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class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna_Standard_Mean_Ocean_Water" title="Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna_Standard_Mean_Ocean_Water" title="Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eau_oc%C3%A9anique_moyenne_normalis%C3%A9e_de_Vienne" title="Eau océanique moyenne normalisée de Vienne – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Eau océanique moyenne normalisée de Vienne" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/VSMOW" title="VSMOW – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="VSMOW" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A6%E3%82%A3%E3%83%BC%E3%83%B3%E6%A8%99%E6%BA%96%E5%B9%B3%E5%9D%87%E6%B5%B7%E6%B0%B4" title="ウィーン標準平均海水 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ウィーン標準平均海水" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna_Standard_Mean_Ocean_Water" title="Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna_Standard_Mean_Ocean_Water" title="Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/SMOW" title="SMOW – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="SMOW" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" 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<div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Standard defining the isotopic composition of ocean water</div> <p><b>Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water</b> (<b>VSMOW</b>) is an <a href="/wiki/Reference_materials_for_stable_isotope_analysis" title="Reference materials for stable isotope analysis">isotopic standard</a> for water, that is, a particular sample of water whose proportions of different <a href="/wiki/Isotope" title="Isotope">isotopes</a> of <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> are accurately known. VSMOW is distilled from ocean water and does not contain salt or other impurities. Published and distributed by the <a href="/wiki/Vienna" title="Vienna">Vienna</a>-based <a href="/wiki/International_Atomic_Energy_Agency" title="International Atomic Energy Agency">International Atomic Energy Agency</a> in 1968, the standard and its essentially identical successor, VSMOW2, continue to be used as a <a href="/wiki/Reference_material" class="mw-redirect" title="Reference material">reference material</a>. </p><p>Water samples made up of different isotopes of hydrogen and oxygen have slightly different physical properties. As an extreme example, <a href="/wiki/Heavy_water" title="Heavy water">heavy water</a>, which contains two <a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">deuterium</a> (<sup>2</sup>H) atoms instead of the usual, lighter <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen-1" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen-1">hydrogen-1</a> (<sup>1</sup>H), has a melting point of 3.82 °C (38.88 °F) and boiling point of 101.4 °C (214.5 °F).<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Different rates of evaporation cause water samples from different places in the <a href="/wiki/Water_cycle" title="Water cycle">water cycle</a> to contain slightly different ratios of isotopes. Ocean water (richer in heavy isotopes) and rain water (poorer in heavy isotopes) roughly represent the two extremes found on Earth. With VSMOW, the IAEA simultaneously published an analogous standard for rain water, Standard Light Antarctic Precipitation (SLAP), and eventually its successor SLAP2. SLAP contains about 5% less <a href="/wiki/Oxygen-18" title="Oxygen-18">oxygen-18</a> and 42.8% less deuterium than VSMOW. </p><p>A scale based on VSMOW and SLAP is used to report oxygen-18 and deuterium concentrations. From 2005 until its <a href="/wiki/2019_revision_of_the_SI" title="2019 revision of the SI">redefinition in 2019</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin">kelvin</a> was specified to be <span class="texhtml">1/273.16</span> of the temperature of specifically VSMOW at its <a href="/wiki/Triple_point" title="Triple point">triple point</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_and_background">History and background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vienna_Standard_Mean_Ocean_Water&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History and background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SMOW-1_(VSMOW)_original_container.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/SMOW-1_%28VSMOW%29_original_container.PNG/220px-SMOW-1_%28VSMOW%29_original_container.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="245" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/SMOW-1_%28VSMOW%29_original_container.PNG/330px-SMOW-1_%28VSMOW%29_original_container.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/SMOW-1_%28VSMOW%29_original_container.PNG/440px-SMOW-1_%28VSMOW%29_original_container.PNG 2x" data-file-width="571" data-file-height="635" /></a><figcaption>The original container of VSMOW (then called <i>SMOW-1</i>) collected by Harmon Craig</figcaption></figure> <p>Abundances of a particular isotope in a substance are usually given relative to some reference material, as a delta in parts per thousand (<a href="/wiki/Per_mille" title="Per mille">‰</a>) from the reference. For example, the ratio of deuterium (<sup>2</sup>H) to hydrogen-1 in a substance <i>x</i> may be given as </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \delta \,^{2}\mathrm {H} _{x/{\text{reference}}}{\text{ (in ‰)}}=\left({\frac {(^{2}\mathrm {H} /^{1}\mathrm {H} )_{x}}{(^{2}\mathrm {H} /^{1}\mathrm {H} )_{\text{reference}}}}-1\right)\cdot 