CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Psychological stress - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"068f09eb-9b5f-43b9-b2b6-6aeeefe6ff44","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Psychological_stress","wgTitle":"Psychological stress","wgCurRevisionId":1272594715,"wgRevisionId":1272594715,"wgArticleId":31595228,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from May 2018","CS1 German-language sources (de)","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from November 2020","Webarchive template wayback links","All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases","Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from June 2023", "Wikipedia articles needing clarification from September 2018","All pages needing factual verification","Wikipedia articles needing factual verification from January 2013","Wikipedia articles in need of updating from May 2024","All Wikipedia articles in need of updating","All articles with unsourced statements","Articles with unsourced statements from May 2024","Psychological stress","Stress (biological and psychological)"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Psychological_stress","wgRelevantArticleId":31595228,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks": "en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":80000,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q3500368","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready", "jquery.tablesorter.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.tablesorter","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.tablesorter.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.16"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1e/Headache-1557872_960_720.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1e/Headache-1557872_960_720.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="800"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Headache-1557872_960_720.jpg/640px-Headache-1557872_960_720.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="640"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Psychological stress - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_stress"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Psychological_stress&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_stress"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Psychological_stress rootpage-Psychological_stress skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" title="Main menu" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Main menu </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z">Main page</a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia">Contents</a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events">Current events</a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x">Random article</a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works">About Wikipedia</a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia">Contact us</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia">Help</a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia">Learn to edit</a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors">Community portal</a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r">Recent changes</a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia">Upload file</a></li><li id="n-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages">Special pages</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"> Search </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Appearance </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class="">Donate</a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Psychological+stress" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class="">Create account</a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Psychological+stress" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class="">Log in</a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Personal tools </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en">Donate</a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Psychological+stress" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"> Create account</a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Psychological+stress" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"> Log in</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing">learn more</a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y">Contributions</a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Causes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Causes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1 Causes </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Causes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Causes subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Causes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Neutrality_of_stressors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neutrality_of_stressors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1 Neutrality of stressors </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neutrality_of_stressors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Types_of_stressors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types_of_stressors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 Types of stressors </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Types_of_stressors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Crises/catastrophes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Crises/catastrophes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2.1 Crises/catastrophes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Crises/catastrophes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Major_life_events" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Major_life_events"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2.2 Major life events </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Major_life_events-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Daily_hassles/microstressors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Daily_hassles/microstressors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2.3 Daily hassles/microstressors </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Daily_hassles/microstressors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ambient_stressors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ambient_stressors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2.4 Ambient stressors </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ambient_stressors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Organisational_stressors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Organisational_stressors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2.5 Organisational stressors </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Organisational_stressors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stressor_impact" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stressor_impact"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 Stressor impact </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stressor_impact-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Measurement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Measurement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Measurement </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Measurement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Physical_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Physical_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Physical effects </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Physical_effects-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Physical effects subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Physical_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cancer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cancer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Cancer </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cancer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Other effects </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_impact" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_impact"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Social impact </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Social_impact-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Social impact subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Social_impact-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Communication" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Communication"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Communication </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Communication-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Language_barriers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Language_barriers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.1 Language barriers </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Language_barriers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Changes_in_the_home" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Changes_in_the_home"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.2 Changes in the home </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Changes_in_the_home-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_support_and_health" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_support_and_health"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Social support and health </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_support_and_health-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Management" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Management"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Management </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Management-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Management subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Management-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Prevention_and_resilience_building" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prevention_and_resilience_building"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Prevention and resilience building </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prevention_and_resilience_building-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Exercising_to_reduce_stress" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Exercising_to_reduce_stress"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Exercising to reduce stress </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Exercising_to_reduce_stress-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Theoretical_explanations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theoretical_explanations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.1 Theoretical explanations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theoretical_explanations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coping_mechanisms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coping_mechanisms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Coping mechanisms </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coping_mechanisms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Highly_adaptive/active/problem-focused_mechanisms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Highly_adaptive/active/problem-focused_mechanisms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.1 Highly adaptive/active/problem-focused mechanisms </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Highly_adaptive/active/problem-focused_mechanisms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mental_inhibition/disavowal_mechanisms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mental_inhibition/disavowal_mechanisms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.2 Mental inhibition/disavowal mechanisms </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mental_inhibition/disavowal_mechanisms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Active_mechanisms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Active_mechanisms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.3 Active mechanisms </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Active_mechanisms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Health_promotion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Health_promotion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.4 Health promotion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Health_promotion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 History </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Psychological stress</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 29 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-29" aria-hidden="true" > 29 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%AA%D8%B1_%D9%86%D9%81%D8%B3%D9%8A" title="توتر نفسي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="توتر نفسي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AA" title="মানসিক চাপ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="মানসিক চাপ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belastung_(Psychologie)" title="Belastung (Psychologie) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Belastung (Psychologie)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estr%C3%A9s_psicol%C3%B3gico" title="Estrés psicológico – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Estrés psicológico" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B4%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C" title="فشار روانی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فشار روانی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress_chez_l%27humain" title="Stress chez l'humain – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Stress chez l'humain" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%8B%AC%EB%A6%AC%EC%A0%81_%EC%8A%A4%ED%8A%B8%EB%A0%88%EC%8A%A4" title="심리적 스트레스 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="심리적 스트레스" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%B8%D5%A3%D5%A5%D5%A2%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%BD%D5%A9%D6%80%D5%A5%D5%BD" title="Հոգեբանական սթրես – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հոգեբանական սթրես" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B5_(%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95)" title="तनाव (मनोवैज्ञानिक) – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="तनाव (मनोवैज्ञानिक)" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stres_psikologis" title="Stres psikologis – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Stres psikologis" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contentio_enervans_(psychologia)" title="Contentio enervans (psychologia) – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Contentio enervans (psychologia)" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stres_psikologis" title="Stres psikologis – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Stres psikologis" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target">Minangkabau</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%81%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C_%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%A4" title="نفسیاتی تناؤ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="نفسیاتی تناؤ" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napi%C4%99cie_psychiczne" title="Napięcie psychiczne – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Napięcie psychiczne" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stresse_psicol%C3%B3gico" title="Stresse psicológico – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Stresse psicológico" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stresi_psikologjik" title="Stresi psikologjik – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Stresi psikologjik" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stres_(psychol%C3%B3gia)" title="Stres (psychológia) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Stres (psychológia)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%B1%DB%8E%D8%B3%DB%8C_%D8%B3%D8%A7%DB%8C%DA%A9%DB%86%D9%84%DB%86%DA%98%DB%8C" title="سترێسی سایکۆلۆژی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="سترێسی سایکۆلۆژی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress" title="Stress – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Stress" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sikolohikal_na_tensyon" title="Sikolohikal na tensyon – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Sikolohikal na tensyon" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tassast" title="Tassast – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Tassast" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AE%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%A8%E0%B0%B8%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%95_%E0%B0%92%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A4%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%A1%E0%B0%BF" title="మానసిక ఒత్తిడి – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="మానసిక ఒత్తిడి" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A1%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%94_(%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2)" title="ความเครียด (จิตวิทยา) – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ความเครียด (จิตวิทยา)" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D1%88%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8_%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BD%D3%A3" title="Фишори равонӣ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Фишори равонӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psikolojik_stres" title="Psikolojik stres – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Psikolojik stres" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%81%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C_%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%A4" title="نفسیاتی تناؤ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="نفسیاتی تناؤ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C4%83ng_th%E1%BA%B3ng_(t%C3%A2m_l%C3%BD)" title="Căng thẳng (tâm lý) – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Căng thẳng (tâm lý)" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%BF%83%E7%90%86%E5%A3%93%E5%8A%9B" title="心理壓力 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="心理壓力" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%BF%83%E7%90%86%E5%A3%93%E5%8A%9B" title="心理壓力 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="心理壓力" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q3500368#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Psychological_stress" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Psychological_stress" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >English </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Psychological_stress">Read</a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychological_stress&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e">Edit</a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychological_stress&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h">View history</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >Tools </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Psychological_stress">Read</a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychological_stress&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e">Edit</a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychological_stress&action=history">View history</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Psychological_stress" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j">What links here</a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Psychological_stress" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k">Related changes</a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u">Upload file</a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychological_stress&oldid=1272594715" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page">Permanent link</a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychological_stress&action=info" title="More information about this page">Page information</a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Psychological_stress&id=1272594715&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page">Cite this page</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FPsychological_stress">Get shortened URL</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FPsychological_stress">Download QR code</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Psychological_stress&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file">Download as PDF</a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychological_stress&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p">Printable version</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Psychological_stress" hreflang="en">Wikimedia Commons</a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q3500368" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g">Wikidata item</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Feeling of strain and pressure</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other kinds of stress, see <a href="/wiki/Stress_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Stress (disambiguation)">Stress (disambiguation)</a>. "Stressed out" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Stressed_Out_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Stressed Out (disambiguation)">Stressed Out (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Medical condition</div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox ib-medical-condition"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background:#ccc">Psychological stress</th></tr><tr style="background-color: #f8f9fa;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/File:Headache-1557872_960_720.