CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Weimar Republic - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"cb14bdb5-8952-4511-be7c-9c220ad94101","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Weimar_Republic","wgTitle":"Weimar Republic","wgCurRevisionId":1259164564,"wgRevisionId":1259164564,"wgArticleId":33685,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Pages with non-numeric formatnum arguments","Pages using the Phonos extension","Articles containing German-language text","Pages with German IPA","Pages including recorded pronunciations","Webarchive template wayback links","CS1 German-language sources (de)","All articles with dead external links","Articles with dead external links from November 2023","Articles with permanently dead external links","Pages containing links to subscription-only content", "Pages using gadget WikiMiniAtlas","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Use dmy dates from September 2023","Pages using infobox country or infobox former country with the flag caption or type parameters","Pages using infobox country or infobox former country with the symbol caption or type parameters","All articles with unsourced statements","Articles with unsourced statements from May 2023","Articles with unsourced statements from April 2023","Articles needing additional references from June 2021","All articles needing additional references","Articles with German-language sources (de)","Coordinates on Wikidata","1910s in Germany","1918 establishments in Germany","1920s in Germany","1930s in Germany","1933 disestablishments in Germany","20th century in Germany by period","Aftermath of World War I in Germany","Former countries of the interwar period","Former republics","Great Depression","Modern history of Germany", "States and territories disestablished in 1933","States and territories established in 1918","Weimar Republic","Weimar culture"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Weimar_Republic","wgRelevantArticleId":33685,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":200000,"wgCoordinates":{"lat":52.519999999999996,"lon":13.375},"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false, "wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q41304","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","ext.phonos.styles":"ready","ext.phonos.icons":"ready","ext.imagemap.styles":"ready","ext.tmh.player.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles": "ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","ext.phonos.init","ext.imagemap","ext.tmh.player","mediawiki.page.media","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.gadget.WikiMiniAtlas","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.imagemap.styles%7Cext.phonos.icons%2Cstyles%7Cext.tmh.player.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Flag_of_Germany_%283-2%29.svg/1200px-Flag_of_Germany_%283-2%29.svg.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="800"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Flag_of_Germany_%283-2%29.svg/800px-Flag_of_Germany_%283-2%29.svg.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="533"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Flag_of_Germany_%283-2%29.svg/640px-Flag_of_Germany_%283-2%29.svg.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="427"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Weimar Republic - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weimar_Republic"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Weimar_Republic&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weimar_Republic"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Weimar_Republic rootpage-Weimar_Republic skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Main menu </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z">Main page</a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia">Contents</a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events">Current events</a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x">Random article</a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works">About Wikipedia</a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia">Contact us</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia">Help</a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia">Learn to edit</a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors">Community portal</a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r">Recent changes</a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia">Upload file</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"> Search </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Appearance </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class="">Donate</a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Weimar+Republic" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class="">Create account</a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Weimar+Republic" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class="">Log in</a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Personal tools </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en">Donate</a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Weimar+Republic" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"> Create account</a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Weimar+Republic" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"> Log in</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing">learn more</a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y">Contributions</a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Name_and_symbols" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Name_and_symbols"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1 Name and symbols </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Name_and_symbols-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Name and symbols subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Name_and_symbols-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Terminology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Terminology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1 Terminology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Terminology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Flag_and_coat_of_arms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Flag_and_coat_of_arms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 Flag and coat of arms </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Flag_and_coat_of_arms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Armed_forces" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Armed_forces"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Armed forces </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Armed_forces-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 History </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle History subsection </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Background" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Background"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Background </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Background-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-November_Revolution_(1918-1919)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#November_Revolution_(1918-1919)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 November Revolution (1918-1919) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-November_Revolution_(1918-1919)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Years_of_crisis_(1919–1923)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Years_of_crisis_(1919–1923)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Years of crisis (1919–1923) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Years_of_crisis_(1919–1923)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Burden_from_the_First_World_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Burden_from_the_First_World_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.1 Burden from the First World War </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Burden_from_the_First_World_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Treaty_of_Versailles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Treaty_of_Versailles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.2 Treaty of Versailles </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Treaty_of_Versailles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-War_guilt" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#War_guilt"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.3 War guilt </div> </a> <ul id="toc-War_guilt-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_turmoil:_Kapp_Putsch_and_Ruhr_uprising" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_turmoil:_Kapp_Putsch_and_Ruhr_uprising"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.4 Political turmoil: Kapp Putsch and Ruhr uprising </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_turmoil:_Kapp_Putsch_and_Ruhr_uprising-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_assassinations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_assassinations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.5 Political assassinations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_assassinations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reparations_and_the_occupation_of_the_Ruhr" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reparations_and_the_occupation_of_the_Ruhr"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.6 Reparations and the occupation of the Ruhr </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reparations_and_the_occupation_of_the_Ruhr-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hyperinflation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hyperinflation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.7 Hyperinflation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hyperinflation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Additional_political_violence_and_the_Hitler_putsch" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Additional_political_violence_and_the_Hitler_putsch"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.8 Additional political violence and the Hitler putsch </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Additional_political_violence_and_the_Hitler_putsch-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Golden_Era_(1924–1929)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Golden_Era_(1924–1929)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Golden Era (1924–1929) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Golden_Era_(1924–1929)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Framework_for_economic_policy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Framework_for_economic_policy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4.1 Framework for economic policy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Framework_for_economic_policy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Unstable_political_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Unstable_political_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4.2 Unstable political system </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Unstable_political_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Foreign_policy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foreign_policy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4.3 Foreign policy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Foreign_policy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Culture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_policy_under_Weimar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_policy_under_Weimar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6 Social policy under Weimar </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_policy_under_Weimar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Renewed_crisis_and_decline_(1930–1933)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Renewed_crisis_and_decline_(1930–1933)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7 Renewed crisis and decline (1930–1933) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Renewed_crisis_and_decline_(1930–1933)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Onset_of_the_Great_Depression" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Onset_of_the_Great_Depression"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7.1 Onset of the Great Depression </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Onset_of_the_Great_Depression-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Brüning_and_the_first_presidential_cabinet_(1930–1932)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Brüning_and_the_first_presidential_cabinet_(1930–1932)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7.2 Brüning and the first presidential cabinet (1930–1932) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Brüning_and_the_first_presidential_cabinet_(1930–1932)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Papen_cabinet" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Papen_cabinet"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7.3 Papen cabinet </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Papen_cabinet-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Election_of_July_1932" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Election_of_July_1932"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7.4 Election of July 1932 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Election_of_July_1932-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Schleicher_cabinet" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Schleicher_cabinet"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7.5 Schleicher cabinet </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Schleicher_cabinet-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-End_of_the_Weimar_Republic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#End_of_the_Weimar_Republic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.8 End of the Weimar Republic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-End_of_the_Weimar_Republic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hitler's_chancellorship_(1933)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hitler's_chancellorship_(1933)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.8.1 Hitler's chancellorship (1933) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hitler's_chancellorship_(1933)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Enabling_Act" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Enabling_Act"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.8.2 Enabling Act </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Enabling_Act-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nazification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nazification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.8.3 Nazification </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nazification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reasons_for_failure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reasons_for_failure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Reasons for failure </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Reasons_for_failure-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Reasons for failure subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Reasons_for_failure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Economic_problems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_problems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Economic problems </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_problems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Institutional_problems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Institutional_problems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Institutional problems </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Institutional_problems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Role_of_individuals_and_parties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Role_of_individuals_and_parties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Role of individuals and parties </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Role_of_individuals_and_parties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Legacy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Constituent_states" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Constituent_states"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Constituent states </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Constituent_states-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Explanatory_notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Explanatory_notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Explanatory notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Explanatory_notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-General_and_cited_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_and_cited_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 General and cited sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_and_cited_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Further reading </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Further reading subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Primary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Primary sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historiography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historiography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Historiography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historiography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Weimar Republic</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 103 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-103" aria-hidden="true" > 103 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republiek_van_Weimar" title="Republiek van Weimar – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Republiek van Weimar" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weimarer_Republik" title="Weimarer Republik – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Weimarer Republik" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%85%D9%87%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D9%81%D8%A7%D9%8A%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="جمهورية فايمار – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="جمهورية فايمار" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republica_de_Weimar" title="Republica de Weimar – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Republica de Weimar" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rep%C3%BAblica_de_Weimar" title="República de Weimar – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="República de Weimar" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veymar_Respublikas%C4%B1" title="Veymar Respublikası – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Veymar Respublikası" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%AC%D9%88%D9%85%D9%87%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AA%DB%8C" title="وایمار جومهوریتی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="وایمار جومهوریتی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0" title="ভাইমার প্রজাতন্ত্র – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ভাইমার প্রজাতন্ত্র" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%80_%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D2%BB%D1%8B" title="Веймар республикаһы – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Веймар республикаһы" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%80%D1%8D%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Веймарская рэспубліка – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Веймарская рэспубліка" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%80%D1%8D%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Ваймарская рэспубліка – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Ваймарская рэспубліка" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Ваймарска република – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Ваймарска република" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vajmarska_Republika" title="Vajmarska Republika – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Vajmarska Republika" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republik_Weimar" title="Republik Weimar – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Republik Weimar" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B9_%D0%B1%D2%AF%D0%B3%D1%8D%D0%B4%D1%8D_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B0_%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81" title="Ваймарай бүгэдэ найрамдаха улас – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Ваймарай бүгэдэ найрамдаха улас" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rep%C3%BAblica_de_Weimar" title="República de Weimar – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="República de Weimar" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%80_%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Ваймар республики – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Ваймар республики" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%BDmarsk%C3%A1_republika" title="Výmarská republika – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Výmarská republika" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gweriniaeth_Weimar" title="Gweriniaeth Weimar – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Gweriniaeth Weimar" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weimarrepublikken" title="Weimarrepublikken – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Weimarrepublikken" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weimarer_Republik" title="Weimarer Republik – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Weimarer Republik" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://dsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weimarska_republika" title="Weimarska republika – Lower Sorbian" lang="dsb" hreflang="dsb" data-title="Weimarska republika" data-language-autonym="Dolnoserbski" data-language-local-name="Lower Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dolnoserbski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weimari_vabariik" title="Weimari vabariik – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Weimari vabariik" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%94%CE%B7%CE%BC%CE%BF%CE%BA%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_%CE%92%CE%B1%CF%8A%CE%BC%CE%AC%CF%81%CE%B7%CF%82" title="Δημοκρατία της Βαϊμάρης – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Δημοκρατία της Βαϊμάρης" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rep%C3%BAblica_de_Weimar" title="República de Weimar – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="República de Weimar" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vajmara_Respubliko" title="Vajmara Respubliko – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Vajmara Respubliko" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weimarko_Errepublika" title="Weimarko Errepublika – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Weimarko Errepublika" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%85%D9%87%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D9%88%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="جمهوری وایمار – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جمهوری وایمار" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9publique_de_Weimar" title="République de Weimar – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="République de Weimar" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weimarrepublyk" title="Weimarrepublyk – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Weimarrepublyk" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poblacht_Weimar" title="Poblacht Weimar – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Poblacht Weimar" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pobblaght_Weimar" title="Pobblaght Weimar – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Pobblaght Weimar" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaelg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poblachd_Weimar" title="Poblachd Weimar – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Poblachd Weimar" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rep%C3%BAblica_de_Weimar" title="República de Weimar – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="República de Weimar" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B0%94%EC%9D%B4%EB%A7%88%EB%A5%B4_%EA%B3%B5%ED%99%94%EA%B5%AD" title="바이마르 공화국 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="바이마르 공화국" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8E%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%B4%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%B0%D5%A1%D5%B6%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%BA%D5%A5%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Վայմարյան հանրապետություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Վայմարյան հանրապետություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="वाइमर गणराज्य – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="वाइमर गणराज्य" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weimarska_republika" title="Weimarska republika – Upper Sorbian" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Weimarska republika" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="Upper Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hornjoserbsce</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weimarska_Republika" title="Weimarska Republika – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Weimarska Republika" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weimar-Republiko" title="Weimar-Republiko – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Weimar-Republiko" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republik_Weimar" title="Republik Weimar – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Republik Weimar" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republica_de_Weimar" title="Republica de Weimar – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Republica de Weimar" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weimar-l%C3%BD%C3%B0veldi%C3%B0" title="Weimar-lýðveldið – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Weimar-lýðveldið" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repubblica_di_Weimar" title="Repubblica di Weimar – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Repubblica di Weimar" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A8%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%91%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%AA_%D7%95%D7%99%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%90%D7%A8" title="רפובליקת ויימאר – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="רפובליקת ויימאר" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%95%E1%83%90%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9E%E1%83%A3%E1%83%91%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%90" title="ვაიმარის რესპუბლიკა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ვაიმარის რესპუბლიკა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%80_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8B" title="Веймар Республикасы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Веймар Республикасы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamhuri_ya_Weimar" title="Jamhuri ya Weimar – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Jamhuri ya Weimar" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komara_Weimar%C3%AA" title="Komara Weimarê – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Komara Weimarê" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%80_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8B" title="Веймар Республикасы – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Веймар Республикасы" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Res_publica_Vimariana" title="Res publica Vimariana – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Res publica Vimariana" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veim%C4%81ras_Republika" title="Veimāras Republika – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Veimāras Republika" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weimarer_Republik" title="Weimarer Republik – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Weimarer Republik" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veimaro_respublika" title="Veimaro respublika – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Veimaro respublika" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weimarrippebliek" title="Weimarrippebliek – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Weimarrippebliek" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weimari_k%C3%B6zt%C3%A1rsas%C3%A1g" title="Weimari köztársaság – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Weimari köztársaság" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D1%98%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Вајмарска Република – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Вајмарска Република" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repoblikan%27i_Weimar" title="Repoblikan'i Weimar – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Repoblikan'i Weimar" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%BC_%E0%B4%B1%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%AC%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D" title="വയ്മർ റിപ്പബ്ലിക് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="വയ്മർ റിപ്പബ്ലിക്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%95" title="वायमार प्रजासत्ताक – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="वायमार प्रजासत्ताक" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%95%E1%83%90%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%A8_%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9E%E1%83%A3%E1%83%91%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%90" title="ვაიმარიშ რესპუბლიკა – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ვაიმარიშ რესპუბლიკა" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%85%D9%87%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D9%81%D8%A7%D9%8A%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="جمهورية فايمار – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="جمهورية فايمار" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republik_Weimar" title="Republik Weimar – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Republik Weimar" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D0%91%D2%AF%D0%B3%D0%B4_%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%85_%D0%A3%D0%BB%D1%81" title="Ваймарын Бүгд Найрамдах Улс – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Ваймарын Бүгд Найрамдах Улс" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weimarrepubliek" title="Weimarrepubliek – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Weimarrepubliek" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%B4%E3%82%A1%E3%82%A4%E3%83%9E%E3%83%AB%E5%85%B1%E5%92%8C%E6%94%BF" title="ヴァイマル共和政 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ヴァイマル共和政" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weimar_Republiik" title="Weimar Republiik – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Weimar Republiik" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weimarrepublikken" title="Weimarrepublikken – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Weimarrepublikken" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weimarrepublikken" title="Weimarrepublikken – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Weimarrepublikken" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weimar_Respublikasi" title="Weimar Respublikasi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Weimar Respublikasi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%85%DB%81%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C%DB%81_%D9%88%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="جمہوریہ وایمار – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="جمہوریہ وایمار" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republika_di_Weimar" title="Republika di Weimar – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Republika di Weimar" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target">Papiamentu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%8A%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%AC%D9%85%D9%87%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AA" title="د وايمار جمهوريت – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د وايمار جمهوريت" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%92%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%8E%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%8A%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%8B%E1%9E%9C%E1%9F%89%E1%9F%83%E1%9E%98%E1%9F%89%E1%9E%B6" title="សាធារណរដ្ឋវ៉ៃម៉ា – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="សាធារណរដ្ឋវ៉ៃម៉ា" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target">ភាសាខ្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rep%C3%B9blica_%27d_Weimar" title="Repùblica 'd Weimar – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Repùblica 'd Weimar" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republika_Weimarska" title="Republika Weimarska – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Republika Weimarska" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rep%C3%BAblica_de_Weimar" title="República de Weimar – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="República de Weimar" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republica_de_la_Weimar" title="Republica de la Weimar – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Republica de la Weimar" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Веймарская республика – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Веймарская республика" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rep%C3%B9blica_de_Weimar" title="Repùblica de Weimar – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Repùblica de Weimar" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weimar_Republic" title="Weimar Republic – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Weimar Republic" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republika_e_Vajmarit" title="Republika e Vajmarit – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Republika e Vajmarit" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weimar_Republic" title="Weimar Republic – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Weimar Republic" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weimarsk%C3%A1_republika" title="Weimarská republika – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Weimarská republika" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weimarska_republika" title="Weimarska republika – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Weimarska republika" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%DB%86%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C_%DA%A4%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%85%DB%95%D8%B1" title="کۆماری ڤایمەر – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="کۆماری ڤایمەر" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D1%98%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Вајмарска република – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Вајмарска република" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weimarska_Republika" title="Weimarska Republika – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Weimarska Republika" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weimarin_tasavalta" title="Weimarin tasavalta – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Weimarin tasavalta" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weimarrepubliken" title="Weimarrepubliken – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Weimarrepubliken" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republikang_Weimar" title="Republikang Weimar – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Republikang Weimar" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%80_%D2%97%D3%A9%D0%BC%D2%BB%D2%AF%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%B5" title="Веймар җөмһүрияте – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Веймар җөмһүрияте" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%98%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%93%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%90%E0%B9%84%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C" title="สาธารณรัฐไวมาร์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="สาธารณรัฐไวมาร์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weimar_Cumhuriyeti" title="Weimar Cumhuriyeti – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Weimar Cumhuriyeti" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Веймарська республіка – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Веймарська республіка" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%85%DB%81%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C%DB%81_%D9%88%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="جمہوریہ وایمار – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="جمہوریہ وایمار" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%E1%BB%99ng_h%C3%B2a_Weimar" title="Cộng hòa Weimar – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Cộng hòa Weimar" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republika_han_Weimar" title="Republika han Weimar – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Republika han Weimar" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%AD%8F%E7%8E%9B%E5%85%B1%E5%92%8C%E5%9B%BD" title="魏玛共和国 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="魏玛共和国" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%95%D7%95%D7%99%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%A2%D7%A8_%D7%A8%D7%A2%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%91%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%A7" title="וויימארער רעפובליק – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="וויימארער רעפובליק" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weimar_Ol%C3%B3m%C3%ACnira" title="Weimar Olómìnira – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Weimar Olómìnira" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target">Yorùbá</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A8%81%E7%91%AA%E5%85%B1%E5%92%8C%E5%9C%8B" title="威瑪共和國 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="威瑪共和國" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%AD%8F%E7%91%AA%E5%85%B1%E5%92%8C%E5%9C%8B" title="魏瑪共和國 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="魏瑪共和國" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q41304#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Weimar_Republic" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Weimar_Republic" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >English </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Weimar_Republic">Read</a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weimar_Republic&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e">Edit</a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weimar_Republic&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h">View history</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >Tools </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Weimar_Republic">Read</a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weimar_Republic&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e">Edit</a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weimar_Republic&action=history">View history</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Weimar_Republic" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j">What links here</a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Weimar_Republic" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k">Related changes</a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u">Upload file</a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q">Special pages</a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weimar_Republic&oldid=1259164564" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page">Permanent link</a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weimar_Republic&action=info" title="More information about this page">Page information</a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Weimar_Republic&id=1259164564&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page">Cite this page</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FWeimar_Republic">Get shortened URL</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FWeimar_Republic">Download QR code</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Weimar_Republic&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file">Download as PDF</a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weimar_Republic&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p">Printable version</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Weimarer_Republik" hreflang="en">Wikimedia Commons</a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikiquote mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Weimar_Republic" hreflang="en">Wikiquote</a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q41304" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g">Wikidata item</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> <div id="mw-indicator-coordinates" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><a href="/wiki/Geographic_coordinate_system" title="Geographic coordinate system">Coordinates</a>: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Weimar_Republic&params=52_31_12_N_13_22_30_E_type:country">52°31′12″N 13°22′30″E / 52.52000°N 13.37500°E / 52.52000; 13.37500</a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">German state from 1918 to 1933</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Weimar Germany" redirects here. For the German city, see <a href="/wiki/Weimar" title="Weimar">Weimar</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1043282317">.mw-parser-output .ib-country{border-collapse:collapse;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country td,.mw-parser-output .ib-country th{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-header,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-full-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-below{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-full-data{border:0;padding:0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-full-data{border-top:0;border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-header{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-above{font-size:125%;line-height:1.2}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-names{padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-name-style{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-image{padding:0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-anthem{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding-top:0.5em;margin-top:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-largest,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-lang{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-ethnic,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-religion,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-sovereignty{font-weight:normal;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li{text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li2{text-indent:0.5em;margin-left:1em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-website{line-height:11pt}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption3{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn{text-align:left;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-num{margin-left:1em}</style><table class="infobox ib-country vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above adr"><div class="fn org country-name">German Reich</div><div class="ib-country-names">Deutsches Reich (<a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">1918–1933<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div class="noresize" style="display:table; width:100%;"> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding-left:5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Germany_(3-2).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Flag of Weimar Republic"><img alt="Flag of Weimar Republic" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Flag_of_Germany_%283-2%29.svg/125px-Flag_of_Germany_%283-2%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="83" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Flag_of_Germany_%283-2%29.svg/188px-Flag_of_Germany_%283-2%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Flag_of_Germany_%283-2%29.svg/250px-Flag_of_Germany_%283-2%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></div> <div><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Germany#Weimar_Republic_(1918–1933)" title="Flag of Germany">Flag</a> (1919–1933)</div> </div> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding: 0px 5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_arms_of_Germany.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Coat of arms (1928–1935) of Weimar Republic"><img alt="Coat of arms (1928–1935) of Weimar Republic" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Coat_of_arms_of_Germany.svg/80px-Coat_of_arms_of_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="103" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Coat_of_arms_of_Germany.svg/120px-Coat_of_arms_of_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Coat_of_arms_of_Germany.svg/160px-Coat_of_arms_of_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="396" data-file-height="510" /></a></div> <div><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Weimar_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Coat of arms of the Weimar Republic">Coat of arms</a> (1928–1935)</div> </div> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">Motto: <a href="/wiki/Deutschlandlied" title="Deutschlandlied">Einigkeit und Recht und Freiheit</a> ("Unity and Justice and Freedom")</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data anthem">Anthem: <a href="/wiki/Das_Lied_der_Deutschen" class="mw-redirect" title="Das Lied der Deutschen">Das Lied der Deutschen</a> "The Song of the Germans" (from 1922)<a href="#cite_note-faz-20120904-4">[4]</a> <div style="display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><audio id="mwe_player_0" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" style="width:220px;" data-durationhint="227" data-mwtitle="Deutschlandlied_and_Sei_gesegnet_ohne_Ende_(Polydor_1930).ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/Deutschlandlied_and_Sei_gesegnet_ohne_Ende_%28Polydor_1930%29.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/d8/Deutschlandlied_and_Sei_gesegnet_ohne_Ende_%28Polydor_1930%29.ogg/Deutschlandlied_and_Sei_gesegnet_ohne_Ende_%28Polydor_1930%29.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio></div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><div class="switcher-container"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Weimar_Republic_1930.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Weimar_Republic_1930.svg/250px-Weimar_Republic_1930.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="253" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Weimar_Republic_1930.svg/375px-Weimar_Republic_1930.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Weimar_Republic_1930.svg/500px-Weimar_Republic_1930.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="456" /></a>Weimar Republic in 1930</div><div><a href="/wiki/File:Karte_des_Deutschen_Reiches,_Weimarer_Republik-Drittes_Reich_1919%E2%80%931937.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Karte_des_Deutschen_Reiches%2C_Weimarer_Republik-Drittes_Reich_1919%E2%80%931937.svg/250px-Karte_des_Deutschen_Reiches%2C_Weimarer_Republik-Drittes_Reich_1919%E2%80%931937.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Karte_des_Deutschen_Reiches%2C_Weimarer_Republik-Drittes_Reich_1919%E2%80%931937.svg/375px-Karte_des_Deutschen_Reiches%2C_Weimarer_Republik-Drittes_Reich_1919%E2%80%931937.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Karte_des_Deutschen_Reiches%2C_Weimarer_Republik-Drittes_Reich_1919%E2%80%931937.svg/500px-Karte_des_Deutschen_Reiches%2C_Weimarer_Republik-Drittes_Reich_1919%E2%80%931937.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="974" data-file-height="885" /></a><a href="/wiki/States_of_the_Weimar_Republic" title="States of the Weimar Republic">German States</a> in 1925 (with <a href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Prussia" title="Free State of Prussia">Prussia</a> and its <a href="/wiki/Provinces_of_Prussia" title="Provinces of Prussia">provinces</a> shown in blue)</div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Capital<div class="ib-country-largest">and largest city</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Weimar_Republic&params=52_31_N_13_23_E_type:city">52°31′N 13°23′E / 52.517°N 13.383°E / 52.517; 13.383</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Official languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Standard_German" title="Standard German">German</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Common languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1214851843">.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{box-sizing:border-box;width:100%;padding:5px;border:none;font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .hidden-title{font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .hidden-content{text-align:left}@media all and (max-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{width:auto!important;clear:none!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="hidden-begin mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="font-size:100%;padding:0.25em 0 0;"><div class="hidden-title skin-nightmode-reset-color" style="text-align:center; text-align:left;font-weight:normal;">Unofficial:</div><div class="hidden-content mw-collapsible-content" style=""> <a href="/wiki/Low_German" title="Low German">Low German</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Limburgish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Limburgish language">Limburgish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Frisian_languages" title="Frisian languages">Frisian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Danish_language" title="Danish language">Danish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sorbian_languages" title="Sorbian languages">Sorbian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sinte_Romani" title="Sinte Romani">Sinte Romani</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_language" title="Lithuanian language">Lithuanian</a></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Religion <div class="ib-country-religion"></div></th><td class="infobox-data">1925 census:<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li>64.1% <a href="/wiki/Protestant" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant">Protestant</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lutheran" class="mw-redirect" title="Lutheran">Lutheran</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reformed_tradition" class="mw-redirect" title="Reformed tradition">Reformed</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_and_uniting_churches" title="United and uniting churches">United</a>)</li> <li>32.4% <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic">Roman Catholic</a></li> <li>0.9% <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Germany" title="History of the Jews in Germany">Jewish</a></li> <li>2.6% Other</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Demonym" title="Demonym">Demonym(s)</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/German_people" class="mw-redirect" title="German people">German</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Government</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Federal_republic" title="Federal republic">Federal</a> representative <a href="/wiki/Semi-presidential_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Semi-presidential system">semi-presidential republic</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/President_of_Germany_(1919%E2%80%931945)" title="President of Germany (1919–1945)">President</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1919–1925 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Ebert" title="Friedrich Ebert">Friedrich Ebert</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1925–1933 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Paul_von_Hindenburg" title="Paul von Hindenburg">Paul von Hindenburg</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Chancellor_of_Germany#Weimar_Republic_(1919–1933)" title="Chancellor of Germany">Chancellor</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1919 (first) </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Ebert" title="Friedrich Ebert">Friedrich Ebert</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1933 (last) </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Legislature</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Bicameral" class="mw-redirect" title="Bicameral">Bicameral</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• <a href="/wiki/Upper_house" title="Upper house">Upper house</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Reichsrat_(Germany)" title="Reichsrat (Germany)">Reichsrat</a> (de facto)</td></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• <a href="/wiki/Lower_house" title="Lower house">Lower house</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Reichstag_(Weimar_Republic)" title="Reichstag (Weimar Republic)">Reichstag</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Historical era</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Established </div></th><td class="infobox-data">9 November 1918</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Weimar_Constitution" title="Weimar Constitution">Constitution</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">11 August 1919</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Admitted to the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">8 September 1926</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Presidential_cabinets_of_the_Weimar_Republic" title="Presidential cabinets of the Weimar Republic">Rule by decree</a> begins </div></th><td class="infobox-data">29 March 1930<a href="#cite_note-:0-6">[6]</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Hitler</a> inaugurated <a href="/wiki/Chancellor_of_Germany#Weimar_Republic_(1919–1933)" title="Chancellor of Germany">Chancellor</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">30 January 1933</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Reichstag_fire" title="Reichstag fire">Reichstag fire</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">27 February 1933</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Enabling_Act_of_1933" title="Enabling Act of 1933">Enabling Act</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">23 March 1933<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Area</th></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">1925<a href="#cite_note-Wahlen_in_der_Weimarer_Republik-7">[7]</a></th><td class="infobox-data">468,787 km2 (181,000 sq mi)</td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Population</th></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1925<a href="#cite_note-Wahlen_in_der_Weimarer_Republik-7">[7]</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">62,411,000</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• Density</div></th><td class="infobox-data">133.129/km2 (344.8/sq mi)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Currency</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li style="white-space: nowrap">1919–23 <a href="/wiki/Papiermark" title="Papiermark">"Papiermark" (ℳ)</a></li><li style="white-space: nowrap">1923–24 <a href="/wiki/Rentenmark" title="Rentenmark">Rentenmark</a> (RM)</li><li style="white-space: nowrap">1924–33 <a href="/wiki/Reichsmark" title="Reichsmark">Reichsmark (ℛℳ)</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"> <table style="width:95%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; display:inline-table;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align:center; border:0; padding-bottom:0"><div id="before-after"></div> Preceded by</td> <td style="text-align:center;border:0; padding-bottom:0;">Succeeded by </td></tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; border:0;"> <table style="width:100%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg/20px-Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;border:0;"> <table style="width:92%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Flag_of_Germany_%281933%E2%80%931935%29.svg/20px-Flag_of_Germany_%281933%E2%80%931935%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Flag_of_Germany_%281933%E2%80%931935%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_Germany_%281933%E2%80%931935%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Flag_of_Germany_%281933%E2%80%931935%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_Germany_%281933%E2%80%931935%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="307" /> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Today part of</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[a]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuania" title="Lithuania">Lithuania</a><a href="#cite_note-9">[b]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[c]</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks vcard hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Germany" title="Category:History of Germany">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style=""><a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany" title="History of Germany">History of Germany</a></th> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_arms_of_Germany.