1000}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>δ</mi> <msup> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">H</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>x</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>reference</mtext> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext> (in ‰)</mtext> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">H</mi> </mrow> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">H</mi> </mrow> <msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>x</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mrow> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">H</mi> </mrow> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">H</mi> </mrow> <msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>reference</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mo>⋅</mo> <mn>1000</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \delta \,^{2}\mathrm {H} _{x/{\text{reference}}}{\text{ (in ‰)}}=\left({\frac {(^{2}\mathrm {H} /^{1}\mathrm {H} )_{x}}{(^{2}\mathrm {H} /^{1}\mathrm {H} )_{\text{reference}}}}-1\right)\cdot 1000}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/20b3637eb46a87dda71ba17abba79504b6d586e0" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.171ex; width:52.014ex; height:7.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \delta \,^{2}\mathrm {H} _{x/{\text{reference}}}{\text{ (in ‰)}}=\left({\frac {(^{2}\mathrm {H} /^{1}\mathrm {H} )_{x}}{(^{2}\mathrm {H} /^{1}\mathrm {H} )_{\text{reference}}}}-1\right)\cdot 1000}"></span>,</dd></dl> <p>where <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle (^{2}\mathrm {H} /^{1}\mathrm {H} )_{x}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">H</mi> </mrow> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">H</mi> </mrow> <msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>x</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle (^{2}\mathrm {H} /^{1}\mathrm {H} )_{x}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/2c31399eb8c3a94b9a0512ffb3d5a17536a2df7b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:9.739ex; height:3.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle (^{2}\mathrm {H} /^{1}\mathrm {H} )_{x}}"></span> denotes the absolute concentration in <i>x</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoplen1994_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoplen1994-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1961, pursuing a standard for measuring and reporting deuterium and oxygen-18 concentrations, <a href="/wiki/Harmon_Craig" title="Harmon Craig">Harmon Craig</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Scripps_Institution_of_Oceanography" title="Scripps Institution of Oceanography">Scripps Institution of Oceanography</a> in <a href="/wiki/San_Diego" title="San Diego">San Diego</a>, California, proposed an abstract water standard. He based the proportions on his measurements of samples taken by <a href="#CITEREFEpsteinMayeda1953">Epstein & Mayeda (1953)</a> of ocean waters around the world.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECraig19611833_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECraig19611833-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Approximating an average of their measurements, Craig <i>defined</i> his "standard mean ocean water" (SMOW) relative to a water sample held in the United States' <a href="/wiki/National_Bureau_of_Standards" class="mw-redirect" title="National Bureau of Standards">National Bureau of Standards</a> called NBS-1 (sampled from the <a href="/wiki/Potomac_River" title="Potomac River">Potomac River</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIAEA19843_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIAEA19843-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). In particular, SMOW had the following parameters relative to NBS-1: </p> <ul><li>δ <sup>2</sup>H <sub>SMOW/NBS-1</sub> = 50‰, i.e., an enrichment of 5%;</li> <li>δ <sup>18</sup>O <sub>SMOW/NBS-1</sub> = 8‰, i.e., an enrichment of 0.8%.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECraig19611833_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECraig19611833-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Later, researchers at the <a href="/wiki/California_Institute_of_Technology" title="California Institute of Technology">California Institute of Technology</a> defined another abstract reference, also called "SMOW", for oxygen-18 concentrations, such that a sample of <a href="/wiki/Potsdam_Sandstone" title="Potsdam Sandstone">Potsdam Sandstone</a> in their possession satisfied <span class="nowrap">δ<sup>18</sup>O <sub>sandstone/SMOW</sub> = 15.5‰</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoplen1994274_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoplen1994274-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To resolve the confusion, November 1966 meeting of the Vienna-based <a href="/wiki/International_Atomic_Energy_Agency" title="International Atomic Energy Agency">International Atomic Energy Agency</a> (IAEA) recommended the preparation of two water isotopic standards: Vienna SMOW (VSMOW; initially just "SMOW" but later disambiguated<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoplen1994274_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoplen1994274-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) and Standard Light Antarctic Precipitation (SLAP).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIAEA19841_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIAEA19841-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Craig prepared VSMOW by mixing distilled Pacific Ocean water with small amounts of other waters. VSMOW was intended to match the SMOW standard as closely as possible. Craig's measurements found an identical <sup>18</sup>O concentration and a 0.2‰ lower <sup>2</sup>H concentration.