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Headache-1557872_960_720.jpg/220px-Headache-1557872_960_720.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Headache-1557872_960_720.jpg/330px-Headache-1557872_960_720.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Headache-1557872_960_720.jpg/440px-Headache-1557872_960_720.jpg 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="720" /></a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">A man expressing stress</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Medical_specialty" title="Medical specialty">Specialty</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">Psychology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Occupational_medicine" title="Occupational medicine">occupational medicine</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3500368?uselang=en#P1995" title="Edit this on Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this on Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Signs_and_symptoms" title="Signs and symptoms">Symptoms</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Anxiety" title="Anxiety">Anxiety</a>, <a href="/wiki/Worry" title="Worry">worry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paranoia" title="Paranoia">paranoia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anger" title="Anger">anger</a>, <a href="/wiki/Occupational_burnout" title="Occupational burnout">burnout</a>, <a href="/wiki/Compassion_fatigue" title="Compassion fatigue">compassion fatigue</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sleep_disturbances" class="mw-redirect" title="Sleep disturbances">sleep disturbances</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hypervigilance" title="Hypervigilance">hypervigilance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Impatience" class="mw-redirect" title="Impatience">impatience</a>, <a href="/wiki/Derealization" title="Derealization">derealization</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dissociation_(psychology)" title="Dissociation (psychology)">dissociation</a>, changes in <a href="/wiki/Volition_(psychology)" title="Volition (psychology)">volition</a></td></tr></tbody></table> In <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, stress is a <a href="/wiki/Feeling" title="Feeling">feeling</a> of emotional strain and pressure.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> Stress is a form of <a href="/wiki/Psychological_pain" title="Psychological pain">psychological</a> and mental discomfort. Small amounts of stress may be beneficial, as it can improve athletic performance, <a href="/wiki/Motivation" title="Motivation">motivation</a> and reaction to the environment. Excessive amounts of stress, however, can increase the risk of <a href="/wiki/Stroke" title="Stroke">strokes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Myocardial_infarction" title="Myocardial infarction">heart attacks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ulcer" title="Ulcer">ulcers</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Diathesis_stress_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Diathesis stress model">mental illnesses</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Depression_(mood)" title="Depression (mood)">depression</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> and also aggravate <a href="/wiki/Pre-existing_condition" title="Pre-existing condition">pre-existing conditions</a>. Psychological stress can be external and related to the environment,<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> but may also be caused by internal perceptions that cause an individual to experience <a href="/wiki/Anxiety" title="Anxiety">anxiety</a> or other negative emotions surrounding a situation, such as pressure, <a href="/wiki/Discomfort" class="mw-redirect" title="Discomfort">discomfort</a>, etc., which they then deem stressful. <a href="/wiki/Hans_Selye" title="Hans Selye">Hans Selye</a> (1974) proposed four variations of stress.<a href="#cite_note-Selye-4">[4]</a> On one axis he locates good stress (<a href="/wiki/Eustress" title="Eustress">eustress</a>) and bad stress (distress). On the other is over-stress (hyperstress) and understress (hypostress). Selye advocates balancing these: the ultimate goal would be to balance hyperstress and hypostress perfectly and have as much eustress as possible.<a href="#cite_note-Selye_1983-5">[5]</a> The term "<a href="/wiki/Eustress" title="Eustress">eustress</a>" comes from the Greek root eu- which means "good" (as in "euphoria").<a href="#cite_note-Selye_1975-6">[6]</a> Eustress results when a person perceives a stressor as positive.<a href="#cite_note-Fevre-7">[7]</a> "Distress" stems from the Latin root dis- (as in "dissonance" or "disagreement").<a href="#cite_note-Selye_1975-6">[6]</a> Medically defined distress is a threat to the <a href="/wiki/Quality_of_life" title="Quality of life">quality of life</a>. It occurs when a demand vastly exceeds a person's capabilities.<a href="#cite_note-Fevre-7">[7]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Causes">Causes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychological_stress&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Causes">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neutrality_of_stressors">Neutrality of stressors</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychological_stress&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Neutrality of stressors">edit</a>]</div> Stress is a non-specific response.<a href="#cite_note-Selye_1983-5">[5]</a> It is neutral, and what varies is the degree of response. It is all about the context of the individual and how they perceive the situation. <a href="/wiki/Hans_Selye" title="Hans Selye">Hans Selye</a> defined stress as “the nonspecific (that is, common) result of any demand upon the body, be the effect mental or somatic.”<a href="#cite_note-Selye_1983-5">[5]</a> This includes the medical definition of stress as a physical demand and the colloquial definition of stress as a psychological demand. A stressor is inherently neutral meaning that the same stressor can cause either distress or eustress. It is individual differences and responses that induce either distress or eustress.<a href="#cite_note-HNC-8">[8]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Types_of_stressors">Types of stressors</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychological_stress&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Types of stressors">edit</a>]</div> A <a href="/wiki/Stressor" title="Stressor">stressor</a> is any event, experience, or environmental stimulus that causes stress in an individual.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> These events or experiences are perceived as threats or challenges to the individual and can be either physical or psychological. Researchers have found that stressors can make individuals more prone to both physical and psychological problems, including <a href="/wiki/Heart_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Heart disease">heart disease</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anxiety" title="Anxiety">anxiety</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pastorino-10">[10]</a> Stressors are more likely to affect the health of an individual when they are "chronic, highly disruptive, or perceived as uncontrollable".<a href="#cite_note-pastorino-10">[10]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, researchers generally classify the different types of stressors into four categories: 1) crises/catastrophes, 2) major life events, 3) daily hassles/microstressors, and 4) ambient stressors. According to Ursin (1988), the common factor between these categories is an inconsistency between expected events ("set value") and perceived events ("actual value") that cannot be resolved satisfactorily,<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> which puts stress into the broader context of <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_dissonance" title="Cognitive dissonance">cognitive-consistency theory</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:Kampen-12">[12]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Crises/catastrophes">Crises/catastrophes</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychological_stress&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Crises/catastrophes">edit</a>]</div> This type of stressor is unforeseen and unpredictable and, as such, is completely out of the control of the individual.<a href="#cite_note-pastorino-10">[10]</a> Examples of <a href="/wiki/Crises" class="mw-redirect" title="Crises">crises</a> and catastrophes include: devastating <a href="/wiki/Natural_disaster" title="Natural disaster">natural disasters</a>, such as major <a href="/wiki/Flood" title="Flood">floods</a> or <a href="/wiki/Earthquake" title="Earthquake">earthquakes</a>, <a href="/wiki/War" title="War">wars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pandemic" title="Pandemic">pandemics</a>, etc. Though rare in occurrence, this type of stressor typically causes a great deal of stress in a person's life. A study conducted by Stanford University found that after natural disasters, those affected experienced a significant increase in stress level.<a href="#cite_note-pastorino-10">[10]</a> Combat stress is a widespread acute and chronic problem. With the rapid pace and the urgency of firing first, accidental killings of friendly forces (or fratricide) may occur. Prevention requires stress reduction, emphasis on vehicle and other identification training, awareness of the tactical situation, and continual risk analysis by leaders at all levels.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Major_life_events">Major life events</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychological_stress&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Major life events">edit</a>]</div> Common examples of major life events include: <a href="/wiki/Marriage" title="Marriage">marriage</a>, going to <a href="/wiki/College" title="College">college</a>, <a href="/wiki/Death" title="Death">death</a> of a loved one, <a href="/wiki/Birth" title="Birth">birth</a> of a child, <a href="/wiki/Divorce" title="Divorce">divorce</a>, moving houses, etc. These events, either positive or negative, can create a sense of uncertainty and fear, which will ultimately lead to stress. For instance, research has found the elevation of stress during the transition from high school to university, with college freshmen being about two times more likely to be stressed than final year students.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> Research has found that major life events are somewhat less likely to be major causes of stress, due to their rare occurrences.<a href="#cite_note-pastorino-10">[10]</a> The length of time since occurrence and whether or not it is a positive or negative event are factors in whether or not it causes stress and how much stress it causes. Researchers have found that events that have occurred within the past month generally are not linked to stress or illness, while chronic events that occurred more than several months ago are linked to stress and illness<a href="#cite_note-pmid9619470-15">[15]</a> and personality change.<a href="#cite_note-Jeronimus2014-16">[16]</a> Additionally, positive life events are typically not linked to stress – and if so, generally only trivial stress – while negative life events can be linked to stress and the health problems that accompany it.<a href="#cite_note-pastorino-10">[10]</a> However, positive experiences and positive life changes can predict decreases in neuroticism.<a href="#cite_note-Jeronimus2014-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jeronimus2013-17">[17]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Daily_hassles/microstressors">Daily hassles/microstressors</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychological_stress&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Daily hassles/microstressors">edit</a>]</div> This category includes daily <a href="/wiki/Annoyance" title="Annoyance">annoyances</a> and minor hassles.<a href="#cite_note-pastorino-10">[10]</a> Examples include: making decisions, meeting deadlines at work or school, traffic jams, encounters with irritating personalities, etc. Often, this type of stressor includes <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/conflict" class="extiw" title="wikt:conflict">conflicts</a> with other people. Daily stressors, however, are different for each individual, as not everyone perceives a certain event as stressful. For example, most people find public speaking to be stressful, but someone who has experience with it will not. Daily hassles are the most frequently occurring type of stressor in most adults. The high frequency of hassles causes this stressor to have the most physiological effect on an individual. Carolyn Aldwin, Ph.D., conducted a longitudinal study on older men (mean age ca. 66 years at the time of first stress assessment) at the Oregon State University that examined the perceived intensity of daily hassles on an individual's mortality. Aldwin's study concluded that there is a strong correlation between individuals who rate their hassles as very intense and a high level of mortality. One's perception of their daily stressors can have a modulating effect on the physiological impact of daily stressors.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> There are three major psychological types of conflicts that can cause stress. <ul><li>The approach-approach conflict, occurs when a person is choosing between two equally attractive options, i.e. whether to go see a movie or to go see a concert.<a href="#cite_note-pastorino-10">[10]</a></li> <li>The avoidance-avoidance conflict, occurs where a person has to choose between two equally unattractive options, for example, to take out a second loan with unappealing terms to pay off the mortgage or to face foreclosure on one's house.<a href="#cite_note-pastorino-10">[10]</a></li> <li>The approach-avoidance conflict,<a href="#cite_note-pastorino-10">[10]</a> occurs when a person is forced to choose whether or not to partake in something that has both attractive and unattractive traits – such as whether or not to attend an expensive college (meaning taking out loans now, but also meaning a quality education and employment after graduation).</li></ul> Travel-related stress results from three main categories: lost time, surprises (an unforeseen event such as lost or delayed baggage) and routine breakers (inability to maintain daily habits).<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ambient_stressors">Ambient stressors</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychological_stress&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Ambient stressors">edit</a>]</div> As the name implies, these are global (as opposed to individual) low-grade stressors that are a part of the background environment. They are defined as stressors that are "chronic, negatively valued, non-urgent, physically perceptible, and intractable to the efforts of individuals to change them".<a href="#cite_note-campbell-20">[20]</a> Typical examples of ambient stressors are pollution, noise, crowding, and traffic. Unlike the other three types of stressor, ambient stressors can (but do not necessarily have to) negatively impact stress without conscious awareness.<a href="#cite_note-campbell-20">[20]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Organisational_stressors">Organisational stressors</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychological_stress&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Organisational stressors">edit</a>]</div> Studies conducted in military and combat fields show that some of the most potent stressors can be due to personal organisational problems in the unit or on the home front.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> Stress due to bad organisational practices is often connected to "toxic leadership", both in companies and in governmental organisations.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stressor_impact">Stressor impact</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychological_stress&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Stressor impact">edit</a>]</div> Life events scales can be used to assess stressful things that people experience in their lives. One such scale is the <a href="/wiki/Holmes_and_Rahe_stress_scale" title="Holmes and Rahe stress scale">Holmes and Rahe Stress Scale</a>, also known as the Social Readjustment Rating Scale, or SRRS.<a href="#cite_note-holmes-23">[23]</a> Developed by psychiatrists Thomas Holmes and Richard Rahe in 1967, the scale lists 43 stressful events. To calculate one's score, add up the number of "life change units" if an event occurred in the past year. A score of more than 300 means that individual is at risk for illness, a score between 150 and 299 means risk of illness is moderate, and a score under 150 means that individual only has a slight risk of illness.