic studies on Romanians">Romanians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_studies_on_Russians" title="Genetic studies on Russians">Russians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_studies_on_Sami" title="Genetic studies on Sami">Sami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_studies_on_Serbs" title="Genetic studies on Serbs">Serbs</a></li></ul></li> <li>MENA <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_studies_on_Arabs" title="Genetic studies on Arabs">Arabs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_the_Azerbaijanis" title="Origin of the Azerbaijanis">Azerbaijanis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Egypt" title="Genetic history of Egypt">Egyptians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_studies_of_Jews" title="Genetic studies of Jews">Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_studies_on_Moroccans" title="Genetic studies on Moroccans">Moroccans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_studies_on_Turkish_people" title="Genetic studies on Turkish people">Turks</a></li></ul></li> <li>South Asia <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_studies_on_Gujarati_people" title="Genetic studies on Gujarati people">Gujaratis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_studies_on_Sinhalese" title="Genetic studies on Sinhalese">Sinhalese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_studies_on_Sri_Lankan_Tamils" title="Genetic studies on Sri Lankan Tamils">Tamils (Sri Lankan)</a></li></ul></li> <li>East Asia <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_studies_on_Han_Chinese" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic studies on Han Chinese">Han Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_and_anthropometric_studies_on_Japanese_people" title="Genetic and anthropometric studies on Japanese people">Japanese</a></li></ul></li> <li>Southeast Asia <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_and_anthropology_studies_on_Filipinos" title="Genetic and anthropology studies on Filipinos">Filipinos</a></li></ul></li> <li>Sub-Saharan Africa <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_studies_on_Hutu_and_Tutsi" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic studies on Hutu and Tutsi">Hutu/Tutsi</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span><b><a href="/wiki/Category:Human_genetics" title="Category:Human genetics">Category</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Apes242" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Apes" title="Template:Apes"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Apes" title="Template talk:Apes"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Apes" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Apes"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Apes242" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ape" title="Ape">Apes</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_hominoids" title="List of hominoids">Extant<br /> ape species</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo" title="Homo">Homo</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">Human</a> (<i>H. sapiens</i>)</li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pan_(genus)" title="Pan (genus)">Pan</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bonobo" title="Bonobo">Bonobo</a> (<i>P. paniscus</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chimpanzee" title="Chimpanzee">Chimpanzee</a> (<i>P. troglodytes</i>)</li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gorilla" title="Gorilla">Gorilla</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_gorilla" title="Eastern gorilla">Eastern gorilla</a> (<i>G. beringei</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_gorilla" title="Western gorilla">Western gorilla</a> (<i>G. gorilla</i>)</li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Orangutan" title="Orangutan">Orangutan</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sumatran_orangutan" title="Sumatran orangutan">Sumatran orangutan</a> (<i>P. abelii</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bornean_orangutan" title="Bornean orangutan">Bornean orangutan</a> (<i>P. pygmaeus</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tapanuli_orangutan" title="Tapanuli orangutan">Tapanuli orangutan</a> (<i>P. tapanuliensis</i>)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gibbon" title="Gibbon">Gibbon</a> (<a href="/wiki/Family_(biology)" title="Family (biology)">family</a>: Hylobatidae)</li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Evidence_as_to_Man%27s_Place_in_Naturep2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Evidence_as_to_Man%27s_Place_in_Naturep2.jpg/100px-Evidence_as_to_Man%27s_Place_in_Naturep2.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="47" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Evidence_as_to_Man%27s_Place_in_Naturep2.jpg/150px-Evidence_as_to_Man%27s_Place_in_Naturep2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Evidence_as_to_Man%27s_Place_in_Naturep2.jpg/200px-Evidence_as_to_Man%27s_Place_in_Naturep2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1509" data-file-height="706" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Study of apes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_ape_language" title="Great ape language">Great ape language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dian_Fossey" title="Dian Fossey">Dian Fossey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birut%C4%97_Galdikas" title="Birutė Galdikas">Birutė Galdikas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jane_Goodall" title="Jane Goodall">Jane Goodall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chimpanzee_genome_project" title="Chimpanzee genome project">Chimpanzee genome project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_Genome_Project" title="Human Genome Project">Human Genome Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gladys_Kalema-Zikusoka" title="Gladys Kalema-Zikusoka">Gladys Kalema-Zikusoka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neanderthal_genome_project" title="Neanderthal genome project">Neanderthal genome project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willie_Smits" title="Willie Smits">Willie Smits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lone_Dr%C3%B8scher_Nielsen" title="Lone Drøscher Nielsen">Lone Drøscher Nielsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ian_Redmond" title="Ian Redmond">Ian Redmond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elgin_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="Elgin Center">Elgin Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ape_Cognition_and_Conservation_Initiative" title="Ape Cognition and Conservation Initiative">Iowa Primate Learning Sanctuary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borneo_Orangutan_Survival" title="Borneo Orangutan Survival">Borneo Orangutan Survival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primate_archaeology" title="Primate