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIAEA19842_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIAEA19842-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The SLAP standard was created from a melted <a href="/wiki/Firn" title="Firn">firn</a> sample from <a href="/wiki/Plateau_Station" title="Plateau Station">Plateau Station</a> in Antarctica.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIAEA19842_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIAEA19842-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A standard with oxygen-18 and deuterium concentrations between that of VSMOW and SLAP, called Greenland Ice Sheet Precipitation (GISP), was also prepared.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIAEA19842_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIAEA19842-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The IAEA began distributing samples in 1968, and <a href="#CITEREFGonfiantini1978">Gonfiantini (1978)</a> compiled analyses of VSMOW and SLAP from 45 laboratories around the world.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGonfiantini1978534_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGonfiantini1978534-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The VSMOW sample was stored in a stainless-steel container under nitrogen and was transferred to glass <a href="/wiki/Ampoule" title="Ampoule">ampoules</a> in 1977.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIAEA19842_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIAEA19842-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The deuterium and oxygen-18 concentrations in VSMOW are close to the upper end of naturally occurring materials, and the concentrations in SLAP are close to the lower end.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoplen1994_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoplen1994-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to confusion over multiple water standards, the <a href="/wiki/Commission_on_Isotopic_Abundances_and_Atomic_Weights" title="Commission on Isotopic Abundances and Atomic Weights">Commission on Isotopic Abundances and Atomic Weights</a> recommended in 1994 that all future isotopic measurements of oxygen-18 (<sup>18</sup>O) and deuterium (<sup>2</sup>H) be reported relative to VSMOW, on a scale such that the <span class="nowrap">δ<sup>18</sup>O</span> of SLAP is −55.5‰ and the <span class="nowrap">δ<sup>2</sup>H</span> of SLAP is −428‰, relative to VSMOW.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECIAAW19942435_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECIAAW19942435-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoplen1995_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoplen1995-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, SLAP is defined to contain 94.45% the oxygen-18 concentration and 57.2% the deuterium concentration of VSMOW.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECIAAW19942435_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECIAAW19942435-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Using a scale with two defined samples improves comparison of results between laboratories. </p><p>In December 1996, because of a dwindling supply of VSMOW, the IAEA decided to create a replacement standard, VSMOW2. Published in 1999, it contains a nearly identical isotopic mixture. About 300 liters was prepared from a mixture of distilled waters, from <a href="/wiki/Lake_Bracciano" title="Lake Bracciano">Lake Bracciano</a> in Italy, the <a href="/wiki/Sea_of_Galilee" title="Sea of Galilee">Sea of Galilee</a> in Israel, and a well in Egypt, in proportions chosen to reach VSMOW isotopic ratios. The IAEA also published a successor to SLAP, called SLAP2, derived from melted water from four Antarctic drilling sites.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIAEA20172_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIAEA20172-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Deviations of <sup>17</sup>O, and <sup>18</sup>O in the new standards from the old standards are zero within the error of measurement.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIAEA20171,6_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIAEA20171,6-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is a small but measurable deviation of <sup>2</sup>H concentration in SLAP2 from SLAP—<span class="nowrap">δ<sup>2</sup>H<sub>SLAP2/VSMOW</sub></span> is defined to be −427.5‰ instead of −428‰—but not in VSMOW2 from VSMOW.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIAEA20173_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIAEA20173-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The IAEA recommends that measurements still be reported on the VSMOW–SLAP scale.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIAEA20174_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIAEA20174-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The older two standards are now kept at the IAEA and no longer sold.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIAEA20062_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIAEA20062-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Measurements">Measurements</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vienna_Standard_Mean_Ocean_Water&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Measurements"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>All measurements are reported with their <a href="/wiki/Standard_error" title="Standard error">standard uncertainty</a>. Measurements of particular combinations of oxygen and hydrogen isotopes are unnecessary because water molecules constantly exchange atoms with each other. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="VSMOW">VSMOW</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vienna_Standard_Mean_Ocean_Water&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: VSMOW"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Except for tritium, which was determined by the helium gas emitted by radioactive decay, these measurements were taken using <a href="/wiki/Mass_spectroscopy" class="mw-redirect" title="Mass spectroscopy">mass spectroscopy</a>. </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">Deuterium</a> (<sup>2</sup>H / <sup>1</sup>H) – <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6996155760000000000♠"></span>155.76<span style="margin-left:0.3em;margin-right:0.15em;">±</span>0.05 ppm</span>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIAEA20063_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIAEA20063-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHagemannNiefRoth19706_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHagemannNiefRoth19706-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> about 1 in 6420 hydrogen atoms</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium">Tritium</a> (<sup>3</sup>H / <sup>1</sup>H) – <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7001185000000000000♠"></span>18.5<span style="margin-left:0.3em;margin-right:0.15em;">±</span>3.6 TU</span><sup id="cite_ref-tu_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tu-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> = <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6983184999999999999♠"></span>(1.85<span style="margin-left:0.3em;margin-right:0.15em;">±</span>0.36)<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>−11</sup> ppm</span>, measured on 16 September 1976,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGonfiantini1978534_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGonfiantini1978534-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIAEA20063_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIAEA20063-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> about 1 in <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7016540000000000000♠"></span>5.40<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>16</sup></span> hydrogen atoms</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxygen-18" title="Oxygen-18">Oxygen-18</a> (<sup>18</sup>O / <sup>16</sup>O) – <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6997200520000000000♠"></span>2<span style="margin-left:.25em;">005</span>.20<span style="margin-left:0.3em;margin-right:0.15em;">±</span>0.45 ppm</span>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIAEA20063_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIAEA20063-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaertschi1976_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaertschi1976-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> about 1 in 499 oxygen atoms</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxygen-17" title="Oxygen-17">Oxygen-17</a> (<sup>17</sup>O / <sup>16</sup>O) – <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6996379899999999999♠"></span>379.9<span style="margin-left:0.3em;margin-right:0.15em;">±</span>0.8 ppm</span>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIAEA20063_16-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIAEA20063-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiNiJinZhang1988_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiNiJinZhang1988-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> about 1 in 2640 oxygen atoms</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="SLAP">SLAP</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vienna_Standard_Mean_Ocean_Water&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: SLAP"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Based on the results of <a href="#CITEREFGonfiantini1978">Gonfiantini (1978)</a>, the IAEA defined the delta scale with SLAP at −55.5<a href="/wiki/Per_mille" title="Per mille">‰</a> for <sup>18</sup>O and −428‰ for <sup>2</sup>H. That is, SLAP was measured to contain approximately 5.55% less oxygen-18 and 42.8% less deuterium than does VSMOW, and these figures were used to anchor the scale at two points.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGonfiantini1978534_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGonfiantini1978534-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Experimental figures are given below. </p> <ul><li><sup>2</sup>H / <sup>1</sup>H – <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6995890200000000000♠"></span>89.02<span style="margin-left:0.3em;margin-right:0.15em;">±</span>0.05 ppm</span>, <span class="nowrap">δ := −428.5 ± 0.4‰</span>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIAEA20063_16-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIAEA20063-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHagemannNiefRoth19706_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHagemannNiefRoth19706-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> about 1 in 11230 atoms</li> <li><sup>3</sup>H / <sup>1</sup>H – <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7002374000000000000♠"></span>374<span style="margin-left:0.3em;margin-right:0.15em;">±</span>9 TU</span><sup