<a href="#cite_note-pastorino-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-holmes-23">[23]</a> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Life Event </th> <th>Life Change Units </th></tr> <tr> <td>Death of a spouse</td> <td>100 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Divorce</td> <td>73 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Marital separation</td> <td>65 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Imprisonment</td> <td>63 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Death of a close family member</td> <td>63 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Personal injury or illness</td> <td>53 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Marriage</td> <td>50 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Dismissal from work</td> <td>47 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Marital reconciliation</td> <td>45 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Retirement</td> <td>45 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Change in health of family member</td> <td>44 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Pregnancy</td> <td>40 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Sexual difficulties</td> <td>39 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Gain a new family member</td> <td>39 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Business readjustment</td> <td>39 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Change in financial state</td> <td>38 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Death of a close friend</td> <td>37 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Change to different line of work</td> <td>36 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Change in frequency of arguments</td> <td>35 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Major mortgage</td> <td>32 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Foreclosure of mortgage or loan</td> <td>30 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Change in responsibilities at work</td> <td>29 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Child leaving home</td> <td>29 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Trouble with in-laws</td> <td>29 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Outstanding personal achievement</td> <td>28 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Spouse starts or stops work</td> <td>26 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Begin or end school</td> <td>26 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Change in living conditions</td> <td>25 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Revision of personal habits</td> <td>24 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Trouble with boss</td> <td>23 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Change in working hours or conditions</td> <td>20 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Change in residence</td> <td>20 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Change in schools</td> <td>20 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Change in recreation</td> <td>19 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Change in church activities</td> <td>19 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Change in social activities</td> <td>18 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Minor mortgage or loan</td> <td>17 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Change in sleeping habits</td> <td>16 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Change in number of family reunions</td> <td>15 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Change in eating habits</td> <td>14 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Vacation</td> <td>13 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Minor violation of law</td> <td>10 </td></tr></tbody></table> A modified version was made for non-adults. The scale is below.<a href="#cite_note-pastorino-10">[10]</a> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Life Event </th> <th>Life Change Units </th></tr> <tr> <td>Unwed pregnancy</td> <td>100 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Death of parent</td> <td>100 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Getting married</td> <td>95 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Divorce of parents</td> <td>90 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Acquiring a visible deformity</td> <td>80 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Fathering an unwed pregnancy</td> <td>70 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Jail sentence of parent for over one year</td> <td>70 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Marital separation of parents</td> <td>69 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Death of a sibling</td> <td>68 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Change in acceptance by peers</td> <td>67 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Pregnancy of unprepared for sibling</td> <td>64 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Discovery of being an adopted child</td> <td>63 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Marriage of parent to stepparent</td> <td>63 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Death of a close friend</td> <td>63 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Having a visible congenital deformity</td> <td>62 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Serious illness requiring hospitalization</td> <td>58 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Failure of a grade in school</td> <td>56 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Not making an extracurricular activity</td> <td>55 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Hospitalization of a parent</td> <td>55 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Jail sentence of parent for over 30 days</td> <td>53 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Breaking up with partner</td> <td>53 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Beginning to date</td> <td>51 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Suspension from school</td> <td>50 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Becoming involved with drugs or alcohol</td> <td>50 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Birth of a sibling</td> <td>50 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Increase in arguments between parents</td> <td>47 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Loss of job by parent</td> <td>46 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Outstanding personal achievement</td> <td>46 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Change in parent's financial status</td> <td>45 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Accepted at college of choice</td> <td>43 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Being a senior in high school</td> <td>42 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Hospitalization of a sibling</td> <td>41 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Increased absence of parent from home</td> <td>38 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Sibling leaving home</td> <td>37 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Addition of third adult to family</td> <td>34 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Becoming a full-fledged member of a church</td> <td>31 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Decrease in arguments between parents</td> <td>27 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Decrease in arguments with parents</td> <td>26 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Parent beginning work</td> <td>26 </td></tr></tbody></table> The SRRS is used in psychiatry to weight the impact of life events.<a href="#cite_note-Riese2013-24">[24]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Measurement">Measurement</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychological_stress&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Measurement">edit</a>]</div> Modern people may attempt to self-assess their own "stress-level"; third parties (sometimes clinicians) may also provide qualitative evaluations. Quantitative approaches such as <a href="/wiki/Electrodermal_activity" title="Electrodermal activity">Galvanic Skin Response</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-25">[25]</a> or other measurements giving results which may correlate with perceived psychological stress include testing for one or more of the several <a href="/wiki/Stress_hormone" title="Stress hormone">stress hormones</a>,<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> for cardiovascular responses,<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> or for immune response.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> There are some valid questionnaires to assess stress level such as, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Higher_Education_Stress_Inventory&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Higher Education Stress Inventory (page does not exist)">Higher Education Stress Inventory</a> (HESI) is a valid questionnaire used in many communities for assessment the stress level of college students.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> There are many (psycho-)physiological measurement methods that correlate more or less well with psychological stress (mental or emotional) and are thus used as a possible indicator.<a href="#cite_note-pmid42620-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> In the physiological domain of oculomotor function alone, several physiological responses are suspected to detect different stress situations in a person-specific and objective manner (not by means of a survey). For example, via eye movement and gaze behavior,<a href="#cite_note-Galley,_Niels_1993-40">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> via pupil behavior<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> and via eyelid blink behavior (<a href="/wiki/Blinking" title="Blinking">Blinking</a>).<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid6701241-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-Galley,_Niels_1993-40">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Physical_effects">Physical effects</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychological_stress&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Physical effects">edit</a>]</div> To measure the body's response to stress, psychologists tend to use Hans Selye's <a href="/wiki/General_adaptation_syndrome#General_adaptation_syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="General adaptation syndrome">general adaptation syndrome</a>. This biological model, often referred to as the "classic stress response", revolves around the concept of <a href="/wiki/Homeostasis" title="Homeostasis">homeostasis</a>. General adaptive syndrome, according to this system, occurs in three stages: <ol><li>The alarm reaction. This stage occurs when the stressor is first presented. The body begins to gather resources to deal with the stressor. The <a href="/wiki/Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal_axis" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis">hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sympathetic_nervous_system" title="Sympathetic nervous system">sympathetic nervous system</a> are activated, resulting in the release of hormones from the <a href="/wiki/Adrenal_gland" title="Adrenal gland">adrenal gland</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Cortisol" title="Cortisol">cortisol</a>, adrenaline (<a href="/wiki/Epinephrine" class="mw-redirect" title="Epinephrine">epinephrine</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Norepinephrine" title="Norepinephrine">norepinephrine</a> into the bloodstream to adjust bodily processes. These hormonal adjustments increase energy-levels, increase muscle tension, reduce sensitivity to pain, slow down the digestive system, and cause a rise in blood pressure.<a href="#cite_note-GottliebBenjaminCoping-51">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-General_Adaptive_Syndrome-52">[52]</a> In addition, the <a href="/wiki/Locus_coeruleus" title="Locus coeruleus">locus coeruleus</a>, a collection of norepinephrine-containing neurons in the <a href="/wiki/Pons" title="Pons">pons</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Brainstem" title="Brainstem">brainstem</a> whose axons project to various regions of the brain, is involved in releasing norepinephrine directly onto neurons. High levels of norepinephrine acting as a neurotransmitter on its receptors expressed on neurons in brain regions, such as the <a href="/wiki/Prefrontal_cortex" title="Prefrontal cortex">prefrontal cortex</a>, are thought[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">by whom?</a>] to be involved in the effects of stress on <a href="/wiki/Executive_functions" title="Executive functions">executive functions</a>, such as impaired <a href="/wiki/Working_memory" title="Working memory">working memory</a>.</li> <li>The stage of resistance. The body continues building up resistance throughout the stage of resistance, either until the body's resources are depleted, leading to the exhaustion phase, or until the stressful stimulus is removed. As the body uses up more and more of its resources, it becomes increasingly tired and susceptible to illness. At this stage <a href="/wiki/Psychosomatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychosomatic">psychosomatic</a> disorders first begin to appear.<a href="#cite_note-General_Adaptive_Syndrome-52">[52]</a></li> <li>The stage of exhaustion. The body is completely drained of the hormones and resources it was depending on to manage the stressor. The person now begins to exhibit behaviors such as anxiety, irritability, avoidance of responsibilities and relationships, self-destructive behavior, and poor judgment. Someone experiencing these symptoms has a much greater chance of lashing out, damaging relationships, or avoiding social interaction at all.<a href="#cite_note-General_Adaptive_Syndrome-52">[52]</a></li></ol> This <a href="/wiki/Stress_(biology)#Neurochemistry_and_physiology" title="Stress (biology)">physiological stress</a> response involves high levels of <a href="/wiki/Sympathetic_nervous_system" title="Sympathetic nervous system">sympathetic nervous system</a> activation, often referred to as the "fight or flight" response. The <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/dce/hhs231_w04/nine/studyguide.htm">response</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121010135321/http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/dce/hhs231_w04/nine/studyguide.htm">Archived</a> 2012-10-10 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> involves pupil dilation, release of <a href="/wiki/Endorphins" title="Endorphins">endorphins</a>, increased heart and respiration rates, cessation of digestive processes, secretion of adrenaline, arteriole dilation, and constriction of veins.<a href="#cite_note-oregonstate.edu-53">[53]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cancer">Cancer</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychological_stress&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Cancer">edit</a>]</div> Psychological stress does not appear to be a risk factor for the onset of cancer,<a href="#cite_note-Cohen2019-54">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid23393080-55">[55]</a> though it may worsen outcomes in those who already have cancer.<a href="#cite_note-Cohen2019-54">[54]</a> Research has found that personal belief in stress as a risk factor for cancer was common in <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a>, though awareness of risk factors overall was found to be low.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_effects">Other effects</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychological_stress&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Other effects">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:In_Line_at_the_Medical_Centre_(7989958032).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/In_Line_at_the_Medical_Centre_%287989958032%29.jpg/220px-In_Line_at_the_Medical_Centre_%287989958032%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/In_Line_at_the_Medical_Centre_%287989958032%29.jpg/330px-In_Line_at_the_Medical_Centre_%287989958032%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/In_Line_at_the_Medical_Centre_%287989958032%29.jpg/440px-In_Line_at_the_Medical_Centre_%287989958032%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4368" data-file-height="2912" /></a><figcaption>A stressed woman waiting in line at a medical centre</figcaption></figure> There is likely a connection between stress and illness.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> Theories of a proposed stress–illness link suggest that both <a href="/wiki/Acute_stress_reaction" title="Acute stress reaction">acute</a> and chronic stress can cause illness, and studies have found such a link.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> According to these theories, both kinds of stress can lead to changes in behavior and in physiology. Behavioral changes can involve smoking and eating habits and physical activity. Physiological changes can be changes in <a href="/wiki/Sympathetic_nervous_system" title="Sympathetic nervous system">sympathetic</a> activation or <a href="/wiki/Hypothalamic%E2%80%93pituitary%E2%80%93adrenal_axis" title="Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis">hypothalamic pituitary adrenocorticoid</a> activation, and immunological function.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> However, there is much variability in the link between stress and illness.<a href="#cite_note-Ogden-60">[60]</a> There is some evidence that stress can make the individual more susceptible to physical illnesses like the common cold. "Although chronic (but not acute) stressful events are associated with greater susceptibility, the association between social diversity and colds is not altered after controlling for life events."<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> Stressful events, such as job changes, correlate with insomnia, <a href="/wiki/Psychological_stress_and_sleep" title="Psychological stress and sleep">impaired sleeping</a>, and health complaints.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> Research indicates the type of stressor (whether it is acute or chronic) and individual characteristics such as age and physical well-being before the onset of the stressor can combine to determine the effect of stress on an individual.<a href="#cite_note-Schneiderman,_N._2005-63">[63]</a> An individual's personality characteristics (such as level of <a href="/wiki/Neuroticism" title="Neuroticism">neuroticism</a>),<a href="#cite_note-Jeronimus2014-16">[16]</a> genetics, and <a href="/wiki/Stress_in_early_childhood" title="Stress in early childhood">childhood experiences</a> with major stressors and traumas<a href="#cite_note-Jeronimus2013-17">[17]</a> may also dictate their response to stressors.<a href="#cite_note-Schneiderman,_N._2005-63">[63]</a> Stress may also cause <a href="/wiki/Headaches" class="mw-redirect" title="Headaches">headaches</a>.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> <a href="/wiki/Chronic_stress" title="Chronic stress">Chronic stress</a> and a lack of coping resources available or used by an individual can often lead to the development of psychological issues such as <a href="/wiki/Major_depressive_disorder" title="Major depressive disorder">depression</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anxiety_disorder" title="Anxiety disorder">anxiety</a>.