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Coat_of_arms_of_Germany.svg/90px-Coat_of_arms_of_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="116" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Coat_of_arms_of_Germany.svg/135px-Coat_of_arms_of_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Coat_of_arms_of_Germany.svg/180px-Coat_of_arms_of_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="396" data-file-height="510" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_German_history" title="Timeline of German history">Chronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Germany" title="Historiography of Germany">Historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Germany" title="Military history of Germany">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Germany" title="Economic history of Germany">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_LGBT_history_in_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of LGBT history in Germany">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Germany" title="History of the Jews in Germany">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_women_in_Germany" title="History of women in Germany">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_Germany" title="Territorial evolution of Germany">Territorial evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_historic_states_of_Germany" title="List of historic states of Germany">Historic states</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_states_in_the_Holy_Roman_Empire" title="List of states in the Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_German_monarchs" title="List of German monarchs">Monarchs</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_German_queens" title="List of German queens">Queens</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_Holy_Roman_empresses" title="List of Holy Roman empresses">Empresses</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_German_monarchs_in_1918" title="List of German monarchs in 1918">1918</a>, <a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_German_monarchs" title="Family tree of German monarchs">Family tree</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Austria" title="List of rulers of Austria">Austria</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Bavaria" class="mw-redirect" title="List of rulers of Bavaria">Bavaria</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Prussia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of monarchs of Prussia">Prussia</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Saxony" title="List of rulers of Saxony">Saxony</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_W%C3%BCrttemberg" class="mw-redirect" title="List of rulers of Württemberg">Württemberg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mediatised_houses" title="Mediatised houses">Mediatised</a>)</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Early history</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Linear_Pottery_culture" title="Linear Pottery culture">Linear Pottery culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%9An%C4%9Btice_culture" title="Únětice culture">Únětice culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urnfield_culture" title="Urnfield culture">Urnfield culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbarian_kingdoms" title="Barbarian kingdoms">Barbarian kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Frankish Empire</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Middle Ages</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Francia" title="East Francia">East Francia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Germany" title="Kingdom of Germany">Kingdom of Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostsiedlung" title="Ostsiedlung">Eastward settlement</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Germany_in_the_early_modern_period" title="Germany in the early modern period">Early Modern period</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kleinstaaterei" title="Kleinstaaterei">Sectionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/18th-century_history_of_Germany" title="18th-century history of Germany">18th century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Kingdom of Prussia</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Germany" title="Unification of Germany">Unification</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_mediatisation" title="German mediatisation">Mediatisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederation_of_the_Rhine" title="Confederation of the Rhine">Confederation of the Rhine</a></li> <li><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_Confederation" title="German Confederation">German Confederation</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Zollverein" title="Zollverein">Zollverein</a></li></ul></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_revolutions_of_1848%E2%80%931849" title="German revolutions of 1848–1849">German revolutions of 1848–1849</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_German_Confederation" title="North German Confederation">North German Confederation</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/German_Reich" title="German Reich">German Reich</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1871–1918</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany_during_World_War_I" title="History of Germany during World War I">World War I</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1914–1918</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.65em;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Weimar Republic</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1918–1933</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1933–1945</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1939–1945</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Contemporary Germany</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.65em;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allied-occupied_Germany" title="Allied-occupied Germany">Occupation</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Former_eastern_territories_of_Germany" title="Former eastern territories of Germany">Ostgebiete</a></li></ul></div></td><td style="text-align:right;">1945–1949/1952</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Flight_and_expulsion_of_Germans_(1944%E2%80%931950)" title="Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–1950)">Expulsion of Germans</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1944–1950</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.65em;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany">West</a>–<a href="/wiki/East_Germany" title="East Germany">East</a> <a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany_(1945%E2%80%931990)" title="History of Germany (1945–1990)">division</a></li></ul></div></td><td style="text-align:right;">1949–1990</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.65em;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_reunification" title="German reunification">Reunification</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/New_states_of_Germany" title="New states of Germany">New states</a></li></ul></div></td><td style="text-align:right;">1990</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany_(1990%E2%80%93present)" title="History of Germany (1990–present)">Modern history</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">since 1990</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <ul><li><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/16px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/24px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/32px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Germany" title="Portal:Germany">Germany portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/16px-P_history.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/24px-P_history.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/32px-P_history.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:History" title="Portal:History">History portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Germany_sidebar" title="Template:History of Germany sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Germany_sidebar" title="Template talk:History of Germany sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Germany_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Germany sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> The Weimar Republic,<a href="#cite_note-11">[d]</a> officially known as the German Reich,<a href="#cite_note-12">[e]</a> was a historical period of Germany from 9 November 1918 to 23 March 1933, during which it was a <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitutional republic">constitutional</a> <a href="/wiki/Federal_republic" title="Federal republic">federal republic</a> for the first time in history; hence it is also referred to, and unofficially proclaimed itself, as the German Republic.<a href="#cite_note-13">[f]</a> The period's informal name is derived from the city of <a href="/wiki/Weimar" title="Weimar">Weimar</a>, which hosted the <a href="/wiki/Constituent_assembly" title="Constituent assembly">constituent assembly</a> that established its government. In English, the republic was usually simply called "Germany", with "Weimar Republic" (a term introduced by <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a> in 1929) not commonly used until the 1930s. The Weimar Republic had a <a href="/wiki/Semi-presidential_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Semi-presidential system">semi-presidential system</a>. At the end of the <a href="/wiki/First_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First World War">First World War</a> (1914–1918), Germany was exhausted and <a href="/wiki/Suing_for_peace" title="Suing for peace">sued for peace</a> in desperate circumstances. Awareness of imminent defeat sparked a <a href="/wiki/German_Revolution_of_1918%E2%80%931919" class="mw-redirect" title="German Revolution of 1918–1919">revolution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abdication_of_Wilhelm_II" title="Abdication of Wilhelm II">the abdication</a> of <a href="/wiki/Kaiser_Wilhelm_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaiser Wilhelm II">Kaiser Wilhelm II</a>, formal surrender to the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I" title="Allies of World War I">Allies</a>, and the proclamation of the Weimar Republic on 9 November 1918.<a href="#cite_note-14">[8]</a> In its initial years, grave problems beset the Republic, such as <a href="/wiki/Hyperinflation_in_the_Weimar_Republic" title="Hyperinflation in the Weimar Republic">hyperinflation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Extremism" title="Extremism">political extremism</a>, including political murders and two attempted <a href="/wiki/Coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="Coup d'état">seizures of power</a> by contending <a href="/wiki/Weimar_paramilitary_groups" title="Weimar paramilitary groups">paramilitaries</a>; internationally, it suffered isolation, reduced diplomatic standing and contentious relationships with the great powers. By 1924, a great deal of monetary and political stability was restored, and the republic enjoyed relative prosperity for the next five years; this period, sometimes known as the <a href="/wiki/Golden_Twenties" title="Golden Twenties">Golden Twenties</a>, was characterised by significant cultural flourishing, social progress, and gradual improvement in foreign relations. Under the <a href="/wiki/Locarno_Treaties" title="Locarno Treaties">Locarno Treaties</a> of 1925, Germany moved toward normalising relations with its neighbours, recognising most territorial changes under the 1919 <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a> and committing never to go to war. The following year, it joined the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a>, which marked its reintegration into the international community.<a href="#cite_note-15">[g]</a><a href="#cite_note-16">[9]</a> Nevertheless, especially on the political right, there remained strong and widespread resentment against the treaty and those who had signed and supported it. The <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a> of October 1929 severely impacted Germany's tenuous progress; high unemployment and subsequent social and political unrest led to the collapse of Chancellor <a href="/wiki/Hermann_M%C3%BCller_(politician,_born_1876)" title="Hermann Müller (politician, born 1876)">Hermann Müller's</a> grand coalition and the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Presidential_cabinets_of_the_Weimar_Republic" title="Presidential cabinets of the Weimar Republic">presidential cabinets</a>. From March 1930 onwards, President <a href="/wiki/Paul_von_Hindenburg" title="Paul von Hindenburg">Paul von Hindenburg</a> used <a href="/wiki/Article_48_(Weimar_Constitution)" title="Article 48 (Weimar Constitution)">emergency powers</a> to back <a href="/wiki/Chancellor" title="Chancellor">Chancellors</a> <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Br%C3%BCning" title="Heinrich Brüning">Heinrich Brüning</a>, <a href="/wiki/Franz_von_Papen" title="Franz von Papen">Franz von Papen</a> and General <a href="/wiki/Kurt_von_Schleicher" title="Kurt von Schleicher">Kurt von Schleicher</a>. The Great Depression, exacerbated by Brüning's policy of <a href="/wiki/Deflation" title="Deflation">deflation</a>, led to a surge in <a href="/wiki/Unemployment" title="Unemployment">unemployment</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Büttner-17">[10]</a> On 30 January 1933, Hindenburg appointed <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a> as Chancellor to head a coalition government; Hitler's far-right <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Party" title="Nazi Party">Nazi Party</a> held two out of ten cabinet seats. Von Papen, as Vice-Chancellor and Hindenburg's confidant, was to serve as the <a href="/wiki/%C3%89minence_grise" title="Éminence grise">éminence grise</a> who would keep Hitler under control; these intentions severely underestimated Hitler's political abilities. By the end of March 1933, the <a href="/wiki/Reichstag_Fire_Decree" title="Reichstag Fire Decree">Reichstag Fire Decree</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Enabling_Act_of_1933" title="Enabling Act of 1933">Enabling Act of 1933</a> were used in the perceived state of emergency to effectively grant the new Chancellor broad power to act outside parliamentary control. Hitler promptly used these powers to thwart constitutional governance and suspend civil liberties, which brought about the swift collapse of democracy at the federal and state level, and the creation of a <a href="/wiki/One-party_state" title="One-party state">one-party</a> dictatorship under his leadership. Until the <a href="/wiki/End_of_World_War_II_in_Europe" title="End of World War II in Europe">end of World War II in Europe</a> in 1945, the Nazis governed Germany under the pretense that all the extraordinary measures and laws they implemented were constitutional; notably, there was never an attempt to replace or substantially amend the <a href="/wiki/Weimar_constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Weimar constitution">Weimar constitution</a>. Nevertheless, Hitler's seizure of power (<a href="/wiki/Machtergreifung" class="mw-redirect" title="Machtergreifung">Machtergreifung</a>) had effectively ended the republic, replacing its constitutional framework with <a href="/wiki/F%C3%BChrerprinzip" title="Führerprinzip">Führerprinzip</a>, the principle that "the Führer's word is above all written law". <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Name_and_symbols">Name and symbols</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Weimar_Republic&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Name and symbols">edit</a>]</div> The Weimar Republic is so called because the <a href="/wiki/Weimar_National_Assembly" title="Weimar National Assembly">Weimar National Assembly</a> that adopted its constitution met in <a href="/wiki/Weimar" title="Weimar">Weimar</a> from 6 February to 11 August 1919,<a href="#cite_note-18">[11]</a> but the name only became mainstream after 1933. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Terminology">Terminology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Weimar_Republic&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Terminology">edit</a>]</div> Even though the National Assembly chose to retain the old name <a href="/wiki/German_Reich" title="German Reich">Deutsches Reich</a> (Art. 1 of the Constitution),<a href="#cite_note-19">[12]</a> hardly anyone used it during the Weimar period, and no single name for the new state gained widespread acceptance.<a href="#cite_note-Schnurr-2014-20">[13]</a> To the right of the spectrum, the politically engaged rejected the new democratic model and were appalled to see the honour of the traditional word Reich associated with it.<a href="#cite_note-Sebastian_Ullrich-21">[14]</a> The Catholic <a href="/wiki/Centre_Party_(Germany)" title="Centre Party (Germany)">Centre Party</a> favoured the term Deutscher Volksstaat (German People's State),<a href="#cite_note-22">[h]</a> while on the moderate left, Chancellor <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Ebert" title="Friedrich Ebert">Friedrich Ebert</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany" title="Social Democratic Party of Germany">Social Democratic Party of Germany</a> preferred Deutsche Republik (German Republic).<a href="#cite_note-Sebastian_Ullrich-21">[14]</a> By the mid-1920s, most Germans referred to their government informally as the Deutsche Republik, but for many, especially on the right, the word "Republik" was a painful reminder of a government structure that they believed had been imposed by foreign statesmen and of the expulsion of Emperor <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_II" title="Wilhelm II">Wilhelm II</a> in the wake of a massive national humiliation.<a href="#cite_note-Sebastian_Ullrich-21">[14]</a> The first recorded mention of the term Republik von Weimar (Republic of Weimar) came during a speech delivered by Adolf Hitler at a Nazi Party rally in Munich on 24 February 1929. A few weeks later, the term Weimarer Republik was first used again by Hitler in a newspaper article.<a href="#cite_note-Schnurr-2014-20">[13]</a> Only during the 1930s did the term become mainstream, both within and outside Germany. According to historian <a href="/wiki/Richard_J._Evans" title="Richard J. Evans">Richard J. Evans</a>:<a href="#cite_note-23">[15]</a> <blockquote>The continued use of the term 'German Empire', Deutsches Reich, by the Weimar Republic ... conjured up an image among educated Germans that resonated far beyond the institutional structures Bismarck created: the successor to the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>; the vision of God's Empire here on earth; the universality of its claim to <a href="/wiki/Suzerainty" title="Suzerainty">suzerainty</a>; and a more prosaic but no less powerful sense, the concept of a German state that would include all German speakers in Central Europe – 'one People, one Reich, one Leader', as the Nazi slogan was to put it.</blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Flag_and_coat_of_arms">Flag and coat of arms</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Weimar_Republic&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Flag and coat of arms">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Germany#Weimar_Republic_(1918–1933)" title="Flag of Germany">Flag of Germany § Weimar Republic (1918–1933)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Germany#Weimar_Republic" title="Coat of arms of Germany">Coat of arms of Germany § Weimar Republic</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wappen_Deutsches_Reich_(Weimarer_Republik).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Wappen_Deutsches_Reich_%28Weimarer_Republik%29.svg/220px-Wappen_Deutsches_Reich_%28Weimarer_Republik%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="263" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Wappen_Deutsches_Reich_%28Weimarer_Republik%29.svg/330px-Wappen_Deutsches_Reich_%28Weimarer_Republik%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Wappen_Deutsches_Reich_%28Weimarer_Republik%29.svg/440px-Wappen_Deutsches_Reich_%28Weimarer_Republik%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="613" /></a><figcaption>First coat of arms of the Weimar Republic (1919–1928)</figcaption></figure> The black-red-gold tricolour of the <a href="/wiki/1848_German_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="1848 German Revolution">1848 German revolutions</a> was named as the national flag in the <a href="/wiki/Weimar_Constitution" title="Weimar Constitution">Weimar Constitution</a>.<a href="#cite_note-documentArchiv.de-1919-24">[16]</a> It was abolished after the entry into force of the Enabling Act of 1933, when the Nazi Party gained total power, in favour of two co-official national flags: the old <a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_German_Empire" title="Flag of the German Empire">black-white-red imperial tricolour</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Nazi_Germany" title="Flag of Nazi Germany">flag of the Nazi Party</a>. From 1935, the Nazi flag with the symbol offset became the sole national flag of the Third Reich, and after World War II, both the <a href="/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany">Federal Republic of Germany</a> and the <a href="/wiki/German_Democratic_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="German Democratic Republic">German Democratic Republic</a> readopted the black-red-gold flag. The coat of arms was initially based on the <a href="/wiki/Reichsadler" title="Reichsadler">Reichsadler</a> ("imperial eagle") introduced by the <a href="/wiki/Paulskirche_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Paulskirche Constitution">Paulskirche Constitution</a> of 1849, and announced in November 1919. In 1928, a new design by Karl-Tobias Schwab was adopted as national coat of arms, which was used until being replaced by the <a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Nazi_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Coat of arms of Nazi Germany">Nazi Reichsadler</a> in 1935, and readopted by the Federal Republic of Germany in 1950. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Armed_forces">Armed forces</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Weimar_Republic&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Armed forces">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:War_Ensign_of_Germany_(1921%E2%80%931933).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281921%E2%80%931933%29.svg/220px-War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281921%E2%80%931933%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281921%E2%80%931933%29.svg/330px-War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281921%E2%80%931933%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281921%E2%80%931933%29.svg/440px-War_Ensign_of_Germany_%281921%E2%80%931933%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>War ensign of Germany (<a href="/wiki/Reichskriegsflagge" title="Reichskriegsflagge">Reichskriegsflagge</a>) during the Weimar period (1921–1933)</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Reichswehr" title="Reichswehr">Reichswehr</a></div>Following Germany's defeat in World War I, several million soldiers of the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_German_Army" title="Imperial German Army">Imperial German Army</a> either simply dispersed on their own or were formally demobilized. The provisional civilian government and the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Army_Command" class="mw-redirect" title="Supreme Army Command">Supreme Army Command</a> (OHL) planned to transfer the remaining units to a peacetime army. Under the terms of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a>, the new army, the <a href="/wiki/Reichswehr" title="Reichswehr">Reichswehr</a>, was limited to 100,000 men and the <a href="/wiki/Reichsmarine" title="Reichsmarine">Reichsmarine</a> (navy), to 15,000. The treaty prohibited an air force, submarines, large warships and armoured vehicles.<a href="#cite_note-Treaty_of_Versailles-2-25">[17]</a> The official formation of the Reichswehr took place on 1 January 1921, after the limitations had been met. The soldiers of the Reichswehr took their oath to the <a href="/wiki/Weimar_Constitution" title="Weimar Constitution">Weimar Constitution</a>. The commander-in-chief was the <a href="/wiki/Reich_President" class="mw-redirect" title="Reich President">Reich president</a>, while the Reich minister of the armed forces exercised command authority. Military right of command (Kommandogewalt) was in the hands of the OHL. The resulting dualism between civilian power and military command was to become a heavy burden on the Republic. Whereas Reichswehr Minister <a href="/wiki/Otto_Gessler" title="Otto Gessler">Otto Gessler</a> was content with limited political and administrative duties during his tenure (1920–1928), Colonel General <a href="/wiki/Hans_von_Seeckt" title="Hans von Seeckt">Hans von Seeckt</a>, Chief of Army Command from 1920 to 1926, succeeded in largely removing the Reichswehr from the control of the <a href="/wiki/Reichstag_(Weimar_Republic)" title="Reichstag (Weimar Republic)">Reichstag</a>. Under Seeckt the Reichswehr developed into what many historians consider a "state within the state".<a href="#cite_note-26">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[19]</a> During the 1920 <a href="/wiki/Kapp_Putsch" title="Kapp Putsch">Kapp Putsch</a>, Seeckt refused to deploy the Reichswehr against the <a href="/wiki/Freikorps" title="Freikorps">Freikorps</a> involved in the putsch<a href="#cite_note-28">[20]</a> but immediately afterwards had the <a href="/wiki/Ruhr_Red_Army" title="Ruhr Red Army">Ruhr Red Army</a> brutally suppressed during the <a href="/wiki/Ruhr_uprising" title="Ruhr uprising">Ruhr uprising</a>. In 1921 the Reichswehr organized the <a href="/wiki/Black_Reichswehr" title="Black Reichswehr">Black Reichswehr</a>, a secret reserve networked within the Reichswehr and organised as labour battalions (Arbeitskommandos) to circumvent the Treaty of Versailles' 100,000 man limit on the German army.<a href="#cite_note-29">[21]</a> The Black Reichswehr was never involved in direct military action and was dissolved in 1923 after a group of its members attempted to overthrow the government in the <a href="/wiki/K%C3%BCstrin_Putsch" title="Küstrin Putsch">Küstrin Putsch</a>.<a href="#cite_note-30">[22]</a> The Reichswehr also developed far-reaching cooperation with the Soviet <a href="/wiki/Red_Army" title="Red Army">Red Army</a>, leading among other things to the secret training of German military pilots in clear violation of the Treaty of Versailles.<a href="#cite_note-31">[23]</a> With Seeckt's fall in 1926, the Reichswehr made a change in course for which Colonel (later General) <a href="/wiki/Kurt_von_Schleicher" title="Kurt von Schleicher">Kurt von Schleicher</a> was primarily responsible. The goal was to arouse broad social support for rearmament and to militarize society itself for the purpose of future warfare.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2007150–167-32">[24]</a> Under <a href="/wiki/Paul_von_Hindenburg" title="Paul von Hindenburg">Paul von Hindenburg's</a> Reich presidency, Reichswehr leadership gained increasing political influence and eventually helped determine the composition of the Reich governments. As a result, the Reichswehr contributed significantly to the development of an authoritarian <a href="/wiki/Presidential_cabinets_of_the_Weimar_Republic" title="Presidential cabinets of the Weimar Republic">presidential system</a> during the final phase of the Weimar Republic.<a href="#cite_note-33">[25]</a> After <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a> announced the "regaining of military sovereignty" (reintroduction of conscription etc.) in 1935, two years after <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler%27s_rise_to_power" title="Adolf Hitler's rise to power">his rise to power</a>, the Reichswehr was absorbed into the new <a href="/wiki/Wehrmacht" title="Wehrmacht">Wehrmacht</a>. It was the unified armed forces of the Nazi regime. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Weimar_Republic&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Weimar_Republic" title="Timeline of the Weimar Republic">Timeline of the Weimar Republic</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Background">Background</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Weimar_Republic&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Background">edit</a>]</div> Germany and the <a href="/wiki/Central_Powers" title="Central Powers">Central Powers</a> fought the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I" title="Allies of World War I">Allies of WWI</a> between 28 July 1914 and 11 November 1918. The war ended with 20 million military and civilian deaths,<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia_Britannica-34">[26]</a> including 2,037,000 German soldiers<a href="#cite_note-35">[27]</a> and from 424,000<a href="#cite_note-36">[28]</a> to 763,000<a href="#cite_note-37">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-38">[30]</a> civilians, many of them from disease and starvation as a result of the Allied <a href="/wiki/Blockade_of_Germany_(1914%E2%80%931919)" title="Blockade of Germany (1914–1919)">blockade of Germany</a>. After four years of war on multiple fronts in Europe and around the world, the final <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Days_Offensive" title="Hundred Days Offensive">Allied offensive</a> began in August 1918, and the position of Germany and the Central Powers deteriorated,<a href="#cite_note-Herwig-1997-39">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-Tucker-2005-40">[32]</a> leading them to sue for peace. After initial offers were rejected by the Allied Powers, the hunger and privation of the war years came together with the awareness of an impending military defeat<a href="#cite_note-41">[33]</a> to help spark the <a href="/wiki/German_Revolution_of_1918%E2%80%931919" class="mw-redirect" title="German Revolution of 1918–1919">German Revolution</a>. On 9 November 1918, <a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_republic_in_Germany" title="Proclamation of the republic in Germany">a republic was proclaimed</a>,<a href="#cite_note-42">[34]</a> and the abdication of <a href="/wiki/Kaiser_Wilhelm_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaiser Wilhelm II">Kaiser Wilhelm II</a> was announced,<a href="#cite_note-Stevenson-2004-43">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaffner200285–86-44">[36]</a> marking the end of <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Germany">Imperial Germany</a> and the beginning of the Weimar Republic. The <a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_11_November_1918" title="Armistice of 11 November 1918">armistice</a> that ended the fighting was signed on 11 November. Germany lost the war because its allies were facing defeat and its economic resources were running out, while by late summer 1918 fresh American troops were arriving in France at the rate of 10,000 per day. Support among the population had begun to crumble in 1916, and by mid-1918 many Germans wanted an end to the war. Increasing numbers of them began to associate with the political left, such as the <a href="/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany" title="Social Democratic Party of Germany">Social Democratic Party</a> and the more radical <a href="/wiki/Independent_Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany" title="Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany">Independent Social Democratic Party</a>, which demanded an end to the war. When it became obvious to the generals that defeat was at hand, General <a href="/wiki/Erich_Ludendorff" title="Erich Ludendorff">Erich Ludendorff</a> convinced the Kaiser that Germany needed to pursue an armistice and that the majority parties in the Reichstag, not the OHL, had to take responsibility for it.<a href="#cite_note-45">[37]</a> Although in retreat, the German armies were still on French and Belgian territory when the war ended on 11 November. Ludendorf and <a href="/wiki/Paul_von_Hindenburg" title="Paul von Hindenburg">Paul von Hindenburg</a> then began proclaiming that it was the defeatism of the civilian population – especially the socialists – that had made defeat inevitable. The <a href="/wiki/Stab-in-the-back_myth" title="Stab-in-the-back myth">stab-in-the-back myth</a> was spread by the Right throughout the 1920s and ensured that many monarchists and conservatives would refuse to support the government of what they called the "November criminals".<a href="#cite_note-46">[38]</a> The destabilising effect of the stab-in-the-back myth on the Weimar democracy was an important factor in the rise of <a href="/wiki/National-socialism" class="mw-redirect" title="National-socialism">National Socialism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-47">[39]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="November_Revolution_(1918-1919)">November Revolution (1918-1919)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Weimar_Republic&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: November Revolution (1918-1919)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/German_Revolution_of_1918-1919" class="mw-redirect" title="German Revolution of 1918-1919">German Revolution of 1918-1919</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1976-067-10A,_Matrosen-Aufstand.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1976-067-10A%2C_Matrosen-Aufstand.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1976-067-10A%2C_Matrosen-Aufstand.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1976-067-10A%2C_Matrosen-Aufstand.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1976-067-10A%2C_Matrosen-Aufstand.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1976-067-10A%2C_Matrosen-Aufstand.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1976-067-10A%2C_Matrosen-Aufstand.jpg 2x" data-file-width="784" data-file-height="472" /></a><figcaption>Sailors during the mutiny in Kiel, November 1918</figcaption></figure> On 29 October 1918, a rebellion broke out among sailors at <a href="/wiki/Wilhelmshaven" title="Wilhelmshaven">Wilhelmshaven</a>; similar unrest then spread to become the <a href="/wiki/Kiel_mutiny" title="Kiel mutiny">Kiel mutiny</a> on 3 November. Sailors, soldiers and workers began electing <a href="/wiki/German_workers%27_and_soldiers%27_councils_1918%E2%80%931919" title="German workers' and soldiers' councils 1918–1919">workers' and soldiers' councils</a> (Arbeiter- und Soldatenräte) modelled after the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_(council)" title="Soviet (council)">soviets</a> of the 1917 <a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a>. The revolution spread throughout Germany, and participants seized military and civil power in individual cities.<a href="#cite_note-48">[40]</a> The power takeovers were achieved everywhere without loss of life.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] At the time, the socialist movement, which represented mostly labourers, was split among two major left-wing parties: the <a href="/wiki/Independent_Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany" title="Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany">Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany</a> (USPD), which called for immediate peace negotiations and favoured a soviet-style command economy, and the <a href="/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany" title="Social Democratic Party of Germany">Social Democratic Party of Germany</a> (SPD), also known as the Majority Social Democratic Party of Germany (MSPD), which had supported the war and favoured a parliamentary system. The rebellion caused great fear among supporters of the monarchy and in the middle classes because of the soviet-style aspirations of the councils. To centrist and conservative citizens, the country looked to be on the verge of a communist revolution.<a href="#cite_note-49">[41]</a> By 7 November, the revolution had reached <a href="/wiki/Munich" title="Munich">Munich</a>, resulting in the flight of King <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_III_of_Bavaria" title="Ludwig III of Bavaria">Ludwig III of Bavaria</a>.<a href="#cite_note-50">[42]</a> The MSPD decided to make use of their support at the grassroots level and put themselves at the front of the movement. They joined the calls for Kaiser <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_II,_German_Emperor" class="mw-redirect" title="Wilhelm II, German Emperor">Wilhelm II</a> abdicate, and when he refused, Chancellor <a href="/wiki/Maximilian_of_Baden" class="mw-redirect" title="Maximilian of Baden">Maximilian of Baden</a> made a public announcement that the Kaiser and <a href="/wiki/Crown_Prince_Wilhelm" class="mw-redirect" title="Crown Prince Wilhelm">Crown Prince Wilhelm</a> had already done so.<a href="#cite_note-51">[43]</a> <a href="/wiki/Gustav_Noske" title="Gustav Noske">Gustav Noske</a> (MSPD) was sent to Kiel to prevent any further unrest and took on the task of controlling the mutinous sailors and their supporters in the Kiel barracks. The sailors and soldiers welcomed him, and he was able to defuse the situation.<a href="#cite_note-52">[44]</a> <div class="noresize thumb tright" style=";"> <div class="thumbinner" style="overflow:hidden;width:177px;"> <div class="thumbimage" style="height:287px; overflow:hidden; position:relative; background-color:white;"> <div style=";left:-200px; top:-120px; width:500px; position:absolute;"> <a href="/wiki/File:Ausrufung_Republik_Scheidemann.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Philipp Scheidemann proclaiming the German Republic from the Reichstag building"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Ausrufung_Republik_Scheidemann.jpg/500px-Ausrufung_Republik_Scheidemann.jpg" decoding="async" width="500" height="629" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Ausrufung_Republik_Scheidemann.jpg/750px-Ausrufung_Republik_Scheidemann.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/Ausrufung_Republik_Scheidemann.jpg 2x" data-file-width="996" data-file-height="1252" /></a></div> <div style="text-align:left; background-color:transparent; line-height:110%;"> </div> <div style="visibility:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Ausrufung_Republik_Scheidemann.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Ausrufung_Republik_Scheidemann.jpg/500px-Ausrufung_Republik_Scheidemann.jpg" decoding="async" width="500" height="629" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Ausrufung_Republik_Scheidemann.jpg/750px-Ausrufung_Republik_Scheidemann.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/Ausrufung_Republik_Scheidemann.jpg 2x" data-file-width="996" data-file-height="1252" /></a></div> </div> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Ausrufung_Republik_Scheidemann.jpg" title="File:Ausrufung Republik Scheidemann.jpg"> </a></div>Philipp Scheidemann proclaiming the German Republic from the Reichstag building</div> </div></div> On 9 November 1918, the <a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_republic_in_Germany" title="Proclamation of the republic in Germany">German Republic was proclaimed</a> by MSPD member <a href="/wiki/Philipp_Scheidemann" title="Philipp Scheidemann">Philipp Scheidemann</a> at the Reichstag building in Berlin, angering <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Ebert" title="Friedrich Ebert">Friedrich Ebert</a>, the leader of the MSPD, who thought that the question of monarchy or republic should be answered by a national assembly.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaffner200290-53">[45]</a> Two hours later, a <a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_republic_in_Germany#Liebknecht's_proclamation" title="Proclamation of the republic in Germany">Free Socialist Republic was proclaimed</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Berlin_Palace" title="Berlin Palace">Berlin Palace</a>. The proclamation was issued by <a href="/wiki/Karl_Liebknecht" title="Karl Liebknecht">Karl Liebknecht</a>, co-leader with <a href="/wiki/Rosa_Luxemburg" title="Rosa Luxemburg">Rosa Luxemburg</a> of the communist Spartakusbund (<a href="/wiki/Spartacus_League" title="Spartacus League">Spartacus League</a>), a group of a few hundred supporters of the Russian Revolution that had allied itself with the USPD in 1917.<a href="#cite_note-Sturm-2011-54">[46]</a> On the same day, in a move that was contrary to the constitution because only the Kaiser could appoint a chancellor, Prince Max of Baden, at Ebert's request, transferred his powers as chancellor to him.<a href="#cite_note-55">[47]</a> In view of the mass support for more radical reforms among the workers' councils, a coalition government called the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_the_People%27s_Deputies" title="Council of the People's Deputies">Council of the People's Deputies</a> (Rat der Volksbeauftragten) was established, consisting of three MSPD and three USPD members. Led by Ebert for the MSPD and <a href="/wiki/Hugo_Haase" title="Hugo Haase">Hugo Haase</a> for the USPD, it governed Germany from November 1918 to January 1919.<a href="#cite_note-56">[48]</a> Although the new government was confirmed by the Berlin Workers' and Soldiers' Council, it was opposed by the Spartacus League. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_B_145_Bild-P011502,_Berlin,_Reichskanzlei,_Philipp_Scheidemann.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Bundesarchiv_B_145_Bild-P011502%2C_Berlin%2C_Reichskanzlei%2C_Philipp_Scheidemann.jpg/170px-Bundesarchiv_B_145_Bild-P011502%2C_Berlin%2C_Reichskanzlei%2C_Philipp_Scheidemann.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="241" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Bundesarchiv_B_145_Bild-P011502%2C_Berlin%2C_Reichskanzlei%2C_Philipp_Scheidemann.jpg/255px-Bundesarchiv_B_145_Bild-P011502%2C_Berlin%2C_Reichskanzlei%2C_Philipp_Scheidemann.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Bundesarchiv_B_145_Bild-P011502%2C_Berlin%2C_Reichskanzlei%2C_Philipp_Scheidemann.jpg/340px-Bundesarchiv_B_145_Bild-P011502%2C_Berlin%2C_Reichskanzlei%2C_Philipp_Scheidemann.jpg 2x" data-file-width="565" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Philipp_Scheidemann" title="Philipp Scheidemann">Philipp Scheidemann</a> addresses a crowd from a window of the <a href="/wiki/Reich_Chancellery" title="Reich Chancellery">Reich Chancellery</a>, 9 November 1918.</figcaption></figure> On 11 November 1918, <a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_11_November_1918" title="Armistice of 11 November 1918">an armistice was signed at Compiègne</a> by German representatives. It effectively ended military operations between <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I" title="Allies of World War I">the Allies</a> and Germany. It amounted to a German capitulation, without any concessions by the Allies; the naval blockade was to continue until complete peace terms were agreed on.<a href="#cite_note-57">[49]</a> The Executive Council of the Workers' and Soldiers' Council of Greater Berlin called for a <a href="/wiki/German_workers%27_and_soldiers%27_councils_1918%E2%80%931919#Reich_Congress_of_Workers'_and_Soldiers'_Councils" title="German workers' and soldiers' councils 1918–1919">National Congress of Councils</a> (Reichsrätekongress) which took place from 16 to 21 December 1918. Against the opposition of the more radical members who demanded a socialist republic, Ebert, backed by the large MSPD majority at the Congress, was able to schedule the election for a provisional <a href="/wiki/Weimar_National_Assembly" title="Weimar National Assembly">National Assembly</a> that would act as an interim parliament and be given the task of writing a democratic constitution for a parliamentary government.<a href="#cite_note-58">[50]</a> To ensure that the fledgling government maintained control over the country, Ebert and General <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Groener" title="Wilhelm Groener">Wilhelm Groener</a>, Ludendorff's successor as leader of the Supreme Army Command (OHL), concluded the secret <a href="/wiki/Ebert%E2%80%93Groener_pact" title="Ebert–Groener pact">Ebert–Groener pact</a> on 10 November. Over the telephone, Ebert promised that he would allow sole command of the troops to remain with the officer corps, while Groener pledged that the military would be loyal to the government and that it would help it in its fight against left-wing revolutionaries.<a href="#cite_note-59">[51]</a> The agreement marked the acceptance of the new government by the military, but the new Reichswehr armed forces, limited by the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a> to 100,000 army soldiers and 15,000 sailors, remained fully under the control of the German officer class.<a href="#cite_note-60">[52]</a> A rift developed between the MSPD and USPD after Ebert called upon the OHL for troops to put down a <a href="/wiki/1918_Christmas_crisis" title="1918 Christmas crisis">mutiny</a> by a leftist military unit on 23/24 December 1918 in which members of the <a href="/wiki/Volksmarinedivision" title="Volksmarinedivision">Volksmarinedivision</a> (People's Navy Division) captured the city's garrison commander <a href="/wiki/Otto_Wels" title="Otto Wels">Otto Wels</a> of the MSPD and occupied the Reich Chancellery where the Council of the People's Deputies had its offices. The ensuing street fighting left 11 Volksmarinedivision members and 56 members of the regular army dead.<a href="#cite_note-61">[53]</a> The USPD leaders were angered by what they believed was treachery by the MSPD, which in their view had joined with the anti-communist military to suppress the revolution. As a result, the USPD left the Council of the People's Deputies after only seven weeks. On 30 December, the split deepened when the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Germany" title="Communist Party of Germany">Communist Party of Germany</a> (KPD) was formed out of a number of radical left-wing groups, including the <a href="/wiki/Spartacus_League" title="Spartacus League">Spartacus League</a> and the left wing of the USPD.<a href="#cite_note-Sturm-2011-54">[46]</a> In January, the Spartacus League, in what was known as the <a href="/wiki/Spartacist_uprising" title="Spartacist uprising">Spartacist uprising</a>, took advantage of a large strike in Berlin and attempted to establish a communist government. The uprising was put down by paramilitary <a href="/wiki/Freikorps" title="Freikorps">Freikorps</a> units consisting of volunteer soldiers. Following bloody street fights, <a href="/wiki/Rosa_Luxemburg" title="Rosa Luxemburg">Rosa Luxemburg</a> and <a href="/wiki/Karl_Liebknecht" title="Karl Liebknecht">Karl Liebknecht</a> were summarily killed after their arrests on 15 January.<a href="#cite_note-62">[54]</a> With the affirmation of Ebert, those responsible were not tried before a court-martial, leading to lenient sentences, which made Ebert unpopular among radical leftists.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Offizielle_Postkarte_Weimarer_Nationalversammlung.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Offizielle_Postkarte_Weimarer_Nationalversammlung.jpg/220px-Offizielle_Postkarte_Weimarer_Nationalversammlung.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Offizielle_Postkarte_Weimarer_Nationalversammlung.jpg/330px-Offizielle_Postkarte_Weimarer_Nationalversammlung.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Offizielle_Postkarte_Weimarer_Nationalversammlung.jpg/440px-Offizielle_Postkarte_Weimarer_Nationalversammlung.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1128" data-file-height="771" /></a><figcaption>Official postcard of the <a href="/wiki/Weimar_National_Assembly" title="Weimar National Assembly">National Assembly</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chart_Weimar_Constitution.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Chart_Weimar_Constitution.svg/220px-Chart_Weimar_Constitution.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Chart_Weimar_Constitution.svg/330px-Chart_Weimar_Constitution.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Chart_Weimar_Constitution.svg/440px-Chart_Weimar_Constitution.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1052" data-file-height="744" /></a><figcaption>Chart of the Weimar Constitution of 11 August 1919. It replaced the law concerning the provisional Reich power of 10 February 1919.</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/1919_German_federal_election" title="1919 German federal election">National Assembly election</a>, in which women were allowed to vote for the first time, took place on 19 January 1919.<a href="#cite_note-63">[55]</a> The MSPD won the largest share of the votes at 37.9%, with the USPD fifth at 7.6%.<a href="#cite_note-64">[56]</a> To avoid the ongoing fights in Berlin, the National Assembly convened in the city of <a href="/wiki/Weimar" title="Weimar">Weimar</a>, giving the future Republic its unofficial name. The <a href="/wiki/Weimar_Constitution" title="Weimar Constitution">Weimar Constitution</a> created a parliamentary republic with the Reichstag elected by <a href="/wiki/Proportional_representation" title="Proportional representation">proportional representation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-65">[57]</a> During the debates in Weimar, fighting continued sporadically across Germany. On 7 April 1919 the <a href="/wiki/Bavarian_Soviet_Republic" title="Bavarian Soviet Republic">Bavarian Soviet Republic</a> was declared in Munich but quickly put down by Freikorps and remnants of the regular army. The fall of the <a href="/wiki/Munich_Soviet_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Munich Soviet Republic">Munich Soviet Republic</a> to these units, many of which were on the extreme right, resulted in the growth of far-right, antisemitic movements and organisations in <a href="/wiki/Bavaria" title="Bavaria">Bavaria</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Organisation_Consul" title="Organisation Consul">Organisation Consul</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Party" title="Nazi Party">Nazi Party</a>, and societies of exiled Russian monarchists.<a href="#cite_note-66">[58]</a> Revolutionary sentiment also arose in the eastern states where interethnic discontent between Germans and minority Poles led to the <a href="/wiki/Silesian_Uprisings" title="Silesian Uprisings">Silesian Uprisings</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Greater_Poland_uprising_(1918%E2%80%931919)" title="Greater Poland uprising (1918–1919)">Greater Poland uprising</a> in the German <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Posen" title="Province of Posen">Province of Posen</a>, which became part of the <a href="/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic" title="Second Polish Republic">Second Polish Republic</a> under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles.<a href="#cite_note-67">[59]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Years_of_crisis_(1919–1923)">Years of crisis (1919–1923)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Weimar_Republic&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Years of crisis (1919–1923)">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Burden_from_the_First_World_War">Burden from the First World War</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Weimar_Republic&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Burden from the First World War">edit</a>]</div> In the four years following the First World War, the situation of most German civilians remained dire. The post-war economic crisis was a result of lost pre-war industrial exports, the loss of imported raw materials and foodstuffs due to the continental blockade, the loss of Germany's overseas colonies and the worsening debt balances that had been exacerbated by Germany's heavy reliance on bonds to pay for the war. The economic losses can be attributed in part to the extension of the Allied blockade of Germany until the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a> was signed on 28 June 1919. It is estimated that between 100,000<a href="#cite_note-68">[60]</a> and 250,000<a href="#cite_note-69">[61]</a>: 166  German civilians died of disease or starvation between the end of the war and the signing of the treaty. Many German civilians expected life to return to pre-war normality after it was lifted, but the severe food shortages continued. In 1922, for example, meat consumption had not increased since the war years. At 22 kilograms per person per year, it was less than half of the 52 kilograms consumed in 1913. German citizens felt the food shortages more deeply than during the war because the reality contrasted so starkly with their expectations.<a href="#cite_note-70">[62]</a> Immediate post-war industrial production fell to the levels of the 1880s, or 57 percent of its value in 1913. The 1919 per capita GDP was only 73 percent of the comparable 1913 figure.<a href="#cite_note-71">[63]</a> Controlled demobilisation kept unemployment initially at around one million. By January 1922, the unemployment rate had sunk to just 0.9%,<a href="#cite_note-72">[64]</a> but inflation caused most workers' real wages to be significantly lower than they were in 1913.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWinkler1993145-73">[65]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Hyperinflation_in_the_Weimar_Republic" title="Hyperinflation in the Weimar Republic">hyperinflation</a> that peaked in late 1923 had its worst effects on government workers, whose wages did not keep pace with private sector workers, and on middle class Germans who had invested in war bonds<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWinkler1993244-74">[66]</a> or who relied on savings, investments or pensions for their living. What had once been substantial savings became essentially worthless due to the enormous fall in the <a href="/wiki/Papiermark" title="Papiermark">Papiermark</a>'s value.<a href="#cite_note-75">[67]</a> After four years of war and famine, many German workers were disenchanted with the <a href="/wiki/Capitalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Capitalist">capitalist</a> system and hoped for a new era under <a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">socialism</a> or communism. <a href="/wiki/Socialist" class="mw-redirect" title="Socialist">Socialists</a> dominated the new revolutionary government in Berlin, and numerous short-lived <a href="/wiki/Soviet_republic_(system_of_government)" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet republic (system of government)">council republics</a> were set up in cities across Germany.<a href="#cite_note-76">[68]</a> Even after they were suppressed, ideological conflicts between the Left and supporters of the former empire led to <a href="/wiki/Political_violence" title="Political violence">political violence</a> and <a href="/wiki/Extremism" title="Extremism">extremism</a>. The young republic found itself in a nearly constant economic and political crisis until 1924. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Treaty_of_Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Weimar_Republic&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Treaty of Versailles">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a></div> The Treaty of Versailles ended the state of war between Germany and most of the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I" title="Allies of World War I">Allied powers</a> and set the conditions for peace. It was signed 28 June 1919 and can be divided into four main categories: territorial issues, disarmament, reparations and assignment of guilt. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:German_losses_after_WWI.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/German_losses_after_WWI.svg/220px-German_losses_after_WWI.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/German_losses_after_WWI.svg/330px-German_losses_after_WWI.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/German_losses_after_WWI.svg/440px-German_losses_after_WWI.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="848" /></a><figcaption>German territorial losses from the Treaty of Versailles <hr /> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend">  Administered by the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Annexed or transferred to neighbouring countries by the treaty, or later via plebiscite and League of Nation action</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Weimar Germany</div></figcaption></figure> Territorially, Germany had to renounce sovereignty over its colonies<a href="#cite_note-77">[69]</a> and in Europe lost 65,000 sq km (25,000 sq mi) or about 13% of its former territory – including 48% of its iron and 10% of its coal resources – along with 7 million people, or 12% of its population.