id="cite_ref-tu_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tu-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> = <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6984374000000000000♠"></span>(3.74<span style="margin-left:0.3em;margin-right:0.15em;">±</span>0.09)<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>−10</sup> ppm</span>, measured on 16 September 1976,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGonfiantini1978534_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGonfiantini1978534-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> about 1 in 2.67<span class="nowrap"> × </span>10<sup>15</sup> atoms</li> <li><sup>18</sup>O / <sup>16</sup>O – <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6997189391000000000♠"></span>1<span style="margin-left:.25em;">893</span>.91<span style="margin-left:0.3em;margin-right:0.15em;">±</span>0.45 ppm</span>, <span class="nowrap">δ := −55.5‰</span>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIAEA20063_16-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIAEA20063-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> about 1 in 528 atoms</li> <li><sup>17</sup>O / <sup>16</sup>O – <span class="nowrap">δ = −28.86 ± 0.1‰</span>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIAEA20063_16-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIAEA20063-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> about 1 in 3700 atoms</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="VSMOW2_and_SLAP2">VSMOW2 and SLAP2</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vienna_Standard_Mean_Ocean_Water&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: VSMOW2 and SLAP2"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The concentrations of <sup>17</sup>O, and <sup>18</sup>O are indistinguishable between VSMOW and VSMOW2, and between SLAP and SLAP2. The specification sheet gives the standard errors in these measurements.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIAEA20065–6_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIAEA20065–6-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The concentration of <sup>2</sup>H is unchanged in VSMOW2 as well, but is slightly increased in SLAP2. The IAEA reports: </p> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">δ<sup>2</sup>H<sub>SLAP2/VSMOW</sub> = −427.5 ± 0.3‰</span>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIAEA20171,3_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIAEA20171,3-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (Compare −428‰ for SLAP.)</li></ul> <p>On 6 July 2007, the tritium concentration was <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7000350000000000000♠"></span>3.5<span style="margin-left:0.3em;margin-right:0.15em;">±</span>1.0 TU</span> in VSMOW2, and <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7001276000000000000♠"></span>27.6<span style="margin-left:0.3em;margin-right:0.15em;">±</span>1.6 TU</span> in SLAP2.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIAEA20176_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIAEA20176-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="GISP">GISP</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vienna_Standard_Mean_Ocean_Water&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: GISP"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>δ <sup>2</sup>H <sub>GISP</sub> = −189.5 ± 1.2‰</li> <li>δ <sup>18</sup>O <sub>GISP</sub> = −24.66 ± 0.09‰</li> <li>δ <sup>17</sup>O <sub>GISP</sub> = −12.71 ± 0.1‰<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIAEA20073_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIAEA20073-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vienna_Standard_Mean_Ocean_Water&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reporting_isotopic_ratios">Reporting isotopic ratios</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vienna_Standard_Mean_Ocean_Water&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Reporting isotopic ratios"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The VSMOW–SLAP scale is recommended by the USGS, IUPAC, and IAEA for measurement of deuterium and <sup>18</sup>O concentrations in any substance.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIAEA20175_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIAEA20175-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUSGS20202_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUSGS20202-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECIAAW19942435_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECIAAW19942435-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For <sup>18</sup>O, a scale based on Vienna <a href="/wiki/Peedee_Formation" title="Peedee Formation">Pee Dee Belemnite</a> can also be used.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECIAAW19942435_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECIAAW19942435-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The physical samples, which are distributed by the IAEA and U.S. <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_of_Standards_and_Technology" title="National Institute of Standards and Technology">National Institute of Standards and Technology</a>, are used to calibrate isotope-measuring equipment.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUSGS20201_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUSGS20201-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Variations in isotopic content are useful in hydrology, meteorology, and oceanography.