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> This is particularly true regarding chronic stressors. These are stressors that may not be as intense as an acute stressor like a natural disaster or a major accident, but they persist over longer periods of time. These types of stressors tend to have a more negative impact on health because they are sustained and thus require the body's physiological response to occur daily. This depletes the body's <a href="/wiki/Energy_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Energy (disambiguation)">energy</a> more quickly and usually occurs over long periods of time, especially when such microstressors cannot be avoided (for example: stress related to living in a dangerous neighborhood). Chronic stress may lead to <a href="/wiki/Allostatic_load" title="Allostatic load">allostatic load</a>, a biological process affecting many physiological systems. For example, studies have found that caregivers, particularly those of dementia patients, have higher levels of depression and slightly worse physical health than non-caregivers.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> Studies have also shown that perceived chronic stress and the hostility associated with <a href="/wiki/Type_A_personality" class="mw-redirect" title="Type A personality">Type A personalities</a> are often correlated with much higher risks of cardiovascular disease.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> This occurs because of the compromised immune system as well as the high levels of arousal in the sympathetic nervous system that occur as part of the body's physiological response to stressful events.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> However, it is possible for individuals to exhibit <a href="/wiki/Hardiness_(psychological)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hardiness (psychological)">hardiness</a> – a term referring to the ability to be both chronically stressed and healthy.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> Chronic stress can correlate with psychological disorders such as <a href="/wiki/Delusions" class="mw-redirect" title="Delusions">delusions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> Pathological anxiety and chronic stress lead to structural degeneration and impaired functioning of the <a href="/wiki/Hippocampus" title="Hippocampus">hippocampus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> It has long been believed that negative affective states, such as feelings of anxiety and depression, could influence the pathogenesis of physical disease, which in turn, have direct effects on biological process that could result in increased risk of disease in the end. However, studies done by the University of Wisconsin-Madison and other places have shown this to be partly untrue; although perceived stress seems to increase the risk of reported poor health, the additional perception of stress as something harmful increases the risk even further.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-blog.ted.com-73">[73]</a> For example, when humans are under chronic stress, permanent changes in their physiological, emotional, and behavioral responses are most likely to occur.<a href="#cite_note-Jeronimus2014-16">[16]</a> Such changes could lead to disease.<a href="#cite_note-Cohen2007-74">[74]</a> Chronic stress results from stressful events that persist over a relatively long period of time, such as caring for a spouse with dementia, or results from brief focal events that continue to be experienced as overwhelming even long after they are over, such as experiencing a sexual assault. Experiments show that when healthy human individuals are exposed to acute laboratory stressors, they show an adaptive enhancement of some markers of natural immunity but a general suppression of functions of specific immunity. By comparison, when healthy human individuals are exposed to real-life chronic stress, this stress is associated with a biphasic immune response where partial suppression of cellular and humoral function coincides with low-grade, nonspecific inflammation.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> Even though psychological stress is often connected with illness or disease, most healthy individuals can still remain disease-free after confronting chronic stressful events. Also, people who do not believe that stress will affect their health do not have an increased risk of illness, disease, or death.<a href="#cite_note-blog.ted.com-73">[73]</a> This suggests that there are individual differences in vulnerability to the potential pathogenic effects of stress; individual differences in vulnerability arise due to both genetic and psychological factors. In addition, the age at which the stress is experienced can dictate its effect on health. Research suggests chronic stress at a young age can have lifelong impacts on the biological, psychological, and behavioral responses to stress later in life.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Social_impact">Social impact</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychological_stress&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Social impact">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Communication">Communication</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychological_stress&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Communication">edit</a>]</div> When someone is stressed, many challenges can arise; a recognised challenge being communication difficulties. Here are some examples of how stress can hinder communication. The cultures of the world generally fall into two categories; individualistic and collectivistic.<a href="#cite_note-Sleep-77">[77]</a> <ul><li>An <a href="/wiki/Individualistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Individualistic">individualistic</a> culture, like that of the United States, where everyone is an independent entity defined by their accomplishments and goals.</li> <li>A <a href="/wiki/Collectivism_and_individualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivism and individualism">collectivistic</a> culture, like that of many Asian countries, prefers to see individuals as interdependent on each other. They value modesty and family.</li></ul> These cultural differences can affect how people communicate when they are stressed. For example, a member of an individualistic culture would be hesitant to ask for pain medication for fear of being perceived as weak. A member of a collectivistic culture would not hesitate. They have been brought up in a culture where everyone helps each other and is one functional unit whereas the member of the individualistic culture is not as comfortable asking others for aid.<a href="#cite_note-Sleep-77">[77]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Language_barriers">Language barriers</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychological_stress&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Language barriers">edit</a>]</div> Language barriers can cause stress, and sometimes this stress adds to language barriers. People may feel uncomfortable with the difficulties caused by differences in syntax, vocabulary, ways of showing respect, and use of body language. Along with a desire for successful social interactions, being uncomfortable with the communication around a person can discourage them from communicating at all, thus adding to the language barrier. The System 1 – System 2 model of <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Kahneman" title="Daniel Kahneman">Daniel Kahneman</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Thinking,_Fast_and_Slow" title="Thinking, Fast and Slow">Thinking, Fast and Slow</a> and others[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">who?</a>] distinguishes between automatic responses, such as those one's native language provides, and a foreign language that requires System 2 work to translate. System 2 can become "depleted" by conscious mental effort, making it more difficult and stressful.<a href="#cite_note-Cultural_Differences-78">[78]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Changes_in_the_home">Changes in the home</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychological_stress&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Changes in the home">edit</a>]</div> Divorce, death, and remarriage are all disruptive events in a household.<a href="#cite_note-Sleep-77">[77]</a> Although everyone involved is affected by events such as these, it can be most drastically seen in children. Due to their age, children have relatively undeveloped coping skills.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> For this reason a stressful event may cause some changes in their behavior. Falling in with a new crowd, developing some new and sometimes undesirable habits are just some of the changes stress may trigger in their lives.<a href="#cite_note-Sleep-77">[77]</a> A particularly interesting response to stress is talking to an <a href="/wiki/Imaginary_friend" title="Imaginary friend">imaginary friend</a>. A child may feel angry with a parent or their peers who they feel brought this change on them. They need someone to talk to but it definitely would not be the person with whom they are angry. That is when the imaginary friend comes in. They “talk” to this imaginary friend but in doing so they cut off communication with the real people around them.<a href="#cite_note-Sleep-77">[77]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_support_and_health">Social support and health</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychological_stress&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Social support and health">edit</a>]</div> Researchers have long been interested in how an individual's level and types of <a href="/wiki/Social_support" title="Social support">social support</a> impact the effect of stress on their health. Studies consistently show that social support can protect against physical and mental consequences of stress.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> This can occur through a variety of mechanisms. One model, known as the "direct effects" model, holds that social support has a direct, positive impact on health by increasing positive affect, promoting adaptive health behaviors, predictability and stability in life, and safeguarding against social, legal, and economic concerns that could negatively impact health. Another model, the "buffering effect", says that social support exerts greatest influence on health in times of stress, either by helping individuals appraise situations in less threatening manners or coping with the actual stress. Researchers have found evidence to support both these pathways.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> Social support is defined more specifically as psychological and material resources provided by a social network that are aimed at helping an individual cope with stress.<a href="#cite_note-Cohen,_S._2004-83">[83]</a> Researchers generally distinguish among several types of social support: instrumental support – which refers to material aid (e.g., financial support or assistance in transportation to a physician's appointment), informational support (e.g., knowledge, education or advice in problem-solving), and emotional support (e.g., empathy, reassurance, etc.).<a href="#cite_note-Cohen,_S._2004-83">[83]</a> Social support can reduce the rate of stress during pregnancy. Studies have found that those who had a large change in their life with a small amount of social support has a higher chance of complications. Whereas those with a larger support system would have a chance for less complications.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Management">Management</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychological_stress&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Management">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Stress Relief" redirects here. For The Office episode, see <a href="/wiki/Stress_Relief_(The_Office)" title="Stress Relief (The Office)">Stress Relief (The Office)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Stress Reliever" redirects here. For the track, see <a href="/wiki/R.E.D._(Ne-Yo_album)" title="R.E.D. (Ne-Yo album)">R.E.D. (Ne-Yo album)</a>.</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Stress_management" title="Stress management">Stress management</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Stress_management" title="Stress management">Stress management</a> refers to a wide spectrum of techniques and psychotherapies aimed at controlling a person's levels of stress, especially chronic stress, usually for the purpose of improving everyday functioning. It involves controlling and reducing the tension that occurs in stressful situations by making emotional and physical changes. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prevention_and_resilience_building">Prevention and resilience building</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychological_stress&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Prevention and resilience building">edit</a>]</div> Decreasing stressful behaviors is a part of prevention. Some of the common strategies and techniques are: self-monitoring, tailoring, material reinforcement, social reinforcement, social support, self-contracting, contracting with significant other, shaping, reminders, self-help groups, and professional help.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">further explanation needed</a>] Although many techniques have traditionally been developed to deal with the consequences of stress, considerable research has also been conducted on the prevention of stress, a subject closely related to <a href="/wiki/Psychological_resilience" title="Psychological resilience">psychological resilience-building</a>. A number of self-help approaches to stress-prevention and resilience-building have been developed, drawing mainly on the theory and practice of cognitive-behavioral therapy.<a href="#cite_note-Robertson_2012-86">[86]</a> <a href="/wiki/Biofeedback" title="Biofeedback">Biofeedback</a> may also play a role in stress management. A randomized study by Sutarto et al. assessed the effect of resonant breathing biofeedback (recognize and control involuntary heart rate variability) among manufacturing operators; depression, anxiety and stress significantly decreased.<a href="#cite_note-Sutarto2012-87">[87]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-primary source needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Exercising_to_reduce_stress">Exercising to reduce stress</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychological_stress&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Exercising to reduce stress">edit</a>]</div> Studies have shown that exercise reduces stress.<a href="#cite_note-:0-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-25">[25]</a> Exercise effectively reduces fatigue, improves sleep, enhances overall cognitive function such as alertness and concentration, decreases overall levels of tension, and improves self-esteem.<a href="#cite_note-:0-88">[88]</a> Because many of these are depleted when an individual experiences chronic stress, exercise provides an ideal coping mechanism. Despite popular belief, it is not necessary for exercise to be routine or intense in order to reduce stress; as little as five minutes of aerobic exercise can begin to stimulate anti-anxiety effects.<a href="#cite_note-:0-88">[88]</a> Further, a 10-minute walk may have the same psychological benefits as a 45-minute workout, reinforcing the assertion that exercise in any amount or intensity will reduce stress.<a href="#cite_note-:0-88">[88]</a> Cycling and walking activities have lower stress scores when compared to other modes of transport or commuting.<a href="#cite_note-:2-25">[25]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Theoretical_explanations">Theoretical explanations</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychological_stress&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Theoretical explanations">edit</a>]</div> A multitude of theories have been presented in attempts to explain why exercise effectively reduces stress. One theory, known as the time-out hypothesis, claims that exercise provides distraction from the stressor. The time out hypothesis claims that exercise effectively reduces stress because it gives individuals a break from their stressors. This was tested in a recent study of college women who had identified studying as their primary stressor.<a href="#cite_note-:1-89">[89]</a> The women were then placed under four conditions at varying times: "rest," "studying," "exercising," and "studying while exercising." The stress levels of the participants were measured through self-assessments of stress and anxiety symptoms after each condition. The results demonstrated that the "exercise" condition had the most significant reduction in stress and anxiety symptoms.<a href="#cite_note-:1-89">[89]</a> These results demonstrate the validity of the time-out hypothesis.<a href="#cite_note-:1-89">[89]</a> It is also important to note that exercise provided greater stress reduction than rest. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coping_mechanisms">Coping mechanisms</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychological_stress&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Coping mechanisms">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Coping_(psychology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Coping (psychology)">Coping (psychology)</a></div> The Lazarus and Folkman model suggests that external events create a form of pressure to achieve, engage in, or experience a stressful situation. Stress is not the external event itself, but rather an interpretation and response to the potential threat; this is when the coping process begins.<a href="#cite_note-Coping_With_Stress-90">[90]</a> There are various ways individuals deal with perceived threats that may be stressful. However, people have a tendency to respond to threats with a predominant coping style, in which they dismiss feelings, or manipulate the stressful situation.<a href="#cite_note-Coping_With_Stress-90">[90]</a> There are different classifications for coping, or <a href="/wiki/Defense_mechanisms" class="mw-redirect" title="Defense mechanisms">defense mechanisms</a>, however they all are variations on the same general idea: There are good/productive and negative/counterproductive ways to handle stress. Because stress is perceived, the following mechanisms do not necessarily deal with the actual situation that is causing an individual stress. However, they may be considered coping mechanisms if they allow the individual to cope better with the negative feelings/anxiety that they are experiencing due to the perceived stressful situation, as opposed to actually fixing the concrete obstacle causing the stress. The following mechanisms are adapted from the DSM-IV Adaptive Functioning Scale, APA, 1994. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Update plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Update" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/42px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png" decoding="async" width="42" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/63px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/84px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="290" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs to be updated. The reason given is: The DSM has significantly changed since 1994. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (May 2024)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> Another way individuals can cope with stress is by the way one perceives stress. Perceptions of stress are critical for making decisions and living everyday life. The outlook or the way an individual perceives the given situation can affect the manner to which the individual handles stress, whether it be positive or negative. Too much stress can be detrimental to the individual and can cause negative psychological and physical health effects.