archaeology">Primate archaeology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Primate#Legal_and_social_status" title="Primate">Legal and<br />social status</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_ape_personhood" title="Great ape personhood">Personhood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Countries_banning_non-human_ape_experimentation" title="Countries banning non-human ape experimentation">Research ban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinshasa_Declaration_on_Great_Apes" title="Kinshasa Declaration on Great Apes">Kinshasa Declaration on Great Apes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Ape_Project" title="Great Ape Project">Great Ape Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Apes_Survival_Partnership" title="Great Apes Survival Partnership">Great Apes Survival Partnership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Primate_Day" title="International Primate Day">International Primate Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonhuman_Rights_Project" title="Nonhuman Rights Project">Nonhuman Rights Project</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primate" title="Primate">Primate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_individual_apes" title="List of individual apes">List of individual apes</a> (non-human)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monkeys_and_apes_in_space" title="Monkeys and apes in space">Apes in space</a> (non-human)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bigfoot" title="Bigfoot">Bigfoot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bushmeat" title="Bushmeat">Bushmeat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chimpanzee%E2%80%93human_last_common_ancestor" title="Chimpanzee–human last common ancestor">Chimpanzee–human last common ancestor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorilla%E2%80%93human_last_common_ancestor" title="Gorilla–human last common ancestor">Gorilla–human last common ancestor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orangutan%E2%80%93human_last_common_ancestor" title="Orangutan–human last common ancestor">Orangutan–human last common ancestor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gibbon%E2%80%93human_last_common_ancestor" title="Gibbon–human last common ancestor">Gibbon–human last common ancestor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fictional_primates" title="List of fictional primates">List of fictional primates</a> (non-human)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hominidae" title="Hominidae">Great apes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">Human evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monkey_Day" title="Monkey Day">Monkey Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mythic_humanoids" title="Mythic humanoids">Mythic humanoids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeren" title="Yeren">Yeren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeti" title="Yeti">Yeti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yowie" title="Yowie">Yowie</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a 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[\"CITEREFHalseyTylerKuliukas2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHardy1960\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHawks_JD2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKuliukasMilneFournier2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKuliukasMorgan2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLangdon1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLangdon2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaslinRoberts2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcNeill2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMilam2013\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMorgan1877\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorgan1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorgan1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorgan1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorgan1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorgan1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorgan2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorris1967\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOdent2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPondColby1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRaeKoppe2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRafferty2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReeve1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRegal2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReynolds1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRhys-Evans2019\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFRoedeWindPatrickReynolds1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSauer1960\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchagatay2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSterelnyFitness2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStewart2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStewartCunnaneTattersall2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStringerAndrews2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTobias\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTobias1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrauthMaslinDeinoJunginger2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVaneechoutteKuliukasVerhaegen2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVenturiBégin2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWestenhöfer1942\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWestenhöfer1948\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWood1929\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"Apes\"] = 1,\n [\"Aquatic ecosystem topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 35,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 25,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 4,\n [\"Dead link\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col end\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 7,\n [\"Human Evolution\"] = 1,\n [\"Human genetics\"] = 1,\n [\"Human timeline\"] = 1,\n [\"Portal bar\"] = 1,\n [\"Pseudoscience\"] = 1,\n [\"Quote\"] = 3,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 22,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Snd\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-api-ext.eqiad.main-68b59fcc8c-wh86r","timestamp":"20250326152047","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Aquatic ape hypothesis","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aquatic_ape_hypothesis","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q662893","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q662893","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2002-07-25T07:11:32Z","headline":"hypothesis about human evolution"}</script> </body> </html>