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECIAAW2000705_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECIAAW2000705-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Different parts of the ocean do have slightly different isotopic concentrations: δ <sup>18</sup>O values range from –11.35‰ in water off the coast of <a href="/wiki/Greenland" title="Greenland">Greenland</a> to +1.32‰ in the north Atlantic, and δ <sup>2</sup>H concentrations in deep ocean water range from roughly –1.7‰ near Antarctica to +2.2‰ in the Arctic. Variations are much larger in surface water than in deep water.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerronskyPolyakov201252–53_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerronskyPolyakov201252–53-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Temperature_measurements">Temperature measurements</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vienna_Standard_Mean_Ocean_Water&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Temperature measurements"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1954, the <a href="/wiki/International_Committee_for_Weights_and_Measures" class="mw-redirect" title="International Committee for Weights and Measures">International Committee for Weights and Measures</a> (CIPM) established the definition of the <a href="/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin">Kelvin</a> as 1/273.16 of the absolute temperature of the <a href="/wiki/Triple_point" title="Triple point">triple point</a> of water. Waters with different isotopic compositions had slightly different triple points. Thus, the <a href="/wiki/International_Committee_for_Weights_and_Measures" class="mw-redirect" title="International Committee for Weights and Measures">International Committee for Weights and Measures</a> specified in 2005<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that the definition of the <a href="/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin">kelvin</a> temperature scale would refer to water with a composition of the nominal specification of VSMOW.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The decision was welcomed in 2007 by Resolution 10 of the 23rd CGPM.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The triple point is measured in triple-point cells, where the water is held at its triple point and allowed to reach equilibrium with its surroundings. Using ordinary waters, the range of inter-laboratory measurements of the triple point can be about <span class="nowrap">250 μK</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With VSMOW, the inter-laboratory range of measurements of the triple point is about <span class="nowrap">50 μK</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENIST2021_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENIST2021-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the <a href="/wiki/2019_revision_of_the_SI" title="2019 revision of the SI">2019 revision of the SI</a>, the kelvin is defined in terms of the <a href="/wiki/Boltzmann_constant" title="Boltzmann constant">Boltzmann constant</a>, which makes its definition completely independent of the properties of water. The defined value for the Boltzmann constant was selected so that the measured value of the VSMOW triple point is identical to the prior defined value, within measurable accuracy.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Triple-point cells remain a practical method of calibrating thermometers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENIST2021_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENIST2021-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vienna_Standard_Mean_Ocean_Water&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Temperature_Scale_of_1990" title="International Temperature Scale of 1990">International Temperature Scale of 1990</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Properties_of_water" title="Properties of water">Properties of water</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vienna_Standard_Mean_Ocean_Water&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-tu-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-tu_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tu_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">TU is tritium units, or tritium atoms per 10<sup>18</sup> hydrogen atoms.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vienna_Standard_Mean_Ocean_Water&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon 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"Calibration of δ<sup>17</sup>O and δ<sup>18</sup>O of international measurement standards – VSMOW, VSMOW2, SLAP, and SLAP2". <i>Rapid Communications in Mass Spectrometry</i>. <b>24</b> (6): 773–776. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Frcm.4449">10.1002/rcm.4449</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Rapid+Communications+in+Mass+Spectrometry&rft.atitle=Calibration+of+%CE%B4%3Csup%3E17%3C%2Fsup%3EO+and+%CE%B4%3Csup%3E18%3C%2Fsup%3EO+of+international+measurement+standards+%E2%80%93+VSMOW%2C+VSMOW2%2C+SLAP%2C+and+SLAP2&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=773-776&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Frcm.4449&rft.aulast=Lin&rft.aufirst=Y.&rft.au=Clayton%2C+R.+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVienna+Standard+Mean+Ocean+Water" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNIST2021" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nist.gov/si-redefinition/kelvin-present-realization">"Kelvin: Present Realization"</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_of_Science_and_Technology" class="mw-redirect" title="National Institute of Science and Technology">National Institute of Science and Technology</a>. 