<a href="#cite_note-78">[70]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Territory_of_the_Saar_Basin" title="Territory of the Saar Basin">Saarland</a> was put under the control of the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a> for 15 years, and the output of the area's coal mines went to France.<a href="#cite_note-79">[71]</a> <a href="/wiki/Alsace%E2%80%93Lorraine" title="Alsace–Lorraine">Alsace–Lorraine</a>, which <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Prussia</a> had annexed following the <a href="/wiki/Franco-Prussian_War" title="Franco-Prussian War">Franco-Prussian War</a> of 1870/71, once again became French.<a href="#cite_note-80">[72]</a> The northern part of <a href="/wiki/Schleswig-Holstein" title="Schleswig-Holstein">Schleswig-Holstein</a> went to Denmark following a plebiscite.<a href="#cite_note-Britannica-81">[73]</a> In the east, a significant amount of territory was lost to a restored <a href="/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic" title="Second Polish Republic">Poland</a>.<a href="#cite_note-82">[74]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Klaip%C4%97da_Region" title="Klaipėda Region">Memel Territory</a> was ceded to the Allied powers,<a href="#cite_note-83">[75]</a> and Danzig went to the League of Nations as the <a href="/wiki/Free_City_of_Danzig" title="Free City of Danzig">Free City of Danzig</a>.<a href="#cite_note-84">[76]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Polish_Corridor" title="Polish Corridor">Polish Corridor</a> left <a href="/wiki/East_Prussia" title="East Prussia">East Prussia</a> physically separated from the rest of Germany. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ruhr1081923.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Ruhr1081923.png/220px-Ruhr1081923.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="249" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Ruhr1081923.png/330px-Ruhr1081923.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Ruhr1081923.png/440px-Ruhr1081923.png 2x" data-file-width="2132" data-file-height="2412" /></a><figcaption>Map showing the areas under the Rhineland occupation and the <a href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Bottleneck" title="Free State of Bottleneck">bottleneck</a> created between <a href="/wiki/Koblenz" title="Koblenz">Coblenz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mainz" title="Mainz">Mayence</a>.</figcaption></figure> Under the terms of both the Armistice of 1918 and of the Treaty of Versailles, French, British, Belgian and American troops <a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Rhineland" title="Occupation of the Rhineland">occupied the Rhineland</a>, the area of Germany on the west bank of the <a href="/wiki/Rhine_river" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhine river">Rhine river</a>, together with bridgeheads on the east bank near <a href="/wiki/Cologne" title="Cologne">Cologne</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mainz" title="Mainz">Mainz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Koblenz" title="Koblenz">Koblenz</a>. In addition, the Rhineland and an area stretching 50 kilometers east of the Rhine was to be demilitarized.<a href="#cite_note-85">[77]</a> France had demanded the occupation both to protect itself from a renewed German attack and as collateral for German reparations. The occupation was to last 5 years in the British zone, 10 in the American and 15 years in the French and Belgian zones, until 1934, but the last foreign troops evacuated the Rhineland on 30 June 1930.<a href="#cite_note-86">[78]</a> The treaty's disarmament provisions were intended to make the future German army incapable of offensive action. It was limited to no more than 100,000 men with only 4,000 officers and no general staff; the navy could have at most 15,000 men and 1,500 officers. The <a href="/wiki/Rhineland" title="Rhineland">Rhineland</a> was to be demilitarized and occupied and all fortifications in the Rhineland and 50 kilometres (31 miles) east of the river demolished. Germany was prohibited from having an air force, tanks, poison gas, heavy artillery, submarines or <a href="/wiki/Dreadnoughts" class="mw-redirect" title="Dreadnoughts">dreadnoughts</a>. A large number of its ships and all of its air-related armaments were to be surrendered.<a href="#cite_note-Britannica-81">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-Treaty_of_Versailles-2-25">[17]</a> Germany had to compensate the Allied Powers for the losses and damages of the war, with the exact amount left to be determined at a later date (Article 233).<a href="#cite_note-Treaty_of_Versailles-87">[79]</a> In the short term it was required to pay the equivalent of 20 billion gold marks in installments through April 1921 (Article 235).<a href="#cite_note-Treaty_of_Versailles-87">[79]</a> The most contentious article of the treaty, the so-called <a href="/wiki/War_Guilt_Clause" class="mw-redirect" title="War Guilt Clause">War Guilt Clause</a>, did not use the word "guilt". It stated that Germany accepted full responsibility for all the loss and damage from a war that was imposed on the Allies by the aggression of Germany and its allies (<a href="/wiki/Article_231_of_the_Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles">Article 231</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Treaty_of_Versailles-87">[79]</a> The implications of Article 231 and the territorial losses especially angered the Germans. The treaty was reviled as a dictated rather than a negotiated peace. <a href="/wiki/Philipp_Scheidemann" title="Philipp Scheidemann">Philipp Scheidemann</a>, then minister president of Germany, said to the Weimar National Assembly on 12 May 1919, "What hand should not wither that puts this fetter on itself and on us?"<a href="#cite_note-88">[80]</a> He resigned rather than accept the terms, but after the Allies threatened to resume hostilities, the National Assembly voted to approve the treaty on 23 June.<a href="#cite_note-89">[81]</a> It was signed in Paris five days later. Explaining the rise of extreme nationalist movements in Germany shortly after the war, British historian <a href="/wiki/Ian_Kershaw" title="Ian Kershaw">Ian Kershaw</a> pointed to the "national disgrace" that was "felt throughout Germany at the humiliating terms imposed by the victorious Allies and reflected in the Versailles Treaty...with its confiscation of territory on the eastern border and even more so its 'guilt clause'."<a href="#cite_note-90">[82]</a> Adolf Hitler repeatedly blamed the Republic and its democracy for accepting the oppressive terms of the treaty.<a href="#cite_note-91">[83]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="War_guilt">War guilt</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Weimar_Republic&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: War guilt">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/War_guilt_question" title="War guilt question">War guilt question</a></div> Article 231 of the Versailles Treaty was widely perceived not only as a legal legitimisation of reparations but also as a moral condemnation of Germany, and it triggered a storm of indignation among the German public.<a href="#cite_note-92">[84]</a> The hostility towards it came from across the political spectrum, from the far right to the moderate governing parties to the KPD. After the treaty came into force, the Foreign Office continued the state's control of the debate over war guilt. The War Guilt Department financed and directed the <a href="/wiki/Centre_for_the_Study_of_the_Causes_of_the_War" title="Centre for the Study of the Causes of the War">Centre for the Study of the Causes of the War</a>, which was to provide "scientific" support for the "campaign of innocence" abroad. For war-innocence propaganda at home, a "<a href="/wiki/Working_Committee_of_German_Associations" class="mw-redirect" title="Working Committee of German Associations">Working Committee of German Associations</a>" was founded with representatives of many groups considered "fit for good society".<a href="#cite_note-93">[85]</a> In 1919 the Weimar National Assembly established a <a href="/wiki/Reichstag_inquiry_into_guilt_for_World_War_I" title="Reichstag inquiry into guilt for World War I">parliamentary committee</a> to inquire into the events that had led to the "outbreak, prolongation and loss of the First World War". Its results were of questionable value due to a lack of cooperation from the civil service and military and to increasing interference from the government, which wanted to prevent a German admission of guilt before the world public.<a href="#cite_note-94">[86]</a> The committee met until 1932. During the course of World War I, war reporting was the responsibility of the <a href="/wiki/German_General_Staff" title="German General Staff">German General Staff</a> and after 1918 of the <a href="/wiki/War_guilt_question#Potsdam_Reichsarchiv" title="War guilt question">Potsdam Reich Archives</a> founded by General <a href="/wiki/Hans_von_Seeckt" title="Hans von Seeckt">Hans von Seeckt</a>,<a href="#cite_note-95">[87]</a> which dedicated itself to the task of "disproving" German war guilt and war crimes. As a result it was the leadership of the Reichswehr with its largely anti-democratic civil service personnel that, along with the Foreign Office, determined the portrayal of the war in the Weimar Republic. All in all, there was little objective and critical questioning of the causes of the war or of Germany's responsibility for it in academia, politics or the media during the Weimar period. The official view of history continued to follow the argument issued by the OHL in 1914 that Germany had been threatened by invasion and encirclement. Revising the conditions of the Versailles Treaty became the main goal of German foreign policy.<a href="#cite_note-96">[88]</a> The consensus opposing the "war guilt clause" did much to promote agitation against foreign countries and the Weimar Constitution. Both the DNVP and, in particular, the NSDAP questioned the entire post-war order and propagated a "war guilt lie". In line with national conservative and bourgeois right-wing parties, they accused the governing parties of having contributed to Germany's humiliation by signing the treaty and of denying it the right to self-determination.<a href="#cite_note-97">[89]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Political_turmoil:_Kapp_Putsch_and_Ruhr_uprising">Political turmoil: Kapp Putsch and Ruhr uprising</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Weimar_Republic&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Political turmoil: Kapp Putsch and Ruhr uprising">edit</a>]</div> The young republic was exposed from the beginning to attacks from both the extreme right and extreme left. The Left accused the Social Democrats of betraying the ideals of the labour movement because of their alliance with the old elites; the Right held the supporters of the Republic responsible for Germany's defeat in the First World War, denigrating them as "November criminals" and insinuating that the German army, which was still fighting on enemy soil when the war ended, had been stabbed in the back by them and the revolution (the <a href="/wiki/Stab-in-the-back_myth" title="Stab-in-the-back myth">stab-in-the-back myth</a>).<a href="#cite_note-98">[90]</a><figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_119-1983-0007,_Kapp-Putsch,_Marinebrigade_Erhardt_in_Berlin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Bundesarchiv_Bild_119-1983-0007%2C_Kapp-Putsch%2C_Marinebrigade_Erhardt_in_Berlin.jpg/273px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_119-1983-0007%2C_Kapp-Putsch%2C_Marinebrigade_Erhardt_in_Berlin.jpg" decoding="async" width="273" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Bundesarchiv_Bild_119-1983-0007%2C_Kapp-Putsch%2C_Marinebrigade_Erhardt_in_Berlin.jpg/410px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_119-1983-0007%2C_Kapp-Putsch%2C_Marinebrigade_Erhardt_in_Berlin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Bundesarchiv_Bild_119-1983-0007%2C_Kapp-Putsch%2C_Marinebrigade_Erhardt_in_Berlin.jpg/546px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_119-1983-0007%2C_Kapp-Putsch%2C_Marinebrigade_Erhardt_in_Berlin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="795" data-file-height="531" /></a><figcaption>Crowds in Berlin watching the <a href="/wiki/Marinebrigade_Ehrhardt" title="Marinebrigade Ehrhardt">Marinebrigade Ehrhardt</a> march in under the <a href="/wiki/Reichskriegsflagge" title="Reichskriegsflagge">imperial war ensign</a> during the Kapp Putsch</figcaption></figure> In the March 1920 <a href="/wiki/Kapp_Putsch" title="Kapp Putsch">Kapp Putsch</a>, Freikorps units under <a href="/wiki/Walther_von_L%C3%BCttwitz" title="Walther von Lüttwitz">General von Lüttwitz</a> occupied the government quarter in Berlin. In an attempt to reverse the revolution and install an autocratic government, the former Prussian civil servant <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Kapp" title="Wolfgang Kapp">Wolfgang Kapp</a> appointed himself Reich chancellor and Lüttwitz Reichswehr minister and commander-in-chief of the Reichswehr. The legal government fled Berlin and called for a general strike. The putsch quickly failed due in large part to the refusal of the ministerial bureaucracy to obey Kapp's orders.<a href="#cite_note-99">[91]</a> The Reichswehr, however, proved itself to be unreliable. It adopted a wait-and-see attitude under General von Seeckt, the head of the <a href="/wiki/Troop_Office" class="mw-redirect" title="Troop Office">Troop Office</a>, who said that "Reichswehr do not fire on Reichswehr".<a href="#cite_note-100">[92]</a> Some among the working class did not limit themselves to passive resistance to the Kapp Putsch. Especially in the <a href="/wiki/Ruhr" title="Ruhr">Ruhr</a>, where dissatisfaction with the lack of nationalisation of key industries was particularly high, councils were formed that sought to seize local power. In the <a href="/wiki/Ruhr_uprising" title="Ruhr uprising">Ruhr uprising</a>, civil war-like fighting broke when the <a href="/wiki/Ruhr_Red_Army" title="Ruhr Red Army">Ruhr Red Army</a>, made up of some 50,000 armed workers, mostly adherents of the KPD and USPD, used the disruption caused by the general strike to take control of the industrial district. After bloody battles in which an estimated 1,000 insurgents and 200 soldiers died, Reichswehr and Freikorps units suppressed the revolt in early April.<a href="#cite_note-101">[93]</a> In Bavaria, the Kapp Putsch led to an anti-republican government reshuffle that made the Free State a so-called "cell of order" (Ordnungszelle) within the Weimar state and a rallying point for right-wing conservative and reactionary forces.<a href="#cite_note-102">[94]</a> The unstable political conditions in the early phase of the Weimar Republic were also evident in the <a href="/wiki/1920_German_federal_election" title="1920 German federal election">Reichstag election of 1920</a>, in which the centre-left <a href="/wiki/Weimar_Coalition" title="Weimar Coalition">Weimar Coalition</a>, which until then had had a three-quarters majority, lost 125 seats to parties on both the left and right.<a href="#cite_note-103">[95]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Political_assassinations">Political assassinations</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Weimar_Republic&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Political assassinations">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1989-072-16,_Matthias_Erzberger.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1989-072-16%2C_Matthias_Erzberger.jpg/163px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1989-072-16%2C_Matthias_Erzberger.jpg" decoding="async" width="163" height="230" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1989-072-16%2C_Matthias_Erzberger.jpg/245px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1989-072-16%2C_Matthias_Erzberger.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1989-072-16%2C_Matthias_Erzberger.jpg/326px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1989-072-16%2C_Matthias_Erzberger.jpg 2x" data-file-width="568" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>Matthias Erzberger, one of the signers of the 1918 armistice, was assassinated in 1921.</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Walther_Rathenau.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Walther_Rathenau.jpg/205px-Walther_Rathenau.jpg" decoding="async" width="205" height="228" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Walther_Rathenau.jpg/308px-Walther_Rathenau.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Walther_Rathenau.jpg/411px-Walther_Rathenau.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3064" data-file-height="3400" /></a><figcaption>Walther Rathenau, German Foreign Minister, was assassinated in 1922.</figcaption></figure> The sharp political polarisation that had occurred was visible in the assassinations of important representatives of the Republic by members of the right-wing extremist <a href="/wiki/Organisation_Consul" title="Organisation Consul">Organisation Consul</a>. Finance Minister <a href="/wiki/Matthias_Erzberger" title="Matthias Erzberger">Matthias Erzberger</a> was assassinated in August 1921 and Foreign Minister <a href="/wiki/Walther_Rathenau" title="Walther Rathenau">Walther Rathenau</a> in June 1922. Both men had been defamed as compliant to Germany's former enemies in the matter of reparations payments. Erzberger was also attacked for signing the armistice agreement in 1918, and Rathenau had sought to break Germany's external isolation after the First World War through the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Rapallo_(1922)" title="Treaty of Rapallo (1922)">Treaty of Rapallo</a>, which opened diplomatic relations with the new <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>, renounced all war claims and mutually cancelled pre-war debts. Rathenau also attracted right-wing extremist hatred because he was a Jew. The passing of the <a href="/wiki/Law_for_the_Protection_of_the_Republic" title="Law for the Protection of the Republic">Law for the Protection of the Republic</a>, which increased the punishments for politically motivated acts of violence, established a special court for the protection of the Republic and prohibited organizations, printed material and rallies that opposed the constitutional republican form of government, was intended to put a stop to the Republic's right-wing enemies. The conservative judiciary from the imperial era that still remained in place and passed lenient sentences against right-wing state criminals contributed to the fact that their activities could not be permanently deterred.<a href="#cite_note-104">[96]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Reparations_and_the_occupation_of_the_Ruhr">Reparations and the occupation of the Ruhr</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Weimar_Republic&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Reparations and the occupation of the Ruhr">edit</a>]</div> After a series of international conferences to determine the reparations for which Germany was liable, an amount of 132 billion Reichsmarks was presented in May 1921, to be paid either in gold or commodities such as iron, steel and coal.<a href="#cite_note-Llewellyn-2019-105">[97]</a> Chancellor <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Wirth" title="Joseph Wirth">Joseph Wirth</a> had no choice other than to accept, but in an attempt to have the amount lowered, he began the German policy of "fulfilment" (Erfüllungspolitik). By attempting to meet the payments, it intended to show the Allies that the demands were beyond Germany's economic means.<a href="#cite_note-Scriba-2014-106">[98]</a> In May 1922, when the Reichsmark was rapidly losing value, Germany was granted a payment moratorium over strong French objections.<a href="#cite_note-Llewellyn-2019-105">[97]</a> In January 1923 France declared Germany in default. The French minister president <a href="/wiki/Raymond_Poincar%C3%A9" title="Raymond Poincaré">Raymond Poincaré</a> saw Germany's failure to pay reparations as a lever that he could use to achieve the separation of the Rhineland from the German Reich, a French demand that had been refused by the British at Versailles.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWinkler1998187-107">[99]</a> After the <a href="/wiki/Reparation_Commission" title="Reparation Commission">Reparation Commission</a> determined that German coal deliveries were short, French and Belgian troops on 11 January 1923 marched into the Rhineland,<a href="#cite_note-Scriba-2014-106">[98]</a> Germany's most productive industrial region, and took control of most of its mining and manufacturing companies. The German government under Chancellor <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Cuno" title="Wilhelm Cuno">Wilhelm Cuno</a> responded with a policy of non-violent passive resistance to the occupation. It underwrote the costs of idled factories and mines and paid the workers who were on strike. Unable to meet the enormous costs by any other means, it resorted to printing money. Along with the debts the state had incurred during the war, it was one of the major causes of the hyperinflation that followed.<a href="#cite_note-108">[100]</a> Realizing that continuing the course was untenable, the new Reich Chancellor <a href="/wiki/Gustav_Stresemann" title="Gustav Stresemann">Gustav Stresemann</a> called off the passive resistance in September 1923.<a href="#cite_note-109">[101]</a> The French and Belgian occupation ended in August 1925, following an agreement (the <a href="/wiki/Dawes_Plan" title="Dawes Plan">Dawes Plan</a>) to restructure Germany's payments. The total reparations payout from 1920 to 1931 (when payments were suspended indefinitely) was 20 billion <a href="/wiki/German_gold_mark" class="mw-redirect" title="German gold mark">marks</a>. 12.5 billion was cash that came mostly from loans provided by New York bankers. The rest was goods such as coal and chemicals, or from assets like railway equipment. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hyperinflation">Hyperinflation</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Weimar_Republic&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Hyperinflation">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hyperinflation_in_the_Weimar_Republic" title="Hyperinflation in the Weimar Republic">Hyperinflation in the Weimar Republic</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-00193,_Inflation,_Ein-Millionen-Markschein.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-00193%2C_Inflation%2C_Ein-Millionen-Markschein.jpg/249px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-00193%2C_Inflation%2C_Ein-Millionen-Markschein.jpg" decoding="async" width="249" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-00193%2C_Inflation%2C_Ein-Millionen-Markschein.jpg/374px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-00193%2C_Inflation%2C_Ein-Millionen-Markschein.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-00193%2C_Inflation%2C_Ein-Millionen-Markschein.jpg/498px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-00193%2C_Inflation%2C_Ein-Millionen-Markschein.jpg 2x" data-file-width="792" data-file-height="544" /></a><figcaption>Million mark notes being used as a scratch pad</figcaption></figure> The hyperinflation fueled by the government's response to the occupation of the Ruhr caused the cost of a loaf of bread to rise from 3 Reichsmarks in 1922 to 80 billion Reichsmarks in November 1923. Prices were rising so rapidly that people rushed to spend their pay at lunch breaks before it lost any more of its value. Foreign trade became all but impossible, as did German ability to pay reparations.<a href="#cite_note-110">[102]</a> While personal savings became virtually worthless, so did fixed debts. Middle class owners of land or houses often came out ahead because their debts lost value along with the currency. Large industrial concerns profited in the same manner, and wealth concentrated in fewer hands.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWinkler1993244-74">[66]</a> The classic example was <a href="/wiki/Hugo_Stinnes" title="Hugo Stinnes">Hugo Stinnes</a>, who earned the title of Inflation King by taking advantage of its effects on debt to amass controlling interests in 1,535 businesses with 2,890 different plants by 1924.<a href="#cite_note-111">[103]</a> Stinnes' empire collapsed after the government-sponsored inflation was stopped by the introduction of the <a href="/wiki/Rentenmark" title="Rentenmark">Rentenmark</a> on 15 November 1923. One U.S. dollar was equivalent to 4.20 Rentenmarks; the exchange rate was 1 Rentenmark to one trillion paper marks. The new money was backed by the Reich's gold reserves along with a 3.2 billion Rentenmark mortgage on the land holdings of agriculture, industry and trade. The introduction of the Rentenmark was successful at stabilizing German currency and the economy.<a href="#cite_note-112">[104]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Additional_political_violence_and_the_Hitler_putsch">Additional political violence and the Hitler putsch</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Weimar_Republic&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Additional political violence and the Hitler putsch">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Beer_Hall_Putsch" title="Beer Hall Putsch">Beer Hall Putsch</a></div> With the proclamation on 21 October 1923 of the <a href="/wiki/Rhenish_Republic" title="Rhenish Republic">Rhenish Republic</a> came a short-lived secessionist movement in the wake of which sections of the labour force became increasingly radicalized. In <a href="/wiki/Saxony" title="Saxony">Saxony</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thuringia" title="Thuringia">Thuringia</a>, Communists won enough seats to participate in governments under Social Democratic minister presidents. In both states the Communists were expelled by <a href="/wiki/Reichsexekution" title="Reichsexekution">Reich executions</a> (Reichsexekutionen) using <a href="/wiki/Article_48_(Weimar_Constitution)" title="Article 48 (Weimar Constitution)">Article 48</a> of the Weimar Constitution. In the Reichstag, the Social Democrats withdrew their support from Cuno's government and entered a <a href="/wiki/Grand_coalition_(Germany)" title="Grand coalition (Germany)">grand coalition</a> under DVP Chancellor Gustav Stresemann.<a href="#cite_note-113">[105]</a> The nationalist right, especially in Bavaria, branded the breaking off of the Ruhr resistance as treason. In a breach of the Weimar constitution, Bavaria declared a state of emergency, and executive power was transferred to <a href="/wiki/Gustav_Ritter_von_Kahr" title="Gustav Ritter von Kahr">Gustav Ritter von Kahr</a> as state commissioner general. The Reichswehr under the Chief of Army Command, General <a href="/wiki/Hans_von_Seeckt" title="Hans von Seeckt">Hans von Seeckt</a>, who had his own governmental ambitions directed against left-wing parties and Weimar parliamentarism,<a href="#cite_note-114">[106]</a> behaved loyally towards the Stresemann government only with respect to his own interests. In spite of the moves against the governments in Saxony and Thuringia, no action was taken against Bavaria, where Kahr was preparing a military coup aimed at overthrowing the Reich government in cooperation with the Bavarian military under district commander <a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Lossow" title="Otto von Lossow">Otto von Lossow</a>.<a href="#cite_note-115">[107]</a> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Poster_of_Mein_Kampf_in_Villa_Wannsee.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Poster_of_Mein_Kampf_in_Villa_Wannsee.jpg/187px-Poster_of_Mein_Kampf_in_Villa_Wannsee.jpg" decoding="async" width="187" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Poster_of_Mein_Kampf_in_Villa_Wannsee.jpg/281px-Poster_of_Mein_Kampf_in_Villa_Wannsee.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Poster_of_Mein_Kampf_in_Villa_Wannsee.jpg/375px-Poster_of_Mein_Kampf_in_Villa_Wannsee.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="4608" /></a><figcaption>Poster promoting Hitler's Mein Kampf in 2 paperback volumes for 2.85 Rentenmarks each</figcaption></figure> In 1920 the <a href="/wiki/German_Workers%27_Party" title="German Workers' Party">German Workers' Party</a> had become the <a href="/wiki/National_Socialist_German_Workers%27_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="National Socialist German Workers' Party">National Socialist German Workers' Party</a> (NSDAP), or <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Party" title="Nazi Party">Nazi Party</a>, which would eventually become a driving force in the collapse of the Weimar Republic. <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a> named himself chairman of the party in July 1921. On 8 November 1923, in a pact with <a href="/wiki/Erich_Ludendorff" title="Erich Ludendorff">Erich Ludendorff</a>, a league of nationalist fighting societies called the <a href="/wiki/Kampfbund" title="Kampfbund">Kampfbund</a>, took over a meeting that Kahr and Lossow were holding at a beer hall in Munich. Ludendorff and Hitler declared that the Weimar government was deposed and that they were planning to take control of Munich the following day. Kahr and Lossow organized the resistance to Hitler, with the result that the <a href="/wiki/Beer_Hall_Putsch" title="Beer Hall Putsch">coup attempt</a> was easily stopped.<a href="#cite_note-116">[108]</a> Hitler was arrested and sentenced to five years in prison for high treason, the minimum sentence for the charge. He served less than eight months in a comfortable cell, receiving a daily stream of visitors until his release on 20 December 1924. While in jail Hitler dictated <a href="/wiki/Mein_Kampf" title="Mein Kampf">Mein Kampf</a>, which laid out his ideas and future policies. Hitler decided to focus in the future on legal methods of gaining power.<a href="#cite_note-117">[109]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Golden_Era_(1924–1929)">Golden Era (1924–1929)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Weimar_Republic&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Golden Era (1924–1929)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Golden_Twenties" title="Golden Twenties">Golden Twenties</a></div> From 1924 to 1929, the Weimar Republic was relatively stable. Known in Germany as the "Goldene Zwanziger" (<a href="/wiki/Golden_Twenties" title="Golden Twenties">Golden Twenties</a>), its prominent features were internal consolidation and <a href="/wiki/Rapprochement" title="Rapprochement">rapprochement</a> in foreign affairs, along with a growing economy and a consequent decrease in civil unrest, although the improvements came about without establishing a sustainable foundation for the parliamentary democracy. While Germany's recognition of its reparations obligations promoted reintegration into the contemporary state system and world markets, it also developed a strong dependence on American capital. The stability was partly borrowed and, in the end, only superficial.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELongerich1995145-118">[110]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Framework_for_economic_policy">Framework for economic policy</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Weimar_Republic&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Framework for economic policy">edit</a>]</div> An essential basis for the relative stabilisation was the restructuring of reparations through the <a href="/wiki/Dawes_Plan" title="Dawes Plan">Dawes Plan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMommsen1998230-119">[111]</a> Without fixing a final total sum, the plan regulated the scope, composition and the security of transfers for future annual reparations payments. The latter was to be guaranteed by the American financial expert <a href="/wiki/Seymour_Parker_Gilbert" title="Seymour Parker Gilbert">Parker Gilbert</a> who, as reparations agent, could directly influence German fiscal and financial policy in order to secure monetary stability. The acceptance of the Dawes Plan in the Reichstag had long been uncertain – parts of the Right spoke of a "new enslavement of the German people" and the KPD of the enslavement of the German proletariat.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWinkler1998187-107">[99]</a> Once the plan had been passed, it brought the Weimar Republic a significant inflow of American loans from state funds as well as private investors. The money served as both start-up financing for reparations and as aid for an economic revival. German railways, the National Bank and many industries were mortgaged as security for the loans.<a href="#cite_note-120">[112]</a> The economic consolidation that occurred after the period of hyperinflation was largely at the expense of wage earners and the economic middle class. The eight-hour day, one of the main social achievements of the 1918/19 revolution, was in many cases watered down or abandoned; the civil service was affected by massive job cuts and salary reductions; and rationalisation and concentration in large industries continued and deprived many small and medium-sized enterprises of their livelihoods. Savers and creditors who had been hurt by inflation were effectively left without any significant compensation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMommsen1998234-121">[113]</a> The declarations of social guarantees contained in the Weimar Constitution<a href="#cite_note-122">[114]</a> had only a limited effect and stood in striking contrast to the many experiences of social decline. From 1924 onwards, small savers who had been impoverished or economically ruined by inflation were at least able to take advantage of the state-organised social welfare system, which replaced the former poor relief. The new system, however, was characterised by "petty means tests under an anonymous social bureaucracy" and by benefits that only secured existence at a subsistence level.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELongerich1995174_f.-123">[115]</a> In the brief peak phase of overall economic recovery and economic optimism, unemployment insurance was introduced in 1927. In some respects it was the "high point of the Republic's social expansion", although it benefitted only a portion of the workforce and did not cover permanent unemployment.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMommsen1998282-124">[116]</a> In the meantime, the state had also introduced a new system of social security. <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-00231,_Radioansprache_von_Kanzler_Wilhelm_Marx.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-00231%2C_Radioansprache_von_Kanzler_Wilhelm_Marx.jpg/244px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-00231%2C_Radioansprache_von_Kanzler_Wilhelm_Marx.jpg" decoding="async" width="244" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-00231%2C_Radioansprache_von_Kanzler_Wilhelm_Marx.jpg/366px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-00231%2C_Radioansprache_von_Kanzler_Wilhelm_Marx.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-00231%2C_Radioansprache_von_Kanzler_Wilhelm_Marx.jpg/488px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-00231%2C_Radioansprache_von_Kanzler_Wilhelm_Marx.jpg 2x" data-file-width="745" data-file-height="489" /></a><figcaption>Chancellor <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Marx" title="Wilhelm Marx">Wilhelm Marx</a>'s Christmas broadcast, December 1923</figcaption></figure> The parliamentary system of Weimar democracy was the expression of a party landscape that was strongly characterised and fragmented by class and social milieus. Reichstag members as representatives of the interests of their respective electorates often had narrow limits to their willingness to compromise. Such class and status consciousness was part of the legacy of the imperial era and continued to have an effect, although it was also partly reshaped by a consumer and leisure-oriented mass culture that emerged in the 1920s and was driven by the new media forms of records, film and radio. People of all classes and strata went to the cinema or sat in front of the radio. Mass culture pointed in the direction of democratisation and was interpreted by conservatives as intellectual flattening and a decline in values. The class fronts were gradually softened by mass culture, marking a "class society in transition".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWinkler1998296-125">[117]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Unstable_political_system">Unstable political system</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Weimar_Republic&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Unstable political system">edit</a>]</div> After Reich President Ebert died at the beginning of 1925 at the age of 54, the candidate of the parties that supported the Republic, <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Marx" title="Wilhelm Marx">Wilhelm Marx</a> of the Centre Party, was defeated in the second round of the <a href="/wiki/1925_German_presidential_election" title="1925 German presidential election">1925 Reich presidential election</a> by the candidate of the nationalist right, <a href="/wiki/Paul_von_Hindenburg" title="Paul von Hindenburg">Paul von Hindenburg</a>, 48.3% to 45.3%. Despite the fact that Hindenburg had declared in advance that he intended to hold office in accordance with the Weimar Constitution,<a href="#cite_note-126">[118]</a> his electoral success showed how far the country had shifted to the right since Weimar's beginnings with a socialist president. The Reichstag elections in <a href="/wiki/May_1924_German_federal_election" title="May 1924 German federal election">May 1924</a> and <a href="/wiki/December_1924_German_federal_election" title="December 1924 German federal election">December 1924</a> were once again failures for the <a href="/wiki/Weimar_Coalition" title="Weimar Coalition">Weimar Coalition</a> (SDP, DDP and Centre), which had started so comfortably in 1919 and which maintained its position as a "bulwark of democracy" only in Prussia.<a href="#cite_note-127">[119]</a> In the May election, the Coalition partners lost a total of 13 seats, while the right wing DNVP and left wing KPD picked up 82 seats. After the SPD left <a href="/wiki/Gustav_Stresemann" title="Gustav Stresemann">Gustav Stresemann</a>'s cabinet in November 1923 in protest of the Reich executions against Saxony and Thuringia, it did not take part in a government again until June 1928. From 1924 to 1928, there were three chancellors: <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Marx" title="Wilhelm Marx">Wilhelm Marx</a> of the Centre party (twice), the non-partisan <a href="/wiki/Hans_Luther" title="Hans Luther">Hans Luther</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hermann_M%C3%BCller_(politician,_born_1876)" title="Hermann Müller (politician, born 1876)">Hermann Müller</a> of the SPD. Altogether there were seven cabinets under the three men. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Foreign_policy">Foreign policy</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Weimar_Republic&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Foreign policy">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1989-040-27,_Gustav_Stresemann.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1989-040-27%2C_Gustav_Stresemann.jpg/169px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1989-040-27%2C_Gustav_Stresemann.jpg" decoding="async" width="169" height="258" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1989-040-27%2C_Gustav_Stresemann.jpg/253px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1989-040-27%2C_Gustav_Stresemann.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1989-040-27%2C_Gustav_Stresemann.jpg/338px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1989-040-27%2C_Gustav_Stresemann.jpg 2x" data-file-width="517" data-file-height="790" /></a><figcaption>Gustav Stresemann, who was Reich chancellor in 1923 and foreign minister from 1923 until his death in 1929</figcaption></figure> Despite the frequent changes of personnel in the Reich chancellery and in the government cabinets between 1923 and 1928, there was nevertheless an effective constant in Foreign Minister <a href="/wiki/Gustav_Stresemann" title="Gustav Stresemann">Gustav Stresemann</a> of the <a href="/wiki/German_People%27s_Party" title="German People's Party">German People's Party</a>. With his change from "monarchist of the heart" to "republican of reason",<a href="#cite_note-128">[120]</a> as he himself expressed it, Stresemann exercised a stabilising influence on the political development of the Republic not only as Reich chancellor in 1923 but throughout the entire period of his participation in government. He sought a release from the restraints of the Treaty of Versailles exclusively by peaceful means and through mutual understanding, although without abandoning long-term revisionist intentions such as regaining the territory ceded to Poland. He took the initiative for the 1925 <a href="/wiki/Locarno_Treaties" title="Locarno Treaties">Locarno Treaties</a>, which settled Germany's western borders but left the issue of the eastern ones open. Through reaching an understanding with France and securing Germany an equal position in the League of Nations in 1926, he led the Weimar Republic out of isolation. Germany signed arbitration conventions with France and Belgium and arbitration treaties with Poland and <a href="/wiki/Czechoslovakia" title="Czechoslovakia">Czechoslovakia</a>, undertaking to refer any future disputes to an arbitration tribunal or to the <a href="/wiki/Permanent_Court_of_International_Justice" title="Permanent Court of International Justice">Permanent Court of International Justice</a>.<a href="#cite_note-129">[121]</a> As a result of the Dawes Plan, foreign troops left the Ruhr in 1925.<a href="#cite_note-130">[122]</a> In addition, the 1926 <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Berlin_(1926)" title="Treaty of Berlin (1926)">Treaty of Berlin</a> ensured that relations with the Soviet Union remained unencumbered. Beginning in 1925 there was secret and illegal cooperation between the Reichswehr and the <a href="/wiki/Red_Army" title="Red Army">Red Army</a>. Germany tested weapons in the Soviet Union that had been banned by the Treaty of Versailles, including aircraft, tanks and poison gas.<a href="#cite_note-131">[123]</a> The favourable effects expected from the Locarno Treaties were to a certain extent realized. The first Rhineland zone was vacated in 1925, Franco-German economic relations were expanded through agreements, and the <a href="/wiki/Military_Inter-Allied_Commission_of_Control" title="Military Inter-Allied Commission of Control">Military Inter-Allied Commission of Control</a>, which monitored German disarmament, left Germany in 1927. In 1928 Stresemann played an important mediating role between the USA and France in the negotiations on the <a href="/wiki/Kellogg%E2%80%93Briand_Pact" title="Kellogg–Briand Pact">Kellogg–Briand Pact</a>, an international agreement on peace.<a href="#cite_note-132">[124]</a> After the full reparations schedule under the Dawes Plan was drawn up in 1928/29, new negotiations took place. In the resulting <a href="/wiki/Young_Plan" title="Young Plan">Young Plan</a>, the question of possible relief was combined with a plan for the final settlement of the reparations question. Instead of the annual payment of 2.5 billion Reichsmarks envisaged in the Dawes Plan, an average of 2 billion – initially 1.7 billion – was to be paid over a period of 59 years. With the prospect of what was thought to be a final reparations plan, and in view of Germany's willingness to accept the liability until 1988, France in parallel negotiations conceded a withdrawal of troops from the occupied Rhineland five years earlier than under the Versailles Treaty. For the nationalist right in Germany, it was above all the reparations burden extending across generations that provided propaganda fuel for their agitation against the Weimar Republic. The DNVP and Nazi Party carried out a <a href="/wiki/1929_German_referendum" class="mw-redirect" title="1929 German referendum">referendum against the Young Plan</a>, which failed by a large margin due to the low turnout, but through it the National Socialists were able to use their propaganda to draw nationwide attention to themselves and to make their mark on the right-wing fringe of the party spectrum.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKolb2009122-133">[125]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Culture">Culture</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Weimar_Republic&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Culture">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Weimar_culture" title="Weimar culture">Weimar culture</a></div> The 1920s saw a remarkable cultural renaissance in Germany. During the worst phase of hyperinflation in 1923, the clubs and bars were full of speculators who spent their daily profits so they would not lose the value the following day. Berlin intellectuals responded by condemning the excesses of what they considered capitalism and demanding revolutionary changes on the cultural scenery. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-K0623-0502-001,_Berlin,_Tanztee_im_%22Esplanade%22.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-K0623-0502-001%2C_Berlin%2C_Tanztee_im_%22Esplanade%22.jpg/250px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-K0623-0502-001%2C_Berlin%2C_Tanztee_im_%22Esplanade%22.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-K0623-0502-001%2C_Berlin%2C_Tanztee_im_%22Esplanade%22.jpg/375px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-K0623-0502-001%2C_Berlin%2C_Tanztee_im_%22Esplanade%22.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-K0623-0502-001%2C_Berlin%2C_Tanztee_im_%22Esplanade%22.jpg/500px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-K0623-0502-001%2C_Berlin%2C_Tanztee_im_%22Esplanade%22.jpg 2x" data-file-width="792" data-file-height="544" /></a><figcaption>The "<a href="/wiki/Golden_Twenties" title="Golden Twenties">Golden Twenties</a>" in Berlin: a jazz band plays for a tea dance at the hotel Esplanade, 1926.</figcaption></figure> Influenced by the cultural explosion in the Soviet Union, German literature, cinema, theatre and musical works entered a phase of great creativity. Innovative street theatre brought plays to the public, and the <a href="/wiki/Cabaret" title="Cabaret">cabaret</a> scene and jazz bands became very popular. According to the cliché, modern young women were <a href="/wiki/Americanized" class="mw-redirect" title="Americanized">Americanized</a>, wearing makeup, short hair, smoking and breaking with traditional <a href="/wiki/Mores" title="Mores">mores</a>. The euphoria surrounding <a href="/wiki/Josephine_Baker" title="Josephine Baker">Josephine Baker</a> in the metropolis of Berlin for instance, where she was declared an "erotic <a href="/wiki/Goddess" title="Goddess">goddess</a>" and in many ways admired and respected, kindled further "ultramodern" sensations in the minds of the German public.<a href="#cite_note-134">[126]</a> Art and a new type of architecture taught at "<a href="/wiki/Bauhaus" title="Bauhaus">Bauhaus</a>" schools reflected the new ideas of the time, with artists such as <a href="/wiki/George_Grosz" title="George Grosz">George Grosz</a> being fined for defaming the military and for <a href="/wiki/Blasphemy" title="Blasphemy">blasphemy</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Elephant_Celebes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/2/2b/The_Elephant_Celebes.jpg/220px-The_Elephant_Celebes.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="253" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/2/2b/The_Elephant_Celebes.jpg/330px-The_Elephant_Celebes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/2/2b/The_Elephant_Celebes.jpg/440px-The_Elephant_Celebes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="609" data-file-height="699" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/The_Elephant_Celebes" title="The Elephant Celebes">The Elephant Celebes</a> by Max Ernst (1921)</figcaption></figure> Artists in Berlin were influenced by other contemporary progressive cultural movements, such as the Impressionist and Expressionist painters in Paris, as well as the Cubists. Likewise, American progressive architects were admired. Many of the new buildings built during this era followed a straight-lined, geometrical style. Examples of the new architecture include the <a href="/wiki/Bauhaus_Dessau_Foundation" title="Bauhaus Dessau Foundation">Bauhaus Building</a> by <a href="/wiki/Walter_Gropius" title="Walter Gropius">Gropius</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gro%C3%9Fes_Schauspielhaus" title="Großes Schauspielhaus">Grosses Schauspielhaus</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Einstein_Tower" title="Einstein Tower">Einstein Tower</a>.<a href="#cite_note-135">[127]</a> Not everyone, however, was happy with the changes taking place in <a href="/wiki/Weimar_culture" title="Weimar culture">Weimar culture</a>. Conservatives and reactionaries feared that Germany was betraying its traditional values by adopting popular styles from abroad, particularly those Hollywood was popularising in American films, while New York became the global capital of fashion. In 1929, three years after receiving the 1926 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="Nobel Peace Prize">Nobel Peace Prize</a>, Stresemann died of a heart attack at age 51. When the <a href="/wiki/New_York_Stock_Exchange" title="New York Stock Exchange">New York Stock Exchange</a> crashed in October 1929, American loans dried up and the sharp decline of the German economy brought the "Golden Twenties" to an abrupt end. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_policy_under_Weimar">Social policy under Weimar</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Weimar_Republic&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Social policy under Weimar">edit</a>]</div> A wide range of progressive social reforms were carried out during and after the revolutionary period. The Executive Council of the Workers' and Soldiers' Councils – a coalition that included Majority Social Democrats, Independent Social Democrats, workers and soldiers – introduced the eight-hour work day, reinstated demobilised workers, released political prisoners, abolished press censorship, increased workers' old-age, sick and unemployment benefits, and gave labour the unrestricted right to organise into unions.<a href="#cite_note-136">[128]</a> It was made harder for estates to sack workers and prevent them from leaving when they wanted to. Under the Provisional Act for Agricultural Labour of 23 November 1918, the normal period of notice for management and most resident labourers was set at six weeks. In addition, a supplementary directive of December 1918 specified that female and child workers were entitled to a fifteen-minute break if they worked between four and six hours, thirty minutes for workdays lasting six to eight hours, and one hour for longer days.<a href="#cite_note-137">[129]</a> A decree on 23 December 1918 established committees (composed of workers' representatives "in their relation to the employer") to safeguard the rights of workers. The right to bargain collectively was also established, while it was made obligatory "to elect workers' committees on estates and establish conciliation committees". A decree on 3 February 1919 removed the right of employers to acquire exemption for domestic servants and agricultural workers.<a href="#cite_note-138">[130]</a> In 1919, legislation provided for a maximum working 48-hour workweek, restrictions on night work, a half-holiday on Saturday, and a break of thirty-six hours of continuous rest during the week.<a href="#cite_note-139">[131]</a> With the decree of 3 February 1919, the Ebert government reintroduced the original structure of the health insurance boards according to an 1883 law, with one-third employers and two-thirds workers.<a href="#cite_note-140">[132]</a> As of 28 June 1919, health insurance committees were elected by the workers themselves.<a href="#cite_note-141">[133]</a> That same year, health insurance was extended to wives and daughters without their own income, people only partially capable of gainful employment, people employed in private cooperatives, and people employed in public cooperatives.<a href="#cite_note-Bärnighausen-2002-142">[134]</a> The Provisional Order of January 1919 concerning agricultural labour conditions fixed 2,900 hours as a maximum per year, distributed as eight, ten, and eleven hours per day in four month periods.<a href="#cite_note-143">[135]</a> A code of January 1919 bestowed on land labourers the same legal rights that industrial workers enjoyed, while a bill ratified the same year obligated the states to set up agricultural settlement associations which "were endowed with the priority right of purchase of farms beyond a specified size".<a href="#cite_note-144">[136]</a> A series of progressive tax reforms were introduced under the auspices of Matthias Erzberger, including increases in taxes on capital<a href="#cite_note-145">[137]</a> and an increase in the highest income tax rate from 4% to 60%.<a href="#cite_note-146">[138]</a> Under a governmental decree of 3 February 1919, the German government met the demand of the veterans' associations that all aid for the disabled and their dependents be taken over by the central government<a href="#cite_note-147">[139]</a> (thus assuming responsibility for this assistance) and extended into peacetime the nationwide network of state and district welfare bureaus that had been set up during the war to coordinate social services for war widows and orphans.<a href="#cite_note-148">[140]</a> The Youth Welfare Act of 1922 obliged all municipalities and states to set up youth offices in charge of child protection, and also codified a right to education for all children,<a href="#cite_note-149">[141]</a> while laws were passed to regulate rents and increase protection for tenants in 1922 and 1923.<a href="#cite_note-150">[142]</a> Health insurance coverage was extended to other categories of the population during the existence of the Weimar Republic, including seamen, people employed in the educational and social welfare sectors, and all primary dependents.<a href="#cite_note-Bärnighausen-2002-142">[134]</a> Various improvements were also made in unemployment benefits, although in June 1920 the maximum amount of unemployment benefit that a family of four could receive in Berlin, 90 marks, was well below the minimum cost of subsistence of 304 marks.<a href="#cite_note-151">[143]</a> In 1923, unemployment relief was consolidated into a regular programme of assistance following economic problems that year. In 1924, a modern public assistance programme was introduced, and in 1925 the accident insurance programme was reformed, allowing diseases that were linked to certain kinds of work to become insurable risks. In addition, a national unemployment insurance programme was introduced in 1927.<a href="#cite_note-152">[144]</a> Housing construction was also greatly accelerated during the Weimar period, with over 2 million new homes constructed between 1924 and 1931 and a further 195,000 modernised.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHenig2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1k-EAgAAQBAJpgPA48_48]-153">[145]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-T0706-501,_berlin,_Armenspeisung.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-T0706-501%2C_berlin%2C_Armenspeisung.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-T0706-501%2C_berlin%2C_Armenspeisung.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-T0706-501%2C_berlin%2C_Armenspeisung.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-T0706-501%2C_berlin%2C_Armenspeisung.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-T0706-501%2C_berlin%2C_Armenspeisung.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-T0706-501%2C_berlin%2C_Armenspeisung.jpg 2x" data-file-width="788" data-file-height="560" /></a><figcaption>Troops of the German Army feeding the poor in Berlin, 1931</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Renewed_crisis_and_decline_(1930–1933)">Renewed crisis and decline (1930–1933)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Weimar_Republic&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Renewed crisis and decline (1930–1933)">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Onset_of_the_Great_Depression">Onset of the Great Depression</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Weimar_Republic&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Onset of the Great Depression">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BSPDRWeltkriseEngl.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/BSPDRWeltkriseEngl.PNG/220px-BSPDRWeltkriseEngl.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/BSPDRWeltkriseEngl.PNG/330px-BSPDRWeltkriseEngl.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/BSPDRWeltkriseEngl.PNG/440px-BSPDRWeltkriseEngl.PNG 2x" data-file-width="970" data-file-height="603" /></a><figcaption>Gross national product (inflation adjusted) and price index in Germany, 1926–1936. The period between 1930 and 1932 is marked by severe deflation and recession.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arbeitslosenquote_1928_bis_1935.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Arbeitslosenquote_1928_bis_1935.png/220px-Arbeitslosenquote_1928_bis_1935.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Arbeitslosenquote_1928_bis_1935.png/330px-Arbeitslosenquote_1928_bis_1935.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Arbeitslosenquote_1928_bis_1935.png/440px-Arbeitslosenquote_1928_bis_1935.png 2x" data-file-width="941" data-file-height="437" /></a><figcaption>Unemployment rate in Germany between 1928 and 1935. During Brüning's policy of deflation (marked in purple), the unemployment rate soared from 15.7% in 1930 to 30.8% in 1932.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-Z0127-305,_Berlin_1927,_Reichstreffen_RFB,_Th%C3%A4lmann,_Leow.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-Z0127-305%2C_Berlin_1927%2C_Reichstreffen_RFB%2C_Th%C3%A4lmann%2C_Leow.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-Z0127-305%2C_Berlin_1927%2C_Reichstreffen_RFB%2C_Th%C3%A4lmann%2C_Leow.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-Z0127-305%2C_Berlin_1927%2C_Reichstreffen_RFB%2C_Th%C3%A4lmann%2C_Leow.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-Z0127-305%2C_Berlin_1927%2C_Reichstreffen_RFB%2C_Th%C3%A4lmann%2C_Leow.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-Z0127-305%2C_Berlin_1927%2C_Reichstreffen_RFB%2C_Th%C3%A4lmann%2C_Leow.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-Z0127-305%2C_Berlin_1927%2C_Reichstreffen_RFB%2C_Th%C3%A4lmann%2C_Leow.jpg 2x" data-file-width="799" data-file-height="489" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Germany" title="Communist Party of Germany">Communist Party</a> (KPD) leader <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Th%C3%A4lmann" title="Ernst Thälmann">Ernst Thälmann</a> (person in foreground with raised clenched fist) and members of the <a href="/wiki/Roter_Frontk%C3%A4mpferbund" title="Roter Frontkämpferbund">Roter Frontkämpferbund</a> (RFB) marching through Berlin-Wedding, 1927</figcaption></figure> In 1929, the onset of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a> produced a severe economic shock in Germany which was made worse by the <a href="/wiki/European_banking_crisis_of_1931" title="European banking crisis of 1931">European banking crisis of 1931</a>. Germany's fragile economy had been sustained by the granting of loans through the <a href="/wiki/Dawes_Plan" title="Dawes Plan">Dawes Plan</a> (1924) and the <a href="/wiki/Young_Plan" title="Young Plan">Young Plan</a> (1929).<a href="#cite_note-Llewellyn-2019-105">[97]</a> When American banks withdrew their line of credit to German companies, the rapid rise in unemployment could not be checked by conventional economic measures.<a href="#cite_note-154">[146]</a> Unemployment thereafter grew dramatically, to 4 million in 1930,<a href="#cite_note-155">[147]</a> and in the <a href="/wiki/1930_German_federal_election" title="1930 German federal election">Reichstag election of September 1930</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Party" title="Nazi Party">National Socialist German Workers' Party</a> (NSDAP, Nazi Party), until then a minor far-right party, increased its share of the votes to 19%, becoming Germany's second largest party, while the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Germany" title="Communist Party of Germany">Communist Party of Germany</a> (KPD) gained 23 seats.<a href="#cite_note-156">[148]</a> The shift to the political extremes made the unstable coalition system by which every Weimar chancellor had governed increasingly unworkable. The last years of the Weimar Republic were marred by even more systemic political instability than previous years, and political violence increased. Four chancellors (<a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Br%C3%BCning" title="Heinrich Brüning">Heinrich Brüning</a>, <a href="/wiki/Franz_von_Papen" title="Franz von Papen">Franz von Papen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kurt_von_Schleicher" title="Kurt von Schleicher">Kurt von Schleicher</a> and, from 30 January to 23 March 1933, <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a>) governed through <a href="/wiki/Presidential_cabinets_of_the_Weimar_Republic" title="Presidential cabinets of the Weimar Republic">presidential decree</a> rather than parliamentary consultation.<a href="#cite_note-Llewellyn-2019-105">[97]</a> It effectively rendered parliament powerless as a means of enforcing constitutional <a href="/wiki/Checks_and_balances" class="mw-redirect" title="Checks and balances">checks and balances</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Brüning_and_the_first_presidential_cabinet_(1930–1932)">Brüning and the first presidential cabinet (1930–1932)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Weimar_Republic&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Brüning and the first presidential cabinet (1930–1932)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/First_Br%C3%BCning_cabinet" title="First Brüning cabinet">First Brüning cabinet</a> and <a href="/wiki/Second_Br%C3%BCning_cabinet" title="Second Brüning cabinet">Second Brüning cabinet</a></div> On 29 March 1930, at the instigation of General <a href="/wiki/Kurt_von_Schleicher" title="Kurt von Schleicher">Kurt von Schleicher</a>, President <a href="/wiki/Paul_von_Hindenburg" title="Paul von Hindenburg">Paul von Hindenburg</a> appointed finance expert <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Br%C3%BCning" title="Heinrich Brüning">Heinrich Brüning</a> as successor to <a href="/wiki/Hermann_M%C3%BCller_(politician,_born_1876)" title="Hermann Müller (politician, born 1876)">Hermann Müller</a> (SPD),<a href="#cite_note-157">[149]</a> whose five-party coalition had broken down on 27 March over how to finance the increased costs of unemployment compensation.<a href="#cite_note-158">[150]</a> The new government was expected to lead a political shift towards conservatism. As Brüning had no majority support in the Reichstag, he became, through the use of <a href="/wiki/Article_48_(Weimar_Constitution)" title="Article 48 (Weimar Constitution)">the emergency powers granted to the Reich president by Article 48</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Weimar_Constitution" title="Weimar Constitution">constitution</a>, the first Weimar chancellor to operate independently of parliament.<a href="#cite_note-:0-6">[6]</a> After a bill to reform Germany's finances was opposed by the Reichstag, it was made into an emergency decree by Hindenburg. On 18 July, as a result of opposition from the SPD, <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Germany" title="Communist Party of Germany">KPD</a>, <a href="/wiki/German_National_People%27s_Party" title="German National People's Party">DNVP</a> and the small contingent of NSDAP members, the Reichstag again rejected the bill by a slim margin. Immediately afterward, Brüning submitted a decree from the President to dissolve the Reichstag.<a href="#cite_note-159">[151]</a> The consequent <a href="/wiki/1930_German_federal_election" title="1930 German federal election">general election on 14 September</a> resulted in an enormous political shift within the Reichstag: 18.3% of the vote went to the NSDAP, five times the percentage it had won in 1928.<a href="#cite_note-160">[152]</a> As a result, it was no longer possible, even with a <a href="/wiki/Grand_coalition" title="Grand coalition">grand coalition</a>, to form a pro-republican majority that excluded the KPD, DNVP and NSDAP. The situation led an increase in the number of public demonstrations and instances of paramilitary violence organised by the NSDAP. Between 1930 and 1932, Brüning enacted a policy of <a href="/wiki/Deflation" title="Deflation">deflation</a> and drastic cuts in state expenditures.<a href="#cite_note-:0-6">[6]</a>Among other measures, he completely halted all obligatory public payments to the unemployment insurance program introduced in 1927, resulting in higher contributions from the workers and fewer benefits for the unemployed. Benefits for the sick, invalids and pensioners were also sharply reduced.<a href="#cite_note-161">[153]</a> Since the <a href="/wiki/Young_Plan" title="Young Plan">Young Plan</a> did not allow the <a href="/wiki/Reichsmark" title="Reichsmark">Reichsmark</a> to be devalued, he triggered a deflationary <a href="/wiki/Internal_devaluation" title="Internal devaluation">internal devaluation</a> by forcing the economy to reduce prices, rents, salaries and wages by 20%.<a href="#cite_note-Büttner-17">[10]</a> By late 1931 Hindenburg and Schleicher had begun to contemplate dropping Brüning in favour of accommodating <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Hugenberg" title="Alfred Hugenberg">Alfred Hugenberg</a> of the DNVP and Adolf Hitler. On 30 May 1932, Brüning finally lost Hindenburg's support over the question of <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Aid" title="Eastern Aid">Eastern Aid</a> and resigned as chancellor.<a href="#cite_note-162">[154]</a> The consensus today is that Brüning's policies exacerbated the German economic crisis and the population's growing frustration with democracy, contributing considerably to the increase in support for Hitler's NSDAP.<a href="#cite_note-:0-6">[6]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Papen_cabinet">Papen cabinet</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Weimar_Republic&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Papen cabinet">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-13378,_Braunschweig,_Hitler_bei_Marsch_der_SA.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-13378%2C_Braunschweig%2C_Hitler_bei_Marsch_der_SA.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-13378%2C_Braunschweig%2C_Hitler_bei_Marsch_der_SA.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-13378%2C_Braunschweig%2C_Hitler_bei_Marsch_der_SA.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-13378%2C_Braunschweig%2C_Hitler_bei_Marsch_der_SA.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-13378%2C_Braunschweig%2C_Hitler_bei_Marsch_der_SA.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-13378%2C_Braunschweig%2C_Hitler_bei_Marsch_der_SA.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="528" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Party" title="Nazi Party">Nazi Party</a> (NSDAP) leader <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a> saluting members of the <a href="/wiki/Sturmabteilung" title="Sturmabteilung">Sturmabteilung</a> in <a href="/wiki/Braunschweig" title="Braunschweig">Brunswick</a>, Lower Saxony, 1932</figcaption></figure><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Papen_cabinet" title="Papen cabinet">Papen cabinet</a></div> Hindenburg then appointed <a href="/wiki/Franz_von_Papen" title="Franz von Papen">Franz von Papen</a> as the new chancellor. He was closely associated with the industrialist and land-owning classes and the military. General <a href="/wiki/Kurt_von_Schleicher" title="Kurt von Schleicher">Kurt von Schleicher</a> – who became Reichswehr minister – handpicked the members of the <a href="/wiki/Papen_cabinet" title="Papen cabinet">Papen cabinet</a>, which came to be known as the "Cabinet of Barons".<a href="#cite_note-163">[155]</a> It continued to govern by presidential decree as had the Brüning cabinets. On 16 June Papen lifted the ban on the Nazi <a href="/wiki/Sturmabteilung" title="Sturmabteilung">Sturmabteilung</a> (SA) and <a href="/wiki/Schutzstaffel" title="Schutzstaffel">Schutzstaffel</a> (SS)<a href="#cite_note-164">[156]</a> that had been imposed on 13 April under the Brüning government.<a href="#cite_note-165">[157]</a> Using the political violence that took place during the Reichstag election campaign as a pretext, he ousted the SPD-led coalition government of <a href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Prussia" title="Free State of Prussia">Prussia</a> in the <a href="/wiki/1932_Prussian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1932 Prussian coup d'état">Prussian coup d'état</a> (Preußenschlag) of 20 July. By emergency decree he declared himself Reich Commissioner (Reichskommissar) of Prussia, a step that further weakened the democracy of the Weimar Republic.<a href="#cite_note-166">[158]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Election_of_July_1932">Election of July 1932</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Weimar_Republic&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Election of July 1932">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Weimarer_Republik.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Weimarer_Republik.png/310px-Weimarer_Republik.png" decoding="async" width="310" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Weimarer_Republik.png/465px-Weimarer_Republik.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Weimarer_Republik.png/620px-Weimarer_Republik.png 2x" data-file-width="1168" data-file-height="492" /></a><figcaption>Chart of federal election results 1919–1933, with right-wing parties at the top and left-wing at the bottom, showing the collapse of the centrist and right of centre parties as the <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Party" title="Nazi Party">Nazi Party</a> (brown) increased in strength. (Note: 'Sonstige' means 'Others'.)</figcaption></figure> Per a prior agreement with Hindenburg and Hitler, Papen dissolved the Reichstag on 4 June 1932 and called for a new election in the hope that the Nazi Party would win the most seats and allow him to set up an authoritarian government.<a href="#cite_note-167">[159]</a> The <a href="/wiki/German_federal_election,_July_1932" class="mw-redirect" title="German federal election, July 1932">general election on 31 July 1932</a> yielded major gains for the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Germany" title="Communist Party of Germany">Communist Party</a> and the Nazis, who won 37.3% of the vote, their <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Party#Ascension_and_consolidation" title="Nazi Party">high-water mark in a free election</a>. The Nazi party supplanted the <a href="/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany" title="Social Democratic Party of Germany">Social Democrats</a> as the largest party in the Reichstag, although it did not gain a majority. The immediate question was what part the Nazi Party would play in the government of the country. Hitler refused a ministry under Papen and demanded the chancellorship for himself but was rejected by Hindenburg on 13 August 1932. Since there was still no majority in the Reichstag for any government, the Reichstag was again dissolved, and an election was scheduled in the hope that a stable majority would result.<a href="#cite_note-Llewellyn-2019-105">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-168">[160]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Schleicher_cabinet">Schleicher cabinet</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Weimar_Republic&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Schleicher cabinet">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Kurt_von_Schleicher#Chancellorship" title="Kurt von Schleicher">Kurt von Schleicher § Chancellorship</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-B0527-0001-020,_Kurt_von_Schleicher_(cropped)(2).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-B0527-0001-020%2C_Kurt_von_Schleicher_%28cropped%29%282%29.jpg/185px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-B0527-0001-020%2C_Kurt_von_Schleicher_%28cropped%29%282%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="185" height="253" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-B0527-0001-020%2C_Kurt_von_Schleicher_%28cropped%29%282%29.jpg/277px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-B0527-0001-020%2C_Kurt_von_Schleicher_%28cropped%29%282%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-B0527-0001-020%2C_Kurt_von_Schleicher_%28cropped%29%282%29.jpg/369px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-B0527-0001-020%2C_Kurt_von_Schleicher_%28cropped%29%282%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="484" data-file-height="663" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Kurt_von_Schleicher" title="Kurt von Schleicher">Kurt von Schleicher</a>, the last chancellor of the Weimar Republic before Hitler</figcaption></figure> In the <a href="/wiki/German_federal_election,_November_1932" class="mw-redirect" title="German federal election, November 1932">6 November 1932 election</a>, the Nazis received two million fewer votes than in the previous election.<a href="#cite_note-Evans-2004-169">[161]</a> Kurt von Schleicher, a retired army general who for many years had worked politically behind the scenes to further the interests of Germany's military,<a href="#cite_note-170">[162]</a> maneuevered Papen out of office and was appointed chancellor by Hindenburg on 3 December.<a href="#cite_note-171">[163]</a> He tried to cause a split within the Nazi Party that would force Hitler to support his government but failed in the attempt.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETurner199628-172">[164]</a> One of the main initiatives of Schleicher's government was a public works program intended to counter the effects of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a>. The various projects, which are often wrongly attributed to Hitler, created 2 million jobs for unemployed Germans by July 1933.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETurner1996133-173">[165]</a> In foreign policy, Schleicher's main interest was in winning Gleichberechtigung ("equality of status") for Germany at the <a href="/wiki/World_Disarmament_Conference" class="mw-redirect" title="World Disarmament Conference">World Disarmament Conference</a> by doing away with Part V of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a>, which had disarmed Germany.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETurner1996103-174">[166]</a> Schleicher's relations with his cabinet were poor because of his secretiveness and open contempt for his ministers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETurner199694-175">[167]</a> Papen had become Schleicher's bitter enemy when he was forced out of office but retained Hindenburg's confidence. He advised him to sack Schleicher and appoint Hitler chancellor in a coalition with the <a href="/wiki/German_National_People%27s_Party" title="German National People's Party">German National People's Party</a> (DNVP) which, together with Papen, would work to rein in Hitler. On 28 January 1933, Schleicher told his cabinet that he needed a decree from the President to dissolve the Reichstag in order to keep his government from being defeated in a no-confidence vote, but Hindenburg refused the request.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETurner1996131–132-176">[168]</a> Knowing that his government was about to fall and fearing that Papen would get the chancellorship, Schleicher began to favor Hitler.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETurner1996148-177">[169]</a> Hitler was initially willing to support Schleicher as his minister of Defense but was convinced by an associate of Schleicher that he was about to launch a putsch to keep Hitler out of power. Amid rumors that Schleicher was moving troops into Berlin to depose Hindenburg, Papen convinced him to appoint Hitler chancellor. The President dismissed Schleicher and appointed Hitler on 30 January 1933.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETurner1996148–150-178">[170]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="End_of_the_Weimar_Republic">End of the Weimar Republic</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Weimar_Republic&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: End of the Weimar Republic">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hitler's_chancellorship_(1933)">Hitler's chancellorship (1933)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Weimar_Republic&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Hitler's chancellorship (1933)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Hitler_cabinet" title="Hitler cabinet">Hitler cabinet</a></div> Hitler was sworn in as chancellor on the morning of 30 January 1933. By early February, the government had begun to clamp down on the opposition. Meetings of the left-wing parties were banned and even some of the moderate parties found their members threatened and assaulted. Measures with an appearance of legality suppressed the Communist Party in mid-February<a href="#cite_note-179">[171]</a><a href="#cite_note-180">[172]</a> and included the plainly illegal arrests of Reichstag deputies. On 27 February 1933 the <a href="/wiki/Reichstag_fire" title="Reichstag fire">Reichstag was gutted by a fire</a> which was blamed on an act of arson by <a href="/wiki/Marinus_van_der_Lubbe" title="Marinus van der Lubbe">Marinus van der Lubbe</a>, a Dutch <a href="/wiki/Council_communism" title="Council communism">council communist</a>. Hitler blamed the fire on the KPD (although Van der Lubbe was not a member of the party) and convinced Hindenburg to issue the <a href="/wiki/Reichstag_Fire_Decree" title="Reichstag Fire Decree">Reichstag Fire Decree</a> the following day. The decree invoked <a href="/wiki/Article_48_(Weimar_Constitution)" title="Article 48 (Weimar Constitution)">Article 48</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Weimar_Constitution" title="Weimar Constitution">Weimar Constitution</a> and "suspended until further notice" a number of constitutional protections of civil liberties, allowing the Nazi government to take swift action against political meetings and to arrest both socialists and communists.<a href="#cite_note-181">[173]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/German_federal_election,_March_1933" class="mw-redirect" title="German federal election, March 1933">Reichstag election</a> which took place on 5 March 1933, the NSDAP obtained 17 million votes and a scant majority of 16 seats for the NSDAP-DNVP coalition. The Communist, Social Democrat and Catholic Centre votes changed little.<a href="#cite_note-182">[174]</a> It was the last multi-party election of the Weimar Republic and the last in a united Germany for 57 years. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Enabling_Act">Enabling Act</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Weimar_Republic&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Enabling Act">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Enabling_Act_of_1933" title="Enabling Act of 1933">Enabling Act of 1933</a></div> In March Hitler submitted a proposal to the Reichstag for an <a href="/wiki/Enabling_act" title="Enabling act">enabling act</a> that granted all legislative powers to the cabinet and by extension to Hitler. It in effect allowed Hitler's government to act without regard for the constitution.<a href="#cite_note-183">[175]</a> Since it formally amended the Weimar Constitution, it required a two-thirds majority to pass, which it obtained (68%) on 23 March, with only the SPD voting against (the KPD had been banned).<a href="#cite_note-:1-184">[176]</a> The combined effect of the <a href="/wiki/Enabling_Act_of_1933" title="Enabling Act of 1933">Enabling Act</a> and the Reichstag Fire Decree transformed Hitler's government into a legal dictatorship and laid the groundwork for his totalitarian regime. Since July 1933, the NSDAP was the only legally permitted party in Germany. The Reichstag from 1933 onward effectively became the rubber stamp parliament that Hitler had desired.<a href="#cite_note-185">[177]</a> The passage of the Enabling Act of 1933 is widely considered to mark the end of the Weimar Republic and the beginning of <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a>. It effectively destroyed the checks and balances of the democratic system, concentrating all the power in the hands of Hitler and his inner circle. The Enabling Act played a significant role in the establishment of Hitler's dictatorship and the subsequent events that unfolded during the Nazi era. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Nazification">Nazification</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Weimar_Republic&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Nazification">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Gleichschaltung" title="Gleichschaltung">Gleichschaltung</a></div> In the months following the passage of the Enabling Act, all German parties aside from the NSDAP were banned or forced to disband themselves, all trade unions were dissolved<a href="#cite_note-:1-184">[176]</a> and all media were brought under the control of the <a href="/wiki/Reich_Ministry_of_Public_Enlightenment_and_Propaganda" title="Reich Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda">Reich Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda</a>.<a href="#cite_note-186">[178]</a> The Reichstag was then dissolved by Hindenburg and <a href="/wiki/November_1933_German_parliamentary_election" title="November 1933 German parliamentary election">a snap one-party election was called</a> in November 1933. It gave the NSDAP 100% of the seats in the chamber.<a href="#cite_note-187">[179]</a> In February 1934, the <a href="/wiki/Law_on_the_Reconstruction_of_the_Reich" title="Law on the Reconstruction of the Reich">Law on the Reconstruction of the Reich</a> abolished all state parliaments and passed state sovereignty to the Reich government.<a href="#cite_note-:1-184">[176]</a> The constitution of 1919 was never formally repealed,<a href="#cite_note-188">[180]</a> but the Enabling Act meant that it was a dead letter. The Reichstag was effectively eliminated as an active player in German politics. It met only sporadically until the end of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, held no debates and enacted only a few laws; for all purposes, it was reduced to a mere stage for Hitler's speeches.<a href="#cite_note-189">[181]</a> The other chamber of the German parliament (the <a href="/wiki/Reichsrat_(Germany)" title="Reichsrat (Germany)">Reichsrat</a>) was officially abolished on 14 February 1934 by the <a href="/wiki/Law_on_the_Abolition_of_the_Reichsrat" title="Law on the Abolition of the Reichsrat">Law on the Abolition of the Reichsrat</a>.<a href="#cite_note-190">[182]</a> It was in clear violation of the Enabling Act, which stipulated (Article 2) that any laws passed under its authority could not affect the institutions of either chamber.<a href="#cite_note-191">[183]</a> By then, however, the Nazis had become law unto themselves, and the actions were never challenged in court. Hindenburg's death on 2 August 1934 eliminated any remaining obstacle to full Nazi dominance. The day before he died, the Hitler cabinet passed the <a href="/wiki/Law_Concerning_the_Head_of_State_of_the_German_Reich" title="Law Concerning the Head of State of the German Reich">Law Concerning the Head of State of the German Reich</a>, the final major part in the Nazification process called <a href="/wiki/Gleichschaltung" title="Gleichschaltung">Gleichschaltung</a> ("coordination"). It transferred the president's powers upon his death, including as Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces, to the new post of "Führer and Reich Chancellor",<a href="#cite_note-192">[184]</a> giving Hitler complete power over the entire Reich without any possibility of checks and balances. The action was later ratified by <a href="/wiki/1934_German_referendum" class="mw-redirect" title="1934 German referendum">a highly non-democratic referendum</a><a href="#cite_note-193">[185]</a> which shed the last remains of the Weimar Republic. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reasons_for_failure">Reasons for failure</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Weimar_Republic&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Reasons for failure">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a>. Relevant discussion may be found on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Weimar_Republic#Netual_policy_violation_–_Reasons_for_failure" title="Talk:Weimar Republic">talk page</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Weimar_Republic" title="Special:EditPage/Weimar Republic">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Weimar+Republic%22+decline">"Weimar Republic" decline</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Weimar+Republic%22+decline+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Weimar+Republic%22+decline&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Weimar+Republic%22+decline+-wikipedia">books</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Weimar+Republic%22+decline">scholar</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Weimar+Republic%22+decline&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a> (June 2021) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> The reasons for the Weimar Republic's collapse are the subject of continuing debate. It may have been doomed from the beginning since even some moderates disliked it and extremists on both the left and right loathed it, a situation often referred to as a "democracy without democrats".<a href="#cite_note-194">[186]</a> Germany had limited democratic traditions, and Weimar democracy was widely seen as chaotic. Since Weimar's early left of center politicians had been blamed for the Dolchstoß ("<a href="/wiki/Stab-in-the-back_myth" title="Stab-in-the-back myth">stab-in-the-back</a>"), a widely believed theory that Germany's surrender in the First World War had been unnecessary and the act of traitors, the popular legitimacy of the government was on shaky ground from the start. As normal parliamentary lawmaking broke down and was replaced around 1930 by a series of <a href="/wiki/Article_48_(Weimar_Constitution)" title="Article 48 (Weimar Constitution)">emergency decrees</a>, the decreasing popular legitimacy of the government further drove voters to extremist parties.<a href="#cite_note-Ziblatt-2017-195">[187]</a> No single reason can explain the failure of the Weimar Republic. The most commonly asserted causes can be grouped into three categories: economic problems, institutional problems, and the roles of specific individuals.<a href="#cite_note-Weitz-2018-196">[188]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economic_problems">Economic problems</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Weimar_Republic&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Economic problems">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Dawes_Plan" title="Dawes Plan">Dawes Plan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reichsbank" title="Reichsbank">Reichsbank</a></div> The Weimar Republic had some of the most serious economic problems ever experienced by any Western democracy. It experienced a period of rampant <a href="/wiki/Hyperinflation" title="Hyperinflation">hyperinflation</a>, sometimes high unemployment, and a large drop in living standards. From 1923 to 1929, there was a period of economic recovery, but the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a> of the 1930s led to a worldwide recession. Germany was particularly affected because it depended heavily on American loans. The Weimar Republic was severely affected by the Great Depression. In 1926, about two million Germans were unemployed, which rose to around six million in 1932, with many blaming the Weimar Republic. As the Weimar Republic was very fragile throughout its existence, the depression was devastating and played a major role in the <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Party" title="Nazi Party">Nazi</a> takeover. Most Germans thought the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a> was a punishing and degrading document because it forced them to surrender resource-rich areas and pay massive amounts of compensation. The punitive reparations caused consternation and resentment, but the actual economic damage resulting from the Treaty of Versailles is difficult to determine. While the official reparations were considerable, Germany ended up paying only a fraction of them. However, the reparations damaged Germany's economy by discouraging market loans. A number of factors came together in 1923, including printing currency to finance the costs of passive resistance to the <a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Ruhr" title="Occupation of the Ruhr">occupation of the Ruhr</a>, to cause rampant hyperinflation. At the beginning of 1920, one US dollar was equivalent to fifty marks. By the end of 1923, one US dollar was equal to 4,200,000,000,000 marks.<a href="#cite_note-197">[189]</a> <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University" title="Princeton University">Princeton</a> historian <a href="/wiki/Harold_James_(historian)" title="Harold James (historian)">Harold James</a> argues that there was a clear link between economic decline and people turning to extremist politics.<a href="#cite_note-198">[190]</a> That was made apparent when political parties on both the far right and far left wanted to disband the Republic altogether, making any democratic majority in Parliament impossible.<a href="#cite_note-Weitz-2018-196">[188]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Institutional_problems">Institutional problems</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Weimar_Republic&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Institutional problems">edit</a>]</div> It is widely believed that the <a href="/wiki/Weimar_Constitution" title="Weimar Constitution">1919 constitution</a> had several weaknesses, making the eventual establishment of a dictatorship likely, but it is impossible to know whether a different constitution could have prevented the rise of the Nazi party.<a href="#cite_note-Ziblatt-2017-195">[187]</a> The 1949 West German constitution (the <a href="/wiki/Basic_Law_of_the_Federal_Republic_of_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Basic Law of the Federal Republic of Germany">Basic Law of the Federal Republic of Germany</a>) is generally viewed as a strong response to these flaws. <ul><li>The Weimar presidency was frequently considered an Ersatzkaiser ("substitute emperor"), an attempt to replace the emperors with a similarly strong institution meant to diminish party politics. <a href="/wiki/Article_48_(Weimar_Constitution)" title="Article 48 (Weimar Constitution)">Article 48</a> of the Constitution gave the president power to "take all necessary steps" if "public order and security are seriously disturbed or endangered". Although it was intended as an emergency clause, it was often used before 1933 to issue decrees without the support of Parliament and also made Hitler's <a href="/wiki/Gleichschaltung" title="Gleichschaltung">Gleichschaltung</a> easier.</li> <li>During the Weimar Republic, it was accepted that a law did not have to conform to the constitution as long as it had the support of two-thirds of Parliament, the same majority needed to change the constitution. That was a precedent for the <a href="/wiki/Enabling_Act_of_1933" title="Enabling Act of 1933">Enabling Act of 1933</a>. The Basic Law of 1949 requires an explicit change of the wording, and it prohibits abolishing the basic rights or the federal structure of the republic.</li> <li>The use of a <a href="/wiki/Proportional_representation" title="Proportional representation">proportional representation</a> without large <a href="/wiki/Election_threshold" class="mw-redirect" title="Election threshold">thresholds</a> meant a party with a small amount of support could gain entry into the Reichstag. That led to many small parties, some extremist, building political bases within the system, and made it difficult to form and maintain a stable <a href="/wiki/Coalition_government" title="Coalition government">coalition government</a>, further contributing to instability. To counter the problem, the modern German Bundestag introduced a 5% threshold limit for a party to gain parliamentary representation. However, the Reichstag of the monarchy was fractioned to a similar degree even if it was elected by <a href="/wiki/Majoritarian_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Majoritarian system">majority vote</a> (under a <a href="/wiki/Two-round_system" title="Two-round system">two-round system</a>).</li> <li>The Reichstag could remove the chancellor from office even if it was unable to agree on a successor. With the Reichstag increasingly fractured, President Hindenburg rather than the Reichstag chose the Republic's last four chancellors (Brüning, Papen, Schleicher and Hitler). They all governed by presidential decree. The 1949 Basic Law stipulates that a chancellor may not be removed by Parliament unless a successor is elected at the same time, a procedure known as a "<a href="/wiki/Constructive_vote_of_no_confidence" title="Constructive vote of no confidence">constructive vote of no confidence</a>".</li> <li>The fundamental rights of <a href="/wiki/Habeas_corpus" title="Habeas corpus">habeas corpus</a>, sanctity of the home, inviolability of the mail, <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">freedom of speech</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press" title="Freedom of the press">press</a>, <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_assembly" title="Freedom of assembly">freedom of assembly</a>, <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_association" title="Freedom of association">freedom of association</a> (including religious associations) and the inviolability of property – Articles 114, 115, 117, 118, 123, 124 and 153 of the Weimar Constitution – could be suspended under Article 48.<a href="#cite_note-199">[191]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Basic_Law_for_the_Federal_Republic_of_Germany" title="Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany">Basic Law</a> lists them as basic rights that cannot legally be nullified and in Article 20 (4) includes the <a href="/wiki/Right_to_resist" title="Right to resist">right to resist</a> attempts to abolish the constitutional order.<a href="#cite_note-200">[192]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Role_of_individuals_and_parties">Role of individuals and parties</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Weimar_Republic&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Role of individuals and parties">edit</a>]</div> Chancellor <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Br%C3%BCning" title="Heinrich Brüning">Heinrich Brüning</a>'s deflationary economic policy from 1930 to 1932 has been the subject of much debate. It caused many Germans to identify the Republic with cuts in social spending. <a href="/wiki/Franz_von_Papen" title="Franz von Papen">Franz von Papen</a>, who was chancellor of Germany from 30 May to 17 November 1932, ousted the elected government of the <a href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Prussia" title="Free State of Prussia">Free State of Prussia</a> in the <a href="/wiki/1932_Prussian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1932 Prussian coup d'état">1932 Prussian coup d'état</a>, which eliminated one of the last potential bastions of resistance to Hitler's seizure of power. Prussia was led by the Social Democratic Party, was home to the federal capital Berlin and had 61% of the Weimar Republic's population. Papen also pressured Hindenburg to appoint Hitler as chancellor and himself as vice chancellor in 1933 in a cabinet ostensibly not under Nazi Party domination. Papen and his allies were quickly marginalized by Hitler. <a href="/wiki/Paul_von_Hindenburg" title="Paul von Hindenburg">Paul von Hindenburg</a> became president of Germany in 1925. As he was an old-style monarchist conservative, he had little love for the Republic, but for the most part, he acted formally within the bounds of the constitution.<a href="#cite_note-Barth-2020-201">[193]</a> However, he ultimately – on the advice of his son and others close to him – appointed Hitler chancellor, thereby effectively ending the Republic after the passage of the <a href="/wiki/Enabling_Act_of_1933" title="Enabling Act of 1933">Enabling Act of 1933</a>. Additionally, Hindenburg's death in 1934 ended the last obstacle for Hitler to assume full power in the Weimar Republic. The <a href="/wiki/German_National_People%27s_Party" title="German National People's Party">German National People's Party</a> (DNVP) has also been blamed as responsible for the downfall of the Weimar Republic because of its <a href="/wiki/Ultranationalism" title="Ultranationalism">ultranationalist</a> positions and its unwillingness to accept the Republic because of its monarchist ideology. In his book, <a href="/wiki/The_Rise_and_Fall_of_the_Third_Reich" title="The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich">The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich</a>, journalist and historian <a href="/wiki/William_L._Shirer" title="William L. Shirer">William L. Shirer</a> wrote that the DNVP's status as a far-right party rather than a mainstream conservative party was one of the main reasons for the Weimar Republic's downfall. In Shirer's view, the DNVP's refusal to "take a responsible position either in the government or in the opposition" during most of Weimar's existence denied Weimar "that stability provided in many other countries by a truly conservative party."<a href="#cite_note-202">[194]</a> Similarly, conservative British historian Sir <a href="/wiki/John_Wheeler-Bennett" title="John Wheeler-Bennett">John Wheeler-Bennett</a> blamed the DNVP for failing to reconcile with the Republic, stating that "Under the cloak of loyalty to the Monarchy, they either held aloof or sabotaged the efforts of successive Chancellors to give a stable government to the Republic. The truth is that after 1918 many German Nationalists were more influenced by feelings of disloyalty to the Republic than of loyalty to the Kaiser, and it was this motive which led them to make their fatal contribution to bringing Hitler to power".<a href="#cite_note-203">[195]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Weimar_Republic&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Legacy">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Propaganda_in_Nazi_Germany" title="Propaganda in Nazi Germany">Nazi propaganda</a> tended to describe the Weimar Republic as a period of treason, degeneration, and corruption. The whole period from 1918 to 1933 was described in propaganda as "The time of the System" (Systemzeit), while the Republic itself was known as "<a href="/wiki/The_System_(Nazism)" title="The System (Nazism)">The System</a>" (Das System), a term that was adopted into everyday use after 1933.<a href="#cite_note-204">[196]</a> Another Nazi phrase used for the republic and its politicians was "the <a href="/wiki/November_criminals" class="mw-redirect" title="November criminals">November criminals</a>" or "the regime of the November criminals" (German: November-Verbrecher), referring to the month the republic was founded in (November 1918).<a href="#cite_note-205">[197]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Foreign_Policy" title="Foreign Policy">Foreign Policy</a>, the Weimar Republic is seen as "the best-known historical example of a 'failed' democracy that ceded to fascism".<a href="#cite_note-206">[198]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Constituent_states">Constituent states</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Weimar_Republic&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Constituent states">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/States_of_the_Weimar_Republic" title="States of the Weimar Republic">States of the Weimar Republic</a></div> Prior to the First World War, the constituent <a href="/wiki/States_of_the_German_Empire" title="States of the German Empire">states of the German Empire</a> were 22 smaller monarchies, three republican city-states, and the <a href="/wiki/Alsace%E2%80%93Lorraine" title="Alsace–Lorraine">Imperial Territory of Alsace–Lorraine</a>. After the territorial losses of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a> and the German revolution of 1918–1919, the remaining states continued as federal states of the new Republic. The former <a href="/wiki/Ernestine_duchies" title="Ernestine duchies">Ernestine duchies</a> merged to form the state of <a href="/wiki/Thuringia" title="Thuringia">Thuringia</a> in 1920, except for <a href="/wiki/Saxe-Coburg" title="Saxe-Coburg">Saxe-Coburg</a>, which became part of <a href="/wiki/Bavaria" title="Bavaria">Bavaria</a>. <table> <tbody><tr> <td style="vertical-align: top; padding-right:20px"><div style="position: relative; width: 550px; border: 2px solid;"> <figure class="noresize mw-ext-imagemap-desc-bottom-right" typeof="mw:File"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Weimar_Republic_states_map.svg/550px-Weimar_Republic_states_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="550" height="461" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Weimar_Republic_states_map.svg/825px-Weimar_Republic_states_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Weimar_Republic_states_map.svg/1100px-Weimar_Republic_states_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="976" data-file-height="818" usemap="#ImageMap_cd1e24bc463c00b9" resource="/wiki/File:Weimar_Republic_states_map.svg" /><map name="ImageMap_cd1e24bc463c00b9"><area href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Waldeck-Pyrmont" shape="poly" coords="130,209,128,211,129,214,132,214,132,214,135,213,133,209,130,209" alt="Free State of Waldeck-Pyrmont" title="Free State of Waldeck-Pyrmont" /><area href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Waldeck-Pyrmont" shape="poly" coords="122,234,118,236,120,240,116,241,111,241,107,245,108,247,111,245,113,250,110,253,114,254,117,247,120,249,118,254,123,258,128,250,126,251,124,247,124,235,122,234" alt="Free State of Waldeck-Pyrmont" title="Free State of Waldeck-Pyrmont" /><area href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Waldeck-Pyrmont" shape="poly" coords="64,240,64,243,47,243,47,253,64,253,64,258,100,258,100,240,64,240" alt="Free State of Waldeck-Pyrmont" title="Free State of Waldeck-Pyrmont" /><area href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Schaumburg-Lippe" shape="poly" coords="137,184,133,186,133,188,124,192,123,196,128,200,128,196,130,195,131,197,133,196,134,192,131,189,135,189,138,187" alt="Free State of Schaumburg-Lippe" title="Free State of Schaumburg-Lippe" /><area href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Schaumburg-Lippe" shape="poly" coords="10,188,10,198,26,198,26,198,108,198,108,188,26,188,26,188" alt="Free State of Schaumburg-Lippe" title="Free State of Schaumburg-Lippe" /><area href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Lippe" shape="poly" coords="122,200,120,204,115,203,111,212,114,214,117,220,126,215,129,217,133,217,134,214,129,214,128,211,130,208,128,203,124,203,126,200" alt="Free State of Lippe" title="Free State of Lippe" /><area href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Lippe" shape="poly" coords="64,215,64,225,105,225,105,216,80,216,80,215" alt="Free State of Lippe" title="Free State of Lippe" /><area href="/wiki/Free_City_of_L%C3%BCbeck" shape="poly" coords="55,80,55,90,70,90,70,89,103,89,103,81,70,81,70,80,55,80" alt="Free City of Lübeck" title="Free City of Lübeck" /><area href="/wiki/Free_City_of_L%C3%BCbeck" shape="poly" coords="186,113,185,116,183,116,181,116,180,117,179,116,177,117,177,117,178,120,176,120,178,123,179,122,180,123,183,121,183,120,186,117,187,114,186,113" alt="Free City of Lübeck" title="Free City of Lübeck" /><area href="/wiki/Hamburg" shape="poly" coords="55,95,55,105,70,105,70,105,112,105,112,96,70,96,70,95,55,95" alt="Hamburg" title="Hamburg" /><area href="/wiki/Hamburg" shape="poly" coords="114,109,112,110,112,112,114,110,114,109" alt="Hamburg" title="Hamburg" /><area href="/wiki/Hamburg" shape="poly" coords="116,112,115,112,116,113,116,112,116,112" alt="Hamburg" title="Hamburg" /><area href="/wiki/Hamburg" shape="poly" coords="121,114,117,116,117,118,121,119,121,117,120,117,120,116,121,116,121,117,122,116,121,114" alt="Hamburg" title="Hamburg" /><area href="/wiki/Hamburg" shape="poly" coords="160,127,159,130,159,131,159,131,158,132,158,132,157,134,157,134,158,134,156,134,156,134,157,135,161,136,160,138,164,142,166,142,169,140,166,137,164,138,163,134,163,133,162,133,161,131,162,130,161,129,161,127,160,127" alt="Hamburg" title="Hamburg" /><area href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Mecklenburg-Strelitz" shape="poly" coords="187,117,186,118,186,117,183,120,183,121,183,121,183,122,184,122,184,124,183,124,183,127,185,128,187,126,188,127,190,126,190,122,192,121,191,119,187,117" alt="Free State of Mecklenburg-Strelitz" title="Free State of Mecklenburg-Strelitz" /><area href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Mecklenburg-Strelitz" shape="poly" coords="262,129,261,130,257,132,256,134,256,134,255,134,254,134,254,141,252,141,251,142,251,143,250,144,249,143,248,144,248,146,247,143,248,143,247,142,245,142,242,149,242,151,241,153,243,154,245,153,245,154,248,154,248,154,248,155,248,156,249,156,250,157,251,157,252,158,251,159,252,160,253,160,253,161,256,162,260,161,257,158,255,160,254,159,254,156,253,155,251,155,251,153,254,152,255,154,257,152,260,153,260,154,265,148,265,147,266,146,267,143,268,142,270,141,269,138,270,138,272,135,272,134,275,132,268,130,266,131,265,129,265,129,262,129" alt="Free State of Mecklenburg-Strelitz" title="Free State of Mecklenburg-Strelitz" /><area href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Mecklenburg-Strelitz" shape="poly" coords="272,149,272,157,287,157,287,149" alt="Free State of Mecklenburg-Strelitz" title="Free State of Mecklenburg-Strelitz" /><area href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Mecklenburg-Strelitz" shape="poly" coords="290,149,290,156,377,156,377,149" alt="Free State of Mecklenburg-Strelitz" title="Free State of Mecklenburg-Strelitz" /><area href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Mecklenburg-Schwerin" shape="poly" coords="232,96,229,101,225,103,223,105,220,106,217,107,214,107,210,107,208,109,205,111,205,112,208,110,209,110,207,113,204,113,201,114,201,116,204,116,204,118,203,119,200,116,198,117,197,117,197,115,196,113,192,113,187,115,187,117,191,119,192,121,190,122,190,126,188,127,189,128,188,132,190,131,188,135,184,135,184,137,182,139,180,139,179,140,178,140,177,145,181,144,185,148,185,146,186,145,189,147,189,148,191,152,193,153,194,154,193,155,194,157,201,157,202,155,208,151,210,152,210,153,213,153,212,151,214,152,216,151,217,151,218,150,218,149,219,148,218,147,220,144,221,146,221,147,225,147,226,146,227,148,229,148,230,149,230,150,231,151,233,153,234,152,236,153,238,152,239,152,239,153,241,154,240,155,242,156,245,154,245,154,245,153,243,154,241,153,242,151,242,149,245,142,247,142,248,143,247,143,248,146,248,144,249,143,250,144,251,143,251,142,252,141,254,141,254,134,255,134,256,134,254,132,252,133,251,130,252,129,267,129,267,118,247,118,246,118,246,117,242,114,241,111,239,109,237,107,235,104,233,102,233,103,231,102,231,102,231,101,231,100,233,98,232,97,233,96" alt="Free State of Mecklenburg-Schwerin" title="Free State of Mecklenburg-Schwerin" /><area href="/wiki/Bremen_(state)" shape="poly" coords="115,128,116,132,117,131,117,129" alt="Bremen (state)" title="Bremen (state)" /><area href="/wiki/Bremen_(state)" shape="poly" coords="135,149,135,160,151,160,151,160,186,160,186,151,151,151,151,149" alt="Bremen (state)" title="Bremen (state)" /><area href="/wiki/Bremen_(state)" shape="poly" coords="116,150,117,152,119,155,119,158,121,157,123,159,124,156,126,157,127,157,127,152,124,153,123,152,120,151,119,150" alt="Bremen (state)" title="Bremen (state)" /><area href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Brunswick" shape="poly" coords="183,167,183,178,199,178,199,176,243,176,243,169,199,169,199,167" alt="Free State of Brunswick" title="Free State of Brunswick" /><area href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Brunswick" shape="poly" coords="182,185,181,186,180,186,179,190,180,191,181,190,181,193,182,192,183,192,182,193,182,194,182,194,186,199,184,199,182,199,180,197,180,196,176,194,175,195,173,195,172,196,172,195,171,194,170,195,170,195,169,196,168,195,169,193,169,193,168,193,167,194,166,195,166,193,165,193,163,195,163,196,166,195,166,196,165,197,164,200,165,200,165,201,165,201,166,201,166,202,165,202,164,201,163,202,163,203,162,203,161,203,160,204,162,208,162,207,164,206,167,208,171,207,171,206,172,206,172,209,173,210,175,211,177,210,177,208,178,208,178,210,178,211,178,211,177,212,178,213,180,213,180,211,180,211,182,210,184,210,184,212,185,212,185,210,185,210,185,209,184,208,185,208,185,208,187,207,188,204,187,204,187,203,187,202,189,202,188,200,188,200,187,199,187,199,187,198,187,197,186,196,188,195,189,194,185,190,185,186,182,185" alt="Free State of Brunswick" title="Free State of Brunswick" /><area href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Brunswick" shape="poly" coords="196,190,195,191,194,193,196,197,196,197,196,196,196,195,198,197,199,196,199,195,202,196,201,195,198,193,199,193,199,192,198,192,197,190" alt="Free State of Brunswick" title="Free State of Brunswick" /><area href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Brunswick" shape="poly" coords="139,204,137,206,140,208,140,209,139,209,138,211,133,210,135,213,134,213,135,213,136,214,137,216,136,219,135,220,135,221,134,223,134,224,134,226,135,226,138,224,139,222,143,219,144,218,145,217,147,217,148,218,149,218,150,218,152,220,151,221,152,222,152,221,153,222,154,221,154,220,157,219,157,218,157,218,157,219,159,223,161,224,161,223,162,223,162,221,161,221,161,220,163,219,161,218,162,216,163,216,163,217,165,218,167,215,164,213,162,213,163,210,165,211,166,211,166,210,164,210,163,210,162,209,161,210,160,210,161,209,158,208,158,208,159,210,158,214,159,216,158,217,158,216,155,213,154,214,155,215,153,216,152,215,150,217,147,212,147,210,147,209,146,212,142,211,140,206,140,205,139,204" alt="Free State of Brunswick" title="Free State of Brunswick" /><area href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Brunswick" shape="poly" coords="173,215,169,216,167,219,168,219,169,220,170,221,172,221,174,218,174,217" alt="Free State of Brunswick" title="Free State of Brunswick" /><area href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Anhalt" shape="poly" coords="247,212,247,223,262,223,262,221,292,221,292,214,262,214,262,212" alt="Free State of Anhalt" title="Free State of Anhalt" /><area href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Anhalt" shape="poly" coords="225,209,223,209,219,211,217,213,218,215,215,216,216,217,215,219,217,222,220,222,220,224,219,224,219,223,216,224,216,225,213,225,215,224,215,220,214,220,212,221,212,223,211,220,208,220,207,221,205,220,203,221,202,220,201,220,200,221,200,224,201,224,201,225,202,226,200,226,200,227,202,230,203,230,204,228,206,228,208,228,213,232,214,231,214,232,218,233,222,230,221,229,222,229,224,231,227,230,227,225,230,226,234,224,233,222,235,216,234,215,232,213,230,213,227,210,225,209" alt="Free State of Anhalt" title="Free State of Anhalt" /><area href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Anhalt" shape="poly" coords="180,220,179,223,179,225,176,228,171,223,171,229,169,230,171,231,170,234,172,233,173,234,173,232,175,230,174,229,178,229,178,230,182,232,185,232,188,234,190,232,192,233,191,230,194,227,195,226,196,227,197,225,196,223,192,223,191,226,189,226,185,229,183,227,185,225,186,221" alt="Free State of Anhalt" title="Free State of Anhalt" /><area href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Oldenburg" shape="poly" coords="178,100,177,103,176,103,177,106,175,106,174,106,173,108,174,109,176,108,177,109,177,111,176,111,174,112,176,113,176,116,177,117,179,116,180,117,181,116,183,116,185,116,186,113,184,113,183,110,183,109,182,109,182,108,184,107,183,106,182,107,181,104,181,104,180,101" alt="Free State of Oldenburg" title="Free State of Oldenburg" /><area href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Oldenburg" shape="poly" coords="96,117,96,118,100,118,99,118" alt="Free State of Oldenburg" title="Free State of Oldenburg" /><area href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Oldenburg" shape="poly" coords="104,120,103,120,103,121,106,121,105,120" alt="Free State of Oldenburg" title="Free State of Oldenburg" /><area href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Oldenburg" shape="poly" coords="95,122,96,126,94,129,95,131,97,130,100,131,99,134,96,137,96,139,94,142,89,146,89,147,87,147,87,150,69,150,69,149,54,149,54,158,69,158,69,157,91,157,92,159,90,163,87,164,87,165,88,167,87,168,85,169,86,172,89,172,91,171,93,173,95,172,98,175,97,177,96,178,96,180,97,182,98,182,101,183,104,183,105,174,110,171,110,168,111,166,111,161,114,159,115,159,117,157,119,158,119,158,119,155,117,152,116,150,115,150,112,147,114,141,114,136,116,137,116,132,111,129,109,127,107,128,106,131,109,131,108,135,106,138,105,137,103,135,102,136,101,132,104,132,103,128,101,124,101,122,95,122" alt="Free State of Oldenburg" title="Free State of Oldenburg" /><area href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Oldenburg" shape="poly" coords="62,312,51,320,49,329,56,328,56,325,61,321,62,322,61,318,66,318" alt="Free State of Oldenburg" title="Free State of Oldenburg" /><area href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Saxony" shape="poly" coords="240,241,234,246,230,242,225,244,220,250,223,251,223,255,222,256,221,260,225,261,226,261,227,262,227,266,231,266,235,271,232,272,230,271,221,277,222,282,226,280,222,284,217,283,218,286,214,288,213,284,210,286,210,295,211,294,213,298,217,300,217,300,219,300,220,300,223,307,224,305,230,296,234,295,236,296,242,293,244,296,245,295,247,291,252,291,254,288,258,285,260,286,263,281,274,280,274,278,277,276,280,276,286,272,290,272,291,270,287,268,287,264,293,265,297,268,296,273,298,271,298,274,303,276,304,273,310,274,310,269,309,267,310,266,311,266,309,263,305,262,298,256,296,251,292,249,290,252,288,249,285,250,284,248,264,247,259,244,253,246,245,244,240,241" alt="Free