8 July 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Kelvin%3A+Present+Realization&rft.pub=National+Institute+of+Science+and+Technology&rft.date=2021-07-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nist.gov%2Fsi-redefinition%2Fkelvin-present-realization&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVienna+Standard+Mean+Ocean+Water" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUSGS2020" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d9-wret.s3.us-west-2.amazonaws.com/assets/palladium/production/s3fs-public/media/files/SLAP2-0.25.pdf">"Report of Stable Isotopic Composition Reference Material SLAP2 – 0.25 μL"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/wiki/United_States_Geological_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Geological Service">United States Geological Service</a>. 9 July 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Report+of+Stable+Isotopic+Composition+Reference+Material+SLAP2+%E2%80%93+0.25+%CE%BCL&rft.pub=United+States+Geological+Service&rft.date=2020-07-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fd9-wret.s3.us-west-2.amazonaws.com%2Fassets%2Fpalladium%2Fproduction%2Fs3fs-public%2Fmedia%2Ffiles%2FSLAP2-0.25.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVienna+Standard+Mean+Ocean+Water" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFerronskyPolyakov2012" class="citation book cs1">Ferronsky, V. I.; Polyakov, V. A. (6 March 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OeEUcIRsIwAC"><i>Isotopes of the Earth's Hydrosphere</i></a>. Springer Science & Business Media.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Isotopes+of+the+Earth%27s+Hydrosphere&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2012-03-06&rft.aulast=Ferronsky&rft.aufirst=V.+I.&rft.au=Polyakov%2C+V.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOeEUcIRsIwAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVienna+Standard+Mean+Ocean+Water" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Citations">Citations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vienna_Standard_Mean_Ocean_Water&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol 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class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIAEA2017">IAEA 2017</a>, p. 4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIAEA20062-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIAEA20062_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIAEA2006">IAEA 2006</a>, p. 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIAEA20063-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIAEA20063_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIAEA20063_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIAEA20063_16-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIAEA20063_16-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIAEA20063_16-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIAEA20063_16-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIAEA20063_16-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIAEA2006">IAEA 2006</a>, p. 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHagemannNiefRoth19706-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHagemannNiefRoth19706_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHagemannNiefRoth19706_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHagemannNiefRoth1970">Hagemann, Nief & Roth 1970</a>, p. 6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaertschi1976-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaertschi1976_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBaertschi1976">Baertschi 1976</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELiNiJinZhang1988-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiNiJinZhang1988_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLiNiJinZhang1988">Li et al. 1988</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIAEA20065–6-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIAEA20065–6_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIAEA2006">IAEA 2006</a>, p. 5–6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIAEA20171,3-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIAEA20171,3_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIAEA2017">IAEA 2017</a>, p. 1,3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIAEA20176-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIAEA20176_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIAEA2017">IAEA 2017</a>, p. 6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIAEA20073-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIAEA20073_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIAEA2007">IAEA 2007</a>, p. 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIAEA20175-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIAEA20175_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIAEA2017">IAEA 2017</a>, p. 5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEUSGS20202-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUSGS20202_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFUSGS2020">USGS 2020</a>, p. 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEUSGS20201-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUSGS20201_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFUSGS2020">USGS 2020</a>, p. 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECIAAW2000705-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECIAAW2000705_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCIAAW2000">CIAAW 2000</a>, p. 705.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerronskyPolyakov201252–53-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerronskyPolyakov201252–53_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFerronskyPolyakov2012">Ferronsky & Polyakov 2012</a>, pp. 52–53.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFInternational_Committee_for_Weights_and_Measures_(CIPM)2005" class="citation web cs1">International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM) (2005-10-10). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170822132232/https://www.bipm.org/utils/en/pdf/CI-2005-2-EN.pdf">"Clarification of the definition of the kelvin, unit of thermodynamic temperature"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Bureau International des Poids et Mesures</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bipm.org/utils/en/pdf/CI-2005-2-EN.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on August 22, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-01-01</span></span>. <q>The International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM) [...] decides the definition of the kelvin refer to water of a specified isotopic composition</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Bureau+International+des+Poids+et+Mesures&rft.atitle=Clarification+of+the+definition+of+the+kelvin%2C+unit+of+thermodynamic+temperature&rft.date=2005-10-10&rft.au=International+Committee+for+Weights+and+Measures+%28CIPM%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bipm.org%2Futils%2Fen%2Fpdf%2FCI-2005-2-EN.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVienna+Standard+Mean+Ocean+Water" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061102231615/http://www.bipm.fr/utils/en/pdf/CIPM2005-EN.pdf">"94th Meeting of the Comité International des Poids et Mesures"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. October 2005. p. 235. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bipm.fr/utils/en/pdf/CIPM2005-EN.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on November 2, 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=94th+Meeting+of+the+Comit%C3%A9+International+des+Poids+et+Mesures&rft.pages=235&rft.date=2005-10&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bipm.fr%2Futils%2Fen%2Fpdf%2FCIPM2005-EN.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVienna+Standard+Mean+Ocean+Water" class="Z3988"></span> The CIPM's adoption of the VSMOW standard was based upon a recommendation in <a href="#CITEREFCIAAW2000">CIAAW (2000)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bipm.org/en/committees/cg/cgpm/23-2007/resolution-10">"Resolution 10 - BIPM"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Resolution+10+-+BIPM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bipm.org%2Fen%2Fcommittees%2Fcg%2Fcgpm%2F23-2007%2Fresolution-10&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVienna+Standard+Mean+Ocean+Water" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Supplementary Information for the International Temperature Scale of 1990</i>. International Committee for Weights and Measures. 1997. p. 29.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Supplementary+Information+for+the+International+Temperature+Scale+of+1990&rft.pages=29&rft.pub=International+Committee+for+Weights+and+Measures&rft.date=1997&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVienna+Standard+Mean+Ocean+Water" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENIST2021-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENIST2021_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENIST2021_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNIST2021">NIST 2021</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPitrePlimmerSparasciHimbert2018" class="citation journal cs1">Pitre, Laurent; Plimmer, Mark; Sparasci, Fernando; Himbert, Marc (20 December 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1631070518301348">"Determinations of the Boltzmann constant"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Comptes_Rendus_Physique" class="mw-redirect" title="Comptes Rendus Physique">Comptes Rendus Physique</a></i>. <b>20</b> (1): 129–139.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Comptes+Rendus+Physique&rft.atitle=Determinations+of+the+Boltzmann+constant&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=129-139&rft.date=2018-12-20&rft.aulast=Pitre&rft.aufirst=Laurent&rft.au=Plimmer%2C+Mark&rft.au=Sparasci%2C+Fernando&rft.au=Himbert%2C+Marc&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FS1631070518301348&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVienna+Standard+Mean+Ocean+Water" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vienna_Standard_Mean_Ocean_Water&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iaea.org">International Atomic Energy Agency – IAEA</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060517083352/http://www.sp.se/Metrology/temperature/eng/its-90.htm">ITS-90 – Swedish National Testing and Research Institute</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.omega.com/techref/intltemp.html">ITS-90 – Omega Engineering</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sio.ucsd.edu/">Scripps Institution of Oceanography</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130607114348/http://www.sio.ucsd.edu/">Archived</a> 2013-06-07 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.temperatures.com/stds.html">Temperature Sensors – information repository</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lsbu.ac.uk/water/data.html">Scientific data of water – London South Bank University</a></li></ul>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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