State of Saxony" title="Free State of Saxony" /><area href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Prussia" shape="poly" coords="178,267,178,270,175,270,178,267" alt="Free State of Prussia" title="Free State of Prussia" /><area href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Prussia" shape="poly" coords="164,279,171,279,171,280,173,282,173,280,177,281,178,283,177,288,176,288,175,291,170,288,171,287,169,283,166,285,165,283,164,280,164,279" alt="Free State of Prussia" title="Free State of Prussia" /><area href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Prussia" shape="poly" coords="202,280,205,285,202,289,198,288,198,283,199,281,201,281,202,280" alt="Free State of Prussia" title="Free State of Prussia" /><area href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Thuringia" shape="poly" coords="196,241,194,242,195,245,194,246,195,247,199,246,198,244,200,243,199,241,197,241,197,242,196,241" alt="Free State of Thuringia" title="Free State of Thuringia" /><area href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Thuringia" shape="poly" coords="184,241,174,244,174,246,170,244,168,246,170,254,174,251,176,253,177,251,181,254,183,253,183,247,185,249,185,247,189,248,192,246,191,243,184,241" alt="Free State of Thuringia" title="Free State of Thuringia" /><area href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Thuringia" shape="poly" coords="198,254,196,256,193,254,187,257,182,256,183,261,185,262,187,266,186,269,182,269,183,266,180,267,177,264,180,263,178,259,179,257,172,259,171,260,169,258,165,259,162,254,163,257,156,256,155,259,158,260,157,262,153,261,151,262,153,264,149,265,153,267,150,270,148,270,148,272,148,273,147,277,146,279,148,280,149,279,152,279,153,279,152,281,151,287,153,284,156,285,158,288,156,289,155,287,153,288,155,291,158,291,158,288,160,289,162,292,162,294,168,297,168,302,172,304,172,301,176,302,176,301,172,298,172,296,173,296,174,295,178,295,179,295,181,297,181,296,182,297,183,297,184,296,185,295,186,298,185,301,185,300,187,301,187,301,189,301,189,301,190,296,189,291,193,289,196,290,197,293,198,296,207,295,208,296,210,295,210,286,213,284,214,288,218,286,217,283,222,284,226,280,222,282,221,277,230,271,232,272,235,271,231,266,227,266,227,262,226,261,225,261,225,261,222,267,214,267,213,263,207,265,207,263,210,261,210,258,205,259,198,259,198,254" alt="Free State of Thuringia" title="Free State of Thuringia" /><area href="/wiki/Republic_of_Baden" shape="poly" coords="120,428,122,427,121,415,121,415,116,412,112,418,108,416,110,414,113,415,113,411,116,411,110,402,106,402,108,408,106,410,106,414,103,411,102,413,98,410,93,408,91,405,95,405,92,400,89,400,85,395,88,396,89,392,88,390,88,386,84,382,85,379,87,380,92,376,94,371,90,371,90,367,95,369,94,366,98,364,100,366,99,368,107,372,106,369,104,367,106,363,103,359,105,355,108,357,114,349,118,347,117,344,121,343,121,347,124,348,124,347,122,343,125,341,125,345,128,343,128,340,132,343,136,341,137,336,140,335,142,330,140,325,140,327,138,326,136,328,135,322,133,323,130,322,125,323,126,326,128,325,128,329,124,328,121,332,117,332,118,335,112,335,111,339,106,341,110,335,105,333,103,329,101,328,101,333,99,332,98,331,95,329,96,337,98,337,95,340,97,340,95,342,97,344,93,347,90,356,86,360,81,368,77,370,72,375,70,381,68,384,67,390,66,391,60,402,62,408,57,417,58,419,56,422,59,426,58,428,62,427,61,429,65,429,66,428,69,428,70,430,75,430,77,429,82,428,84,430,89,430,89,429,91,428,93,429,94,426,90,427,87,425,89,422,93,420,96,420,98,422,98,423,99,425,100,423,102,425,102,427,107,426,105,424,107,425,110,426,111,428,114,428,113,424,109,421,108,420,115,424,116,427,120,428" alt="Republic of Baden" title="Republic of Baden" /><area href="/wiki/People%27s_State_of_Hesse" shape="poly" coords="125,268,115,274,110,274,106,280,105,287,102,289,106,293,105,297,106,300,113,298,112,295,121,299,128,287,130,291,132,290,134,277,138,281,138,272,135,274,134,272,129,272,125,268" alt="People's State of Hesse" title="People's State of Hesse" /><area href="/wiki/People%27s_State_of_Hesse" shape="poly" coords="107,302,107,305,102,306,101,304,98,308,95,308,93,307,90,306,80,308,81,311,79,316,82,323,85,320,90,328,90,328,93,327,98,331,99,332,101,333,101,328,103,329,105,333,110,335,106,341,111,339,112,335,118,335,118,329,120,323,117,319,116,306,116,307,114,303,107,302" alt="People's State of Hesse" title="People's State of Hesse" /><area href="/wiki/Free_People%27s_State_of_W%C3%BCrttemberg" shape="poly" coords="126,433,137,428,139,430,145,430,144,423,145,421,146,407,142,393,145,390,153,388,153,382,152,378,159,381,160,379,158,376,159,365,152,358,154,356,152,354,149,335,147,339,143,337,145,335,141,334,140,335,137,336,136,341,132,343,128,340,128,343,125,345,125,341,122,343,124,347,124,348,121,347,121,343,117,344,118,347,114,349,108,357,105,355,103,359,106,363,104,367,106,369,107,372,99,368,100,366,98,364,94,366,95,369,90,367,90,371,94,371,92,376,87,380,85,379,84,382,88,386,88,390,89,392,88,396,85,395,89,400,92,400,95,405,91,405,93,408,98,410,102,413,103,411,106,414,106,410,108,408,106,402,110,402,110,401,113,398,110,394,107,395,100,392,100,390,96,389,95,386,119,393,119,411,119,411,119,411,123,412,121,415,122,427,120,428,120,428,124,430,126,433" alt="Free People's State of Württemberg" title="Free People's State of Württemberg" /><area href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Bavaria" shape="poly" coords="153,284,151,287,151,289,145,292,142,290,141,297,137,298,138,300,135,299,133,306,129,307,129,305,123,303,121,306,120,304,117,304,116,306,117,319,120,323,118,329,117,332,121,332,124,328,128,329,128,325,126,326,125,323,130,322,133,323,135,322,136,328,138,326,140,327,140,325,142,330,141,334,145,335,143,337,147,339,149,335,152,354,154,356,152,358,159,365,158,376,160,379,159,381,152,378,153,382,153,388,145,390,142,393,146,407,145,421,144,423,145,430,139,430,137,428,126,433,126,433,131,435,133,433,134,435,139,437,144,441,142,442,143,444,148,444,146,450,151,448,156,442,155,439,156,436,160,437,161,435,166,438,166,439,170,437,171,439,170,440,171,440,173,445,178,445,179,444,182,444,182,445,186,443,188,443,187,442,189,440,193,440,196,436,202,437,203,436,208,435,216,436,215,431,217,430,217,432,224,432,225,435,228,435,230,433,235,434,235,434,236,436,236,438,242,444,244,442,244,438,246,435,245,432,242,432,242,431,243,425,241,420,239,418,238,416,236,414,235,411,238,409,239,406,241,406,244,403,249,402,251,402,255,400,258,396,258,389,260,389,261,388,267,391,269,389,270,389,271,386,271,382,270,381,271,378,269,373,266,373,264,369,261,368,260,369,257,367,257,364,253,361,250,360,242,349,238,349,236,346,233,344,233,340,231,340,230,336,229,334,229,333,225,328,227,327,230,320,228,319,229,318,226,317,221,312,219,309,219,306,216,303,218,302,217,300,213,298,211,294,208,296,207,295,198,296,197,293,196,290,193,289,189,291,190,296,189,301,189,301,187,301,187,301,185,300,185,301,186,298,185,295,184,296,183,297,182,297,181,296,181,297,179,295,178,295,174,295,173,296,172,296,172,298,176,301,176,302,172,301,172,304,168,302,168,297,162,294,162,292,160,289,158,288,158,291,155,291,153,288,155,287,156,289,158,288,156,285,153,284" alt="Free State of Bavaria" title="Free State of Bavaria" /><area href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Bavaria" shape="poly" coords="79,316,79,316,74,316,72,319,72,321,69,322,68,322,69,325,68,326,63,322,64,325,60,325,61,328,56,329,55,330,58,334,57,336,59,337,59,339,57,342,56,342,56,344,57,346,59,348,59,347,63,347,64,352,69,354,73,354,75,355,77,354,83,358,86,359,86,360,90,356,93,347,97,344,95,342,97,340,95,340,98,337,96,337,95,329,93,327,90,328,90,328,85,320,82,323,79,316" alt="Free State of Bavaria" title="Free State of Bavaria" /><area href="/wiki/Territory_of_the_Saar_Basin" shape="poly" coords="37,325,36,327,34,327,33,329,32,329,31,328,30,329,30,329,33,332,39,345,42,346,43,343,48,345,49,349,51,347,56,350,59,348,57,346,56,344,56,342,57,342,59,339,59,337,57,336,58,334,55,330,55,330,54,328,50,328,50,326,49,325,48,326,47,329,47,328,43,329,43,331,39,330,39,329,37,329,37,325" alt="Territory of the Saar Basin" title="Territory of the Saar Basin" /><area href="/wiki/Territory_of_the_Saar_Basin" shape="poly" coords="16,332,16,343,31,343,31,332,16,332" alt="Territory of the Saar Basin" title="Territory of the Saar Basin" /><area href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Prussia" shape="poly" coords="483,29,482,34,480,42,477,47,473,55,468,60,463,64,460,61,457,63,453,63,452,62,451,64,451,67,452,70,452,74,451,78,452,78,452,76,453,74,455,74,456,77,459,75,464,75,465,75,464,77,463,76,461,79,459,80,456,83,454,81,453,86,450,87,448,89,446,91,444,94,443,94,438,97,439,99,437,99,436,102,434,103,434,105,424,114,424,115,424,116,425,117,424,120,425,120,424,126,420,130,422,133,428,133,431,132,436,134,437,138,440,138,441,135,440,133,443,133,445,136,450,135,451,134,450,133,451,130,455,133,456,137,461,142,464,141,466,144,467,147,472,148,473,147,475,141,486,144,492,140,496,135,510,132,514,132,517,128,519,129,531,118,535,117,539,109,540,106,536,105,536,101,533,99,534,97,532,96,532,93,530,91,530,89,532,90,533,88,534,89,536,87,537,84,535,80,534,80,533,74,534,71,533,67,537,62,535,58,530,54,529,54,527,50,529,50,526,50,523,52,516,51,513,53,512,55,511,51,508,52,505,50,502,51,499,47,495,47,493,46,493,45,491,43,489,44,488,44,489,45,488,48,487,47,486,48,489,59,488,61,486,62,481,64,479,63,478,63,475,61,473,62,471,62,469,62,468,61,471,57,475,53,477,51,477,50,478,48,480,45,480,44,482,42,481,40,483,36,482,34,483,33,484,30" alt="Free State of Prussia" title="Free State of Prussia" /><area href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Prussia" shape="poly" coords="118,56,114,63,113,71,114,72,114,64,117,66,120,65,117,64,116,60,117,59,119,58,120,56" alt="Free State of Prussia" title="Free State of Prussia" /><area href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Prussia" shape="poly" coords="125,64,124,67,125,72,125,72,130,79,133,85,133,87,132,87,128,89,127,89,122,89,123,91,122,92,121,91,120,93,123,96,123,94,125,95,128,94,131,95,129,97,127,96,127,98,126,100,127,103,130,103,132,105,131,109,127,107,126,107,128,111,128,111,129,114,138,116,142,119,143,123,145,125,147,130,150,133,157,134,157,134,158,132,158,132,159,131,159,131,159,130,160,127,161,127,161,129,162,130,161,131,162,133,163,133,163,134,164,138,166,137,169,140,166,142,164,142,160,138,161,136,157,135,156,134,156,134,154,135,152,134,146,132,144,126,142,124,139,118,133,117,131,118,124,117,122,116,121,117,121,116,120,116,120,117,121,117,121,119,117,118,114,124,115,128,117,129,117,131,116,132,116,132,116,132,116,137,114,136,114,141,112,147,115,150,119,150,120,151,123,152,124,153,127,152,127,157,126,157,124,156,123,159,121,157,119,158,117,157,115,159,114,159,111,161,111,166,110,168,110,171,105,174,104,183,101,183,98,182,97,182,96,180,96,178,97,177,98,175,95,172,93,173,91,171,89,172,86,172,85,169,87,168,88,167,87,165,87,164,90,163,92,159,91,157,72,157,72,158,67,165,66,173,57,171,56,174,57,175,55,176,55,179,59,182,62,182,63,181,66,186,64,191,65,192,63,193,62,194,62,194,61,195,59,195,58,197,58,197,57,198,55,198,52,201,56,204,53,208,51,207,45,211,42,208,42,210,39,208,37,208,36,206,34,206,35,209,33,209,32,208,28,209,29,211,28,213,30,214,30,217,32,219,32,221,35,226,34,233,29,239,28,242,31,242,31,244,25,246,24,249,23,247,22,248,22,251,25,252,25,253,27,255,26,258,25,259,24,260,23,261,25,262,24,263,26,265,28,266,28,270,31,269,31,270,27,275,30,278,32,278,33,280,33,281,31,282,33,285,33,286,30,285,29,287,25,290,26,291,23,292,23,295,24,295,24,297,24,301,27,308,28,308,29,310,30,310,32,312,33,311,35,312,34,317,31,318,31,319,28,323,28,328,28,328,28,328,30,329,31,328,32,329,33,329,34,327,36,327,37,325,37,329,39,329,39,330,43,331,43,329,47,328,47,329,48,326,49,325,50,326,50,328,54,328,55,330,56,329,61,328,60,325,64,325,63,322,68,326,69,325,68,322,69,322,72,321,72,319,74,316,79,316,81,311,80,308,90,306,93,307,95,308,98,308,101,304,102,306,107,305,107,302,114,303,116,307,117,304,120,304,121,306,123,303,129,305,129,307,133,306,135,299,138,300,137,298,141,297,142,290,145,292,151,289,152,281,153,279,152,279,149,279,148,280,148,280,146,279,146,279,147,277,148,273,148,272,148,270,150,270,153,267,149,265,153,264,151,262,151,262,153,261,153,261,157,262,158,260,155,259,155,259,156,256,156,256,163,257,162,254,162,254,165,259,169,258,169,258,171,260,172,259,172,259,179,257,179,257,178,259,180,263,180,263,177,264,180,267,183,266,183,266,182,269,186,269,187,266,185,262,183,261,183,261,182,256,182,256,187,257,193,254,193,254,196,256,198,254,198,254,198,259,205,259,210,258,210,258,210,261,210,261,207,263,207,265,213,263,213,263,214,267,222,267,225,261,221,260,222,256,223,255,223,251,220,250,225,245,229,243,233,246,240,241,244,244,255,246,259,245,264,248,283,248,285,250,288,250,290,252,292,250,296,251,298,256,305,262,309,263,311,266,314,267,315,266,315,268,316,267,318,268,318,270,319,273,321,275,322,279,324,276,332,280,336,279,338,283,341,282,341,286,342,286,346,283,348,285,349,282,351,284,355,287,353,290,348,294,350,297,351,297,354,300,359,304,360,308,364,311,368,306,374,304,374,301,372,300,369,295,370,293,378,296,379,295,381,299,384,299,385,301,386,300,388,302,394,301,396,298,397,300,397,301,398,303,393,306,395,309,397,309,399,313,402,315,403,315,404,315,407,313,413,314,417,318,418,316,418,316,415,309,418,306,424,306,424,302,428,303,434,296,438,294,436,294,437,292,431,292,431,287,432,287,432,284,429,283,421,282,424,276,426,276,429,273,424,271,426,267,424,265,424,264,419,262,417,257,410,255,409,255,403,258,399,254,400,251,397,245,396,245,395,242,397,240,394,239,392,240,390,239,389,236,385,233,378,233,378,237,373,238,368,237,366,237,364,233,361,230,361,227,360,228,353,226,353,223,349,220,347,222,343,221,343,217,341,213,338,213,335,211,336,197,333,194,334,192,333,191,335,189,332,185,334,184,332,181,333,180,338,178,337,176,339,174,344,172,356,171,356,164,360,163,361,163,362,161,366,160,366,154,370,154,377,147,377,146,380,142,381,142,382,135,383,133,384,128,373,114,374,112,378,112,379,109,384,112,387,112,387,106,384,104,391,93,393,93,391,90,395,88,395,90,397,86,396,82,398,80,396,77,397,72,395,72,382,77,373,79,368,82,365,85,359,87,356,87,352,89,350,92,345,99,341,102,338,103,334,104,325,107,321,108,316,109,308,113,302,115,301,118,300,118,300,117,301,115,293,118,290,121,288,120,287,121,288,125,291,124,289,123,290,123,290,122,291,121,291,123,296,124,296,125,297,126,297,128,296,128,295,132,297,134,296,136,294,133,291,132,287,129,288,131,285,131,287,129,286,128,284,129,283,129,277,127,275,124,277,123,278,124,280,122,285,123,288,125,287,123,287,121,287,120,285,119,279,113,277,112,275,110,273,107,272,107,272,109,274,111,272,115,275,114,275,116,277,113,279,114,280,117,280,118,277,116,276,117,277,121,273,123,276,120,271,114,273,112,271,109,270,108,270,107,267,109,264,110,264,111,261,108,261,107,261,107,259,107,258,104,254,103,253,102,252,98,252,97,252,97,251,97,250,96,250,94,247,95,246,97,244,98,243,96,241,97,241,95,237,97,237,95,238,94,239,95,240,94,241,94,242,95,247,94,247,93,236,93,235,91,233,95,236,97,236,98,234,98,234,100,233,100,232,101,233,102,233,102,235,104,237,107,239,109,241,111,242,114,246,117,246,118,247,118,267,118,267,129,265,129,265,129,266,131,268,130,275,132,272,134,272,135,270,138,269,138,270,141,268,142,267,143,266,146,265,147,265,148,260,154,260,153,257,152,255,154,254,152,251,153,251,155,253,155,254,156,254,159,255,160,257,158,260,161,256,162,253,161,253,160,252,160,251,159,252,158,251,157,250,157,249,156,248,156,248,155,248,154,248,154,245,154,242,156,240,155,241,154,239,153,239,152,238,152,236,153,234,152,233,153,231,151,230,150,230,149,229,148,227,148,226,146,225,147,221,147,221,146,220,144,218,147,219,148,218,149,218,150,217,151,216,151,214,152,212,151,213,153,210,153,210,152,208,151,202,155,201,157,194,157,193,155,194,154,193,153,191,152,189,148,189,147,186,145,185,146,185,148,181,144,177,145,178,140,179,140,180,139,182,139,184,137,184,135,188,135,190,131,188,132,189,128,187,126,185,128,183,127,183,124,184,124,184,122,183,122,183,121,180,123,179,122,178,123,176,120,178,120,177,117,176,116,176,113,174,112,176,111,177,111,177,109,176,108,174,109,173,108,174,106,175,106,177,106,176,103,177,103,178,100,180,101,181,104,181,104,182,107,183,106,184,107,182,108,182,109,183,109,184,108,186,109,193,104,193,96,195,95,195,94,192,95,189,94,185,97,182,98,180,95,172,90,169,91,166,96,167,89,166,87,158,89,158,88,163,85,164,79,162,73,161,72,159,74,151,68,151,68,150,68,147,69,145,69,144,70,144,71,142,71,141,68,135,66,135,66,129,64,128,64" alt="Free State of Prussia" title="Free State of Prussia" /><area href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Prussia" shape="poly" coords="120,71,117,71,118,73,118,75,121,75,122,71" alt="Free State of Prussia" title="Free State of Prussia" /><area href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Prussia" shape="poly" coords="115,73,113,75,114,78,116,77,114,74" alt="Free State of Prussia" title="Free State of Prussia" /><area href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Prussia" shape="poly" coords="123,76,119,77,120,78,124,77" alt="Free State of Prussia" title="Free State of Prussia" /><area href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Prussia" shape="poly" coords="127,81,127,82,128,82,128,82" alt="Free State of Prussia" title="Free State of Prussia" /><area href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Prussia" shape="poly" coords="124,81,121,82,121,83,122,85,124,84" alt="Free State of Prussia" title="Free State of Prussia" /><area href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Prussia" shape="poly" coords="262,82,257,82,257,84,256,84,256,86,254,87,254,86,253,85,252,86,252,88,251,92,251,93,252,93,252,90,253,89,253,87,254,87,255,88,257,86,257,84,258,84,257,87,259,87,259,90,257,88,254,89,255,90,256,90,256,92,257,92,255,93,254,95,256,95,257,97,256,98,253,97,253,99,254,100,253,101,254,102,255,102,255,102,261,105,262,104,261,102,263,99,267,98,268,100,270,100,268,101,271,103,272,99,269,96,268,96,266,92,270,89,269,87,262,87,262,88,264,89,265,90,264,92,263,92,262,90,261,89,260,87,262,87,261,84,263,83" alt="Free State of Prussia" title="Free State of Prussia" /><area href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Prussia" shape="poly" coords="129,83,127,84,127,86,128,87,130,86,131,84" alt="Free State of Prussia" title="Free State of Prussia" /><area href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Prussia" shape="poly" coords="193,87,192,88,191,90,192,92,194,91,194,93,197,93,200,94,198,88" alt="Free State of Prussia" title="Free State of Prussia" /><area href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Prussia" shape="poly" coords="123,100,122,101,123,101,124,100" alt="Free State of Prussia" title="Free State of Prussia" /><area href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Prussia" shape="poly" coords="122,102,121,103,122,103,123,102" alt="Free State of Prussia" title="Free State of Prussia" /><area href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Prussia" shape="poly" coords="122,104,121,105,122,107" alt="Free State of Prussia" title="Free State of Prussia" /><area href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Prussia" shape="poly" coords="91,117,90,119,92,119,95,118,94,118" alt="Free State of Prussia" title="Free State of Prussia" /><area href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Prussia" shape="poly" coords="85,118,84,120,86,119,89,119,89,118" alt="Free State of Prussia" title="Free State of Prussia" /><area href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Prussia" shape="poly" coords="76,118,74,119,77,120,81,119,81,120,83,120,82,119,80,119" alt="Free State of Prussia" title="Free State of Prussia" /><area href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Prussia" shape="poly" coords="67,120,66,121,66,123,67,121,73,120" alt="Free State of Prussia" title="Free State of Prussia" /><area href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Prussia" shape="poly" coords="78,121,73,125,72,126,75,127,73,129,71,129,69,133,69,136,69,138,73,137,76,139,74,143,74,146,73,148,73,150,87,150,87,147,89,147,89,146,94,142,96,139,96,137,99,134,100,131,97,130,95,131,94,129,96,126,95,122,90,121,87,123,84,122" alt="Free State of Prussia" title="Free State of Prussia" /><area href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Prussia" shape="poly" coords="62,122,59,124,63,125,62,124,64,123" alt="Free State of Prussia" title="Free State of Prussia" /><area href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Prussia" shape="poly" coords="66,124,65,124,65,125,66,124" alt="Free State of Prussia" title="Free State of Prussia" /><area href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Prussia" shape="poly" coords="252,129,251,130,252,133,254,132,256,134,257,132,261,130,262,129" alt="Free State of Prussia" title="Free State of Prussia" /><area href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Prussia" shape="poly" coords="196,241,197,242,197,241,199,241,200,243,198,244,199,246,195,247,194,246,195,245,194,242" alt="Free State of Prussia" title="Free State of Prussia" /><area href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Prussia" shape="poly" coords="184,241,191,243,192,246,189,248,185,247,185,249,183,247,183,253,181,254,177,251,176,253,174,251,170,254,168,246,170,244,174,246,174,244" alt="Free State of Prussia" title="Free State of Prussia" /><area href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Prussia" shape="poly" coords="178,267,175,270,178,270" alt="Free State of Prussia" title="Free State of Prussia" /><area href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Prussia" shape="poly" coords="164,279,164,280,165,283,166,285,169,283,169,283,171,287,170,288,175,291,176,288,176,288,177,288,178,283,177,281,173,280,173,282,173,282,171,280,171,280,171,279" alt="Free State of Prussia" title="Free State of Prussia" /><area href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Prussia" shape="poly" coords="202,280,201,281,201,281,199,281,198,283,198,288,202,289,205,285" alt="Free State of Prussia" title="Free State of Prussia" /><area href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Prussia" shape="poly" coords="95,386,96,389,100,390,100,392,107,395,110,394,113,398,110,401,116,411,113,411,113,415,110,414,108,416,112,418,116,412,121,415,123,412,119,411,119,393" alt="Free State of Prussia" title="Free State of Prussia" /><area href="/wiki/Free_City_of_Danzig" shape="poly" coords="417,66,417,75,446,75,446,66" alt="Free City of Danzig" title="Free City of Danzig" /><area href="/wiki/Free_City_of_Danzig" shape="poly" coords="423,76,423,86,438,86,438,76" alt="Free City of Danzig" title="Free City of Danzig" /><area href="/wiki/Free_City_of_Danzig" shape="poly" coords="450,78,444,88,437,93,434,94,427,95,421,95,420,94,418,94,416,92,414,92,413,91,411,91,410,97,408,101,406,101,403,106,409,109,411,108,419,107,421,106,422,113,424,114,434,105,434,103,436,102,437,99,435,98,434,98,433,97,433,97,432,95,433,95,437,94,444,89,451,79" alt="Free City of Danzig" title="Free City of Danzig" /></map><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div> </td> <td style="vertical-align: top;"> <table style="text-align: left; border-collapse: collapse; line-height: 1.3em; font-size: 90%;"> <caption> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2" style="background-color:#eeeee0;text-align:center;">State </th> <th style="background-color:#eeeee0">Capital </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="3" style="background-color:#efefef;text-align:center;">Free States (Freistaaten) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Flagge_Herzogtum_Anhalt.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Flagge_Herzogtum_Anhalt.svg/25px-Flagge_Herzogtum_Anhalt.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Flagge_Herzogtum_Anhalt.svg/38px-Flagge_Herzogtum_Anhalt.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Flagge_Herzogtum_Anhalt.svg/50px-Flagge_Herzogtum_Anhalt.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Anhalt" title="Free State of Anhalt">Anhalt</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Dessau" title="Dessau">Dessau</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Baden_(1891%E2%80%931918).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Baden_%281891%E2%80%931918%29.svg/25px-Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Baden_%281891%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Baden_%281891%E2%80%931918%29.svg/38px-Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Baden_%281891%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Baden_%281891%E2%80%931918%29.svg/50px-Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Baden_%281891%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="300" /></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Baden" title="Republic of Baden">Baden</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Karlsruhe" title="Karlsruhe">Karlsruhe</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Bavaria_(striped).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Flag_of_Bavaria_%28striped%29.svg/25px-Flag_of_Bavaria_%28striped%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Flag_of_Bavaria_%28striped%29.svg/38px-Flag_of_Bavaria_%28striped%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Flag_of_Bavaria_%28striped%29.svg/50px-Flag_of_Bavaria_%28striped%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Bavaria" title="Bavaria">Bavaria</a> (Bayern) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Munich" title="Munich">Munich</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Flagge_Herzogtum_Braunschweig.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Flagge_Herzogtum_Braunschweig.svg/25px-Flagge_Herzogtum_Braunschweig.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Flagge_Herzogtum_Braunschweig.svg/38px-Flagge_Herzogtum_Braunschweig.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Flagge_Herzogtum_Braunschweig.svg/50px-Flagge_Herzogtum_Braunschweig.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Brunswick" title="Free State of Brunswick">Brunswick</a> (Braunschweig) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Braunschweig" title="Braunschweig">Braunschweig</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Flagge_Herzogtum_Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha_(1911-1920).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Flagge_Herzogtum_Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha_%281911-1920%29.svg/25px-Flagge_Herzogtum_Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha_%281911-1920%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Flagge_Herzogtum_Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha_%281911-1920%29.svg/38px-Flagge_Herzogtum_Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha_%281911-1920%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Flagge_Herzogtum_Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha_%281911-1920%29.svg/50px-Flagge_Herzogtum_Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha_%281911-1920%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Coburg" title="Free State of Coburg">Coburg</a> – to Bavaria in 1920 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Coburg" title="Coburg">Coburg</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Hessen_ohne_Wappen.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Hessen_ohne_Wappen.svg/25px-Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Hessen_ohne_Wappen.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Hessen_ohne_Wappen.svg/38px-Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Hessen_ohne_Wappen.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Hessen_ohne_Wappen.svg/50px-Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Hessen_ohne_Wappen.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="400" /></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/People%27s_State_of_Hesse" title="People's State of Hesse">Hesse</a> (Hessen) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Darmstadt" title="Darmstadt">Darmstadt</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Flagge_F%C3%BCrstentum_Lippe.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Flagge_F%C3%BCrstentum_Lippe.svg/25px-Flagge_F%C3%BCrstentum_Lippe.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Flagge_F%C3%BCrstentum_Lippe.svg/38px-Flagge_F%C3%BCrstentum_Lippe.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Flagge_F%C3%BCrstentum_Lippe.svg/50px-Flagge_F%C3%BCrstentum_Lippe.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Lippe" title="Free State of Lippe">Lippe</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Detmold" title="Detmold">Detmold</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogt%C3%BCmer_Mecklenburg.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogt%C3%BCmer_Mecklenburg.svg/25px-Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogt%C3%BCmer_Mecklenburg.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogt%C3%BCmer_Mecklenburg.svg/38px-Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogt%C3%BCmer_Mecklenburg.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogt%C3%BCmer_Mecklenburg.svg/50px-Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogt%C3%BCmer_Mecklenburg.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Mecklenburg-Schwerin" title="Free State of Mecklenburg-Schwerin">Mecklenburg-Schwerin</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Schwerin" title="Schwerin">Schwerin</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogt%C3%BCmer_Mecklenburg.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogt%C3%BCmer_Mecklenburg.svg/25px-Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogt%C3%BCmer_Mecklenburg.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogt%C3%BCmer_Mecklenburg.svg/38px-Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogt%C3%BCmer_Mecklenburg.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogt%C3%BCmer_Mecklenburg.svg/50px-Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogt%C3%BCmer_Mecklenburg.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Mecklenburg-Strelitz" title="Free State of Mecklenburg-Strelitz">Mecklenburg-Strelitz</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Neustrelitz" title="Neustrelitz">Neustrelitz</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Civil_flag_of_Oldenburg.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Civil_flag_of_Oldenburg.svg/25px-Civil_flag_of_Oldenburg.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Civil_flag_of_Oldenburg.svg/38px-Civil_flag_of_Oldenburg.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Civil_flag_of_Oldenburg.svg/50px-Civil_flag_of_Oldenburg.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="216" /></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Oldenburg" title="Free State of Oldenburg">Oldenburg</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Oldenburg_(city)" title="Oldenburg (city)">Oldenburg</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Prussia_(1918%E2%80%931933).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Flag_of_Prussia_%281918%E2%80%931933%29.svg/25px-Flag_of_Prussia_%281918%E2%80%931933%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Flag_of_Prussia_%281918%E2%80%931933%29.svg/38px-Flag_of_Prussia_%281918%E2%80%931933%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Flag_of_Prussia_%281918%E2%80%931933%29.svg/50px-Flag_of_Prussia_%281918%E2%80%931933%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Prussia" title="Free State of Prussia">Prussia</a> (Preußen) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Saxony.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Flag_of_Saxony.svg/25px-Flag_of_Saxony.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Flag_of_Saxony.svg/38px-Flag_of_Saxony.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Flag_of_Saxony.svg/50px-Flag_of_Saxony.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="300" /></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Saxony" title="Saxony">Saxony</a> (Sachsen) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Dresden" title="Dresden">Dresden</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Flagge_F%C3%BCrstentum_Schaumburg-Lippe.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Flagge_F%C3%BCrstentum_Schaumburg-Lippe.svg/25px-Flagge_F%C3%BCrstentum_Schaumburg-Lippe.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Flagge_F%C3%BCrstentum_Schaumburg-Lippe.svg/38px-Flagge_F%C3%BCrstentum_Schaumburg-Lippe.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Flagge_F%C3%BCrstentum_Schaumburg-Lippe.svg/50px-Flagge_F%C3%BCrstentum_Schaumburg-Lippe.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Schaumburg-Lippe" title="Free State of Schaumburg-Lippe">Schaumburg-Lippe</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/B%C3%BCckeburg" title="Bückeburg">Bückeburg</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Thuringia.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Flag_of_Thuringia.svg/25px-Flag_of_Thuringia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Flag_of_Thuringia.svg/38px-Flag_of_Thuringia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Flag_of_Thuringia.svg/50px-Flag_of_Thuringia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="250" /></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/State_of_Thuringia_(1920%E2%80%931952)" title="State of Thuringia (1920–1952)">Thuringia</a> (Thüringen) – from 1920 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Weimar" title="Weimar">Weimar</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Germany_(3-2).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Flag_of_Germany_%283-2%29.svg/25px-Flag_of_Germany_%283-2%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Flag_of_Germany_%283-2%29.svg/38px-Flag_of_Germany_%283-2%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Flag_of_Germany_%283-2%29.svg/50px-Flag_of_Germany_%283-2%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Waldeck-Pyrmont" title="Free State of Waldeck-Pyrmont">Waldeck-Pyrmont</a> – to Prussia (Pyrmont joined Prussia in 1921, Waldeck followed in 1929) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Arolsen" class="mw-redirect" title="Arolsen">Arolsen</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Flagge_K%C3%B6nigreich_W%C3%BCrttemberg.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Flagge_K%C3%B6nigreich_W%C3%BCrttemberg.svg/25px-Flagge_K%C3%B6nigreich_W%C3%BCrttemberg.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Flagge_K%C3%B6nigreich_W%C3%BCrttemberg.svg/38px-Flagge_K%C3%B6nigreich_W%C3%BCrttemberg.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Flagge_K%C3%B6nigreich_W%C3%BCrttemberg.svg/50px-Flagge_K%C3%B6nigreich_W%C3%BCrttemberg.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="300" /></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Free_People%27s_State_of_W%C3%BCrttemberg" title="Free People's State of Württemberg">Württemberg</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Stuttgart" title="Stuttgart">Stuttgart</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="3" style="background-color:#efefef;text-align:center;">Free and Hanseatic Cities (Freie und Hansestädte) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Bremen.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Flag_of_Bremen.svg/25px-Flag_of_Bremen.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Flag_of_Bremen.svg/38px-Flag_of_Bremen.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Flag_of_Bremen.svg/50px-Flag_of_Bremen.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></a> </td> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Bremen_(state)" title="Bremen (state)">Bremen</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Hamburg.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Flag_of_Hamburg.svg/25px-Flag_of_Hamburg.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Flag_of_Hamburg.svg/38px-Flag_of_Hamburg.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Flag_of_Hamburg.svg/50px-Flag_of_Hamburg.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></a> </td> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Hamburg" title="Hamburg">Hamburg</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Free_City_of_L%C3%BCbeck.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Flag_of_the_Free_City_of_L%C3%BCbeck.svg/25px-Flag_of_the_Free_City_of_L%C3%BCbeck.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Flag_of_the_Free_City_of_L%C3%BCbeck.svg/38px-Flag_of_the_Free_City_of_L%C3%BCbeck.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Flag_of_the_Free_City_of_L%C3%BCbeck.svg/50px-Flag_of_the_Free_City_of_L%C3%BCbeck.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="800" /></a> </td> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Free_City_of_L%C3%BCbeck" class="mw-redirect" title="Free City of Lübeck">Lübeck</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="3" style="background-color:#efefef;text-align:center;">States merged to form Thuringia in 1920 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Flagge_Herzogtum_Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha_(1911-1920).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Flagge_Herzogtum_Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha_%281911-1920%29.svg/25px-Flagge_Herzogtum_Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha_%281911-1920%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Flagge_Herzogtum_Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha_%281911-1920%29.svg/38px-Flagge_Herzogtum_Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha_%281911-1920%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Flagge_Herzogtum_Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha_%281911-1920%29.svg/50px-Flagge_Herzogtum_Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha_%281911-1920%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Saxe-Coburg_and_Gotha" title="Saxe-Coburg and Gotha">Gotha</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Gotha" title="Gotha">Gotha</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Flagge_F%C3%BCrstentum_Reu%C3%9F_%C3%A4ltere_Linie.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Flagge_F%C3%BCrstentum_Reu%C3%9F_%C3%A4ltere_Linie.svg/25px-Flagge_F%C3%BCrstentum_Reu%C3%9F_%C3%A4ltere_Linie.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Flagge_F%C3%BCrstentum_Reu%C3%9F_%C3%A4ltere_Linie.svg/38px-Flagge_F%C3%BCrstentum_Reu%C3%9F_%C3%A4ltere_Linie.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Flagge_F%C3%BCrstentum_Reu%C3%9F_%C3%A4ltere_Linie.svg/50px-Flagge_F%C3%BCrstentum_Reu%C3%9F_%C3%A4ltere_Linie.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="405" /></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/People%27s_State_of_Reuss" title="People's State of Reuss">Reuss</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Gera" title="Gera">Gera</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Flagge_Herzogtum_Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha_(1826-1911).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Flagge_Herzogtum_Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha_%281826-1911%29.svg/25px-Flagge_Herzogtum_Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha_%281826-1911%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Flagge_Herzogtum_Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha_%281826-1911%29.svg/38px-Flagge_Herzogtum_Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha_%281826-1911%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Flagge_Herzogtum_Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha_%281826-1911%29.svg/50px-Flagge_Herzogtum_Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha_%281826-1911%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Saxe-Altenburg" title="Saxe-Altenburg">Saxe-Altenburg</a> (Sachsen-Altenburg) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Altenburg" title="Altenburg">Altenburg</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Flagge_Herzogtum_Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha_(1826-1911).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Flagge_Herzogtum_Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha_%281826-1911%29.svg/25px-Flagge_Herzogtum_Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha_%281826-1911%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Flagge_Herzogtum_Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha_%281826-1911%29.svg/38px-Flagge_Herzogtum_Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha_%281826-1911%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Flagge_Herzogtum_Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha_%281826-1911%29.svg/50px-Flagge_Herzogtum_Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha_%281826-1911%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Saxe-Meiningen" title="Saxe-Meiningen">Saxe-Meiningen</a> (Sachsen-Meiningen) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Meiningen" title="Meiningen">Meiningen</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach_(1897-1920).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach_%281897-1920%29.svg/25px-Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach_%281897-1920%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach_%281897-1920%29.svg/38px-Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach_%281897-1920%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach_%281897-1920%29.svg/50px-Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach_%281897-1920%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach" title="Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach">Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach</a> (Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Weimar" title="Weimar">Weimar</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Flagge_F%C3%BCrstent%C3%BCmer_Schwarzburg.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Flagge_F%C3%BCrstent%C3%BCmer_Schwarzburg.svg/25px-Flagge_F%C3%BCrstent%C3%BCmer_Schwarzburg.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Flagge_F%C3%BCrstent%C3%BCmer_Schwarzburg.svg/38px-Flagge_F%C3%BCrstent%C3%BCmer_Schwarzburg.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Flagge_F%C3%BCrstent%C3%BCmer_Schwarzburg.svg/50px-Flagge_F%C3%BCrstent%C3%BCmer_Schwarzburg.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt" title="Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt">Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Rudolstadt" title="Rudolstadt">Rudolstadt</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Flagge_F%C3%BCrstent%C3%BCmer_Schwarzburg.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Flagge_F%C3%BCrstent%C3%BCmer_Schwarzburg.svg/25px-Flagge_F%C3%BCrstent%C3%BCmer_Schwarzburg.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Flagge_F%C3%BCrstent%C3%BCmer_Schwarzburg.svg/38px-Flagge_F%C3%BCrstent%C3%BCmer_Schwarzburg.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Flagge_F%C3%BCrstent%C3%BCmer_Schwarzburg.svg/50px-Flagge_F%C3%BCrstent%C3%BCmer_Schwarzburg.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Schwarzburg-Sondershausen" title="Schwarzburg-Sondershausen">Schwarzburg-Sondershausen</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sondershausen" title="Sondershausen">Sondershausen</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table> The states were gradually abolished under the Nazi regime via the <a href="/wiki/Gleichschaltung" title="Gleichschaltung">Gleichschaltung</a> process, whereby they were effectively replaced by <a href="/wiki/Gau_(country_subdivision)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gau (country subdivision)">Gaue</a>. There were two notable de jure changes, however. At the end of 1933, <a href="/wiki/Mecklenburg-Strelitz" class="mw-redirect" title="Mecklenburg-Strelitz">Mecklenburg-Strelitz</a> was merged with <a href="/wiki/Mecklenburg-Schwerin" class="mw-redirect" title="Mecklenburg-Schwerin">Mecklenburg-Schwerin</a> to form a united Mecklenburg. Second, in April 1937, the city-state of <a href="/wiki/Free_City_of_L%C3%BCbeck" class="mw-redirect" title="Free City of Lübeck">Lübeck</a> was formally incorporated into Prussia by the <a href="/wiki/Greater_Hamburg_Act" title="Greater Hamburg Act">Greater Hamburg Act</a>. Most of the remaining states, notably Prussia (see <a href="/wiki/Abolition_of_Prussia" title="Abolition of Prussia">Abolition of Prussia</a>) were formally dissolved by the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allies</a> at the end of the Second World War and ultimately reorganised into the modern <a href="/wiki/States_of_Germany" title="States of Germany">states of Germany</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Weimar_Republic&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/32px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/48px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/64px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Germany" title="Portal:Germany">Germany portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Trumpet01.svg/32px-Trumpet01.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Trumpet01.svg/48px-Trumpet01.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Trumpet01.svg/64px-Trumpet01.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="539" data-file-height="170" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:1920s" title="Portal:1920s">1920s portal</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 27em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_Europe" title="Democracy in Europe">Democracy in Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectuals_and_Nazism" class="mw-redirect" title="Intellectuals and Nazism">Intellectuals and Nazism</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Weimar_Republic&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Explanatory_notes">Explanatory notes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Weimar_Republic&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Explanatory notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Kaliningrad_Oblast" title="Kaliningrad Oblast">Kaliningrad Oblast</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> Parts of <a href="/wiki/Klaip%C4%97da_County" title="Klaipėda County">Klaipėda County</a> and <a href="/wiki/Taurag%C4%97_County" title="Tauragė County">Tauragė County</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Duivelsberg" title="Duivelsberg">Duivelsberg</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> German: Weimarer Republik, <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Standard_German" title="Help:IPA/Standard German">[ˈvaɪmaʁɐ ʁepuˈbliːk]</a> <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-1" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/6\/6e\/De-Weimarer_Republik.ogg\/De-Weimarer_Republik.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"De-Weimarer Republik.ogg"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/6e/De-Weimarer_Republik.ogg/De-Weimarer_Republik.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"></a><a href="/wiki/File:De-Weimarer_Republik.ogg" title="File:De-Weimarer Republik.ogg">ⓘ</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> German: Deutsches Reich, <abbr title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'German Realm' </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> German: Deutsche Republik </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> While Germany fulfilled most of its treaty obligations, it never completely disarmed, and paid only a small portion of war reparations (by twice restructuring its debt through the <a href="/wiki/Dawes_Plan" title="Dawes Plan">Dawes Plan</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Young_Plan" title="Young Plan">Young Plan</a>). </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> During the time of the Weimar Republic, terms such as <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic">People's Republic</a> and <a href="/wiki/People%27s_State" class="mw-redirect" title="People's State">People's State</a> were used by republican movements across the political spectrum. It was only during and after <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> that such terminology became more specifically associated with socialist and Communist regimes. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Weimar_Republic&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHosch2007" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Hosch, William L. (23 March 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190311083054/http://blogs.britannica.com/2007/03/the-reichstag-fire-and-the-enabling-act/">"The Reichstag Fire and the Enabling Act of March 23, 1933"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Britannica.com" class="mw-redirect" title="Britannica.com">Britannica</a> Blog. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://blogs.britannica.com/2007/03/the-reichstag-fire-and-the-enabling-act/">the original</a> on 11 March 2019. Retrieved 30 March 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Reichstag+Fire+and+the+Enabling+Act+of+March+23%2C+1933&rft.btitle=Britannica+Blog&rft.date=2007-03-23&rft.aulast=Hosch&rft.aufirst=William+L.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fblogs.britannica.com%2F2007%2F03%2Fthe-reichstag-fire-and-the-enabling-act%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dw.com/en/the-law-that-enabled-hitlers-dictatorship/a-16689839">"The law that 'enabled' Hitler's dictatorship"</a>. <a href="/wiki/DW.com" class="mw-redirect" title="DW.com">DW.com</a>. 23 March 2013. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190907195649/https://www.dw.com/en/the-law-that-enabled-hitlers-dictatorship/a-16689839">Archived</a> from the original on 7 September 2019. Retrieved 30 March 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=DW.com&rft.atitle=The+law+that+%27enabled%27+Hitler%27s+dictatorship&rft.date=2013-03-23&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dw.com%2Fen%2Fthe-law-that-enabled-hitlers-dictatorship%2Fa-16689839&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMason" class="citation book cs1">Mason, K. J. Republic to Reich: A History of Germany 1918–1945. McGraw-Hill.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Republic+to+Reich%3A+A+History+of+Germany+1918%E2%80%931945&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.aulast=Mason&rft.aufirst=K.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-faz-20120904-4"><a href="#cite_ref-faz-20120904_4-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWinfried_Klein2012" class="citation news cs1">Winfried Klein (14 September 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.faz.net/aktuell/feuilleton/geisteswissenschaften/vom-deutschlandlied-zur-nationalhymne-wer-sind-wir-und-was-wollen-wir-dazu-singen-11878854.html">"Wer sind wir, und was wollen wir dazu singen?"</a>. FAZ.NET. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung. Retrieved 4 August 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=FAZ.NET&rft.atitle=Wer+sind+wir%2C+und+was+wollen+wir+dazu+singen%3F&rft.date=2012-09-14&rft.au=Winfried+Klein&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.faz.net%2Faktuell%2Ffeuilleton%2Fgeisteswissenschaften%2Fvom-deutschlandlied-zur-nationalhymne-wer-sind-wir-und-was-wollen-wir-dazu-singen-11878854.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://germanhistorydocs.ghi-dc.org/pdf/eng/JEW_RELIGIONZUGEHTABELLE_ENG.pdf">Volume 6. Weimar Germany, 1918/19–1933 Population by Religious Denomination (1910–1939)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160809154418/http://germanhistorydocs.ghi-dc.org/pdf/eng/JEW_RELIGIONZUGEHTABELLE_ENG.pdf">Archived</a> 9 August 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Sozialgeschichtliches Arbeitsbuch, Volume III, Materialien zur Statistik des Deutschen Reiches 1914–1945, edited by Dietmar Petzina, Werner Abelshauser and Anselm Faust. Munich: Verlag C. H. Beck, 1978, p. 31. Translation: Fred Reuss. </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_6-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_6-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_6-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdam2005" class="citation book cs1">Adam, Thomas (2005). Germany and the Americas: Culture, Politics, and History. New York: Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 185. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-851-09633-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-851-09633-6"><bdi>978-1-851-09633-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Germany+and+the+Americas%3A+Culture%2C+Politics%2C+and+History&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=185&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-851-09633-6&rft.aulast=Adam&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wahlen_in_der_Weimarer_Republik-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wahlen_in_der_Weimarer_Republik_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wahlen_in_der_Weimarer_Republik_7-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gonschior.de/weimar/Deutschland/index.htm">"Das Deutsche Reich im Überblick"</a>. Wahlen in der Weimarer Republik. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191121115812/http://www.gonschior.de/weimar/Deutschland/index.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 21 November 2019. Retrieved 26 April 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Wahlen+in+der+Weimarer+Republik&rft.atitle=Das+Deutsche+Reich+im+%C3%9Cberblick&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gonschior.de%2Fweimar%2FDeutschland%2Findex.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.history.com/topics/world-war-i/kaiser-wilhelm-ii">"Kaiser Wilhelm II"</a>. history.com. August 2019. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211010234558/https://www.history.com/topics/world-war-i/kaiser-wilhelm-ii">Archived</a> from the original on 10 October 2021. Retrieved 10 October 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=history.com&rft.atitle=Kaiser+Wilhelm+II&rft.date=2019-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.history.com%2Ftopics%2Fworld-war-i%2Fkaiser-wilhelm-ii&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> Marks, Sally (1976). The Illusion of Peace: International Relations in Europe, 1918–1933, St. Martin's, New York, pp. 96–105. </li> <li id="cite_note-Büttner-17">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Büttner_17-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Büttner_17-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBüttner2008" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Büttner, Ursula (2008). Weimar: die überforderte Republik [Weimar: The Overburdened Republic] (in German). Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta. p. 424. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-608-94308-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-608-94308-5"><bdi>978-3-608-94308-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Weimar%3A+die+%C3%BCberforderte+Republik&rft.place=Stuttgart&rft.pages=424&rft.pub=Klett-Cotta&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-3-608-94308-5&rft.aulast=B%C3%BCttner&rft.aufirst=Ursula&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/639027/Weimar-Republic">"Weimar Republic"</a>. Encyclopedia Britannica. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150503005446/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/639027/Weimar-Republic">Archived</a> from the original on 3 May 2015. Retrieved 29 June 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Weimar+Republic&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F639027%2FWeimar-Republic&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.verfassungen.de/de19-33/verf19-i.htm">"Verfassungen des Deutschen Reichs (1918–1933)"</a> [Constitution of the German Reich (1918–1933)]. Verfassungen der Welt (in German). Retrieved 4 November 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Verfassungen+der+Welt&rft.atitle=Verfassungen+des+Deutschen+Reichs+%281918%E2%80%931933%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.verfassungen.de%2Fde19-33%2Fverf19-i.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schnurr-2014-20">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Schnurr-2014_20-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schnurr-2014_20-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchnurr2014" class="citation magazine cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Schnurr, Eva-Maria (30 September 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.spiegel.de/spiegel/spiegelgeschichte/d-129494116.html">"Der Name des Feindes: Warum heißt die erste deutsche Demokratie eigentlich 'Weimarer Republik?'"</a> [The Name of the Enemy: Why Was the First German Democracy Even Called the 'Weimar Republic'?]. <a href="/wiki/Der_Spiegel" title="Der Spiegel">Der Spiegel</a> (in German). Retrieved 11 June 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Der+Spiegel&rft.atitle=Der+Name+des+Feindes%3A+Warum+hei%C3%9Ft+die+erste+deutsche+Demokratie+eigentlich+%27Weimarer+Republik%3F%27&rft.date=2014-09-30&rft.aulast=Schnurr&rft.aufirst=Eva-Maria&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.spiegel.de%2Fspiegel%2Fspiegelgeschichte%2Fd-129494116.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sebastian_Ullrich-21">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sebastian_Ullrich_21-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sebastian_Ullrich_21-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sebastian_Ullrich_21-2">c</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sebastian_Ullrich&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sebastian Ullrich (page does not exist)">Sebastian Ullrich</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sebastian_Ullrich_(Historiker)" class="extiw" title="de:Sebastian Ullrich (Historiker)">de</a>] as quoted in <a href="#CITEREFSchnurr2014">Schnurr 2014</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichard_J._Evans2005" class="citation book cs1">Richard J. Evans (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CmjBW3lsA84C&pg=PT33">The Coming of the Third Reich</a>. Penguin. p. 33. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-101-04267-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-101-04267-0"><bdi>978-1-101-04267-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Coming+of+the+Third+Reich&rft.pages=33&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-101-04267-0&rft.au=Richard+J.+Evans&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCmjBW3lsA84C%26pg%3DPT33&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-documentArchiv.de-1919-24"><a href="#cite_ref-documentArchiv.de-1919_24-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.documentarchiv.de/wr/wrv.html">"Constitution of the Weimar Republic"</a>. documentArchiv.de (in German). 11 August 1919. article 3. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191127054556/http://www.documentarchiv.de/wr/wrv.html">Archived</a> from the original on 27 November 2019. Retrieved 24 February 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=documentArchiv.de&rft.atitle=Constitution+of+the+Weimar+Republic&rft.pages=article+3&rft.date=1919-08-11&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.documentarchiv.de%2Fwr%2Fwrv.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Treaty_of_Versailles-2-25">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Treaty_of_Versailles-2_25-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Treaty_of_Versailles-2_25-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles/Part_V">Treaty of Versailles/Part V </a> – via <a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a>.</cite> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWirsching2000" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Wirsching, Andreas (2000). Die Weimarer Republik. Politik und Gesellschaft [The Weimar Republic. Politics and Society] (in German). Munich: Oldenbourg. pp. 55 f. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783486587364" title="Special:BookSources/9783486587364"><bdi>9783486587364</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Die+Weimarer+Republik.+Politik+und+Gesellschaft&rft.place=Munich&rft.pages=55+f&rft.pub=Oldenbourg&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9783486587364&rft.aulast=Wirsching&rft.aufirst=Andreas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKolb2002" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Kolb, Eberhard (2002). Die Weimarer Republik [The Weimar Republic] (in German) (6th ed.). Munich: Oldenbourg. p. 42.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Die+Weimarer+Republik&rft.place=Munich&rft.pages=42&rft.edition=6th&rft.pub=Oldenbourg&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Kolb&rft.aufirst=Eberhard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLlewellynThompson2019" class="citation web cs1">Llewellyn, Jennifer; Thompson, Steve (5 November 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://alphahistory.com/weimarrepublic/hans-von-seeckt/">"Hans von Seeckt"</a>. Alpha History. Retrieved 20 March 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Alpha+History&rft.atitle=Hans+von+Seeckt&rft.date=2019-11-05&rft.aulast=Llewellyn&rft.aufirst=Jennifer&rft.au=Thompson%2C+Steve&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Falphahistory.com%2Fweimarrepublic%2Fhans-von-seeckt%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍] </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWheeler-Bennett1953" class="citation book cs1">Wheeler-Bennett, John W. (1953). The Nemesis of Power (2nd ed.). London: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 92. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4039-1812-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4039-1812-3"><bdi>978-1-4039-1812-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nemesis+of+Power&rft.place=London&rft.pages=92&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=1953&rft.isbn=978-1-4039-1812-3&rft.aulast=Wheeler-Bennett&rft.aufirst=John+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHamilton2014" class="citation book cs1">Hamilton, Richard F. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dcX_AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA342">Who Voted for Hitler?</a>. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. p. 342. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1400855346" title="Special:BookSources/978-1400855346"><bdi>978-1400855346</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Who+Voted+for+Hitler%3F&rft.place=Princeton%2C+NJ&rft.pages=342&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1400855346&rft.aulast=Hamilton&rft.aufirst=Richard+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdcX_AwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA342&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHansen2007" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Hansen, Ernst Willi (2007). "Der Staat im Staate – Militärgeschichte der Weimarer Republik 1919 bis 1933" [The State Within the State – Military History of the Weimar Republic 1919 to 1933]. In von Neugebauer, Karl-Volker (ed.). Grundkurs deutsche Militärgeschichte. Band 2. Das Zeitalter der Weltkriege: 1914 bis 1945. Völker in Waffen [Basic Course in German Military History. Volume 2: The Age of the World Wars: 1914 to 1945. Peoples in Arms] (in German). Munich: Oldenbourg. pp. 138–144. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783486580990" title="Special:BookSources/9783486580990"><bdi>9783486580990</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Der+Staat+im+Staate+%E2%80%93+Milit%C3%A4rgeschichte+der+Weimarer+Republik+1919+bis+1933&rft.btitle=Grundkurs+deutsche+Milit%C3%A4rgeschichte.+Band+2.+Das+Zeitalter+der+Weltkriege%3A+1914+bis+1945.+V%C3%B6lker+in+Waffen&rft.place=Munich&rft.pages=138-144&rft.pub=Oldenbourg&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9783486580990&rft.aulast=Hansen&rft.aufirst=Ernst+Willi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2007150–167-32"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen2007150–167_32-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHansen2007">Hansen 2007</a>, pp. 150–167. </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMommsen1997" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Mommsen, Hans (1997). "Militär und zivile Militarisierung in Deutschland 1914 bis 1938" [Military and Civil Militarization in Germany 1914 to 1938]. In Frevert, Ute (ed.). Militär und Gesellschaft im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert [Military and Society in the 19th and 20th Centuries] (in German). Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta. p. 273.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Milit%C3%A4r+und+zivile+Militarisierung+in+Deutschland+1914+bis+1938&rft.btitle=Milit%C3%A4r+und+Gesellschaft+im+19.+und+20.+Jahrhundert&rft.place=Stuttgart&rft.pages=273&rft.pub=Klett-Cotta&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Mommsen&rft.aufirst=Hans&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Encyclopedia_Britannica-34"><a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopedia_Britannica_34-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/event/World-War-I">"World War I – Killed, wounded, and missing"</a>. Encyclopedia Britannica. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201005123722/https://www.britannica.com/event/World-War-I/">Archived</a> from the original on 5 October 2020. Retrieved 7 January 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.atitle=World+War+I+%E2%80%93+Killed%2C+wounded%2C+and+missing&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fevent%2FWorld-War-I&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEllis2001" class="citation book cs1">Ellis, John (2001). The World War I Databook. London: Aurum Press. p. 269. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781854107664" title="Special:BookSources/9781854107664"><bdi>9781854107664</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+World+War+I+Databook&rft.place=London&rft.pages=269&rft.pub=Aurum+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=9781854107664&rft.aulast=Ellis&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrebler1940" class="citation book cs1">Grebler, Leo (1940). The Cost of the World War to Germany and Austria-Hungary. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 78.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cost+of+the+World+War+to+Germany+and+Austria-Hungary&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pages=78&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1940&rft.aulast=Grebler&rft.aufirst=Leo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVincent1985" class="citation book cs1">Vincent, C. Paul (1985). The Politics of Hunger: The Allied Blockade of Germany, 1915–1919. Athens (Ohio) and London: Ohio University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Politics+of+Hunger%3A+The+Allied+Blockade+of+Germany%2C+1915%E2%80%931919.&rft.place=Athens+%28Ohio%29+and+London&rft.pub=Ohio+University+Press.&rft.date=1985&rft.aulast=Vincent&rft.aufirst=C.+Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180406162610/http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathways/firstworldwar/spotlights/blockade.htm">"The National Archives – Exhibitions & Learning online – First World War – Spotlights on history"</a>. Government of the United Kingdom. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathways/firstworldwar/spotlights/blockade.htm">the original</a> on 6 April 2018. Retrieved 14 April 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+National+Archives+%E2%80%93+Exhibitions+%26+Learning+online+%E2%80%93+First+World+War+%E2%80%93+Spotlights+on+history&rft.pub=Government+of+the+United+Kingdom&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nationalarchives.gov.uk%2Fpathways%2Ffirstworldwar%2Fspotlights%2Fblockade.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Herwig-1997-39"><a href="#cite_ref-Herwig-1997_39-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerwig1997" class="citation book cs1">Herwig, Holger H. (1997). The First World War: Germany and Austria-Hungary, 1914–1918. Modern Wars. London: St. Martin's Press. pp. 426–428. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-340-67753-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-340-67753-7"><bdi>978-0-340-67753-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/34996156">34996156</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+First+World+War%3A+Germany+and+Austria-Hungary%2C+1914%E2%80%931918&rft.place=London&rft.series=Modern+Wars&rft.pages=426-428&rft.pub=St.+Martin%27s+Press&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F34996156&rft.isbn=978-0-340-67753-7&rft.aulast=Herwig&rft.aufirst=Holger+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tucker-2005-40"><a href="#cite_ref-Tucker-2005_40-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTucker2005" class="citation book cs1">Tucker, Spencer C. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2YqjfHLyyj8C&pg=PA1256">World War I: A–D</a>. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO. p. 1256. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85109-420-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85109-420-2"><bdi>978-1-85109-420-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/162257288">162257288</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=World+War+I%3A+A%E2%80%93D.&rft.place=Santa+Barbara&rft.pages=1256&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F162257288&rft.isbn=978-1-85109-420-2&rft.aulast=Tucker&rft.aufirst=Spencer+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2YqjfHLyyj8C%26pg%3DPA1256&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dhm.de/lemo/kapitel/weimarer-republik/revolution-191819.html">"Die Revolution von 1918/19"</a>. Deutsches Historisches Museum (in German). 15 August 2015. Retrieved 23 March 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Deutsches+Historisches+Museum&rft.atitle=Die+Revolution+von+1918%2F19&rft.date=2015-08-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dhm.de%2Flemo%2Fkapitel%2Fweimarer-republik%2Frevolution-191819.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaffner2002" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Haffner, Sebastian (2002). Die deutsche Revolution 1918/19 [The German Revolution 1918/19] (in German). Munich: Kindler. p. 90. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-463-40423-0" title="Special:BookSources/3-463-40423-0"><bdi>3-463-40423-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Die+deutsche+Revolution+1918%2F19&rft.place=Munich&rft.pages=90&rft.pub=Kindler&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=3-463-40423-0&rft.aulast=Haffner&rft.aufirst=Sebastian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stevenson-2004-43"><a href="#cite_ref-Stevenson-2004_43-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStevenson2004" class="citation book cs1">Stevenson, David (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DSc9CraE4OQC&pg=PA404">Cataclysm: The First World War as Political Tragedy</a>. New York: Basic Books. p. 404. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-08184-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-465-08184-4"><bdi>978-0-465-08184-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/54001282">54001282</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cataclysm%3A+The+First+World+War+as+Political+Tragedy&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=404&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F54001282&rft.isbn=978-0-465-08184-4&rft.aulast=Stevenson&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDSc9CraE4OQC%26pg%3DPA404&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaffner200285–86-44"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaffner200285–86_44-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHaffner2002">Haffner 2002</a>, pp. 85–86. </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Winkler, Heinrich August (1993). Weimar 1919–1933 Die Geschichte der ersten deutschen Demokratie [Weimar 1919–1933 The History of the First German Democracy] (in German). Munich: C.H. Beck. p. 23. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-406-37646-0" title="Special:BookSources/3-406-37646-0"><bdi>3-406-37646-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Weimar+1919%E2%80%931933+Die+Geschichte+der+ersten+deutschen+Demokratie&rft.place=Munich&rft.pages=23&rft.pub=C.H.+Beck&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=3-406-37646-0&rft.aulast=Winkler&rft.aufirst=Heinrich+August&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatson2008" class="citation journal cs1">Watson, Alexander (November 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.historytoday.com/archive/stabbed-front">"Stabbed at the Front"</a>. <a href="/wiki/History_Today" title="History Today">History Today</a>. 58 (11). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200613102520/https://www.historytoday.com/archive/stabbed-front">Archived</a> from the original on 13 June 2020. Retrieved 13 June 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+Today&rft.atitle=Stabbed+at+the+Front&rft.volume=58&rft.issue=11&rft.date=2008-11&rft.aulast=Watson&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.historytoday.com%2Farchive%2Fstabbed-front&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988">(subscription required) </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarth2014" class="citation web cs1">Barth, Boris (8 October 2014). Daniel, Ute; Gatrell, Peter; Janz, Oliver; Jones, Heather; Keene, Jennifer; Kramer, Alan; Nasson, Bill (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/stab-in-the-back_myth">"Stab-in-the-back Myth"</a>. 1914–1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War. Freie Universität Berlin. Retrieved 1 April 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=1914%E2%80%931918-online.+International+Encyclopedia+of+the+First+World+War&rft.atitle=Stab-in-the-back+Myth&rft.date=2014-10-08&rft.aulast=Barth&rft.aufirst=Boris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fencyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net%2Farticle%2Fstab-in-the-back_myth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bundestag.de/resource/blob/189772/8b9e17bd8d64e64c8e3a95fc2305e132/november_revolution-data.pdf">"The November revolution, 1918/1919"</a> (PDF). Deutscher Bundestag.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Deutscher+Bundestag&rft.atitle=The+November+revolution%2C+1918%2F1919&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bundestag.de%2Fresource%2Fblob%2F189772%2F8b9e17bd8d64e64c8e3a95fc2305e132%2Fnovember_revolution-data.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConradt2009" class="citation book cs1">Conradt, David P. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=plg2PcqF73kC&pg=PA5">The German Polity</a>. Boston, New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-547-15086-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-547-15086-4"><bdi>978-0-547-15086-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+German+Polity&rft.place=Boston%2C+New+York&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin+Harcourt&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-547-15086-4&rft.aulast=Conradt&rft.aufirst=David+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dplg2PcqF73kC%26pg%3DPA5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bavarikon.de/object/bav:BSB-CMS-0000000000003622?lang=en">"The End of the Monarchy"</a>. bavarikon. Retrieved 21 November 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=bavarikon&rft.atitle=The+End+of+the+Monarchy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bavarikon.de%2Fobject%2Fbav%3ABSB-CMS-0000000000003622%3Flang%3Den&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUrbach2016" class="citation web cs1">Urbach, Karina (13 July 2016). Daniel, Ute; Gatrell, Peter; Janz, Oliver; Jones, Heather; Keene, Jennifer; Kramer, Alan; Nasson, Bill (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/maximilian_prince_of_baden">"Maximilian, Prince of Baden"</a>. 1914–1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War. Freie Universität Berlin.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=1914%E2%80%931918-online.+International+Encyclopedia+of+the+First+World+War&rft.atitle=Maximilian%2C+Prince+of+Baden&rft.date=2016-07-13&rft.aulast=Urbach&rft.aufirst=Karina&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fencyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net%2Farticle%2Fmaximilian_prince_of_baden&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAulke2017" class="citation web cs1">Aulke, Julian (23 October 2017). Daniel, Ute; Gatrell, Peter; Janz, Oliver; Jones, Heather; Keene, Jennifer; Kramer, Alan; Nasson, Bill (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/noske_gustav">"Noske, Gustav"</a>. 1914–1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War. Freie Universität Berlin. Retrieved 18 April 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=1914%E2%80%931918-online.+International+Encyclopedia+of+the+First+World+War&rft.atitle=Noske%2C+Gustav&rft.date=2017-10-23&rft.aulast=Aulke&rft.aufirst=Julian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fencyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net%2Farticle%2Fnoske_gustav&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaffner200290-53"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaffner200290_53-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHaffner2002">Haffner 2002</a>, p. 90. </li> <li id="cite_note-Sturm-2011-54">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sturm-2011_54-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sturm-2011_54-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSturm2011" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Sturm, Reinhard (23 December 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bpb.de/themen/erster-weltkrieg-weimar/weimarer-republik/275834/vom-kaiserreich-zur-republik-1918-19/">"Vom Kaiserreich zur Republik 1918/19"</a> [From Empire to Republic 1918/19]. Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung (in German). Retrieved 31 March 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Bundeszentrale+f%C3%BCr+politische+Bildung&rft.atitle=Vom+Kaiserreich+zur+Republik+1918%2F19&rft.date=2011-12-23&rft.aulast=Sturm&rft.aufirst=Reinhard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bpb.de%2Fthemen%2Ferster-weltkrieg-weimar%2Fweimarer-republik%2F275834%2Fvom-kaiserreich-zur-republik-1918-19%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchaefer2020" class="citation book cs1">Schaefer, Karen (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UwLoDwAAQBAJ&pg=PAviii">German Military and the Weimar Republic</a>. Barnsley, South Yorkshire, England: Pen & Sword Books Limited. pp. viii. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781526764355" title="Special:BookSources/9781526764355"><bdi>9781526764355</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=German+Military+and+the+Weimar+Republic&rft.place=Barnsley%2C+South+Yorkshire%2C+England&rft.pages=viii&rft.pub=Pen+%26+Sword+Books+Limited&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=9781526764355&rft.aulast=Schaefer&rft.aufirst=Karen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUwLoDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPAviii&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAltmann2000" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Altmann, Gerhard (11 April 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dhm.de/lemo/kapitel/weimarer-republik/revolution-191819/rat-der-volksbeauftragten.html">"Der Rat der Volksbeauftragten"</a>. Deutsches Historisches Museum (in German). Retrieved 2 May 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Deutsches+Historisches+Museum&rft.atitle=Der+Rat+der+Volksbeauftragten&rft.date=2000-04-11&rft.aulast=Altmann&rft.aufirst=Gerhard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dhm.de%2Flemo%2Fkapitel%2Fweimarer-republik%2Frevolution-191819%2Frat-der-volksbeauftragten.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKramer2020" class="citation web cs1">Kramer, Alan (22 January 2020). Daniel, Ute; Gatrell, Peter; Janz, Oliver; Jones, Heather; Keene, Jennifer; Kramer, Alan; Nasson, Bill (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/naval_blockade_of_germany">"Naval Blockade (of Germany)"</a>. 1914–1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War. Freie Universität Berlin. Retrieved 1 April 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=1914%E2%80%931918-online.+International+Encyclopedia+of+the+First+World+War&rft.atitle=Naval+Blockade+%28of+Germany%29&rft.date=2020-01-22&rft.aulast=Kramer&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fencyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net%2Farticle%2Fnaval_blockade_of_germany&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dhm.de/lemo/kapitel/weimarer-republik/revolution-191819/reichsraetekongress-1918.html">"Der Reichskongress der Arbeiter- und Soldatenräte"</a> [The Reich Congress of Workers' and Soldiers' Councils]. Deutsches Historisches Museum (in German). Retrieved 31 March 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Deutsches+Historisches+Museum&rft.atitle=Der+Reichskongress+der+Arbeiter-+und+Soldatenr%C3%A4te&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dhm.de%2Flemo%2Fkapitel%2Fweimarer-republik%2Frevolution-191819%2Freichsraetekongress-1918.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dhm.de/lemo/kapitel/weimarer-republik/revolution/ebertgroener/">"Ebert-Groener-Pakt"</a>. Deutsches Historisches Museum (in German). 15 August 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Deutsches+Historisches+Museum&rft.atitle=Ebert-Groener-Pakt&rft.date=2015-08-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dhm.de%2Flemo%2Fkapitel%2Fweimarer-republik%2Frevolution%2Febertgroener%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHead2019" class="citation book cs1">Head, Michael (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FfvADwAAQBAJ&dq=treaty+versailles+%22german+officer+class%22&pg=PT116">Domestic Military Powers, Law and Human Rights: Calling Out the Armed Forces</a>. United Kingdom: Taylor & Francis. pp. ebook. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781000754025" title="Special:BookSources/9781000754025"><bdi>9781000754025</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Domestic+Military+Powers%2C+Law+and+Human+Rights%3A+Calling+Out+the+Armed+Forces&rft.place=United+Kingdom&rft.pages=ebook&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=9781000754025&rft.aulast=Head&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFfvADwAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dtreaty%2Bversailles%2B%2522german%2Bofficer%2Bclass%2522%26pg%3DPT116&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bundesarchiv.de/DE/Content/Dokumente-zur-Zeitgeschichte/19181223_weihnachtskaempfe.html">"Weihnachtskämpfe am Berliner Schloss"</a> [Christmas Battles at the Berlin Palace]. Bundesarchiv (in German). Retrieved 31 March 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Bundesarchiv&rft.atitle=Weihnachtsk%C3%A4mpfe+am+Berliner+Schloss&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bundesarchiv.de%2FDE%2FContent%2FDokumente-zur-Zeitgeschichte%2F19181223_weihnachtskaempfe.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliam_A._Pelz2007" class="citation book cs1">William A. Pelz (2007). Against Capitalism: The European Left on the March. New York: Peter Lang. pp. 116–118. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8204-6776-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8204-6776-4"><bdi>978-0-8204-6776-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Against+Capitalism%3A+The+European+Left+on+the+March&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=116-118&rft.pub=Peter+Lang&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-8204-6776-4&rft.au=William+A.+Pelz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLongerich1995" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Longerich, Peter (1995). Deutschland 1918–1933. Die Weimarer Republik. Handbuch zur Geschichte (in German). Hanover: Fackelträger. p. 86. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-7716-2208-5" title="Special:BookSources/3-7716-2208-5"><bdi>3-7716-2208-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/36280690">36280690</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Deutschland+1918%E2%80%931933.+Die+Weimarer+Republik.+Handbuch+zur+Geschichte&rft.place=Hanover&rft.pages=86&rft.pub=Fackeltr%C3%A4ger&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F36280690&rft.isbn=3-7716-2208-5&rft.aulast=Longerich&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gonschior.de/weimar/Deutschland/NV.html">"Das Deutsche Reich Wahl zur Nationalversammlung 1919"</a> [The German Reich Election to the National Assembly 1919]. gonschior.de (in German). Retrieved 2 May 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=gonschior.de&rft.atitle=Das+Deutsche+Reich+Wahl+zur+Nationalversammlung+1919&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gonschior.de%2Fweimar%2FDeutschland%2FNV.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Weimar-Republic">"Weimar Republic"</a>. Britannica. Retrieved 2 May 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Britannica&rft.atitle=Weimar+Republic&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fplace%2FWeimar-Republic&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBischel2019" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Bischel, Matthias (22 March 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.historisches-lexikon-bayerns.de/Lexikon/Räterepublik_Baiern_(1919)">"Räterepublik Baiern (1919)"</a> [Bavarian Soviet Republic]. Historisches Lexikon Bayerns (in German). Retrieved 1 April 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Historisches+Lexikon+Bayerns&rft.atitle=R%C3%A4terepublik+Baiern+%281919%29&rft.date=2019-03-22&rft.aulast=Bischel&rft.aufirst=Matthias&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.historisches-lexikon-bayerns.de%2FLexikon%2FR%C3%A4terepublik_Baiern_%281919%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScriba2014" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Scriba, Arnulf (2 September 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dhm.de/lemo/kapitel/weimarer-republik/aussenpolitik/teilung-oberschlesiens-1921.html">"Die Teilung Oberschlesiens"</a> [The partition of Upper Silesia]. Deutsches Historisches Museum (in German). Retrieved 2 May 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Deutsches+Historisches+Museum&rft.atitle=Die+Teilung+Oberschlesiens&rft.date=2014-09-02&rft.aulast=Scriba&rft.aufirst=Arnulf&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dhm.de%2Flemo%2Fkapitel%2Fweimarer-republik%2Faussenpolitik%2Fteilung-oberschlesiens-1921.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBane1942" class="citation book cs1">Bane, S.L. (1942). The Blockade of Germany after the Armistice 1918–1919. Stanford University Press. p. 791.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Blockade+of+Germany+after+the+Armistice+1918%E2%80%931919&rft.pages=791&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1942&rft.aulast=Bane&rft.aufirst=S.L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoward1993" class="citation journal cs1">Howard, N. P. (1 April 1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/gh/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/gh/11.2.161">"The Social and Political Consequences of the Allied Food Blockade of Germany, 1918–19"</a>. German History. 11 (2): 161–188. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fgh%2F11.2.161">10.1093/gh/11.2.161</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0266-3554">0266-3554</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=German+History&rft.atitle=The+Social+and+Political+Consequences+of+the+Allied+Food+Blockade+of+Germany%2C+1918%E2%80%9319&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=161-188&rft.date=1993-04-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fgh%2F11.2.161&rft.issn=0266-3554&rft.aulast=Howard&rft.aufirst=N.+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fgh%2Farticle-lookup%2Fdoi%2F10.1093%2Fgh%2F11.2.161&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeinzelmann2014" class="citation book cs1">Heinzelmann, Ursula (2014). Beyond Bratwurst: A History of Food in Germany. London: Reaktion Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781780232720" title="Special:BookSources/9781780232720"><bdi>9781780232720</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beyond+Bratwurst%3A+A+History+of+Food+in+Germany&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Reaktion+Books&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9781780232720&rft.aulast=Heinzelmann&rft.aufirst=Ursula&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoldorf2021" class="citation web cs1">Boldorf, Marcel (13 December 2021). Daniel, Ute; Gatrell, Peter; Janz, Oliver; Jones, Heather; Keene, Jennifer; Kramer, Alan; Nasson, Bill (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/post-war_economies_germany">"Post-war Economies (Germany)"</a>. 1914–1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War. Freie Universität Berlin. Retrieved 16 April 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=1914%E2%80%931918-online.+International+Encyclopedia+of+the+First+World+War&rft.atitle=Post-war+Economies+%28Germany%29&rft.date=2021-12-13&rft.aulast=Boldorf&rft.aufirst=Marcel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fencyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net%2Farticle%2Fpost-war_economies_germany&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWinkler1993" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Winkler, Heinrich August (1993). Weimar 1918–1933. Die erste deutsche Demokratie [Weimar 1918–1933. The First German Democracy] (in German). Munich: C.H. Becl. p. 143. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-406-37646-0" title="Special:BookSources/3-406-37646-0"><bdi>3-406-37646-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Weimar+1918%E2%80%931933.+Die+erste+deutsche+Demokratie&rft.place=Munich&rft.pages=143&rft.pub=C.H.+Becl&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=3-406-37646-0&rft.aulast=Winkler&rft.aufirst=Heinrich+August&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWinkler1993145-73"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWinkler1993145_73-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWinkler1993">Winkler 1993</a>, p. 145. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWinkler1993244-74">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWinkler1993244_74-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWinkler1993244_74-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWinkler1993">Winkler 1993</a>, p. 244. </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLlewellynThompson2019" class="citation web cs1">Llewellyn, Jennifer; Thompson, Steve (26 September 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://alphahistory.com/weimarrepublic/1923-hyperinflation/">"The hyperinflation of 1923"</a>. Alpha History. Retrieved 18 April 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Alpha+History&rft.atitle=The+hyperinflation+of+1923&rft.date=2019-09-26&rft.aulast=Llewellyn&rft.aufirst=Jennifer&rft.au=Thompson%2C+Steve&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Falphahistory.com%2Fweimarrepublic%2F1923-hyperinflation%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcElligott2021" class="citation web cs1">McElligott, Anthony (25 February 2021). Daniel, Ute; Gatrell, Peter; Janz, Oliver; Jones, Heather; Keene, Jennifer; Kramer, Alan; Nasson, Bill (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/workers_or_revolutionary_councils">"Workers' or Revolutionary Councils"</a>. 1914–1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War. Freie Universität Berlin. Retrieved 16 April 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=1914%E2%80%931918-online.+International+Encyclopedia+of+the+First+World+War&rft.atitle=Workers%27+or+Revolutionary+Councils&rft.date=2021-02-25&rft.aulast=McElligott&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fencyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net%2Farticle%2Fworkers_or_revolutionary_councils&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles/Part_IV#Article_118">Treaty of Versailles/Part IV#Article 118 </a> – via <a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Treaty+of+Versailles%2FPart+IV%23Article+118&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Neill2022" class="citation web cs1">O'Neill, Aaron (21 June 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/1086370/territorial-resource-loss-treaty-of-versailles/">"Approximate German territorial losses, and related loss of resources, following the Treaty of Versailles, June 28, 1919"</a>. statista. Retrieved 20 April 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=statista&rft.atitle=Approximate+German+territorial+losses%2C+and+related+loss+of+resources%2C+following+the+Treaty+of+Versailles%2C+June+28%2C+1919&rft.date=2022-06-21&rft.aulast=O%27Neill&rft.aufirst=Aaron&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.statista.com%2Fstatistics%2F1086370%2Fterritorial-resource-loss-treaty-of-versailles%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles/Part_III#Section_IV._Saar_Basin">Treaty of Versailles/Part III#Section IV. Saar Basin </a> – via <a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Treaty+of+Versailles%2FPart+III%23Section+IV.+Saar+Basin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles/Part_III#Section_V._Alsace-Lorraine">Treaty of Versailles/Part III#Section V. Alsace-Lorraine </a> – via <a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Treaty+of+Versailles%2FPart+III%23Section+V.+Alsace-Lorraine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Britannica-81">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Britannica_81-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Britannica_81-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Germany/The-Treaty-of-Versailles">"The Treaty of Versailles"</a>. Britannica. Retrieved 12 April 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Britannica&rft.atitle=The+Treaty+of+Versailles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fplace%2FGermany%2FThe-Treaty-of-Versailles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles/Part_III#Section_VIII._Poland">Treaty of Versailles/Part III#Section VIII. Poland </a> – via <a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Treaty+of+Versailles%2FPart+III%23Section+VIII.+Poland&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles/Part_III#Section_X._Memel">Treaty of Versailles/Part III#Section X. Memel </a> – via <a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Treaty+of+Versailles%2FPart+III%23Section+X.+Memel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles/Part_III#Section_XI._Free_City_of_Danzig">Treaty of Versailles/Part III#Section XI. Free City of Danzig </a> – via <a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Treaty+of+Versailles%2FPart+III%23Section+XI.+Free+City+of+Danzig&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles/Part_III#Section_III._Left_Bank_of_the_Rhine">Treaty of Versailles/Part III#Section III. Left Bank of the Rhine </a> – via <a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Treaty+of+Versailles%2FPart+III%23Section+III.+Left+Bank+of+the+Rhine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchröderWatson2016" class="citation web cs1">Schröder, Joachim; Watson, Alexander (23 June 2016). Daniel, Ute; Gatrell, Peter; Janz, Oliver; Jones, Heather; Keene, Jennifer; Kramer, Alan; Nasson, Bill (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/occupation_during_and_after_the_war_germany">"Occupation during and after the War (Germany)"</a>. 1914–1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War. Freie Universität Berlin. Retrieved 1 April 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=1914%E2%80%931918-online.+International+Encyclopedia+of+the+First+World+War&rft.atitle=Occupation+during+and+after+the+War+%28Germany%29&rft.date=2016-06-23&rft.aulast=Schr%C3%B6der&rft.aufirst=Joachim&rft.au=Watson%2C+Alexander&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fencyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net%2Farticle%2Foccupation_during_and_after_the_war_germany&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Treaty_of_Versailles-87">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Treaty_of_Versailles_87-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Treaty_of_Versailles_87-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Treaty_of_Versailles_87-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles/Part_VIII#Section_I._General_Provisions">Treaty of Versailles/Part VIII#Section I. General Provisions </a> – via <a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Treaty+of+Versailles%2FPart+VIII%23Section+I.+General+Provisions&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://germanhistorydocs.ghi-dc.org/pdf/deu/WR_SCHEIDEMANN_GERa.pdf">"Philipp Scheidemann gegen die Annahme des Versailler Vertrages (12. Mai 1919)"</a> [Philipp Scheidemann Against Accepting the Versailles Treaty (12 May 1919)] (PDF). Deutsche Geschichte in Dokumente und Bildern (in German). p. 3. Retrieved 28 April 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Deutsche+Geschichte+in+Dokumente+und+Bildern&rft.atitle=Philipp+Scheidemann+gegen+die+Annahme+des+Versailler+Vertrages+%2812.+Mai+1919%29&rft.pages=3&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgermanhistorydocs.ghi-dc.org%2Fpdf%2Fdeu%2FWR_SCHEIDEMANN_GERa.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bundestag.de/dokumente/textarchiv/2019/kw06-kalenderblatt-weimarer-nationalversammlung-590072">"Vor 100 Jahren: Nationalversammlung konstituiert sich in Weimar"</a> [100 years ago: The National Assembly Meets in Weimar]. Deutscher Bundestag (in German). 1919. Retrieved 28 April 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Deutscher+Bundestag&rft.atitle=Vor+100+Jahren%3A+Nationalversammlung+konstituiert+sich+in+Weimar&rft.date=1919&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bundestag.de%2Fdokumente%2Ftextarchiv%2F2019%2Fkw06-kalenderblatt-weimarer-nationalversammlung-590072&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIan1998" class="citation book cs1">Ian, Kershaw (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/hitlerhubris00kers">Hitler 1889–1936: Hubris</a>. London: Allen Lane. p. 136. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-04671-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-393-04671-0"><bdi>0-393-04671-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hitler+1889%E2%80%931936%3A+Hubris&rft.place=London&rft.pages=136&rft.pub=Allen+Lane&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-393-04671-0&rft.aulast=Ian&rft.aufirst=Kershaw&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhitlerhubris00kers&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zsrwjxs/revision/4">"Resentment towards the Treaty of Versailles"</a>. BBC. Retrieved 27 April 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BBC&rft.atitle=Resentment+towards+the+Treaty+of+Versailles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fbitesize%2Fguides%2Fzsrwjxs%2Frevision%2F4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrüger1993" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Krüger, Peter (1993). Die Außenpolitik der Republik von Weimar [Foreign Policy of the Weimar Republic] (in German). Darmstadt: WBG Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft. p. 63. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-534-07250-2" title="Special:BookSources/3-534-07250-2"><bdi>3-534-07250-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Die+Au%C3%9Fenpolitik+der+Republik+von+Weimar&rft.place=Darmstadt&rft.pages=63&rft.pub=WBG+Wissenschaftliche+Buchgesellschaft&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=3-534-07250-2&rft.aulast=Kr%C3%BCger&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeiss1990" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Geiss, Imanuel (1990). Der lange Weg in die Katastrophe. Die Vorgeschichte des Ersten Weltkrieges 1815–1914 [The Long Road to Catastrophe. The background of the First World War 1815–1914] (in German). Munich: Piper. pp. 102 f. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-492-10943-8" title="Special:BookSources/3-492-10943-8"><bdi>3-492-10943-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Der+lange+Weg+in+die+Katastrophe.+Die+Vorgeschichte+des+Ersten+Weltkrieges+1815%E2%80%931914&rft.place=Munich&rft.pages=102+f&rft.pub=Piper&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=3-492-10943-8&rft.aulast=Geiss&rft.aufirst=Imanuel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pacelli-edition.de/schlagwort-pdf.html?idno=3032">"Parlamentarischer Untersuchungsausschuss für die Schuldfragen des Ersten Weltkriegs"</a> [Parliamentary Committee of Inquiry into the Question of Guilt for the First World War]. Kritische Online-Edition der Nuntiaturberichte Eugenio Pacellis (1917–1929) (in German). Retrieved 20 May 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Kritische+Online-Edition+der+Nuntiaturberichte+Eugenio+Pacellis+%281917%E2%80%931929%29&rft.atitle=Parlamentarischer+Untersuchungsausschuss+f%C3%BCr+die+Schuldfragen+des+Ersten+Weltkriegs&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pacelli-edition.de%2Fschlagwort-pdf.html%3Fidno%3D3032&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bundesarchiv.de/DE/Content/Virtuelle-Ausstellungen/reichsarchiv.html">"Gründung des Reichsarchivs 1919"</a> [Founding of the Reich Archive 1919]. Bundesarchiv (in German). Retrieved 20 May 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Bundesarchiv&rft.atitle=Gr%C3%BCndung+des+Reichsarchivs+1919&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bundesarchiv.de%2FDE%2FContent%2FVirtuelle-Ausstellungen%2Freichsarchiv.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScriba2014" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Scriba, Arnulf (2 September 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dhm.de/lemo/kapitel/weimarer-republik/aussenpolitik.html">"Weimarer Republik: Außenpolitik"</a> [Weimar Republic: Foreign Policy]. Deutsches Historisches Museum (in German). Retrieved 19 May 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Deutsches+Historisches+Museum&rft.atitle=Weimarer+Republik%3A+Au%C3%9Fenpolitik&rft.date=2014-09-02&rft.aulast=Scriba&rft.aufirst=Arnulf&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dhm.de%2Flemo%2Fkapitel%2Fweimarer-republik%2Faussenpolitik.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKimmel2022" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Kimmel, Elke (12 January 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutschlandfunkkultur.de/100-jahre-politischer-mord-in-deutschland-die-kriegsschuldluege-100.html">"Die "Kriegsschuldlüge""</a> [The 'War Guilt Lie']. Deutschlandfunk (in German). Retrieved 19 May 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Deutschlandfunk&rft.atitle=Die+%22Kriegsschuldl%C3%BCge%22&rft.date=2022-01-12&rft.aulast=Kimmel&rft.aufirst=Elke&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.deutschlandfunkkultur.de%2F100-jahre-politischer-mord-in-deutschland-die-kriegsschuldluege-100.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/world-war-i-aftermath?series=20">"World War I: Aftermath – The Undermining of Democracy in Germany"</a>. Holocaust Encyclopedia. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Retrieved 15 May 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Holocaust+Encyclopedia&rft.atitle=World+War+I%3A+Aftermath+%E2%80%93+The+Undermining+of+Democracy+in+Germany&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fencyclopedia.ushmm.org%2Fcontent%2Fen%2Farticle%2Fworld-war-i-aftermath%3Fseries%3D20&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarders2014" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Harders, Levke (14 September 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dhm.de/lemo/biografie/wolfgang-kapp">"Wolfgang Kapp 1858–1922"</a>. Deutsches Historisches Museum (in German). Retrieved 12 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Deutsches+Historisches+Museum&rft.atitle=Wolfgang+Kapp+1858%E2%80%931922&rft.date=2014-09-14&rft.aulast=Harders&rft.aufirst=Levke&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dhm.de%2Flemo%2Fbiografie%2Fwolfgang-kapp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWinkler1998" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Winkler, Heinrich August (1998). Weimar 1918–1933. Die Geschichte der ersten deutschen Demokratie [Weimar 1918–1933. The History of the First German Democracy] (in German). Munich: C. H. Beck. p. 121. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-406-43884-9" title="Special:BookSources/3-406-43884-9"><bdi>3-406-43884-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Weimar+1918%E2%80%931933.+Die+Geschichte+der+ersten+deutschen+Demokratie&rft.place=Munich&rft.pages=121&rft.pub=C.+H.+Beck&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=3-406-43884-9&rft.aulast=Winkler&rft.aufirst=Heinrich+August&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWulfert2002" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Wulfert, Anja (22 January 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dhm.de/lemo/kapitel/weimarer-republik/innenpolitik/maerzaufstand-1920.html">"Der Märzaufstand 1920"</a> [The March Uprising 1920]. Deutsches Historisches Museum (in German). Retrieved 14 May 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Deutsches+Historisches+Museum&rft.atitle=Der+M%C3%A4rzaufstand+1920&rft.date=2002-01-22&rft.aulast=Wulfert&rft.aufirst=Anja&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dhm.de%2Flemo%2Fkapitel%2Fweimarer-republik%2Finnenpolitik%2Fmaerzaufstand-1920.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThoß202" class="citation web cs1">Thoß, Bruno (11 September 202). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.historisches-lexikon-bayerns.de/Lexikon/Kapp-L%C3%BCttwitz-Putsch,_1920#Die_Situation_in_Bayern">"Kapp-Lüttwitz-Putsch, 1920"</a>. Historisches Lexikon Bayerns. Retrieved 13 May 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Historisches+Lexikon+Bayerns&rft.atitle=Kapp-L%C3%BCttwitz-Putsch%2C+1920&rft.date=202&rft.aulast=Tho%C3%9F&rft.aufirst=Bruno&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.historisches-lexikon-bayerns.de%2FLexikon%2FKapp-L%25C3%25BCttwitz-Putsch%2C_1920%23Die_Situation_in_Bayern&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gonschior.de/weimar/Deutschland/RT1.html">"Das Deutsche Reich: Reichstagswahl 1920/22"</a> [The German Reich: Reichstag Elections 1920/22]. www.gonschior.de (in German). Retrieved 18 May 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.gonschior.de&rft.atitle=Das+Deutsche+Reich%3A+Reichstagswahl+1920%2F22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gonschior.de%2Fweimar%2FDeutschland%2FRT1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStern1963" class="citation journal cs1">Stern, Howard (March 1963). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1899142">"The Organisation Consul"</a>. The Journal of Modern History. 35 (1). The University of Chicago Press: 27–30. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F243595">10.1086/243595</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1899142">1899142</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143212336">143212336</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Modern+History&rft.atitle=The+Organisation+Consul&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=27-30&rft.date=1963-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143212336%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1899142%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F243595&rft.aulast=Stern&rft.aufirst=Howard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1899142&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Llewellyn-2019-105">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Llewellyn-2019_105-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Llewellyn-2019_105-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Llewellyn-2019_105-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Llewellyn-2019_105-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Llewellyn-2019_105-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLlewellynThompson2019" class="citation web cs1">Llewellyn, Jennifer; Thompson, Steve (24 September 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://alphahistory.com/weimarrepublic/reparations/">"War reparations and Weimar Germany"</a>. Alpha History. Retrieved 17 May 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Alpha+History&rft.atitle=War+reparations+and+Weimar+Germany&rft.date=2019-09-24&rft.aulast=Llewellyn&rft.aufirst=Jennifer&rft.au=Thompson%2C+Steve&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Falphahistory.com%2Fweimarrepublic%2Freparations%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Scriba-2014-106">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Scriba-2014_106-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Scriba-2014_106-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScriba2014" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Scriba, Arnulf (2 September 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dhm.de/lemo/kapitel/weimarer-republik/aussenpolitik/reparationen.html">"Weimarer Republik – Außenpolitik – Reparationen"</a> [Weimar Republic – Foreign Policy – Reparations]. Deutsches Historisches Museum (in German). Retrieved 7 May 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Deutsches+Historisches+Museum&rft.atitle=Weimarer+Republik+%E2%80%93+Au%C3%9Fenpolitik+%E2%80%93+Reparationen&rft.date=2014-09-02&rft.aulast=Scriba&rft.aufirst=Arnulf&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dhm.de%2Flemo%2Fkapitel%2Fweimarer-republik%2Faussenpolitik%2Freparationen.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWinkler1998187-107">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWinkler1998187_107-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWinkler1998187_107-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWinkler1998">Winkler 1998</a>, p. 187. </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLlewellynThompson2019" class="citation web cs1">Llewellyn, Jennifer; Thompson, Steve (25 September 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://alphahistory.com/weimarrepublic/ruhr-occupation/">"The Ruhr Occupation"</a>. Alpha History. Retrieved 25 May 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Alpha+History&rft.atitle=The+Ruhr+Occupation&rft.date=2019-09-25&rft.aulast=Llewellyn&rft.aufirst=Jennifer&rft.au=Thompson%2C+Steve&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Falphahistory.com%2Fweimarrepublic%2Fruhr-occupation%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Gustav-Stresemann">"Gustav Stresemann"</a>. Britannica. 6 May 2023. Retrieved 14 May 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Britannica&rft.atitle=Gustav+Stresemann&rft.date=2023-05-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fbiography%2FGustav-Stresemann&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLlewellynThompson2019" class="citation web cs1">Llewellyn, Jennifer; Thompson, Steve (26 September 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://alphahistory.com/weimarrepublic/1923-hyperinflation/">"The hyperinflation of 1923"</a>. Alpha History. Retrieved 14 May 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Alpha+History&rft.atitle=The+hyperinflation+of+1923&rft.date=2019-09-26&rft.aulast=Llewellyn&rft.aufirst=Jennifer&rft.au=Thompson%2C+Steve&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Falphahistory.com%2Fweimarrepublic%2F1923-hyperinflation%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchulz2020" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Schulz, Günther, ed. (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cLEKEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA179">Geschäft mit Wort und Meinung</a> [Business with Word and Opinion] (in German). Berlin: DeGruyter. p. 179.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gesch%C3%A4ft+mit+Wort+und+Meinung&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pages=179&rft.pub=DeGruyter&rft.date=2020&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcLEKEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA179&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScriba2015" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Scriba, Arnulf (6 August 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dhm.de/lemo/kapitel/weimarer-republik/innenpolitik/waehrungsreform-1923.html">"Die Währungsreform 1923"</a> [The Currency Reform]. Deutsches Historisches Museum (in German). Retrieved 13 May 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Deutsches+Historisches+Museum&rft.atitle=Die+W%C3%A4hrungsreform+1923&rft.date=2015-08-06&rft.aulast=Scriba&rft.aufirst=Arnulf&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dhm.de%2Flemo%2Fkapitel%2Fweimarer-republik%2Finnenpolitik%2Fwaehrungsreform-1923.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSturm2011" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Sturm, Reinhart (23 December 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bpb.de/themen/nationalsozialismus-zweiter-weltkrieg/dossier-nationalsozialismus/39531/kampf-um-die-republik-1919-1923/?p=all#node-content-title-21">"Kampf um die Republik 1919–1923: Kommunistische Umsturzversuche"</a> [Battle for the Republic 1919–1923: Communist Coup Attempts]. Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung (in German). Retrieved 8 May 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Bundeszentrale+f%C3%BCr+politische+Bildung&rft.atitle=Kampf+um+die+Republik+1919%E2%80%931923%3A+Kommunistische+Umsturzversuche&rft.date=2011-12-23&rft.aulast=Sturm&rft.aufirst=Reinhart&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bpb.de%2Fthemen%2Fnationalsozialismus-zweiter-weltkrieg%2Fdossier-nationalsozialismus%2F39531%2Fkampf-um-die-republik-1919-1923%2F%3Fp%3Dall%23node-content-title-21&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMommsen1998" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Mommsen, Hans (1998). Aufstieg und Untergang der Republik von Weimar. 1918–1933 [The Rise and Fall of the Republic of Weimar. 1918–1933] (in German). Berlin: Ullstein. p. 184. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-548-26508-1" title="Special:BookSources/3-548-26508-1"><bdi>3-548-26508-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aufstieg+und+Untergang+der+Republik+von+Weimar.+1918%E2%80%931933&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pages=184&rft.pub=Ullstein&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=3-548-26508-1&rft.aulast=Mommsen&rft.aufirst=Hans&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZittel1977" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Zittel, Bernhard (1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd119446901.html#ndbcontent">"Kahr, Gustav Ritter von"</a>. Neue Deutsche Biographie 11 (in German). pp. 29–30. Retrieved 19 May 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Neue+Deutsche+Biographie+11&rft.atitle=Kahr%2C+Gustav+Ritter+von&rft.pages=29-30&rft.date=1977&rft.aulast=Zittel&rft.aufirst=Bernhard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.deutsche-biographie.de%2Fpnd119446901.html%23ndbcontent&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMenges1987" class="citation web cs1">Menges, Franz (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd128549769.html#ndbcontent">"Lossow, Otto von"</a>. Neue Deutsche Biographie 15. pp. 204–205.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Neue+Deutsche+Biographie+15&rft.atitle=Lossow%2C+Otto+von&rft.pages=204-205&rft.date=1987&rft.aulast=Menges&rft.aufirst=Franz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.deutsche-biographie.de%2Fpnd128549769.html%23ndbcontent&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Beer-Hall-Putsch/The-Munich-Putsch">"The Munich Putsch"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Britannica" class="mw-redirect" title="Britannica">Britannica</a>. Retrieved 18 May 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Britannica&rft.atitle=The+Munich+Putsch&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fevent%2FBeer-Hall-Putsch%2FThe-Munich-Putsch&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELongerich1995145-118"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongerich1995145_118-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLongerich1995">Longerich 1995</a>, p. 145. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMommsen1998230-119"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMommsen1998230_119-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMommsen1998">Mommsen 1998</a>, p. 230. </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKitchen1996" class="citation book cs1">Kitchen, Martin (1996). The Cambridge Illustrated History of Germany. Cambridge, England: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. p. 241. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521453417" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521453417"><bdi>978-0521453417</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Illustrated+History+of+Germany&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+England&rft.pages=241&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0521453417&rft.aulast=Kitchen&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMommsen1998234-121"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMommsen1998234_121-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMommsen1998">Mommsen 1998</a>, p. 234. </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Weimar_constitution#Section_V:_Economic_Life">Weimar constitution#Section V: Economic Life </a> – via <a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Weimar+constitution%23Section+V%3A+Economic+Life&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELongerich1995174_f.-123"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongerich1995174_f._123-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLongerich1995">Longerich 1995</a>, pp. 174 f.. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMommsen1998282-124"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMommsen1998282_124-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMommsen1998">Mommsen 1998</a>, p. 282. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWinkler1998296-125"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWinkler1998296_125-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWinkler1998">Winkler 1998</a>, p. 296. </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConze1972" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Conze, Werner (1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd118551264.html#ndbcontent">"Hindenburg, Paul von"</a>. Neue Deutsche Biographie (in German) (9 ed.). pp. 178–182. Retrieved 25 May 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Neue+Deutsche+Biographie&rft.atitle=Hindenburg%2C+Paul+von&rft.pages=178-182&rft.date=1972&rft.aulast=Conze&rft.aufirst=Werner&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.deutsche-biographie.de%2Fpnd118551264.html%23ndbcontent&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Weimar-Republic/The-end-of-the-Weimar-Republic">"The End of the Weimar Republic"</a>. Britannica. Retrieved 21 May 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Britannica&rft.atitle=The+End+of+the+Weimar+Republic&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fplace%2FWeimar-Republic%2FThe-end-of-the-Weimar-Republic&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUllrich2023" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Ullrich, Volker (20 January 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bpb.de/shop/zeitschriften/apuz/deutschland-1933-2023/517470/1923-als-schluesseljahr-fuer-1933/">"1923 als Schlüsseljahr für 1933?"</a> [1923 as the Key Year for 1933?]. Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung (in German). Retrieved 26 May 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Bundeszentrale+f%C3%BCr+politische+Bildung&rft.atitle=1923+als+Schl%C3%BCsseljahr+f%C3%BCr+1933%3F&rft.date=2023-01-20&rft.aulast=Ullrich&rft.aufirst=Volker&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bpb.de%2Fshop%2Fzeitschriften%2Fapuz%2Fdeutschland-1933-2023%2F517470%2F1923-als-schluesseljahr-fuer-1933%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,728586-1,00.html">"The Treaties"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)">Time</a>. 2 November 1925. Retrieved 20 May 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Time&rft.atitle=The+Treaties&rft.date=1925-11-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcontent.time.com%2Ftime%2Fsubscriber%2Farticle%2F0%2C33009%2C728586-1%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/modern-europe/treaties-and-alliances/dawes-plan">"Dawes Plan"</a>. encyclopedia.com. 8 June 2018. Retrieved 22 May 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=encyclopedia.com&rft.atitle=Dawes+Plan&rft.date=2018-06-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.encyclopedia.com%2Fhistory%2Fmodern-europe%2Ftreaties-and-alliances%2Fdawes-plan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhiting1978" class="citation book cs1">Whiting, Kenneth R. (1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-1EsAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA21">The Development of the Soviet Armed Forces, 1917–1977</a>. Montgomery, AL: Air University. pp. 21 f.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Development+of+the+Soviet+Armed+Forces%2C+1917%E2%80%931977&rft.place=Montgomery%2C+AL&rft.pages=21+f&rft.pub=Air+University&rft.date=1978&rft.aulast=Whiting&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-1EsAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPA21&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKolb2009" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Kolb, Eberhard (2009). Die Weimarer Republik (in German) (7 ed.). Munich: Oldenbourg. pp. 70 f.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Die+Weimarer+Republik&rft.place=Munich&rft.pages=70+f&rft.edition=7&rft.pub=Oldenbourg&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Kolb&rft.aufirst=Eberhard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKolb2009122-133"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKolb2009122_133-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKolb2009">Kolb 2009</a>, p. 122. </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cabaret-berlin.com/?p=440">"Josephine Baker in Berlin"</a>. Cabaret Berlin – Exploring the entertainment of the Weimar era. 8 December 2010. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200530173416/http://www.cabaret-berlin.com/?p=440">Archived</a> from the original on 30 May 2020. Retrieved 11 June 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Cabaret+Berlin+%E2%80%93+Exploring+the+entertainment+of+the+Weimar+era&rft.atitle=Josephine+Baker+in+Berlin&rft.date=2010-12-08&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cabaret-berlin.com%2F%3Fp%3D440&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDelmer1972" class="citation book cs1">Delmer, Sefton (1972). Weimar Germany: Democracy on Trial. London: Macdonald. pp. 82–93.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Weimar+Germany%3A+Democracy+on+Trial&rft.place=London&rft.pages=82-93&rft.pub=Macdonald&rft.date=1972&rft.aulast=Delmer&rft.aufirst=Sefton&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFToland1976" class="citation book cs1">Toland, John (1976). Adolf Hitler. New York: Ballantine. p. 101. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-345-25899-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-345-25899-1"><bdi>0-345-25899-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Adolf+Hitler&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=101&rft.pub=Ballantine&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=0-345-25899-1&rft.aulast=Toland&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarc_LinderIngrid_Nygaard1998" class="citation web cs1">Marc Linder; Ingrid Nygaard (1 January 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200623030326/https://ir.uiowa.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=&httpsredir=1&article=1091&context=law_pubs">"Rest in the Rest of the World"</a>. Iowa Research Online (PDF). College of Law Publications, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Iowa" title="University of Iowa">University of Iowa</a>. p. 117. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ir.uiowa.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=&httpsredir=1&article=1091&context=law_pubs">the original</a> on 23 June 2020. Retrieved 22 June 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Iowa+Research+Online&rft.atitle=Rest+in+the+Rest+of+the+World&rft.pages=117&rft.date=1998-01-01&rft.au=Marc+Linder&rft.au=Ingrid+Nygaard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fir.uiowa.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Freferer%3D%26httpsredir%3D1%26article%3D1091%26context%3Dlaw_pubs&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWunderlich1961" class="citation book cs1">Wunderlich, Frieda (1961). Farm Labor in Germany, 1810–1945. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. p. 126. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-04126-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-04126-1"><bdi>978-0-691-04126-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Farm+Labor+in+Germany%2C+1810%E2%80%931945&rft.place=Princeton%2C+NJ&rft.pages=126&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1961&rft.isbn=978-0-691-04126-1&rft.aulast=Wunderlich&rft.aufirst=Frieda&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/labourundernazir033210mbp/labourundernazir033210mbp_djvu.txt">Full text of "Labour Under Nazi Rule"</a>. Oxford At The Clarendon Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Full+text+of+%22Labour+Under+Nazi+Rule%22&rft.pub=Oxford+At+The+Clarendon+Press.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Flabourundernazir033210mbp%2Flabourundernazir033210mbp_djvu.txt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCompanjeVeraghtertWiddershoven2009" class="citation book cs1">Companje, Karel-Peter; Veraghtert, Karel; Widdershoven, Brigitte (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=64U_dlAI6g0C&q=Germany+compulsory+health+insurance+february+1919&pg=PA126">Two Centuries of Solidarity</a>. Amsterdam University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-5260-344-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-5260-344-5"><bdi>978-90-5260-344-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Two+Centuries+of+Solidarity&rft.pub=Amsterdam+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-90-5260-344-5&rft.aulast=Companje&rft.aufirst=Karel-Peter&rft.au=Veraghtert%2C+Karel&rft.au=Widdershoven%2C+Brigitte&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D64U_dlAI6g0C%26q%3DGermany%2Bcompulsory%2Bhealth%2Binsurance%2Bfebruary%2B1919%26pg%3DPA126&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConstantine2007" class="citation book cs1">Constantine, Simon (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BCYCYfHdBFQC&q=germany+law+1918+unfair+dismissal&pg=PA58">Social Relations in the Estate Villages of Mecklenburg c. 1880–1924</a>. Ashgate Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-5503-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-5503-9"><bdi>978-0-7546-5503-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Social+Relations+in+the+Estate+Villages+of+Mecklenburg+c.+1880%E2%80%931924&rft.pub=Ashgate+Publishing&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7546-5503-9&rft.aulast=Constantine&rft.aufirst=Simon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBCYCYfHdBFQC%26q%3Dgermany%2Blaw%2B1918%2Bunfair%2Bdismissal%26pg%3DPA58&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bärnighausen-2002-142">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bärnighausen-2002_142-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bärnighausen-2002_142-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBärnighausenSauerborn2002" class="citation journal cs1">Bärnighausen, Till; Sauerborn, Rainer (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200515153622/http://www.ministerial-leadership.org/sites/default/files/resources_and_tools/10">"One hundred and eighteen years of the German health insurance system: are there any lessons for middle- and low-income countries?"</a>. Social Science & Medicine. 54 (10): 1559–1587. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fs0277-9536%2801%2900137-x">10.1016/s0277-9536(01)00137-x</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12061488">12061488</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ministerial-leadership.org/sites/default/files/resources_and_tools/10%20german%20health%20insu.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 15 May 2020. Retrieved 30 June 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Social+Science+%26+Medicine&rft.atitle=One+hundred+and+eighteen+years+of+the+German+health+insurance+system%3A+are+there+any+lessons+for+middle-+and+low-income+countries%3F&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=1559-1587&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fs0277-9536%2801%2900137-x&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12061488&rft.aulast=B%C3%A4rnighausen&rft.aufirst=Till&rft.au=Sauerborn%2C+Rainer&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ministerial-leadership.org%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fresources_and_tools%2F10%2520german%2520health%2520insu.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a> Industrial and Labour Information, Volume 20, International Labour Office, 1926 </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> Modern Germany: society, economy and politics in the twentieth century by Volker R. Berghahn </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParsson2011" class="citation book cs1">Parsson, Jens O. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=p5x5Cu4zuaoC&q=erzberger+tax+reforms&pg=PA39">Dying of Money</a>. Dog Ear. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4575-0266-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4575-0266-8"><bdi>978-1-4575-0266-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dying+of+Money&rft.pub=Dog+Ear&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-4575-0266-8&rft.aulast=Parsson&rft.aufirst=Jens+O.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dp5x5Cu4zuaoC%26q%3Derzberger%2Btax%2Breforms%26pg%3DPA39&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerghoffSpiekermann2012" class="citation book cs1">Berghoff, H.; Spiekermann, U. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-hHIAAAAQBAJ&q=erzberger+inheritance+tax+1919&pg=PA132">Decoding Modern Consumer Societies</a>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-137-01300-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-137-01300-2"><bdi>978-1-137-01300-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Decoding+Modern+Consumer+Societies&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-137-01300-2&rft.aulast=Berghoff&rft.aufirst=H.&rft.au=Spiekermann%2C+U.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-hHIAAAAQBAJ%26q%3Derzberger%2Binheritance%2Btax%2B1919%26pg%3DPA132&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> American Journal of Care for Cripples, Volume 8, Douglas C. McMurtrie, 1919 </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHong1998" class="citation book cs1">Hong, Young-Sun (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JMpmnE0ZFpQC&q=germany+decree+of+February+8+1919+veterans&pg=PA92">Welfare, Modernity, and the Weimar State, 1919–1933</a>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-05793-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-05793-1"><bdi>0-691-05793-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Welfare%2C+Modernity%2C+and+the+Weimar+State%2C+1919%E2%80%931933&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-691-05793-1&rft.aulast=Hong&rft.aufirst=Young-Sun&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJMpmnE0ZFpQC%26q%3Dgermany%2Bdecree%2Bof%2BFebruary%2B8%2B1919%2Bveterans%26pg%3DPA92&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWollmannMarcou2010" class="citation book cs1">Wollmann, Hellmut; Marcou, Gérard (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_pPBJWaRqKoC&q=Weimar+Republic+youth+welfare+act+1922&pg=PA77">The Provision of Public Services in Europe</a>. Edward Elgar. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84980-722-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84980-722-7"><bdi>978-1-84980-722-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Provision+of+Public+Services+in+Europe&rft.pub=Edward+Elgar&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-84980-722-7&rft.aulast=Wollmann&rft.aufirst=Hellmut&rft.au=Marcou%2C+G%C3%A9rard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_pPBJWaRqKoC%26q%3DWeimar%2BRepublic%2Byouth%2Bwelfare%2Bact%2B1922%26pg%3DPA77&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFlora1986" class="citation book cs1">Flora, Peter (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GaWtd5zJfB8C&q=weimar+republic+tenant+protection+1923&pg=PA8">Growth to Limits: Germany, United Kingdom, Ireland, Italy</a>. Walter de Gruyter. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-011131-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-011131-6"><bdi>978-3-11-011131-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230202034410/https://books.google.com/books?id=GaWtd5zJfB8C&q=weimar+republic+tenant+protection+1923&pg=PA8">Archived</a> from the original on 2 February 2023. Retrieved 21 October 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Growth+to+Limits%3A+Germany%2C+United+Kingdom%2C+Ireland%2C+Italy&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-3-11-011131-6&rft.aulast=Flora&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGaWtd5zJfB8C%26q%3Dweimar%2Brepublic%2Btenant%2Bprotection%2B1923%26pg%3DPA8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFeldman1997" class="citation book cs1">Feldman, Gerald D. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zH-I31gx7MMC&q=germany+winter+grant+unemployed+1919&pg=PA232">The Great Disorder: Politics, Economics, and Society in the German Inflation, 1914–1924</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-988019-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-988019-5"><bdi>978-0-19-988019-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230202034411/https://books.google.com/books?id=zH-I31gx7MMC&q=germany+winter+grant+unemployed+1919&pg=PA232">Archived</a> from the original on 2 February 2023. Retrieved 21 October 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+Disorder%3A+Politics%2C+Economics%2C+and+Society+in+the+German+Inflation%2C+1914%E2%80%931924&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-19-988019-5&rft.aulast=Feldman&rft.aufirst=Gerald+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzH-I31gx7MMC%26q%3Dgermany%2Bwinter%2Bgrant%2Bunemployed%2B1919%26pg%3DPA232&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a> AQA History: The Development of Germany, 1871–1925 by Sally Waller </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHenig2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1k-EAgAAQBAJpgPA48_48]-153"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHenig2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1k-EAgAAQBAJpgPA48_48]_153-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHenig2002">Henig 2002</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1k-EAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA48">48</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLlewellynThompson2019" class="citation web cs1">Llewellyn, Jennifer; Thompson, Steve (9 October 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://alphahistory.com/weimarrepublic/great-depression/">"The Great Depression in Germany"</a>. Alpha History. Retrieved 15 June 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Alpha+History&rft.atitle=The+Great+Depression+in+Germany&rft.date=2019-10-09&rft.aulast=Llewellyn&rft.aufirst=Jennifer&rft.au=Thompson%2C+Steve&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Falphahistory.com%2Fweimarrepublic%2Fgreat-depression%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://spartacus-educational.com/GERunemployment.htm">"Unemployment in Nazi Germany"</a>. Spartacus Educational. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170501065510/http://spartacus-educational.com/GERunemployment.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 1 May 2017. Retrieved 1 March 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Spartacus+Educational&rft.atitle=Unemployment+in+Nazi+Germany&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fspartacus-educational.com%2FGERunemployment.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gonschior.de/weimar/Deutschland/RT5.html">"Reichstagswahl 1930"</a> [Reichstag Election 1930]. gonschior.de (in German). Retrieved 8 July 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=gonschior.de&rft.atitle=Reichstagswahl+1930&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gonschior.de%2Fweimar%2FDeutschland%2FRT5.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Weimar-Republic/The-end-of-the-Weimar-Republic#ref1257412">"The end of the Weimar Republic"</a>. Britannica online. 21 June 2024. Retrieved 8 July 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Britannica+online&rft.atitle=The+end+of+the+Weimar+Republic&rft.date=2024-06-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fplace%2FWeimar-Republic%2FThe-end-of-the-Weimar-Republic%23ref1257412&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVogt1997" class="citation web cs1">Vogt, Martin (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd118584979.html#ndbcontent">"Müller (-Franken), Hermann"</a>. Neue Deutsche Biographie 18 (1997), [Online-Version]. pp. 410–414. Retrieved 8 July 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Neue+Deutsche+Biographie+18+%281997%29%2C+%5BOnline-Version%5D&rft.atitle=M%C3%BCller+%28-Franken%29%2C+Hermann&rft.pages=410-414&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Vogt&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.deutsche-biographie.de%2Fpnd118584979.html%23ndbcontent&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorsey2010" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Morsey, Rudolf (26 October 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lwl.org/westfaelische-geschichte/portal/Internet/finde/langDatensatz.php?urlID=1585&url_tabelle=tab_person">"Heinrich Brüning"</a>. Internet-Portal Westfälische Geschichte (in German). Retrieved 15 June 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Internet-Portal+Westf%C3%A4lische+Geschichte&rft.atitle=Heinrich+Br%C3%BCning&rft.date=2010-10-26&rft.aulast=Morsey&rft.aufirst=Rudolf&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lwl.org%2Fwestfaelische-geschichte%2Fportal%2FInternet%2Ffinde%2FlangDatensatz.php%3FurlID%3D1585%26url_tabelle%3Dtab_person&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gonschior.de/weimar/Deutschland/RT5.html">"Reichstagswahl 1930"</a> [Reichstag Election 1930]. gonschior.de (in German). Retrieved 15 June 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=gonschior.de&rft.atitle=Reichstagswahl+1930&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gonschior.de%2Fweimar%2FDeutschland%2FRT5.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWischMartinMartinsonSchruth2006" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Wisch, Fritz-Helmut; Martin, Paul; Martinson, Marianne; Schruth, Peter (2006). Europäische Probleme und Sozialpolitik [European Problems and Social Policies] (in German). Berlin: Frank & Timme. p. 151. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-86596-031-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-86596-031-3"><bdi>978-3-86596-031-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Europ%C3%A4ische+Probleme+und+Sozialpolitik&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pages=151&rft.pub=Frank+%26+Timme&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-3-86596-031-3&rft.aulast=Wisch&rft.aufirst=Fritz-Helmut&rft.au=Martin%2C+Paul&rft.au=Martinson%2C+Marianne&rft.au=Schruth%2C+Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrevelhörster2000" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Grevelhörster, Ludger (2000). Kleine Geschichte der Weimarer Republik 1918–1933 [A Brief History of the Weimar Republic 1918–1933] (in German). Münster: Aschendorff. p. 172. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-402-05363-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-402-05363-8"><bdi>978-3-402-05363-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kleine+Geschichte+der+Weimarer+Republik+1918%E2%80%931933&rft.place=M%C3%BCnster&rft.pages=172&rft.pub=Aschendorff&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-3-402-05363-8&rft.aulast=Grevelh%C3%B6rster&rft.aufirst=Ludger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSturm2011" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Sturm, Reinhard (23 December 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bpb.de/themen/nationalsozialismus-zweiter-weltkrieg/dossier-nationalsozialismus/39537/zerstoerung-der-demokratie-1930-1932/#node-content-title-13">"Zerstörung der Demokratie 1930–1932: Regierung von Papen"</a> [Destruction of the Democracy 1930–1932: The von Papen Government]. Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung (in German). Retrieved 12 July 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Bundeszentrale+f%C3%BCr+politische+Bildung&rft.atitle=Zerst%C3%B6rung+der+Demokratie+1930%E2%80%931932%3A+Regierung+von+Papen&rft.date=2011-12-23&rft.aulast=Sturm&rft.aufirst=Reinhard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bpb.de%2Fthemen%2Fnationalsozialismus-zweiter-weltkrieg%2Fdossier-nationalsozialismus%2F39537%2Fzerstoerung-der-demokratie-1930-1932%2F%23node-content-title-13&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Franz-von-Papen">"Franz von Papen"</a>. Britannica online. 12 January 2000. Retrieved 1 July 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Britannica+online&rft.atitle=Franz+von+Papen&rft.date=2000-01-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fbiography%2FFranz-von-Papen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHauner2005" class="citation book cs1">Hauner, Milan (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9_pZCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA81">Hitler. A Chronology of His Life and Time</a>. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK. p. 81. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0230584495" title="Special:BookSources/978-0230584495"><bdi>978-0230584495</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hitler.+A+Chronology+of+His+Life+and+Time&rft.place=London&rft.pages=81&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan+UK&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0230584495&rft.aulast=Hauner&rft.aufirst=Milan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9_pZCwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA81&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchulze2001" class="citation book cs1">Schulze, Hagen (2001). Germany: A New History. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. pp. 241–243. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0674005457" title="Special:BookSources/978-0674005457"><bdi>978-0674005457</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Germany%3A+A+New+History&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pages=241-243&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0674005457&rft.aulast=Schulze&rft.aufirst=Hagen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTurner1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Henry_Ashby_Turner" title="Henry Ashby Turner">Turner, Henry Ashby</a> (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/hitlersthirtyday00turn">Hitler's Thirty Days to Power: January 1933</a>. Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley. p. 8. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780201407143" title="Special:BookSources/9780201407143"><bdi>9780201407143</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hitler%27s+Thirty+Days+to+Power%3A+January+1933&rft.place=Reading%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pages=8&rft.pub=Addison-Wesley&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=9780201407143&rft.aulast=Turner&rft.aufirst=Henry+Ashby&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhitlersthirtyday00turn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDorpalen1964" class="citation book cs1">Dorpalen, Andreas (1964). Hindenburg and the Weimar Republic. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. p. 362. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-05126-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-05126-0"><bdi>978-0-691-05126-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hindenburg+and+the+Weimar+Republic&rft.place=Princeton%2C+NJ&rft.pages=362&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1964&rft.isbn=978-0-691-05126-0&rft.aulast=Dorpalen&rft.aufirst=Andreas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Evans-2004-169"><a href="#cite_ref-Evans-2004_169-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEvans2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_J._Evans" title="Richard J. Evans">Evans, Richard J.</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781594200045/page/446">The Coming of the Third Reich</a>. New York: The Penguin Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781594200045/page/446">446</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-59420-004-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-59420-004-1"><bdi>1-59420-004-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Coming+of+the+Third+Reich&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=446&rft.pub=The+Penguin+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=1-59420-004-1&rft.aulast=Evans&rft.aufirst=Richard+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9781594200045%2Fpage%2F446&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPyta2007" class="citation web cs1">Pyta, Wolfram (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd118608037.html#ndbcontent">"Schleicher, Kurt von"</a>. Neue Deutsche Biographie 23. pp. 50–52 [Online-Version]. Retrieved 10 July 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Neue+Deutsche+Biographie+23&rft.atitle=Schleicher%2C+Kurt+von&rft.pages=50-52+Online-Version&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Pyta&rft.aufirst=Wolfram&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.deutsche-biographie.de%2Fpnd118608037.html%23ndbcontent&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeumann1991" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Neumann, Klaus (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lwl.org/westfaelische-geschichte/portal/Internet/input_felder/seite1_westf_bild.php?urlID=336">"Franz von Papen"</a>. Internet-Portal Westfälische Geschichte (in German). Retrieved 17 July 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Internet-Portal+Westf%C3%A4lische+Geschichte&rft.atitle=Franz+von+Papen&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Neumann&rft.aufirst=Klaus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lwl.org%2Fwestfaelische-geschichte%2Fportal%2FInternet%2Finput_felder%2Fseite1_westf_bild.php%3FurlID%3D336&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETurner199628-172"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETurner199628_172-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTurner1996">Turner 1996</a>, p. 28. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETurner1996133-173"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETurner1996133_173-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTurner1996">Turner 1996</a>, p. 133. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETurner1996103-174"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETurner1996103_174-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTurner1996">Turner 1996</a>, p. 103. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETurner199694-175"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETurner199694_175-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTurner1996">Turner 1996</a>, p. 94. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETurner1996131–132-176"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETurner1996131–132_176-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTurner1996">Turner 1996</a>, pp. 131–132. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETurner1996148-177"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETurner1996148_177-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTurner1996">Turner 1996</a>, p. 148. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETurner1996148–150-178"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETurner1996148–150_178-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTurner1996">Turner 1996</a>, pp. 148–150. </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScriba2014" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Scriba, Arnulf (8 September 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dhm.de/lemo/kapitel/weimarer-republik/innenpolitik/kpd">"Die Kommunistische Partei Deutschlands (KPD)"</a> [The Communist Party of Germany]. Deutsches Historisches Museum (in German). Retrieved 12 July 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Deutsches+Historisches+Museum&rft.atitle=Die+Kommunistische+Partei+Deutschlands+%28KPD%29&rft.date=2014-09-08&rft.aulast=Scriba&rft.aufirst=Arnulf&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dhm.de%2Flemo%2Fkapitel%2Fweimarer-republik%2Finnenpolitik%2Fkpd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMommsen1996" class="citation book cs1">Mommsen, Hans (1996). The Rise and Fall of Weimar Democracy. Translated by Forster, Elborg; Jones, Larry Eugene. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. p. 542. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-807-82249-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-807-82249-4"><bdi>978-0-807-82249-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+and+Fall+of+Weimar+Democracy&rft.place=Chapel+Hill&rft.pages=542&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-807-82249-4&rft.aulast=Mommsen&rft.aufirst=Hans&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghdi.ghi-dc.org/sub_document.cfm?document_id=2325">"Decree of the Reich President for the Protection of the People and State ("Reichstag Fire Decree") (February 28, 1933)"</a>. German History in Documents and Images (GHDI). Retrieved 12 July 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=German+History+in+Documents+and+Images+%28GHDI%29&rft.atitle=Decree+of+the+Reich+President+for+the+Protection+of+the+People+and+State+%28%22Reichstag+Fire+Decree%22%29+%28February+28%2C+1933%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fghdi.ghi-dc.org%2Fsub_document.cfm%3Fdocument_id%3D2325&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gonschior.de/weimar/Deutschland/RT8.html">"Das Deutsche Reich. Reichstagswahl 1933"</a> [The German Reich. Election Results 1933]. gonschior.de (in German). Retrieved 14 July 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=gonschior.de&rft.atitle=Das+Deutsche+Reich.+Reichstagswahl+1933&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgonschior.de%2Fweimar%2FDeutschland%2FRT8.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPinfield2015" class="citation book cs1">Pinfield, Nick (2015). A/AS Level History for AQA Democracy and Nazism: Germany, 1918–1945 Student Book. Oxford: Cambridge University Press. p. 98.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A%2FAS+Level+History+for+AQA+Democracy+and+Nazism%3A+Germany%2C+1918%E2%80%931945+Student+Book&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=98&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Pinfield&rft.aufirst=Nick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-184">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_184-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_184-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_184-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Enabling-Act">"The Reichstag fire and the Enabling Act"</a>. Encyclopedia Britannica. 26 April 2024. Retrieved 15 July 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.atitle=The+Reichstag+fire+and+the+Enabling+Act&rft.date=2024-04-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FEnabling-Act&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdinger1953" class="citation journal cs1">Edinger, Lewis J. (April 1953). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/world-politics/article/abs/german-social-democracy-and-hitlers-national-revolution-of-1933-a-study-in-democratic-leadership/40A2DDC744E785ADCE7E169031F7CAA3">"German Social Democracy and Hitler's 'National Revolution' of 1933: A Study in Democratic Leadership"</a>. World Politics. 5 (3): 330–367. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2009137">10.2307/2009137</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1086-3338">1086-3338</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2009137">2009137</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:153745010">153745010</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=World+Politics&rft.atitle=German+Social+Democracy+and+Hitler%27s+%27National+Revolution%27+of+1933%3A+A+Study+in+Democratic+Leadership&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=330-367&rft.date=1953-04&rft.issn=1086-3338&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A153745010%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2009137%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2009137&rft.aulast=Edinger&rft.aufirst=Lewis+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fjournals%2Fworld-politics%2Farticle%2Fabs%2Fgerman-social-democracy-and-hitlers-national-revolution-of-1933-a-study-in-democratic-leadership%2F40A2DDC744E785ADCE7E169031F7CAA3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/ministry-of-propaganda-and-public-enlightenment">"Ministry of Propaganda and Public Enlightenment"</a>. Holocaust Encyclopedia. Retrieved 16 July 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Holocaust+Encyclopedia&rft.atitle=Ministry+of+Propaganda+and+Public+Enlightenment&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fencyclopedia.ushmm.org%2Fcontent%2Fen%2Farticle%2Fministry-of-propaganda-and-public-enlightenment&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bundestag.de/en/parliament/history/parliamentarism/third_reich/third_reich-200358">"National Socialism (1933 – 1945)"</a>. Deutscher Bundestag. Retrieved 16 July 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Deutscher+Bundestag&rft.atitle=National+Socialism+%281933+%E2%80%93+1945%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bundestag.de%2Fen%2Fparliament%2Fhistory%2Fparliamentarism%2Fthird_reich%2Fthird_reich-200358&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWiik2017" class="citation web cs1">Wiik, Astrid (June 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oxcon.ouplaw.com/display/10.1093/law-mpeccol/law-mpeccol-e44#:~:text=Never%20formally%20repealed%2C%20the%20Weimar,following%20Hitler's%20rise%20to%20power.">"Weimar Constitution (1919)"</a>. Oxford Constitutional Law. Retrieved 16 July 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Oxford+Constitutional+Law&rft.atitle=Weimar+Constitution+%281919%29&rft.date=2017-06&rft.aulast=Wiik&rft.aufirst=Astrid&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Foxcon.ouplaw.com%2Fdisplay%2F10.1093%2Flaw-mpeccol%2Flaw-mpeccol-e44%23%3A~%3Atext%3DNever%2520formally%2520repealed%252C%2520the%2520Weimar%2Cfollowing%2520Hitler%27s%2520rise%2520to%2520power.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bundestag.de/resource/blob/190458/e8f380a84d78d9ad730377ad9320285f/scheinparlament.pdf">""Scheinparlamentarismus" in der NS-Zeit"</a> [Pseudo-Parliamentarism in the Nazi Era] (PDF). Deutscher Bundestag (in German). Retrieved 16 July 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Deutscher+Bundestag&rft.atitle=%22Scheinparlamentarismus%22+in+der+NS-Zeit&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bundestag.de%2Fresource%2Fblob%2F190458%2Fe8f380a84d78d9ad730377ad9320285f%2Fscheinparlament.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bundesrat.de/SharedDocs/texte/09/20090303-reichsrat.html">"Vor 75 Jahren wurde der Reichsrat aufgelöst"</a> [75 Years Ago the Reichsrat Was Dissolved]. Der Bundesrat (in German). 3 March 2009. Retrieved 16 July 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Der+Bundesrat&rft.atitle=Vor+75+Jahren+wurde+der+Reichsrat+aufgel%C3%B6st&rft.date=2009-03-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bundesrat.de%2FSharedDocs%2Ftexte%2F09%2F20090303-reichsrat.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghdi.ghi-dc.org/sub_document.cfm?document_id=1496">"The "Enabling Act" (March 24, 1933)"</a>. German History in Documents and Images (GHDI). Retrieved 16 July 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=German+History+in+Documents+and+Images+%28GHDI%29&rft.atitle=The+%22Enabling+Act%22+%28March+24%2C+1933%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fghdi.ghi-dc.org%2Fsub_document.cfm%3Fdocument_id%3D1496&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.documentarchiv.de/ns/stobrhpt.html">"Gesetz über das Staatsoberhaupt des Deutschen Reichs. Vom 1. August 1934"</a> [Law Concerning the Head of State of the German Reich. From 1 August 1934]. documentArchiv.de (in German). Retrieved 16 July 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=documentArchiv.de&rft.atitle=Gesetz+%C3%BCber+das+Staatsoberhaupt+des+Deutschen+Reichs.+Vom+1.+August+1934&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.documentarchiv.de%2Fns%2Fstobrhpt.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.1000dokumente.de/index.html?c=dokument_de&dokument=0242_fue&object=context&l=de">"Gesetz über das Staatsoberhaupt des Deutschen Reichs und Erlaß des Reichskanzlers zum Vollzug des Gesetzes über das Staatsoberhaupt des Deutschen Reichs vom 1. August 1934, 1. und 2. August 1934"</a> [Law on the Head of State of the German Empire and Decree of the Chancellor on the Implementation of the Law on the Head of State of the German Empire of 1 August 1934, 1 and 2 August 1934]. 100(0) Schlüsseldokumente zur deutschen Geschichte im 20. Jahrhundert (in German). Retrieved 17 July 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=100%280%29+Schl%C3%BCsseldokumente+zur+deutschen+Geschichte+im+20.+Jahrhundert&rft.atitle=Gesetz+%C3%BCber+das+Staatsoberhaupt+des+Deutschen+Reichs+und+Erla%C3%9F+des+Reichskanzlers+zum+Vollzug+des+Gesetzes+%C3%BCber+das+Staatsoberhaupt+des+Deutschen+Reichs+vom+1.+August+1934%2C+1.+und+2.+August+1934&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.1000dokumente.de%2Findex.html%3Fc%3Ddokument_de%26dokument%3D0242_fue%26object%3Dcontext%26l%3Dde&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-194"><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrimoratz2008" class="citation book cs1">Primoratz, Igor (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ob8oDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA98">Patriotism: Philosophical and Political Perspectives</a>. Routledge. p. 98. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-7122-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-7122-0"><bdi>978-0-7546-7122-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230202034411/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ob8oDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA98">Archived</a> from the original on 2 February 2023. Retrieved 18 September 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Patriotism%3A+Philosophical+and+Political+Perspectives&rft.pages=98&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-7546-7122-0&rft.aulast=Primoratz&rft.aufirst=Igor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOb8oDAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA98&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ziblatt-2017-195">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ziblatt-2017_195-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ziblatt-2017_195-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZiblatt2017" class="citation book cs1">Ziblatt, Daniel (2017). Conservative Parties and the Birth of Democracy. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521172998" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521172998"><bdi>978-0521172998</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Conservative+Parties+and+the+Birth+of+Democracy&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0521172998&rft.aulast=Ziblatt&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Weitz-2018-196">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Weitz-2018_196-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Weitz-2018_196-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeitz2018" class="citation book cs1">Weitz, Eric D. (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Weimar-Germany-Promise-Tragedy-Centennial-ebook/dp/B07CSHQLSQ/ref=sr_1_1?keywords=weimar+promise&qid=1691449653&sr=8-1">Weimar Germany: Promise and Tragedy, Weimar Centennial Edition</a>. Princeton University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Weimar+Germany%3A+Promise+and+Tragedy%2C+Weimar+Centennial+Edition&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Weitz&rft.aufirst=Eric+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.amazon.com%2FWeimar-Germany-Promise-Tragedy-Centennial-ebook%2Fdp%2FB07CSHQLSQ%2Fref%3Dsr_1_1%3Fkeywords%3Dweimar%2Bpromise%26qid%3D1691449653%26sr%3D8-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pmgnotes.com/news/article/7334/German-Vampire-Note/">"German Vampire Notes"</a>. PMGNotes.com. 16 April 2019. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230114005649/https://www.pmgnotes.com/news/article/7334/German-Vampire-Note/">Archived</a> from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 1 May 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=PMGNotes.com&rft.atitle=German+Vampire+Notes&rft.date=2019-04-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pmgnotes.com%2Fnews%2Farticle%2F7334%2FGerman-Vampire-Note%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-198"><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a> James, Harold, "Economic Reasons for the Collapse of the Weimar Republic", in <a href="#CITEREFKershaw1990">Kershaw 1990</a>, pp. 30–57 </li> <li id="cite_note-199"><a href="#cite_ref-199">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThompson1944" class="citation journal cs1">Thompson, Carol (June 1944). "Weimar in Retrospect". Current History. 6 (34): 499. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Fcurh.1944.6.34.497">10.1525/curh.1944.6.34.497</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+History&rft.atitle=Weimar+in+Retrospect&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=34&rft.pages=499&rft.date=1944-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Fcurh.1944.6.34.497&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=Carol&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-200"><a href="#cite_ref-200">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Basic_Law_for_the_Federal_Republic_of_Germany_(2010)">Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany (2010) </a> – via <a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Basic+Law+for+the+Federal+Republic+of+Germany+%282010%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Barth-2020-201"><a href="#cite_ref-Barth-2020_201-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarthFriederichs2020" class="citation book cs1">Barth, Rüdiger; Friederichs, Hauke (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Last-Winter-Weimar-Republic-Third-ebook/dp/B07VVF8DF6/ref=sr_1_1?crid=1PXA0FWNKC94K&keywords=the+last+winter+of+weimar&qid=1690759445&sprefix=the+last+winter+of+weimar%2Caps%2C141&sr=8-1">The Last Winter of the Weimar Republic: The Rise of the Third Reich</a>. Pegasus Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Last+Winter+of+the+Weimar+Republic%3A+The+Rise+of+the+Third+Reich&rft.pub=Pegasus+Books&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Barth&rft.aufirst=R%C3%BCdiger&rft.au=Friederichs%2C+Hauke&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.amazon.com%2FLast-Winter-Weimar-Republic-Third-ebook%2Fdp%2FB07VVF8DF6%2Fref%3Dsr_1_1%3Fcrid%3D1PXA0FWNKC94K%26keywords%3Dthe%2Blast%2Bwinter%2Bof%2Bweimar%26qid%3D1690759445%26sprefix%3Dthe%2Blast%2Bwinter%2Bof%2Bweimar%252Caps%252C141%26sr%3D8-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-202"><a href="#cite_ref-202">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShirer1960" class="citation book cs1">Shirer, William L. (1960). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fpFbuCKOLKwC">The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich</a>. <a href="/wiki/Simon_%26_Schuster" title="Simon & Schuster">Simon & Schuster</a>. p. 186. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780795317002" title="Special:BookSources/9780795317002"><bdi>9780795317002</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+and+Fall+of+the+Third+Reich&rft.pages=186&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=1960&rft.isbn=9780795317002&rft.aulast=Shirer&rft.aufirst=William+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfpFbuCKOLKwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-203"><a href="#cite_ref-203">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWheeler-Bennett1964" class="citation book cs1">Wheeler-Bennett, Sir John (1964). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=26VBAAAAIAAJ">The Nemesis of Power: The German Army in Politics, 1918–1945</a>. <a href="/wiki/Viking_Press" title="Viking Press">Viking Press</a>. p. 208. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230202035926/https://books.google.com/books?id=26VBAAAAIAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 2 February 2023. Retrieved 19 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nemesis+of+Power%3A+The+German+Army+in+Politics%2C+1918%E2%80%931945&rft.pages=208&rft.pub=Viking+Press&rft.date=1964&rft.aulast=Wheeler-Bennett&rft.aufirst=Sir+John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D26VBAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-204"><a href="#cite_ref-204">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchmitz-Berning2010" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Schmitz-Berning, Cornelia (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=d5r7Vrz3UgIC">Vokabular des Nationalsozialismus</a> (in German). <a href="/wiki/De_Gruyter" title="De Gruyter">De Gruyter</a>. pp. 597–598. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-092864-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-092864-8"><bdi>978-3-11-092864-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230202035922/https://books.google.com/books?id=d5r7Vrz3UgIC">Archived</a> from the original on 2 February 2023. Retrieved 14 October 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vokabular+des+Nationalsozialismus&rft.pages=597-598&rft.pub=De+Gruyter&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-3-11-092864-8&rft.aulast=Schmitz-Berning&rft.aufirst=Cornelia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dd5r7Vrz3UgIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-205"><a href="#cite_ref-205">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWires1985" class="citation book cs1">Wires, Richard (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pA0fAAAAMAAJ">Terminology of the Third Reich</a>. <a href="/wiki/Ball_State_University" title="Ball State University">Ball State University</a>. p. 44. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/85047938">85047938</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Terminology+of+the+Third+Reich&rft.pages=44&rft.pub=Ball+State+University&rft.date=1985&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F85047938&rft.aulast=Wires&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpA0fAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-206"><a href="#cite_ref-206">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobert2021" class="citation web cs1">Robert, Gerwarth (6 February 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://foreignpolicy.com/2021/02/06/weimars-lessons-for-bidens-america/">"Weimar's Lessons for Biden's America"</a>. Foreign Policy. Retrieved 14 August 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Foreign+Policy&rft.atitle=Weimar%27s+Lessons+for+Biden%27s+America&rft.date=2021-02-06&rft.aulast=Robert&rft.aufirst=Gerwarth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fforeignpolicy.com%2F2021%2F02%2F06%2Fweimars-lessons-for-bidens-america%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="General_and_cited_sources">General and cited sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Weimar_Republic&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: General and cited sources">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 27em;"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHenig2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ruth_Henig,_Baroness_Henig" title="Ruth Henig, Baroness Henig">Henig, Ruth</a> (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781134786848">The Weimar Republic 1919–1933</a> (eBook ed.). Routledge. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9780203046234">10.4324/9780203046234</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-203-04623-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-203-04623-4"><bdi>978-0-203-04623-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Weimar+Republic+1919%E2%80%931933&rft.edition=eBook&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9780203046234&rft.isbn=978-0-203-04623-4&rft.aulast=Henig&rft.aufirst=Ruth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.taylorfrancis.com%2Fbooks%2F9781134786848&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKershaw1990" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ian_Kershaw" title="Ian Kershaw">Kershaw, Ian</a> (1990). Weimar: Why Did German Democracy Fail?. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-312-04470-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-312-04470-4"><bdi>0-312-04470-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Weimar%3A+Why+Did+German+Democracy+Fail%3F&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Weidenfeld+%26+Nicolson&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=0-312-04470-4&rft.aulast=Kershaw&rft.aufirst=Ian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKershaw1998" class="citation book cs1">Kershaw, Ian (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/hitlerhubris00kers">Hitler 1889–1936: Hubris</a>. London: Allen Lane. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-04671-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-393-04671-0"><bdi>0-393-04671-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hitler+1889%E2%80%931936%3A+Hubris&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Allen+Lane&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-393-04671-0&rft.aulast=Kershaw&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhitlerhubris00kers&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThoss1994" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Thoss, Bruno (1994). "Der Erste Weltkrieg als Ereignis und Erlebnis. Paradigmenwechsel in der westdeutschen Weltkriegsforschung seit der Fischer-Kontroverse" [The First World War as event and experience. Paradigm Shift in West German World War Research since the Fischer Controversy]. In Wolfgang Michalka (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JtJmAAAAMAAJ">Der Erste Weltkrieg: Wirkung, Wahrnehmung, Analyse</a> [The First World War: impact, awareness, analysis]. Piper Series (in German). Munich: Piper. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-492-11927-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-492-11927-6"><bdi>978-3-492-11927-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/906656746">906656746</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Der+Erste+Weltkrieg+als+Ereignis+und+Erlebnis.+Paradigmenwechsel+in+der+westdeutschen+Weltkriegsforschung+seit+der+Fischer-Kontroverse&rft.btitle=Der+Erste+Weltkrieg%3A+Wirkung%2C+Wahrnehmung%2C+Analyse&rft.place=Munich&rft.series=Piper+Series&rft.pub=Piper&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F906656746&rft.isbn=978-3-492-11927-6&rft.aulast=Thoss&rft.aufirst=Bruno&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJtJmAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTraverso2017" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Enzo_Traverso" title="Enzo Traverso">Traverso, Enzo</a> (7 February 2017) [1st pub. Stock (2007)]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3p_GjwEACAAJ">Fire and Blood: The European Civil War, 1914–1945</a>. London: Verso. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78478-136-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78478-136-1"><bdi>978-1-78478-136-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/999636811">999636811</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fire+and+Blood%3A+The+European+Civil+War%2C+1914%E2%80%931945&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Verso&rft.date=2017-02-07&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F999636811&rft.isbn=978-1-78478-136-1&rft.aulast=Traverso&rft.aufirst=Enzo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3p_GjwEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Weimar_Republic&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_Sheridan_Allen" title="William Sheridan Allen">Allen, William Sheridan</a> (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/naziseizureofpow0000alle_m2p7">The Nazi seizure of Power: the experience of a single German town, 1922–1945</a>. New York, Toronto: F. Watts. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-531-09935-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-531-09935-0"><bdi>0-531-09935-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nazi+seizure+of+Power%3A+the+experience+of+a+single+German+town%2C+1922%E2%80%931945&rft.place=New+York%2C+Toronto&rft.pub=F.+Watts&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=0-531-09935-0&rft.aulast=Allen&rft.aufirst=William+Sheridan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnaziseizureofpow0000alle_m2p7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Bennett, Edward W. Germany and the diplomacy of the financial crisis, 1931 (1962) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/germanydiplomacy0000benn">Online free to borrow</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Berghahn, V. R. (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/moderngermanysoc0000berg_m4i5">Modern Germany</a>. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-34748-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-34748-3"><bdi>0-521-34748-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+Germany&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=0-521-34748-3&rft.aulast=Berghahn&rft.aufirst=V.+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmoderngermanysoc0000berg_m4i5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Bingham" title="John Bingham">Bingham, John</a> (2014). Weimar Cities: The Challenge of Urban Modernity in Germany, 1919–1933. London: Routledge.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Weimar+Cities%3A+The+Challenge+of+Urban+Modernity+in+Germany%2C+1919%E2%80%931933&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Bingham&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Bookbinder, Paul (1996). Weimar Germany: the Republic of the Reasonable. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7190-4286-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-7190-4286-0"><bdi>0-7190-4286-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Weimar+Germany%3A+the+Republic+of+the+Reasonable&rft.place=Manchester%2C+UK&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-7190-4286-0&rft.aulast=Bookbinder&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Martin_Broszat" title="Martin Broszat">Broszat, Martin</a> (1987). Hitler and the Collapse of Weimar Germany. Leamington Spa, New York: Berg and St. Martin's Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85496-509-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-85496-509-2"><bdi>0-85496-509-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hitler+and+the+Collapse+of+Weimar+Germany&rft.place=Leamington+Spa%2C+New+York&rft.pub=Berg+and+St.+Martin%27s+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=0-85496-509-2&rft.aulast=Broszat&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Childers, Thomas (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/nazivotersocialf0000chil">The Nazi Voter: The Social Foundations of Fascism in Germany, 1919–1933</a>. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8078-1570-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-8078-1570-5"><bdi>0-8078-1570-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nazi+Voter%3A+The+Social+Foundations+of+Fascism+in+Germany%2C+1919%E2%80%931933&rft.place=Chapel+Hill&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=0-8078-1570-5&rft.aulast=Childers&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnazivotersocialf0000chil&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gordon_A._Craig" title="Gordon A. Craig">Craig, Gordon A.</a> (1980). Germany 1866–1945 (Oxford History of Modern Europe). Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-502724-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-502724-8"><bdi>0-19-502724-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Germany+1866%E2%80%931945+%28Oxford+History+of+Modern+Europe%29&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=0-19-502724-8&rft.aulast=Craig&rft.aufirst=Gordon+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Dorpalen, Andreas (1964). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/hindenburgweimar0000dorp">Hindenburg and the Weimar Republic</a>. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hindenburg+and+the+Weimar+Republic&rft.place=Princeton%2C+New+Jersey&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1964&rft.aulast=Dorpalen&rft.aufirst=Andreas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhindenburgweimar0000dorp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/hindenburgweimar0000dorp">online free to borrow</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Eschenburg, Theodor (1972). <a href="/wiki/Hajo_Holborn" title="Hajo Holborn">Hajo Holborn</a> (ed.). The Role of the Personality in the Crisis of the Weimar Republic: Hindenburg, Brüning, Groener, Schleicher. New York:=: Pantheon Books. pp. 3–50, Republic to Reich The Making of the Nazi Revolution.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Role+of+the+Personality+in+the+Crisis+of+the+Weimar+Republic%3A+Hindenburg%2C+Br%C3%BCning%2C+Groener%2C+Schleicher&rft.place=New+York%3A%3D&rft.pages=3-50%2C+Republic+to+Reich+The+Making+of+the+Nazi+Revolution&rft.pub=Pantheon+Books&rft.date=1972&rft.aulast=Eschenburg&rft.aufirst=Theodor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_J._Evans" title="Richard J. Evans">Evans, Richard J.</a> <a href="/wiki/The_Third_Reich_Trilogy" title="The Third Reich Trilogy">The Coming of the Third Reich</a> (2003), a standard scholarly survey; part of three volume history 1919–1945.</li> <li>Eyck, Erich. A history of the Weimar Republic: v. 1. From the collapse of the Empire to Hindenburg's election. (1962)<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofweimarr00eyck">online free to borrow</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Feuchtwanger, Edgar (1993). From Weimar to Hitler: Germany, 1918–1933. London: Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-333-27466-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-333-27466-0"><bdi>0-333-27466-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Weimar+to+Hitler%3A+Germany%2C+1918%E2%80%931933&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0-333-27466-0&rft.aulast=Feuchtwanger&rft.aufirst=Edgar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Gay" title="Peter Gay">Gay, Peter</a> (1968). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/weimarcultureout0000gayp">Weimar Culture: The Outsider as Insider</a>. New York: Harper & Row.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Weimar+Culture%3A+The+Outsider+as+Insider&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Harper+%26+Row&rft.date=1968&rft.aulast=Gay&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fweimarcultureout0000gayp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Gordon, Mel (2000). Voluptuous Panic: The Erotic World of Weimar Berlin. New York: Feral House.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Voluptuous+Panic%3A+The+Erotic+World+of+Weimar+Berlin&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Feral+House&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Gordon&rft.aufirst=Mel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Halperin, S. William. Germany Tried Democracy: A Political History of the Reich from 1918 to 1933 (1946) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/germanytrieddemo00halp">online</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Hamilton, Richard F. (1982). Who Voted for Hitler?. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-09395-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-09395-4"><bdi>0-691-09395-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Who+Voted+for+Hitler%3F&rft.place=Princeton%2C+New+Jersey&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=0-691-09395-4&rft.aulast=Hamilton&rft.aufirst=Richard+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Chris_Harman" title="Chris Harman">Harman, Chris</a> (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lostrevolutionge0000harm">The Lost Revolution: Germany 1918–1923</a>. Bookmarks. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-906224-08-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-906224-08-X"><bdi>0-906224-08-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Lost+Revolution%3A+Germany+1918%E2%80%931923&rft.pub=Bookmarks&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=0-906224-08-X&rft.aulast=Harman&rft.aufirst=Chris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flostrevolutionge0000harm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Hett, Benjamin Carter (2018). The Death of Democracy: Hitler's Rise to Power and the Downfall of the Weimar Republic. Henry Holt & Company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Death+of+Democracy%3A+Hitler%27s+Rise+to+Power+and+the+Downfall+of+the+Weimar+Republic&rft.pub=Henry+Holt+%26+Company&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Hett&rft.aufirst=Benjamin+Carter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">James, Harold (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/germanslumppolit0000jame">The German Slump: Politics and Economics, 1924–1936</a>. Oxford, Oxfordshire: Clarendon Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-821972-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-821972-5"><bdi>0-19-821972-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+German+Slump%3A+Politics+and+Economics%2C+1924%E2%80%931936&rft.place=Oxford%2C+Oxfordshire&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=0-19-821972-5&rft.aulast=James&rft.aufirst=Harold&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgermanslumppolit0000jame&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Kaes, Anton; Jay, Martin; Dimendberg, Edward, eds. (1994). The Weimar Republic Sourcebook. Berkeley: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-06774-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-06774-6"><bdi>0-520-06774-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Weimar+Republic+Sourcebook&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-520-06774-6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Kolb, Eberhard (1988). The Weimar Republic. P.S. Falla (translator). London: Unwin Hyman.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Weimar+Republic&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Unwin+Hyman&rft.date=1988&rft.aulast=Kolb&rft.aufirst=Eberhard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Lee, Stephen J. (1998). The Weimar Republic. Routledge. p. 144.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Weimar+Republic&rft.pages=144&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=Stephen+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcDonough2023" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Frank_McDonough" title="Frank McDonough">McDonough, Frank</a> (2023). The Weimar Years: Rise and Fall 1918–1933. London: Apollo. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781803284781" title="Special:BookSources/9781803284781"><bdi>9781803284781</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Weimar+Years%3A+Rise+and+Fall+1918%E2%80%931933&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Apollo&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=9781803284781&rft.aulast=McDonough&rft.aufirst=Frank&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">McElligott, Anthony, ed. (2009). Weimar Germany. Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Weimar+Germany&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hans_Mommsen" title="Hans Mommsen">Mommsen, Hans</a> (1991). From Weimar to Auschwitz. Philip O'Connor (translator). Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-03198-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-03198-3"><bdi>0-691-03198-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Weimar+to+Auschwitz&rft.place=Princeton%2C+New+Jersey&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=0-691-03198-3&rft.aulast=Mommsen&rft.aufirst=Hans&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Nicholls, Anthony James (2000). Weimar and the Rise of Hitler. New York: St. Martin's Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-312-23350-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-312-23350-7"><bdi>0-312-23350-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Weimar+and+the+Rise+of+Hitler&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=St.+Martin%27s+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-312-23350-7&rft.aulast=Nicholls&rft.aufirst=Anthony+James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNiewyk1980" class="citation book cs1">Niewyk, Donald L. (1980). The Jews in Weimar Germany. Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780807106617" title="Special:BookSources/9780807106617"><bdi>9780807106617</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Jews+in+Weimar+Germany&rft.place=Baton+Rouge%2C+LA&rft.pub=Louisiana+State+University+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=9780807106617&rft.aulast=Niewyk&rft.aufirst=Donald+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Detlev_Peukert" title="Detlev Peukert">Peukert, Detlev</a> (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/weimarrepublic00detl">The Weimar Republic: the Crisis of Classical Modernity</a>. New York: Hill and Wang. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8090-9674-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-8090-9674-9"><bdi>0-8090-9674-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Weimar+Republic%3A+the+Crisis+of+Classical+Modernity&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Hill+and+Wang&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-8090-9674-9&rft.aulast=Peukert&rft.aufirst=Detlev&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fweimarrepublic00detl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Rosenberg, Arthur. A History of the German Republic (1936) 370pp <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.12078">online</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Smith, Helmut Walser, ed. (2011). The Oxford Handbook of Modern German History. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-872891-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-872891-7"><bdi>978-0-19-872891-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Modern+German+History&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-19-872891-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"> ch 18–25.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Henry_Ashby_Turner" title="Henry Ashby Turner">Turner, Henry Ashby</a> (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/hitlersthirtyday00turn">Hitler's Thirty Days To Power: January 1933</a>. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-201-40714-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-201-40714-0"><bdi>0-201-40714-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hitler%27s+Thirty+Days+To+Power%3A+January+1933&rft.place=Reading%2C+Mass.&rft.pub=Addison-Wesley&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-201-40714-0&rft.aulast=Turner&rft.aufirst=Henry+Ashby&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhitlersthirtyday00turn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Henry_Ashby_Turner" title="Henry Ashby Turner">Turner, Henry Ashby</a> (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/germanbigbusines00turn">German Big Business and the Rise of Hitler</a>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-503492-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-503492-9"><bdi>0-19-503492-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=German+Big+Business+and+the+Rise+of+Hitler&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=0-19-503492-9&rft.aulast=Turner&rft.aufirst=Henry+Ashby&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgermanbigbusines00turn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Weitz, Eric D. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/weimargermanypro00weit_0">Weimar Germany: Promise and Tragedy</a>. Princeton: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-01695-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-01695-5"><bdi>978-0-691-01695-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Weimar+Germany%3A+Promise+and+Tragedy&rft.place=Princeton&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-691-01695-5&rft.aulast=Weitz&rft.aufirst=Eric+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fweimargermanypro00weit_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Wheeler-Bennett" title="John Wheeler-Bennett">Wheeler-Bennett, John</a> (2005). The Nemesis of Power: German Army in Politics, 1918–1945. New York: Palgrave Macmillan Publishing Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4039-1812-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-4039-1812-0"><bdi>1-4039-1812-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nemesis+of+Power%3A+German+Army+in+Politics%2C+1918%E2%80%931945&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan+Publishing+Company&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=1-4039-1812-0&rft.aulast=Wheeler-Bennett&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Wheeler-Bennett" title="John Wheeler-Bennett">Wheeler-Bennett, Sir John</a> (1967) [1936]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.173972">Hindenburg: the Wooden Titan</a>. London: Macmillan.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hindenburg%3A+the+Wooden+Titan&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1967&rft.aulast=Wheeler-Bennett&rft.aufirst=Sir+John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fin.ernet.dli.2015.173972&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Widdig, Bernd (2001). Culture and Inflation in Weimar Germany. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-22290-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-22290-8"><bdi>978-0-520-22290-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Culture+and+Inflation+in+Weimar+Germany&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+CA&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-520-22290-8&rft.aulast=Widdig&rft.aufirst=Bernd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Willett" title="John Willett">Willett, John</a> (1978). The New Sobriety 1917–1933: Art and Politics in the Weimar Period. London: Thames & Hudson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-500-27172-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-500-27172-8"><bdi>978-0-500-27172-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+Sobriety+1917%E2%80%931933%3A+Art+and+Politics+in+the+Weimar+Period&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=978-0-500-27172-8&rft.aulast=Willett&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Weimar_Republic&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Primary sources">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Boyd, Julia (2018). Travelers in the Third Reich: The Rise of Fascism: 1919–1945. Pegasus Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-68177-782-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-68177-782-5"><bdi>978-1-68177-782-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Travelers+in+the+Third+Reich%3A+The+Rise+of+Fascism%3A+1919%E2%80%931945&rft.pub=Pegasus+Books&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1-68177-782-5&rft.aulast=Boyd&rft.aufirst=Julia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Kaes, Anton, Martin Jay and Edward Dimendberg, eds. The Weimar Republic Sourcebook,(U of California Press, 1994).</li> <li>Price, Morgan Philips. Dispatches from the Weimar Republic: Versailles and German Fascism (1999), reporting by an English journalist</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historiography">Historiography</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Weimar_Republic&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Historiography">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Bryden, Eric Jefferson. "In search of founding fathers: Republican historical narratives in Weimar Germany, 1918–1933" (PhD thesis. University of California, Davis, 2008).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">Fritzsche, Peter (1996). "Did Weimar Fail?". <a href="/wiki/The_Journal_of_Modern_History" title="The Journal of Modern History">The Journal of Modern History</a>. 68 (3): 629–656. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F245345">10.1086/245345</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2946770">2946770</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:39454890">39454890</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Modern+History&rft.atitle=Did+Weimar+Fail%3F&rft.volume=68&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=629-656&rft.date=1996&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A39454890%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2946770%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F245345&rft.aulast=Fritzsche&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeimar+Republic" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Gerwarth, Robert. "The past in Weimar History" Contemporary European History 15#1 (2006), pp. 1–22 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/20081292">online</a></li> <li>Graf, Rüdiger. "Either-or: The narrative of 'crisis' in Weimar Germany and in historiography." Central European History 43.4 (2010): 592–615. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/2986/d888880acb97f73cfe486d530a5f9e0a1f57.pdf">online</a></li> <li>Haffert, Lukas, Nils Redeker, and Tobias Rommel. "Misremembering Weimar: Hyperinflation, the Great Depression, and German collective economic memory." Economics & Politics 33.3 (2021): 664–686. online</li> <li>Von der Goltz, Anna. Hindenburg: Power, Myth, and the Rise of the Nazis (Oxford University Press, 2009)</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Weimar_Republic&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Weimar_Republic" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Weimar Republic">Weimar Republic</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.documentarchiv.de/">Documentarchiv.de: Historical documents</a> (in German)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.nli.org.il/sites/NLI/English/collections/personalsites/Israel-Germany/Weimar-Republic/Pages/default.aspx">National Library of Israel.org: Weimar Republic collection</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Germany_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Germany_topics" title="Template:Germany topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Germany_topics" title="Template talk:Germany topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Germany_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Germany topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Germany_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Germany" title="Outline of Germany">articles</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Overviews</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany" title="History of Germany">History of Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_German_history" title="Timeline of German history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Germany" title="Historiography of Germany">Historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Germany" title="Military history of Germany">Military history</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Ancient</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_early_Germanic_peoples" title="List of early Germanic peoples">List of early Germanic peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goths" title="Goths">Goths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teutons" title="Teutons">Teutons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visigoths" title="Visigoths">Visigoths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Huns" title="History of the Huns">History of the Huns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_warfare_between_the_Romans_and_Germanic_peoples" title="Chronology of warfare between the Romans and Germanic peoples">Chronology of warfare between the Romans and Germanic peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cimbrian_War" title="Cimbrian War">Cimbrian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_campaigns_in_Germania_(12_BC_%E2%80%93_AD_16)" title="Roman campaigns in Germania (12 BC – AD 16)">Roman campaigns in Germania (12 BC – AD 16)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcomannic_Wars" title="Marcomannic Wars">Marcomannic Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Gothic Wars">Gothic Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Rome_(410)" title="Sack of Rome (410)">Sack of Rome (410)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Middle Ages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Frankish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Verdun" title="Treaty of Verdun">Treaty of Verdun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Francia" title="East Francia">East Francia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carolingian_dynasty" title="Carolingian dynasty">Carolingian dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostsiedlung" title="Ostsiedlung">Ostsiedlung (East Colonisation)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Germany_in_the_early_modern_period" title="Germany in the early modern period">Early modern period, 1500–1800</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/18th-century_history_of_Germany" title="18th-century history of Germany">18th-century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederation_of_the_Rhine" title="Confederation of the Rhine">Confederation of the Rhine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_revolutions_of_1848%E2%80%931849" title="German revolutions of 1848–1849">German revolutions of 1848–1849</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Confederation" title="German Confederation">German Confederation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_Constitution" title="Frankfurt Constitution">Frankfurt Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_German_Confederation" title="North German Confederation">North German Confederation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Germany" title="Unification of Germany">Unification of Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany_during_World_War_I" title="History of Germany during World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_guilt_question" title="War guilt question">War guilt question</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Revolution_of_1918%E2%80%931919" class="mw-redirect" title="German Revolution of 1918–1919">Revolution of 1918</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Weimar Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany#World_War_II" title="Nazi Germany">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied-occupied_Germany" title="Allied-occupied Germany">Allied occupation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flight_and_expulsion_of_Germans_(1944%E2%80%931950)" title="Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–1950)">Flight and expulsions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denazification" title="Denazification">Denazification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany_(1945%E2%80%931990)" title="History of Germany (1945–1990)">Divided Germany</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Germany" title="East Germany">East Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany">West Germany</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Contemporary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_reunification" title="German reunification">Reunification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany_since_1990" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Germany since 1990">History of Germany since 1990</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Regions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Prussia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Prussia">History of Prussia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Brandenburg" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Brandenburg">History of Brandenburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cologne_War" title="Cologne War">Cologne War</a>, 1583–1588</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baden_Revolution" title="Baden Revolution">Baden Revolution</a>, 1848</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Germany" title="Geography of Germany">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Administrative divisions of Germany">Administrative divisions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/States_of_Germany" title="States of Germany">States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Districts_of_Germany" title="Districts of Germany">Districts</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_and_towns_in_Germany" title="List of cities and towns in Germany">Cities and towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_Germany" title="List of earthquakes in Germany">Earthquakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Germany" title="Geology of Germany">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Germany" title="List of islands of Germany">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes_of_Germany" title="List of lakes of Germany">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Mountains_of_Germany" title="Category:Mountains of Germany">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Rivers_of_Germany" title="Category:Rivers of Germany">Rivers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Germany" title="Politics of Germany">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bundestag" title="Bundestag">Bundestag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Bundesrat" title="German Bundesrat">Bundesrat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bundeswehr" title="Bundeswehr">Bundeswehr (military)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_Germany" title="Cabinet of Germany">Cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chancellor_of_Germany" title="Chancellor of Germany">Chancellor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basic_Law_for_the_Federal_Republic_of_Germany" title="Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Germany" title="Judiciary of Germany">Court system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Germany" title="Elections in Germany">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Germany" title="Foreign relations of Germany">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Germany" title="Human rights in Germany">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intersex_rights_in_Germany" title="Intersex rights in Germany">Intersex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Germany">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender_rights_in_Germany" title="Transgender rights in Germany">Transgender</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Germany" title="Law of Germany">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_Germany" title="Law enforcement in Germany">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lobbying_in_Germany" title="Lobbying in Germany">Lobbying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Germany" title="Conservatism in Germany">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_nationalism" title="German nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Germany" title="List of political parties in Germany">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_Germany" title="President of Germany">President</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Germany" title="Economy of Germany">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Germany" title="Agriculture in Germany">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_industry_in_Germany" title="Automotive industry in Germany">Automobile industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_Germany" title="Banking in Germany">Banking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deutsche_Bundesbank" title="Deutsche Bundesbank">Central bank</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_German_Chemical_Triangle" title="Middle German Chemical Triangle">Chemical Triangle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Germany" title="Economic history of Germany">Economic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Germany" title="Energy in Germany">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exports_of_Germany" title="List of exports of Germany">Exports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_model" title="German model">German model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_German_states_by_GDP" class="mw-redirect" title="List of German states by GDP">German states by GDP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mittelstand" title="Mittelstand">Mittelstand companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Germany" title="Science and technology in Germany">Science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_Stock_Exchange" title="Frankfurt Stock Exchange">Stock exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Germany" title="Taxation in Germany">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Germany" title="Telecommunications in Germany">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Germany" title="Tourism in Germany">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trade_unions_in_Germany" title="Trade unions in Germany">Trade unions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Germany" title="Transport in Germany">Transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_in_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Welfare in Germany">Welfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Germany" title="Women in Germany">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Germany" title="Category:Society of Germany">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Germany" title="Crime in Germany">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Germany" title="Corruption in Germany">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Germany" title="Demographics of Germany">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy_of_Germany" title="Drug policy of Germany">Drug policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Germany" title="Education in Germany">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germans" title="Germans">Germans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ethnic_groups_in_Germany" title="Category:Ethnic groups in Germany">Ethnic groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Germany" title="Women in Germany">Women</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_Germany" title="Healthcare in Germany">Healthcare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_Germany" title="Homelessness in Germany">Homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_Germany" title="Immigration to Germany">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irreligion_in_Germany" title="Irreligion in Germany">Irreligion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_German_states_by_life_expectancy" title="List of German states by life expectancy">Life expectancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturism_in_Germany" title="Naturism in Germany">Naturism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pensions_in_Germany" title="Pensions in Germany">Pensions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pornography_in_Germany" title="Pornography in Germany">Pornography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Germany" title="Poverty in Germany">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Germany" title="Prostitution in Germany">Prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Germany" title="Racism in Germany">Racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Germany" title="Religion in Germany">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_issues_in_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Social issues in Germany">Social issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trade_unions_in_Germany" title="Trade unions in Germany">Trade unions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Germany" title="Culture of Germany">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deutschlandlied" title="Deutschlandlied">Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Germany" title="Architecture of Germany">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_art" title="German art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Arts_in_Germany" title="Category:Arts in Germany">Arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Germany" title="Cinema of Germany">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Germany" title="Coat of arms of Germany">Coat of arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_cuisine" title="German cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li>Cultural icons</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Dance_in_Germany" title="Category:Dance in Germany">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_fashion" title="German fashion">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Festivals_in_Germany" title="Category:Festivals in Germany">Festivals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_folklore" title="German folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Germany" title="Flag of Germany">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_libraries_in_Germany" title="List of libraries in Germany">Libraries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_literature" title="German literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_in_Germany" title="Internet in Germany">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_of_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Media of Germany">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Germany" title="Music of Germany">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_Germany" title="Names of Germany">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_philosophy" title="German philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prussian_virtues" title="Prussian virtues">Prussian virtues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Germany" title="Sport in Germany">Sport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_in_Germany" title="Television in Germany">Television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_Germany" title="List of World Heritage Sites in Germany">World Heritage Sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Germany" title="Outline of Germany">Outline</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Germany" title="Outline of Germany">Index</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Germany" title="Bibliography of Germany">Bibliography</a></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Germany" title="Category:Germany">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Germany" title="Portal:Germany">Portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q41304#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4065109-5">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85054639">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ge795179&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007528991905171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1156832818"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Weimar_Republic&params=52_31_12_N_13_22_30_E_type:country">52°31′12″N 13°22′30″E / 52.52000°N 13.37500°E / 52.52000; 13.37500</a>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Weimar_Republic&oldid=1259164564">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Weimar_Republic&oldid=1259164564</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1910s_in_Germany" title="Category:1910s in Germany">1910s in Germany</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1918_establishments_in_Germany" title="Category:1918 establishments in Germany">1918 establishments in Germany</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1920s_in_Germany" title="Category:1920s in Germany">1920s in Germany</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1930s_in_Germany" title="Category:1930s in Germany">1930s in Germany</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1933_disestablishments_in_Germany" title="Category:1933 disestablishments in Germany">1933 disestablishments in Germany</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:20th_century_in_Germany_by_period" title="Category:20th century in Germany by period">20th century in Germany by period</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Aftermath_of_World_War_I_in_Germany" title="Category:Aftermath of World War I in Germany">Aftermath of World War I in Germany</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Former_countries_of_the_interwar_period" title="Category:Former countries of the interwar period">Former countries of the interwar period</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Former_republics" title="Category:Former republics">Former republics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Great_Depression" title="Category:Great Depression">Great Depression</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Modern_history_of_Germany" title="Category:Modern history of Germany">Modern history of Germany</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:States_and_territories_disestablished_in_1933" title="Category:States and territories disestablished in 1933">States and territories disestablished in 1933</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:States_and_territories_established_in_1918" title="Category:States and territories established in 1918">States and territories established in 1918</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Weimar_Republic" title="Category:Weimar Republic">Weimar Republic</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Weimar_culture" title="Category:Weimar culture">Weimar culture</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_with_non-numeric_formatnum_arguments" title="Category:Pages with non-numeric formatnum arguments">Pages with non-numeric formatnum arguments</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_using_the_Phonos_extension" title="Category:Pages using the Phonos extension">Pages using the Phonos extension</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_German-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing German-language text">Articles containing German-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_with_German_IPA" title="Category:Pages with German IPA">Pages with German IPA</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_including_recorded_pronunciations" title="Category:Pages including recorded pronunciations">Pages including recorded pronunciations</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_German-language_sources_(de)" title="Category:CS1 German-language sources (de)">CS1 German-language sources (de)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_dead_external_links" title="Category:All articles with dead external links">All articles with dead external links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_dead_external_links_from_November_2023" title="Category:Articles with dead external links from November 2023">Articles with dead external links from November 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_permanently_dead_external_links" title="Category:Articles with permanently dead external links">Articles with permanently dead external links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_containing_links_to_subscription-only_content" title="Category:Pages containing links to subscription-only content">Pages containing links to subscription-only content</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_using_gadget_WikiMiniAtlas" title="Category:Pages using gadget WikiMiniAtlas">Pages using gadget WikiMiniAtlas</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_September_2023" title="Category:Use dmy dates from September 2023">Use dmy dates from September 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_using_infobox_country_or_infobox_former_country_with_the_flag_caption_or_type_parameters" title="Category:Pages using infobox country or infobox former country with the flag caption or type parameters">Pages using infobox country or infobox former country with the flag caption or type parameters</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_using_infobox_country_or_infobox_former_country_with_the_symbol_caption_or_type_parameters" title="Category:Pages using infobox country or infobox former country with the symbol caption or type parameters">Pages using infobox country or infobox former country with the symbol caption or type parameters</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_May_2023" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from May 2023">Articles with unsourced statements from May 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_April_2023" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from April 2023">Articles with unsourced statements from April 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_needing_additional_references_from_June_2021" title="Category:Articles needing additional references from June 2021">Articles needing additional references from June 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_needing_additional_references" title="Category:All articles needing additional references">All articles needing additional references</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_German-language_sources_(de)" title="Category:Articles with German-language sources (de)">Articles with German-language sources (de)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Coordinates_on_Wikidata" title="Category:Coordinates on Wikidata">Coordinates on Wikidata</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 23 November 2024, at 18:50 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Weimar_Republic&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-c8xbz","wgBackendResponseTime":257,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"3.603","walltime":"4.269","ppvisitednodes":{"value":19879,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":562030,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":38300,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":17,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":59,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":797848,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 3660.225 1 -total"," 38.57% 1411.758 2 Template:Reflist"," 20.02% 732.692 103 Template:Cite_book"," 13.39% 490.060 82 Template:Cite_web"," 12.83% 469.758 1 Template:Infobox_country"," 5.94% 217.591 23 Template:Sfn"," 4.62% 169.185 1 Template:Wikiquote"," 4.36% 159.580 1 Template:History_of_Germany"," 4.23% 154.756 1 Template:Sidebar_with_collapsible_lists"," 4.08% 149.163 1 Template:Germany_topics"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"2.294","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":23720844,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"table#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\nanchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAdam2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAltmann2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAulke2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBane1942\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarth2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarthFriederichs2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBerghoffSpiekermann2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBischel2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBoldorf2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBärnighausenSauerborn2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBüttner2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCompanjeVeraghtertWiddershoven2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFConradt2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFConstantine2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFConze1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDelmer1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDorpalen1964\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEdinger1953\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEllis2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEvans2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFeldman1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFlora1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGeiss1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrebler1940\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrevelhörster2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaffner2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHamilton2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHansen2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarders2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHauner2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHead2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeinzelmann2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHenig2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHerwig1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHong1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHosch2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoward1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIan1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKershaw1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKershaw1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKimmel2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKitchen1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKolb2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKolb2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKramer2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKrüger1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLlewellynThompson2019\"] = 6,\n [\"CITEREFLongerich1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarc_LinderIngrid_Nygaard1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMason\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcDonough2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcElligott2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMenges1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMommsen1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMommsen1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMommsen1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorsey2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNeumann1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNiewyk1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;Neill2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFParsson2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPinfield2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPrimoratz2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPyta2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRichard_J._Evans2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobert2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchaefer2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchmitz-Berning2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchnurr2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchröderWatson2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchulz2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchulze2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScriba2014\"] = 4,\n [\"CITEREFScriba2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShirer1960\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStern1963\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStevenson2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSturm2011\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFThompson1944\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThoss1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThoß202\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFToland1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTraverso2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTucker2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTurner1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUllrich2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUrbach2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVincent1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVogt1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWatson2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeitz2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWheeler-Bennett1953\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWheeler-Bennett1964\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhiting1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWiik2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliam_A._Pelz2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWinfried_Klein2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWinkler1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWinkler1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWires1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWirsching2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWischMartinMartinsonSchruth2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWollmannMarcou2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWulfert2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWunderlich1961\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZiblatt2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZittel1977\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"Annotated image\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Center\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 103,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 7,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 82,\n [\"Cite wikisource\"] = 11,\n [\"Cn\"] = 1,\n [\"Coord\"] = 2,\n [\"DEFAULTSORT:Weimar Republic\"] = 1,\n [\"Dead link\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col\"] = 3,\n [\"Div col end\"] = 3,\n [\"Efn\"] = 8,\n [\"Further\"] = 6,\n [\"Germany topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Google books\"] = 6,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 2,\n [\"Hidden\"] = 1,\n [\"History of Germany\"] = 1,\n [\"IPA\"] = 1,\n [\"Ill\"] = 1,\n [\"In lang\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox country\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 23,\n [\"Langx\"] = 3,\n [\"Legend\"] = 3,\n [\"Main\"] = 6,\n [\"Main article\"] = 1,\n [\"Main articles\"] = 1,\n [\"More citations needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Native name\"] = 1,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Nowrap\"] = 2,\n [\"Plainlist\"] = 2,\n [\"Portal\"] = 1,\n [\"Redirect\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Rp\"] = 1,\n [\"See\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 3,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 23,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Snd\"] = 3,\n [\"Subscription required\"] = 1,\n [\"Switcher\"] = 1,\n [\"Unbulleted list\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 1,\n [\"Weimar Republic States\"] = 1,\n [\"Wikiquote\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","380","15.1"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","340","13.5"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","300","11.9"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","220","8.7"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getAllExpandedArguments","140","5.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::preprocess","120","4.8"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","100","4.0"],["\u003Cmw.lua:694\u003E","100","4.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","80","3.2"],["newFrame \u003Cmw.lua:153\u003E","60","2.4"],["[others]","680","27.0"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-c8xbz","timestamp":"20241123185830","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Weimar Republic","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Weimar_Republic","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q41304","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q41304","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-10-03T18:20:57Z","dateModified":"2024-11-23T18:50:56Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/2\/21\/Flag_of_Germany_%283-2%29.svg","headline":"Germany in the years 1918\/1919\u20131933"}</script> </body> </html>