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Highly_adaptive/active/problem-focused_mechanisms">Highly adaptive/active/problem-focused mechanisms</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychological_stress&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Highly adaptive/active/problem-focused mechanisms">edit</a>]</div> These skills are what one could call as “facing the problem head on”, or at least dealing with the negative emotions experienced by stress in a constructive manner. (generally adaptive) <ul><li>Affiliation ("<a href="/wiki/Tend_and_befriend" title="Tend and befriend">tend and befriend</a>") – involves dealing with stress by turning to a social network for support, but an individual does not share with others in order to diffuse or avoid the responsibility.<a href="#cite_note-Levo,_Lynn_M._2003-92">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-DSM-IV_Adaptive_Functioning_Scale_1994-93">[93]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humour" title="Humour">Humour</a> – the individual steps outside of a situation in order to gain greater perspective, and also to highlight any comic aspect to be found in their stressful circumstances.<a href="#cite_note-Levo,_Lynn_M._2003-92">[92]</a></li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Two_people_laughing.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Two_people_laughing.jpg/220px-Two_people_laughing.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Two_people_laughing.jpg/330px-Two_people_laughing.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Two_people_laughing.jpg/440px-Two_people_laughing.jpg 2x" data-file-width="784" data-file-height="520" /></a><figcaption>Coping through <a href="/wiki/Laughter" title="Laughter">laughter</a> </figcaption></figure> <dl><dd><dl><dd>“The Association for Applied and Therapeutic Humour defines therapeutic humour as ‘any intervention that promotes health and wellness by stimulating a playful discovery, expression or appreciation of the absurdity of or incongruity of life’s situations. This intervention may enhance health or be used as a complementary treatment of illness to facilitate healing or coping whether physical, emotional, cognitive, or spiritual”.<a href="#cite_note-Communication_in_Nursing-94">[94]</a></dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd><dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a>, suggested that humour was an excellent defensive strategy in emotional situations.<a href="#cite_note-Coping_With_Stress-90">[90]</a> When one laughs during a tough situation they feel absent from their worries, and this allows them to think differently.<a href="#cite_note-Communication_in_Nursing-94">[94]</a> When one experiences a different mind set, they feel more in control of their response, and how they would go about dealing with the event that caused stress.</dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd><dl><dd>Lefcourt (2001) suggests that this perspective-taking humour is the most effective due to its ability to distance oneself from the situation of great stress.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> Studies show that the use of laughter and humour creates a sense of relief of stress that can last up to 45 minutes post-laughter.<a href="#cite_note-Communication_in_Nursing-94">[94]</a></dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd><dl><dd>Also, most hospitalized children have been seen to use laughter and play to relieve their fear, pain and stress. It has been discovered that there is a great importance in the use of laughter and humour in stress coping.<a href="#cite_note-Communication_in_Nursing-94">[94]</a> Humans should use humour as a means to transcend their original understanding of an external event, take a different perspective, in which their anxiety may be minimized by.</dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sublimation_(psychology)" title="Sublimation (psychology)">Sublimation</a> – allows an "indirect resolution of conflict with neither adverse consequences nor consequences marked by loss of pleasure."<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> Essentially, this mechanism allows channeling of troubling emotions or impulses into an outlet that is socially acceptable.</li> <li>Positive reappraisal – redirects thoughts (cognitive energy) to good things that are either occurring or have not occurred. This can lead to <a href="/wiki/Personal_growth" class="mw-redirect" title="Personal growth">personal growth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Self-reflection" title="Self-reflection">self-reflection</a>, and awareness of the power/benefits of one's efforts.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> For example, studies on <a href="/wiki/Veteran" title="Veteran">veterans</a> of war or peacekeeping operations indicate that persons who construe a positive meaning from their combat or threat experiences tend to adjust better than those who do not.<a href="#cite_note-pmid17532104-98">[98]</a></li></ul> Other adaptive coping mechanisms include <a href="/wiki/Anticipation_(emotion)" class="mw-redirect" title="Anticipation (emotion)">anticipation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Altruism" title="Altruism">altruism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Self-observation" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-observation">self-observation</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mental_inhibition/disavowal_mechanisms">Mental inhibition/disavowal mechanisms</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychological_stress&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Mental inhibition/disavowal mechanisms">edit</a>]</div> These mechanisms cause the individual to have a diminished (or in some cases non-existent) awareness about their anxiety, threatening ideas, fears, etc., that come from being conscious of the perceived threat.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Displacement_(psychology)" title="Displacement (psychology)">Displacement</a> – This is when an individual redirects their emotional feelings about one situation to another, less threatening one.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_repression" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychological repression">Repression</a> – Repression occurs when an individual attempts to remove all their thoughts, feelings, and anything related to the upsetting/stressful (perceived) threat out of their awareness in order to be disconnected from the entire situation. When done long enough in a successful way, this is more than just denial.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reaction_formation" title="Reaction formation">Reaction formation</a> – An attempt to remove any “unacceptable thoughts” from one's consciousness by replacing them with the exact opposite.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a></li></ul> Other inhibition coping mechanisms include undoing, <a href="/wiki/Dissociation_(psychology)" title="Dissociation (psychology)">dissociation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Denial" title="Denial">denial</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychological_projection" title="Psychological projection">projection</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Rationalization_(making_excuses)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rationalization (making excuses)">rationalization</a>. Although some people claim that inhibition coping mechanisms may eventually increase the stress level because the problem is not solved, detaching from the stressor can sometimes help people to temporarily release the stress and become more prepared to deal with problems later on. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Active_mechanisms">Active mechanisms</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychological_stress&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Active mechanisms">edit</a>]</div> These methods deal with stress by an individual literally taking action, or withdrawing. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acting_out" title="Acting out">Acting out</a> – Often viewed as counter-normative, or problematic behavior. Instead of reflecting or problem-solving, an individual takes maladaptive action.<a href="#cite_note-DSM-IV_Adaptive_Functioning_Scale_1994-93">[93]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive_aggression" class="mw-redirect" title="Passive aggression">Passive aggression</a> – When an individual indirectly deals with their anxiety and negative thoughts/feelings stemming from their stress by acting in a hostile or resentful manner towards others. Help-Rejecting Complaining can also be included in this category.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Health_promotion">Health promotion</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychological_stress&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Health promotion">edit</a>]</div> There is an alternative method to coping with stress, in which one works to minimize their anxiety and stress in a preventative manner. Suggested strategies to improve stress management include:<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> <ol><li>Regular exercise – set up a fitness program, 3–4 times a week</li> <li>Support systems – to listen, offer advice, and support each other</li> <li>Time management – develop an organizational system</li> <li>Guided imagery and visualization – create a relaxing state of mind</li> <li>Progressive muscle relaxation – loosen tense muscle groups</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assertiveness" title="Assertiveness">Assertiveness</a> training – work on effective communication</li> <li>Journal writing – express true emotion, self-reflection</li> <li>Stress management in the workplace – organize a new system, switch tasks to reduce own stress.</li></ol> Depending on the situation, all of these coping mechanisms may be adaptive, or maladaptive. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychological_stress&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> Prior to the introduction of the concept "stress" in the psychological sense <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1955,<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> people already identified a range of more nuanced ideas to describe and confront such <a href="/wiki/Emotion" title="Emotion">emotions</a> as <a href="/wiki/Worry" title="Worry">worry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grief" title="Grief">grief</a>, concern,<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> <a href="/wiki/Obsession_(disambiguation)#Psychology" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Obsession (disambiguation)">obsession</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fear" title="Fear">fear</a>, <a href="/wiki/Annoyance" title="Annoyance">annoyance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anxiety" title="Anxiety">anxiety</a>, <a href="/wiki/Distress_(medicine)" title="Distress (medicine)">distress</a>, <a href="/wiki/Suffering" title="Suffering">suffering</a> and <a href="/wiki/Passion_(emotion)" title="Passion (emotion)">passion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> By the 19th century, the popularisation of the nascent science of <a href="/wiki/Neurology" title="Neurology">neurology</a> made it possible to group some undifferentiated combination of one or more of these with an informal diagnosis such as "<a href="/wiki/Nerve" title="Nerve">nerve</a> strain".<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> "Stress" has subsequently become a mainstay of <a href="/wiki/Pop_psychology" class="mw-redirect" title="Pop psychology">pop psychology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> Though stress is discussed throughout history from many distinct topics and cultures, there is no universal consensus over describing stress.<a href="#cite_note-Monroe_2008_33–52-109">[109]</a> This has led to multiple kinds of research, looking at the different aspects of psychological stress and how it changes over a lifespan.<a href="#cite_note-Monroe_2008_33–52-109">[109]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychological_stress&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/12px-WHO_Rod.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/18px-WHO_Rod.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/24px-WHO_Rod.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="107" data-file-height="250" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Medicine" title="Portal:Medicine">Medicine portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/28px-Psi2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/42px-Psi2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/56px-Psi2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Psychology" title="Portal:Psychology">Psychology portal</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acute_stress_reaction" title="Acute stress reaction">Acute stress reaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_performance" title="Adaptive performance">Adaptive performance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_behavioral_therapy" title="Cognitive behavioral therapy">Cognitive behavioral therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complex_post-traumatic_stress_disorder" title="Complex post-traumatic stress disorder">Complex post-traumatic stress disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_resources_theory" title="Conservation of resources theory">Conservation of resources theory</a>, stress theory</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Murray" title="Henry Murray">Henry Murray</a> extreme stress experiments at Harvard 1960s</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incident_stress" title="Incident stress">Incident stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maladaptation" title="Maladaptation">Maladaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melancholia" title="Melancholia">Melancholia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_breakdown" class="mw-redirect" title="Mental breakdown">Mental breakdown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mindfulness-based_stress_reduction" title="Mindfulness-based stress reduction">Mindfulness-based stress reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_stress" title="Occupational stress">Occupational stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_burnout" title="Occupational burnout">Occupational burnout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posttraumatic_stress_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Posttraumatic stress disorder">Posttraumatic stress disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_trauma" title="Psychological trauma">Psychological trauma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychoneuroimmunology" title="Psychoneuroimmunology">Psychoneuroimmunology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stress_(biology)" title="Stress (biology)">Stress (biology)</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychological_stress&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mentalhealthamerica.net/conditions/stress">"Stress"</a>. Mental Health America. 2013-11-18. Retrieved 2018-10-01.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mental+Health+America&rft.atitle=Stress&rft.date=2013-11-18&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mentalhealthamerica.net%2Fconditions%2Fstress&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSapolsky2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Sapolsky" title="Robert Sapolsky">Sapolsky RM</a> (2004). Why Zebras Don't Get Ulcers. New York: St. Martins Press. pp. 37, 71, 92, 271. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8050-7369-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8050-7369-0"><bdi>978-0-8050-7369-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Why+Zebras+Don%27t+Get+Ulcers&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=37%2C+71%2C+92%2C+271&rft.pub=St.+Martins+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-8050-7369-0&rft.aulast=Sapolsky&rft.aufirst=RM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJonesBrightClow2001" class="citation book cs1">Jones F, Bright J, Clow A (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QGsX-N28wjkC&dq=%22Stress%22&pg=PA4">Stress: myth, theory, and research</a>. Pearson Education. p. 4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780130411891" title="Special:BookSources/9780130411891"><bdi>9780130411891</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stress%3A+myth%2C+theory%2C+and+research&rft.pages=4&rft.pub=Pearson+Education&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=9780130411891&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=F&rft.au=Bright%2C+J&rft.au=Clow%2C+A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQGsX-N28wjkC%26dq%3D%2522Stress%2522%26pg%3DPA4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Selye-4"><a href="#cite_ref-Selye_4-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSelye1974" class="citation book cs1">Selye H (1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/stresswithoutdis00sely">Stress without distress</a>. Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott Company. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/stresswithoutdis00sely/page/171">171</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780397010264" title="Special:BookSources/9780397010264"><bdi>9780397010264</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stress+without+distress&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pages=171&rft.pub=J.B.+Lippincott+Company&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=9780397010264&rft.aulast=Selye&rft.aufirst=H&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fstresswithoutdis00sely&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Selye_1983-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Selye_1983_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Selye_1983_5-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Selye_1983_5-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSelye1983" class="citation book cs1">Selye H (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/stressresearchis00cooprich">"The Stress Concept: Past, Present and Future"</a>. In Cooper CL (ed.). Stress Research Issues for the Eighties. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/stressresearchis00cooprich/page/1">1–20</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780471102465" title="Special:BookSources/9780471102465"><bdi>9780471102465</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Stress+Concept%3A+Past%2C+Present+and+Future&rft.btitle=Stress+Research+Issues+for+the+Eighties&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pages=1-20&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=9780471102465&rft.aulast=Selye&rft.aufirst=H&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fstressresearchis00cooprich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Selye_1975-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Selye_1975_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Selye_1975_6-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSelye1975" class="citation journal cs1">Selye H (October 1975). "Implications of stress concept". New York State Journal of Medicine. 75 (12): 2139–2145. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1059917">1059917</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+York+State+Journal+of+Medicine&rft.atitle=Implications+of+stress+concept&rft.volume=75&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E2139-%3C%2Fspan%3E2145&rft.date=1975-10&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F1059917&rft.aulast=Selye&rft.aufirst=H&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fevre-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fevre_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fevre_7-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFevreKoltMatheny2006" class="citation journal cs1">Fevre ML, Kolt GS, Matheny J (1 January 2006). "Eustress, distress and their interpretation in primary and secondary occupational stress management interventions: which way first?". Journal of Managerial Psychology. 21 (6): 547–565. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1108%2F02683940610684391">10.1108/02683940610684391</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Managerial+Psychology&rft.atitle=Eustress%2C+distress+and+their+interpretation+in+primary+and+secondary+occupational+stress+management+interventions%3A+which+way+first%3F&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E547-%3C%2Fspan%3E565&rft.date=2006-01-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1108%2F02683940610684391&rft.aulast=Fevre&rft.aufirst=ML&rft.au=Kolt%2C+GS&rft.au=Matheny%2C+J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-HNC-8"><a href="#cite_ref-HNC_8-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHargroveNelsonCooper2013" class="citation journal cs1">Hargrove MB, Nelson DL, Cooper CL (2013). "Generating eustress by challenging employees: Helping people savor their work". Organizational Dynamics. 42: 61–69. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.orgdyn.2012.12.008">10.1016/j.orgdyn.2012.12.008</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Organizational+Dynamics&rft.atitle=Generating+eustress+by+challenging+employees%3A+Helping+people+savor+their+work&rft.volume=42&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E61-%3C%2Fspan%3E69&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.orgdyn.2012.12.008&rft.aulast=Hargrove&rft.aufirst=MB&rft.au=Nelson%2C+DL&rft.au=Cooper%2C+CL&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/stressor">"stressor"</a>. Collins English Dictionary – Complete & Unabridged 11th Edition. Retrieved September 20, 2012, from CollinsDictionary.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120620123917/http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/stressor">Archived</a> from the original on June 20, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=stressor&rft.pub=Collins+English+Dictionary+%26ndash%3B%26%2332%3B+Complete+%26+Unabridged+11th+Edition.+Retrieved+September+20%2C+2012%2C+from+CollinsDictionary.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.collinsdictionary.com%2Fdictionary%2Fenglish%2Fstressor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pastorino-10">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pastorino_10-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pastorino_10-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pastorino_10-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pastorino_10-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pastorino_10-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pastorino_10-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pastorino_10-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pastorino_10-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pastorino_10-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pastorino_10-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pastorino_10-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pastorino_10-11">l</a> Pastorino, E. & Doyle-Portillo, S. (2009). What is Psychology?. 2nd Ed. Belmont, CA: Thompson Higher Education. </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUrsin1988" class="citation book cs1">Ursin H (1988). "Expectancy and activation: An attempt to systematize stress theory". In Hellhammer DH, Florin I, Weiner H (eds.). Neuronal Control of Bodily Function: Basic and Clinical Aspects, Vol. 2: Neurobiological Approaches to Human Disease. Kirkland, WA: Huber. pp. 313–334.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Expectancy+and+activation%3A+An+attempt+to+systematize+stress+theory&rft.btitle=Neuronal+Control+of+Bodily+Function%3A+Basic+and+Clinical+Aspects%2C+Vol.+2%3A+Neurobiological+Approaches+to+Human+Disease&rft.place=Kirkland%2C+WA&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E313-%3C%2Fspan%3E334&rft.pub=Huber&rft.date=1988&rft.aulast=Ursin&rft.aufirst=H&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:Kampen-12"><a href="#cite_ref-:Kampen_12-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvan_Kampen2019" class="citation journal cs1">van Kampen HS (February 2019). "The principle of consistency and the cause and function of behaviour". Behavioural Processes. 159: 42–54. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.beproc.2018.12.013">10.1016/j.beproc.2018.12.013</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30562561">30562561</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:56478466">56478466</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Behavioural+Processes&rft.atitle=The+principle+of+consistency+and+the+cause+and+function+of+behaviour&rft.volume=159&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E42-%3C%2Fspan%3E54&rft.date=2019-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A56478466%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30562561&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.beproc.2018.12.013&rft.aulast=van+Kampen&rft.aufirst=HS&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> Headquarters, Department of the Army (1994). Leader’s Manual for Combat Stress Control, FM 22–51, Washington DC. </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTeoFam2018" class="citation journal cs1">Teo LY, Fam JY (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mjes.um.edu.my/index.php/jummec/article/view/11016">"Prevalence and determinants of perceived stress among undergraduate students in a Malaysian University"</a>. Journal of Health and Translational Medicine. 21 (1): 1–5.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Health+and+Translational+Medicine&rft.atitle=Prevalence+and+determinants+of+perceived+stress+among+undergraduate+students+in+a+Malaysian+University&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E5&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Teo&rft.aufirst=LY&rft.au=Fam%2C+JY&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmjes.um.edu.my%2Findex.php%2Fjummec%2Farticle%2Fview%2F11016&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid9619470-15"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid9619470_15-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohenFrankDoyleSkoner1998" class="citation journal cs1">Cohen S, Frank E, Doyle WJ, Skoner DP, Rabin BS, Gwaltney JM (May 1998). "Types of stressors that increase susceptibility to the common cold in healthy adults". Health Psychology. 17 (3): 214–223. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0278-6133.17.3.214">10.1037/0278-6133.17.3.214</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9619470">9619470</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:15175643">15175643</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Health+Psychology&rft.atitle=Types+of+stressors+that+increase+susceptibility+to+the+common+cold+in+healthy+adults&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E214-%3C%2Fspan%3E223&rft.date=1998-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A15175643%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9619470&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F0278-6133.17.3.214&rft.aulast=Cohen&rft.aufirst=S&rft.au=Frank%2C+E&rft.au=Doyle%2C+WJ&rft.au=Skoner%2C+DP&rft.au=Rabin%2C+BS&rft.au=Gwaltney%2C+JM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jeronimus2014-16">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jeronimus2014_16-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jeronimus2014_16-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jeronimus2014_16-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jeronimus2014_16-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJeronimusRieseSandermanOrmel2014" class="citation journal cs1">Jeronimus BF, Riese H, Sanderman R, Ormel J (October 2014). "Mutual reinforcement between neuroticism and life experiences: a five-wave, 16-year study to test reciprocal causation". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 107 (4): 751–764. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fa0037009">10.1037/a0037009</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25111305">25111305</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Personality+and+Social+Psychology&rft.atitle=Mutual+reinforcement+between+neuroticism+and+life+experiences%3A+a+five-wave%2C+16-year+study+to+test+reciprocal+causation&rft.volume=107&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E751-%3C%2Fspan%3E764&rft.date=2014-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2Fa0037009&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25111305&rft.aulast=Jeronimus&rft.aufirst=BF&rft.au=Riese%2C+H&rft.au=Sanderman%2C+R&rft.au=Ormel%2C+J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jeronimus2013-17">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jeronimus2013_17-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jeronimus2013_17-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJeronimusOrmelAlemanPenninx2013" class="citation journal cs1">Jeronimus BF, Ormel J, Aleman A, Penninx BW, Riese H (November 2013). "Negative and positive life events are associated with small but lasting change in neuroticism". Psychological Medicine. 43 (11): 2403–2415. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0033291713000159">10.1017/S0033291713000159</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23410535">23410535</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:43717734">43717734</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychological+Medicine&rft.atitle=Negative+and+positive+life+events+are+associated+with+small+but+lasting+change+in+neuroticism&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E2403-%3C%2Fspan%3E2415&rft.date=2013-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A43717734%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23410535&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0033291713000159&rft.aulast=Jeronimus&rft.aufirst=BF&rft.au=Ormel%2C+J&rft.au=Aleman%2C+A&rft.au=Penninx%2C+BW&rft.au=Riese%2C+H&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAldwinJeongIgarashiChoun2014" class="citation journal cs1">Aldwin CM, Jeong YJ, Igarashi H, Choun S, Spiro A (November 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4253863">"Do hassles mediate between life events and mortality in older men? Longitudinal findings from the VA Normative Aging Study"</a>. Experimental Gerontology. 59: 74–80. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.exger.2014.06.019">10.1016/j.exger.2014.06.019</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4253863">4253863</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24995936">24995936</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Experimental+Gerontology&rft.atitle=Do+hassles+mediate+between+life+events+and+mortality+in+older+men%3F+Longitudinal+findings+from+the+VA+Normative+Aging+Study&rft.volume=59&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E74-%3C%2Fspan%3E80&rft.date=2014-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4253863%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24995936&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.exger.2014.06.019&rft.aulast=Aldwin&rft.aufirst=CM&rft.au=Jeong%2C+YJ&rft.au=Igarashi%2C+H&rft.au=Choun%2C+S&rft.au=Spiro%2C+A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4253863&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ttgmice.com/article/cwt-rolls-out-solution-to-tackle-cost-of-travel-stress/">"CWT rolls out solution to tackle cost of travel stress"</a>. TTGmice. 2013-04-25. Retrieved 31 Jan 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=CWT+rolls+out+solution+to+tackle+cost+of+travel+stress&rft.pub=TTGmice&rft.date=2013-04-25&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ttgmice.com%2Farticle%2Fcwt-rolls-out-solution-to-tackle-cost-of-travel-stress%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-campbell-20">^ <a href="#cite_ref-campbell_20-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-campbell_20-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCampbell2016" class="citation journal cs1">Campbell JM (2016). "Ambient Stressors". Environment and Behavior. 15 (3): 355–80. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0013916583153005">10.1177/0013916583153005</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:220442210">220442210</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Environment+and+Behavior&rft.atitle=Ambient+Stressors&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E355-%3C%2Fspan%3E80&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0013916583153005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A220442210%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Campbell&rft.aufirst=JM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> Headquarters, Department of the Army (2006). Combat and Operational Stress Control, FM 4-02.51, Washington, DC, p. 9 </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Marcia_Lynn_Whicker" title="Marcia Lynn Whicker">Whicker, Marcia Lynn</a>. Toxic leaders: When organizations go bad. Westport, CT. Quorum Books. 1996.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-holmes-23">^ <a href="#cite_ref-holmes_23-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-holmes_23-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolmesRahe1967" class="citation journal cs1">Holmes TH, Rahe RH (August 1967). "The Social Readjustment Rating Scale". Journal of Psychosomatic Research. 11 (2): 213–218. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0022-3999%2867%2990010-4">10.1016/0022-3999(67)90010-4</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6059863">6059863</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Psychosomatic+Research&rft.atitle=The+Social+Readjustment+Rating+Scale&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E213-%3C%2Fspan%3E218&rft.date=1967-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0022-3999%2867%2990010-4&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F6059863&rft.aulast=Holmes&rft.aufirst=TH&rft.au=Rahe%2C+RH&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Riese2013-24"><a href="#cite_ref-Riese2013_24-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRieseSniederJeronimusKorhonen2014" class="citation journal cs1">Riese H, Snieder H, Jeronimus BF, Korhonen T, Rose RJ, Kaprio J, Ormel J (2014). "Timing of Stressful Life Events Affects Stability and Change of Neuroticism". European Journal of Personality. 28 (2): 193–200. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fper.1929">10.1002/per.1929</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:142517975">142517975</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Journal+of+Personality&rft.atitle=Timing+of+Stressful+Life+Events+Affects+Stability+and+Change+of+Neuroticism&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E193-%3C%2Fspan%3E200&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fper.1929&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A142517975%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Riese&rft.aufirst=H&rft.au=Snieder%2C+H&rft.au=Jeronimus%2C+BF&rft.au=Korhonen%2C+T&rft.au=Rose%2C+RJ&rft.au=Kaprio%2C+J&rft.au=Ormel%2C+J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-25">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_25-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_25-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_25-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYangMcCoyAnaya-BoigAvila-Palencia2021" class="citation journal cs1">Yang X, McCoy E, Anaya-Boig E, Avila-Palencia I, Brand C, Carrasco-Turigas G, et al. (November 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.envint.2021.106764">"The effects of traveling in different transport modes on galvanic skin response (GSR) as a measure of stress: An observational study"</a>. Environment International. 156: 106764. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021EnInt.15606764Y">2021EnInt.15606764Y</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.envint.2021.106764">10.1016/j.envint.2021.106764</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10230%2F53035">10230/53035</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34273874">34273874</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:236035129">236035129</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Environment+International&rft.atitle=The+effects+of+traveling+in+different+transport+modes+on+galvanic+skin+response+%28GSR%29+as+a+measure+of+stress%3A+An+observational+study&rft.volume=156&rft.pages=106764&rft.date=2021-11&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10230%2F53035&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A236035129%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2021EnInt.15606764Y&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F34273874&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.envint.2021.106764&rft.aulast=Yang&rft.aufirst=X&rft.au=McCoy%2C+E&rft.au=Anaya-Boig%2C+E&rft.au=Avila-Palencia%2C+I&rft.au=Brand%2C+C&rft.au=Carrasco-Turigas%2C+G&rft.au=Dons%2C+E&rft.au=Gerike%2C+R&rft.au=Goetschi%2C+T&rft.au=Nieuwenhuijsen%2C+M&rft.au=Pablo+Orjuela%2C+J&rft.au=Int+Panis%2C+L&rft.au=Standaert%2C+A&rft.au=de+Nazelle%2C+A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.envint.2021.106764&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLundberg2010" class="citation book cs1">Lundberg U (2010). "Neuroendocrine Measures". In Contrada R, Baum A (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EXVlk8pnEKIC">The Handbook of Stress Science: Biology, Psychology, and Health</a>. New York: Springer Publishing Company. p. 531. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780826117717" title="Special:BookSources/9780826117717"><bdi>9780826117717</bdi></a>. Retrieved 30 November 2020. <q>[...] epinephrine, norepinephrine, and cortisol are considered the most important 'stress hormones,' although a number of other hormones are also influenced by stress [...].</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Neuroendocrine+Measures&rft.btitle=The+Handbook+of+Stress+Science%3A+Biology%2C+Psychology%2C+and+Health&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=531&rft.pub=Springer+Publishing+Company&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9780826117717&rft.aulast=Lundberg&rft.aufirst=U&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEXVlk8pnEKIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrantzFalconer1997" class="citation book cs1">Krantz DS, Falconer JF (1997). "Measurement of cardiovascular responses". In <a href="/wiki/Sheldon_Cohen" title="Sheldon Cohen">Cohen S</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ronald_C._Kessler" title="Ronald C. Kessler">Kessler RC</a>, Underwood Gordon L (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Xy_r37l0qzIC">Measuring Stress: A Guide for Health and Social Scientists</a>. A project of the Fetzer Institute (revised ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 193–212. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195121209" title="Special:BookSources/9780195121209"><bdi>9780195121209</bdi></a>. Retrieved 30 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Measurement+of+cardiovascular+responses&rft.btitle=Measuring+Stress%3A+A+Guide+for+Health+and+Social+Scientists&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=A+project+of+the+Fetzer+Institute&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E193-%3C%2Fspan%3E212&rft.edition=revised&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=9780195121209&rft.aulast=Krantz&rft.aufirst=DS&rft.au=Falconer%2C+JF&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXy_r37l0qzIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKiecolt-GlaserGlaser1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Janice_Kiecolt-Glaser" title="Janice Kiecolt-Glaser">Kiecolt-Glaser J</a>, Glaser R (1997). "Measurement of immune response". In <a href="/wiki/Sheldon_Cohen" title="Sheldon Cohen">Cohen S</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ronald_C._Kessler" title="Ronald C. Kessler">Kessler RC</a>, Underwood Gordon L (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Xy_r37l0qzIC">Measuring Stress: A Guide for Health and Social Scientists</a>. A project of the Fetzer Institute (revised ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 213–230. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195121209" title="Special:BookSources/9780195121209"><bdi>9780195121209</bdi></a>. Retrieved 30 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Measurement+of+immune+response&rft.btitle=Measuring+Stress%3A+A+Guide+for+Health+and+Social+Scientists&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=A+project+of+the+Fetzer+Institute&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E213-%3C%2Fspan%3E230&rft.edition=revised&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=9780195121209&rft.aulast=Kiecolt-Glaser&rft.aufirst=J&rft.au=Glaser%2C+R&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXy_r37l0qzIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDahlinJoneborgRuneson2005" class="citation journal cs1">Dahlin M, Joneborg N, Runeson B (June 2005). "Stress and depression among medical students: a cross-sectional study". Medical Education. 39 (6): 594–604. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1365-2929.2005.02176.x">10.1111/j.1365-2929.2005.02176.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15910436">15910436</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:9575988">9575988</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Medical+Education&rft.atitle=Stress+and+depression+among+medical+students%3A+a+cross-sectional+study&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E594-%3C%2Fspan%3E604&rft.date=2005-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A9575988%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15910436&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1365-2929.2005.02176.x&rft.aulast=Dahlin&rft.aufirst=M&rft.au=Joneborg%2C+N&rft.au=Runeson%2C+B&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShimJeonKimLee2016" class="citation journal cs1">Shim EJ, Jeon HJ, Kim H, Lee KM, Jung D, Noh HL, et al. (November 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5121937">"Measuring stress in medical education: validation of the Korean version of the higher education stress inventory with medical students"</a>. BMC Medical Education. 16 (1): 302. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2Fs12909-016-0824-9">10.1186/s12909-016-0824-9</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5121937">5121937</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27881178">27881178</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BMC+Medical+Education&rft.atitle=Measuring+stress+in+medical+education%3A+validation+of+the+Korean+version+of+the+higher+education+stress+inventory+with+medical+students&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=302&rft.date=2016-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5121937%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27881178&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2Fs12909-016-0824-9&rft.aulast=Shim&rft.aufirst=EJ&rft.au=Jeon%2C+HJ&rft.au=Kim%2C+H&rft.au=Lee%2C+KM&rft.au=Jung%2C+D&rft.au=Noh%2C+HL&rft.au=Roh%2C+MS&rft.au=Hahm%2C+BJ&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5121937&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid42620-31"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid42620_31-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKlimmerRutenfranzRohmert1979" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Klimmer F, Rutenfranz J, Rohmert W (1979). "[Investigations on physiological and biochemical indicators for differentiation of mental and emotional strain in psychical efforts (author's transl)]". International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health (in German). 44 (3): 149–63. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00381130">10.1007/BF00381130</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42620">42620</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:116086089">116086089</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Archives+of+Occupational+and+Environmental+Health&rft.atitle=%5BInvestigations+on+physiological+and+biochemical+indicators+for+differentiation+of+mental+and+emotional+strain+in+psychical+efforts+%28author%27s+transl%29%5D&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E149-%3C%2Fspan%3E63&rft.date=1979&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A116086089%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F42620&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF00381130&rft.aulast=Klimmer&rft.aufirst=F&rft.au=Rutenfranz%2C+J&rft.au=Rohmert%2C+W&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGopherDonchin1986" class="citation book cs1">Gopher D, Donchin E (1986). "Workload: An examination of the concept". In Boff KR, Kaufman L, Thomas JP (eds.). Handbook of perception and human performance. Volume II - Cognitive Process and Performance. New York: John Wiley and Sons (A Wiley-Interscience publication). pp. 1–49.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Workload%3A+An+examination+of+the+concept&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+perception+and+human+performance.+Volume+II+-+Cognitive+Process+and+Performance&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E49&rft.pub=John+Wiley+and+Sons+%28A+Wiley-Interscience+publication%29&rft.date=1986&rft.aulast=Gopher&rft.aufirst=D&rft.au=Donchin%2C+E&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoucsein1988" class="citation book cs1">Boucsein W (1988). Elektrodermale Aktivität. Grundlagen, Methoden und Anwendungen. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-662-06968-4">10.1007/978-3-662-06968-4</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-662-06969-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-662-06969-1"><bdi>978-3-662-06969-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Elektrodermale+Aktivit%C3%A4t.+Grundlagen%2C+Methoden+und+Anwendungen&rft.place=Berlin%2C+Heidelberg&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=1988&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-662-06968-4&rft.isbn=978-3-662-06969-1&rft.aulast=Boucsein&rft.aufirst=W&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBöckelmannSeibt2011" class="citation journal cs1">Böckelmann I, Seibt R (September 2011). "Methoden zur Indikation vorwiegend psychischer Berufsbelastung und Beanspruchung — Möglichkeiten für die betriebliche Praxis". Zeitschrift für Arbeitswissenschaft. 65 (3): 205–222. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF03373839">10.1007/BF03373839</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:151916813">151916813</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+Arbeitswissenschaft&rft.atitle=Methoden+zur+Indikation+vorwiegend+psychischer+Berufsbelastung+und+Beanspruchung+%E2%80%94+M%C3%B6glichkeiten+f%C3%BCr+die+betriebliche+Praxis&rft.volume=65&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E205-%3C%2Fspan%3E222&rft.date=2011-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF03373839&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A151916813%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=B%C3%B6ckelmann&rft.aufirst=I&rft.au=Seibt%2C+R&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChenZhouWangYu2016" class="citation book cs1">Chen F, Zhou J, Wang Y, Yu K, Arshad SZ, Khawaji A, Conway D (2016). Robust multimodal cognitive load measurement. Human-computer interaction series. Cham: Springer. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-319-31700-7">10.1007/978-3-319-31700-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-31698-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-31698-7"><bdi>978-3-319-31698-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:6183315">6183315</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Robust+multimodal+cognitive+load+measurement&rft.place=Cham&rft.series=Human-computer+interaction+series&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A6183315%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-319-31700-7&rft.isbn=978-3-319-31698-7&rft.aulast=Chen&rft.aufirst=F&rft.au=Zhou%2C+J&rft.au=Wang%2C+Y&rft.au=Yu%2C+K&rft.au=Arshad%2C+SZ&rft.au=Khawaji%2C+A&rft.au=Conway%2C+D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRauRichter1995" class="citation book cs1">Rau R, Richter P (1995). "24-Stunden-Monitoring zur Prüfung der Reaktivität psychophysiologischer Parameter in Belastungs- und Erholungsphasen. Speichelparameter und kardiovaskuläre Parameter in Feld- und Experimentaluntersuchungen". Schriftenreihe der Bundesanstalt für Arbeitsschutz und Arbeitsmedizin. Bremerhaven: Wirtschaftsverlag NW. FB 12.001.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=24-Stunden-Monitoring+zur+Pr%C3%BCfung+der+Reaktivit%C3%A4t+psychophysiologischer+Parameter+in+Belastungs-+und+Erholungsphasen.+Speichelparameter+und+kardiovaskul%C3%A4re+Parameter+in+Feld-+und+Experimentaluntersuchungen&rft.btitle=Schriftenreihe+der+Bundesanstalt+f%C3%BCr+Arbeitsschutz+und+Arbeitsmedizin&rft.place=Bremerhaven&rft.pub=Wirtschaftsverlag+NW&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Rau&rft.aufirst=R&rft.au=Richter%2C+P&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRibback2005" class="citation thesis cs1">Ribback S (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://publishup.uni-potsdam.de/frontdoor/index/index/docId/79">Psychophysiologische Untersuchung mentaler Beanspruchung in simulierten Mensch-Maschine-Interaktionen</a> (Ph.D. thesis). Universität Potsdam.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Psychophysiologische+Untersuchung+mentaler+Beanspruchung+in+simulierten+Mensch-Maschine-Interaktionen&rft.degree=Ph.D.&rft.inst=Universit%C3%A4t+Potsdam&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Ribback&rft.aufirst=S&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpublishup.uni-potsdam.de%2Ffrontdoor%2Findex%2Findex%2FdocId%2F79&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchlickBruderLuczak2018" class="citation book cs1">Schlick C, Bruder R, Luczak H (2018). Arbeitswissenschaft. 4. Aufl. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-662-56037-2">10.1007/978-3-662-56037-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-662-56036-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-662-56036-5"><bdi>978-3-662-56036-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arbeitswissenschaft.+4.+Aufl.&rft.place=Berlin%2C+Heidelberg&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-662-56037-2&rft.isbn=978-3-662-56036-5&rft.aulast=Schlick&rft.aufirst=C&rft.au=Bruder%2C+R&rft.au=Luczak%2C+H&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStantonHedgeBrookhuisSalas2005" class="citation book cs1">Stanton NA, Hedge A, Brookhuis K, Salas E, Hendrick HW (2005). Stanton NA, Hedge A, Brookhuis K, Salas E, Hendrick HW (eds.). Handbook of human factors and ergonomics methods. Boca Raton: CRC Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1201%2F9780203489925">10.1201/9780203489925</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780429205712" title="Special:BookSources/9780429205712"><bdi>9780429205712</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+human+factors+and+ergonomics+methods&rft.place=Boca+Raton&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1201%2F9780203489925&rft.isbn=9780429205712&rft.aulast=Stanton&rft.aufirst=NA&rft.au=Hedge%2C+A&rft.au=Brookhuis%2C+K&rft.au=Salas%2C+E&rft.au=Hendrick%2C+HW&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Galley,_Niels_1993-40">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Galley,_Niels_1993_40-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Galley,_Niels_1993_40-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGalley1993" class="citation book cs1">Galley N (1993). "Augenbewegungen, Antizipation und Leistung: Auf dem Wege zu einem neuropsychologischen Konzentrationsmodell". In Beckmann J, Strang H, Hahn E (eds.). Aufmerksamkeit und Energetisierung. Facetten von Konzentration und Leistung. Göttingen, Bern, Toronto, Seattle: Hogrefe Verl. für Psychologie. pp. 229–245. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783801704216" title="Special:BookSources/9783801704216"><bdi>9783801704216</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Augenbewegungen%2C+Antizipation+und+Leistung%3A+Auf+dem+Wege+zu+einem+neuropsychologischen+Konzentrationsmodell&rft.btitle=Aufmerksamkeit+und+Energetisierung.+Facetten+von+Konzentration+und+Leistung&rft.place=G%C3%B6ttingen%2C+Bern%2C+Toronto%2C+Seattle&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E229-%3C%2Fspan%3E245&rft.pub=Hogrefe+Verl.+f%C3%BCr+Psychologie&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=9783801704216&rft.aulast=Galley&rft.aufirst=N&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBiswasDuttLangdon2016" class="citation journal cs1">Biswas P, Dutt V, Langdon P (January 2016). "Comparing ocular parameters for cognitive load measurement in eye-gaze-controlled interfaces for automotive and desktop computing environments". International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction. 32 (1): 23–38. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F10447318.2015.1084112">10.1080/10447318.2015.1084112</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1770764">1770764</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Human-Computer+Interaction&rft.atitle=Comparing+ocular+parameters+for+cognitive+load+measurement+in+eye-gaze-controlled+interfaces+for+automotive+and+desktop+computing+environments&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E23-%3C%2Fspan%3E38&rft.date=2016-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F10447318.2015.1084112&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A1770764%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Biswas&rft.aufirst=P&rft.au=Dutt%2C+V&rft.au=Langdon%2C+P&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchneider2019" class="citation thesis cs1">Schneider M (2019). Blickbasierte Beanspruchungsmessung : Entwicklung und Evaluation eines Kalibrierungssystems zur individuellen Bewertung der mentalen Beanspruchung in der Mensch-Technik-Interaktion (Ph.D. thesis). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3731508090" title="Special:BookSources/978-3731508090"><bdi>978-3731508090</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Blickbasierte+Beanspruchungsmessung+%3A+Entwicklung+und+Evaluation+eines+Kalibrierungssystems+zur+individuellen+Bewertung+der+mentalen+Beanspruchung+in+der+Mensch-Technik-Interaktion&rft.degree=Ph.D.&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-3731508090&rft.aulast=Schneider&rft.aufirst=M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrunnFalkMatthes1941" class="citation journal cs1">Brunn WV, Falk R, Matthes K (January 1941). "Untersuchungen über die Pupillenreflexe beim Menschen". Pflügers Archiv für die gesamte Physiologie des Menschen und der Tiere. 244 (5): 644–658. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01756035">10.1007/BF01756035</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:12285684">12285684</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Pfl%C3%BCgers+Archiv+f%C3%BCr+die+gesamte+Physiologie+des+Menschen+und+der+Tiere&rft.atitle=Untersuchungen+%C3%BCber+die+Pupillenreflexe+beim+Menschen&rft.volume=244&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E644-%3C%2Fspan%3E658&rft.date=1941-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF01756035&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A12285684%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Brunn&rft.aufirst=WV&rft.au=Falk%2C+R&rft.au=Matthes%2C+K&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKerkau2005" class="citation thesis cs1">Kerkau F (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://docplayer.org/3196391-Biosignale-der-pupille-zur-steuerung-intelligenter-user-interfaces.html">Biosignale der Pupille zur Steuerung intelligenter User Interfaces. Untersuchung von Pupillenbewegungen zur Realisierung einer biopsychologischen Computerschnittstelle für die Mensch-Computer-Interaktion. Dissertationsschrift</a> (Thesis). Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin. Fachbereich Erziehungswissenschaft und Psychologie.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Biosignale+der+Pupille+zur+Steuerung+intelligenter+User+Interfaces.+Untersuchung+von+Pupillenbewegungen+zur+Realisierung+einer+biopsychologischen+Computerschnittstelle+f%C3%BCr+die+Mensch-Computer-Interaktion.+Dissertationsschrift&rft.inst=Freie+Universit%C3%A4t+Berlin%2C+Berlin.+Fachbereich+Erziehungswissenschaft+und+Psychologie&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Kerkau&rft.aufirst=F&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdocplayer.org%2F3196391-Biosignale-der-pupille-zur-steuerung-intelligenter-user-interfaces.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeattyLucero-Wagoner2000" class="citation book cs1">Beatty J, Lucero-Wagoner B (2000). "The pupillary system". In Cacioppo JT, Tassinary LG, Berntson GG (eds.). Handbook of psychophysiology. Cambridge University Press. pp. 142–162. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-84471-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-84471-1"><bdi>0-521-84471-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+pupillary+system&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+psychophysiology&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E142-%3C%2Fspan%3E162&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-521-84471-1&rft.aulast=Beatty&rft.aufirst=J&rft.au=Lucero-Wagoner%2C+B&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChenEpps2014" class="citation journal cs1">Chen S, Epps J (July 2014). "Using task-induced pupil diameter and blink rate to infer cognitive load". Human–Computer Interaction. 29 (4): 390–413. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F07370024.2014.892428">10.1080/07370024.2014.892428</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:13871681">13871681</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Human%E2%80%93Computer+Interaction&rft.atitle=Using+task-induced+pupil+diameter+and+blink+rate+to+infer+cognitive+load&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E390-%3C%2Fspan%3E413&rft.date=2014-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F07370024.2014.892428&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A13871681%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Chen&rft.aufirst=S&rft.au=Epps%2C+J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPonderKennedy1927" class="citation journal cs1">Ponder E, Kennedy WP (July 1927). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1113%2Fexpphysiol.1927.sp000433">"On the act of blinking"</a>. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Physiology. 18 (2): 89–110. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1113%2Fexpphysiol.1927.sp000433">10.1113/expphysiol.1927.sp000433</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Quarterly+Journal+of+Experimental+Physiology&rft.atitle=On+the+act+of+blinking&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E89-%3C%2Fspan%3E110&rft.date=1927-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1113%2Fexpphysiol.1927.sp000433&rft.aulast=Ponder&rft.aufirst=E&rft.au=Kennedy%2C+WP&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1113%252Fexpphysiol.1927.sp000433&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid6701241-48"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid6701241_48-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSternWalrathGoldstein1984" class="citation journal cs1">Stern JA, Walrath LC, Goldstein R (January 1984). "The endogenous eyeblink". Psychophysiology. 21 (1): 22–33. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1469-8986.1984.tb02312.x">10.1111/j.1469-8986.1984.tb02312.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6701241">6701241</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychophysiology&rft.atitle=The+endogenous+eyeblink&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E22-%3C%2Fspan%3E33&rft.date=1984-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1469-8986.1984.tb02312.x&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F6701241&rft.aulast=Stern&rft.aufirst=JA&rft.au=Walrath%2C+LC&rft.au=Goldstein%2C+R&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReßutHoppe2020" class="citation journal cs1">Reßut N, Hoppe A (December 2020). "Erfassung von individuellem Beanspruchungserleben bei kognitiven Belastungssituationen mittels Mustererkennung im Lidschlagverhalten". Zeitschrift für Arbeitswissenschaft. 74 (4): 249–261. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs41449-019-00165-y">10.1007/s41449-019-00165-y</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:203468950">203468950</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+Arbeitswissenschaft&rft.atitle=Erfassung+von+individuellem+Beanspruchungserleben+bei+kognitiven+Belastungssituationen+mittels+Mustererkennung+im+Lidschlagverhalten&rft.volume=74&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E249-%3C%2Fspan%3E261&rft.date=2020-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs41449-019-00165-y&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A203468950%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Re%C3%9Fut&rft.aufirst=N&rft.au=Hoppe%2C+A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReßut2021" class="citation book cs1">Reßut N (2021). Das Lidschlagverhalten als Indikator psychischer Belastung. Wiesbaden: Springer Vieweg. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-658-36052-8">10.1007/978-3-658-36052-8</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-658-36051-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-658-36051-1"><bdi>978-3-658-36051-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:245646463">245646463</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Das+Lidschlagverhalten+als+Indikator+psychischer+Belastung&rft.place=Wiesbaden&rft.pub=Springer+Vieweg&rft.date=2021&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A245646463%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-658-36052-8&rft.isbn=978-3-658-36051-1&rft.aulast=Re%C3%9Fut&rft.aufirst=N&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-GottliebBenjaminCoping-51"><a href="#cite_ref-GottliebBenjaminCoping_51-0">^</a> Gottlieb, Benjamin."Coping with Chronic Stress". Plenum Press. 1997. </li> <li id="cite_note-General_Adaptive_Syndrome-52">^ <a href="#cite_ref-General_Adaptive_Syndrome_52-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-General_Adaptive_Syndrome_52-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-General_Adaptive_Syndrome_52-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMittererCoon2013" class="citation book cs1">Mitterer J, Coon D (2013). Introduction to Psychology. Jon-David Hague. pp. 446–447.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Psychology&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E446-%3C%2Fspan%3E447&rft.pub=Jon-David+Hague&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Mitterer&rft.aufirst=J&rft.au=Coon%2C+D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-oregonstate.edu-53"><a href="#cite_ref-oregonstate.edu_53-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/dce/hhs231_w04/nine/studyguide.htm">"HHS 231 – Extended Campus – Oregon State University"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121010135321/http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/dce/hhs231_w04/nine/studyguide.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2012-10-10.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=HHS+231+%E2%80%93+Extended+Campus+%E2%80%93+Oregon+State+University&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Foregonstate.edu%2Finstruct%2Fdce%2Fhhs231_w04%2Fnine%2Fstudyguide.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cohen2019-54">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cohen2019_54-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cohen2019_54-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohenMurphyPrather2019" class="citation journal cs1">Cohen S, Murphy ML, Prather AA (January 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6996482">"Ten Surprising Facts About Stressful Life Events and Disease Risk"</a>. Annual Review of Psychology. 70: 577–597. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev-psych-010418-102857">10.1146/annurev-psych-010418-102857</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6996482">6996482</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29949726">29949726</a>. <q>the strongest conclusion derived from decades of research on stressors and cancer is that stressful events may be associated with decreased cancer survival but are probably not associated with disease incidence (Chida et al. 2008).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Psychology&rft.atitle=Ten+Surprising+Facts+About+Stressful+Life+Events+and+Disease+Risk&rft.volume=70&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E577-%3C%2Fspan%3E597&rft.date=2019-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6996482%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29949726&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev-psych-010418-102857&rft.aulast=Cohen&rft.aufirst=S&rft.au=Murphy%2C+ML&rft.au=Prather%2C+AA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6996482&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid23393080-55"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid23393080_55-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeikkiläNybergTheorellFransson2013" class="citation journal cs1">Heikkilä K, Nyberg ST, Theorell T, Fransson EI, Alfredsson L, Bjorner JB, et al. (February 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3567204">"Work stress and risk of cancer: meta-analysis of 5700 incident cancer events in 116,000 European men and women"</a>. BMJ. 346: f165. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fbmj.f165">10.1136/bmj.f165</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3567204">3567204</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23393080">23393080</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BMJ&rft.atitle=Work+stress+and+risk+of+cancer%3A+meta-analysis+of+5700+incident+cancer+events+in+116%2C000+European+men+and+women&rft.volume=346&rft.pages=f165&rft.date=2013-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3567204%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23393080&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1136%2Fbmj.f165&rft.aulast=Heikkil%C3%A4&rft.aufirst=K&rft.au=Nyberg%2C+ST&rft.au=Theorell%2C+T&rft.au=Fransson%2C+EI&rft.au=Alfredsson%2C+L&rft.au=Bjorner%2C+JB&rft.au=Bonenfant%2C+S&rft.au=Borritz%2C+M&rft.au=Bouillon%2C+K&rft.au=Burr%2C+H&rft.au=Dragano%2C+N&rft.au=Geuskens%2C+GA&rft.au=Goldberg%2C+M&rft.au=Hamer%2C+M&rft.au=Hooftman%2C+WE&rft.au=Houtman%2C+IL&rft.au=Joensuu%2C+M&rft.au=Knutsson%2C+A&rft.au=Koskenvuo%2C+M&rft.au=Koskinen%2C+A&rft.au=Kouvonen%2C+A&rft.au=Madsen%2C+IE&rft.au=Magnusson+Hanson%2C+LL&rft.au=Marmot%2C+MG&rft.au=Nielsen%2C+ML&rft.au=Nordin%2C+M&rft.au=Oksanen%2C+T&rft.au=Pentti%2C+J&rft.au=Salo%2C+P&rft.au=Rugulies%2C+R&rft.au=Steptoe%2C+A&rft.au=Suominen%2C+S&rft.au=Vahtera%2C+J&rft.au=Virtanen%2C+M&rft.au=V%C3%A4%C3%A4n%C3%A4nen%2C+A&rft.au=Westerholm%2C+P&rft.au=Westerlund%2C+H&rft.au=Zins%2C+M&rft.au=Ferrie%2C+JE&rft.au=Singh-Manoux%2C+A&rft.au=Batty%2C+GD&rft.au=Kivim%C3%A4ki%2C+M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3567204&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShahabMcGowanWallerSmith2018" class="citation journal cs1">Shahab L, McGowan JA, Waller J, Smith SG (November 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6202672">"Prevalence of beliefs about actual and mythical causes of cancer and their association with socio-demographic and health-related characteristics: Findings from a cross-sectional survey in England"</a>. European Journal of Cancer. 103: 308–316. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ejca.2018.03.029">10.1016/j.ejca.2018.03.029</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6202672">6202672</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29705530">29705530</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Journal+of+Cancer&rft.atitle=Prevalence+of+beliefs+about+actual+and+mythical+causes+of+cancer+and+their+association+with+socio-demographic+and+health-related+characteristics%3A+Findings+from+a+cross-sectional+survey+in+England&rft.volume=103&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E308-%3C%2Fspan%3E316&rft.date=2018-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6202672%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29705530&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.ejca.2018.03.029&rft.aulast=Shahab&rft.aufirst=L&rft.au=McGowan%2C+JA&rft.au=Waller%2C+J&rft.au=Smith%2C+SG&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6202672&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.apa.org/topics/stress/health">"How stress affects your health"</a>. www.apa.org. 2022. Retrieved 2024-01-25.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.apa.org&rft.atitle=How+stress+affects+your+health&rft.date=2022&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.apa.org%2Ftopics%2Fstress%2Fhealth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchneidermanIronsonSiegel2005" class="citation journal cs1">Schneiderman N, Ironson G, Siegel SD (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2568977">"Stress and health: psychological, behavioral, and biological determinants"</a>. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology. 1: 607–628. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.clinpsy.1.102803.144141">10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.1.102803.144141</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2568977">2568977</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17716101">17716101</a>. <q>Both epidemiological and controlled studies have demonstrated relationships between psychosocial stressors and disease. The underlying mediators, however, are unclear in most cases, although possible mechanisms have been explored in some experimental studies.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Clinical+Psychology&rft.atitle=Stress+and+health%3A+psychological%2C+behavioral%2C+and+biological+determinants&rft.volume=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E607-%3C%2Fspan%3E628&rft.date=2005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2568977%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17716101&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.clinpsy.1.102803.144141&rft.aulast=Schneiderman&rft.aufirst=N&rft.au=Ironson%2C+G&rft.au=Siegel%2C+SD&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2568977&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerbertCohen1993" class="citation journal cs1">Herbert TB, Cohen S (1993). "Stress and immunity in humans: a meta-analytic review". Psychosomatic Medicine. 55 (4): 364–379. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.125.6544">10.1.1.125.6544</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1097%2F00006842-199307000-00004">10.1097/00006842-199307000-00004</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8416086">8416086</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2025176">2025176</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychosomatic+Medicine&rft.atitle=Stress+and+immunity+in+humans%3A+a+meta-analytic+review&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E364-%3C%2Fspan%3E379&rft.date=1993&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.125.6544%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A2025176%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F8416086&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1097%2F00006842-199307000-00004&rft.aulast=Herbert&rft.aufirst=TB&rft.au=Cohen%2C+S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ogden-60"><a href="#cite_ref-Ogden_60-0">^</a> Ogden, J. (2007). Health Psychology: a textbook (4th ed.), pages 281–282 New York: McGraw-Hill <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0335214711" title="Special:BookSources/0335214711">0335214711</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdmundsMedleyO'Callaghan1997" class="citation journal cs1">Edmunds WJ, Medley GF, O'Callaghan CJ (October 1997). "Social ties and susceptibility to the common cold". JAMA. 278 (15): 1231, author reply 1232. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1001%2Fjama.1997.03550150035018">10.1001/jama.1997.03550150035018</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9333253">9333253</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=JAMA&rft.atitle=Social+ties+and+susceptibility+to+the+common+cold&rft.volume=278&rft.issue=15&rft.pages=1231%2C+author+reply+1232&rft.date=1997-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1001%2Fjama.1997.03550150035018&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9333253&rft.aulast=Edmunds&rft.aufirst=WJ&rft.au=Medley%2C+GF&rft.au=O%27Callaghan%2C+CJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> Compare: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreubelKecklund2011" class="citation journal cs1">Greubel J, Kecklund G (March 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2486%2Findhealth.ms1211">"The impact of organizational changes on work stress, sleep, recovery and health"</a>. Industrial Health. 49 (3): 353–364. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2486%2Findhealth.ms1211">10.2486/indhealth.ms1211</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21372437">21372437</a>. <q>[...] organizational changes, which include a change in job tasks or downsizing, lead to a somewhat increased stress level as well as slightly increased health problems. This study added that complaints about poor sleep, sleepiness and incomplete recovery also increased in connection with extensive organizational changes. Another key finding was that this is even true for the anticipation of such changes</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Industrial+Health&rft.atitle=The+impact+of+organizational+changes+on+work+stress%2C+sleep%2C+recovery+and+health&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E353-%3C%2Fspan%3E364&rft.date=2011-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2486%2Findhealth.ms1211&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21372437&rft.aulast=Greubel&rft.aufirst=J&rft.au=Kecklund%2C+G&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.2486%252Findhealth.ms1211&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schneiderman,_N._2005-63">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Schneiderman,_N._2005_63-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schneiderman,_N._2005_63-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchneidermanIronsonSiegel2005" class="citation journal cs1">Schneiderman N, Ironson G, Siegel SD (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2568977">"Stress and health: psychological, behavioral, and biological determinants"</a>. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology. 1: 607–628. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.clinpsy.1.102803.144141">10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.1.102803.144141</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2568977">2568977</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17716101">17716101</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Clinical+Psychology&rft.atitle=Stress+and+health%3A+psychological%2C+behavioral%2C+and+biological+determinants&rft.volume=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E607-%3C%2Fspan%3E628&rft.date=2005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2568977%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17716101&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.clinpsy.1.102803.144141&rft.aulast=Schneiderman&rft.aufirst=N&rft.au=Ironson%2C+G&rft.au=Siegel%2C+SD&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2568977&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChen2009" class="citation journal cs1">Chen Y (December 2009). "Advances in the pathophysiology of tension-type headache: from stress to central sensitization". Current Pain and Headache Reports. 13 (6): 484–494. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11916-009-0078-x">10.1007/s11916-009-0078-x</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19889292">19889292</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:36447117">36447117</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Pain+and+Headache+Reports&rft.atitle=Advances+in+the+pathophysiology+of+tension-type+headache%3A+from+stress+to+central+sensitization&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E484-%3C%2Fspan%3E494&rft.date=2009-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A36447117%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19889292&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11916-009-0078-x&rft.aulast=Chen&rft.aufirst=Y&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> Schlotz W, Yim IS, Zoccola PM, Jansen L, Schulz P (2011). "The perceived stress reactivity scale: Measurement invariance, stability, and validity in three countries". Psychol Assess. (pp. 80–94). </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPinquartSörensen2003" class="citation journal cs1">Pinquart M, Sörensen S (June 2003). "Differences between caregivers and noncaregivers in psychological health and physical health: a meta-analysis". Psychology and Aging. 18 (2): 250–267. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0882-7974.18.2.250">10.1037/0882-7974.18.2.250</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12825775">12825775</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychology+and+Aging&rft.atitle=Differences+between+caregivers+and+noncaregivers+in+psychological+health+and+physical+health%3A+a+meta-analysis&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E250-%3C%2Fspan%3E267&rft.date=2003-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F0882-7974.18.2.250&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12825775&rft.aulast=Pinquart&rft.aufirst=M&rft.au=S%C3%B6rensen%2C+S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuangWebbZourdosAcevedo2013" class="citation journal cs1">Huang CJ, Webb HE, Zourdos MC, Acevedo EO (November 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3819592">"Cardiovascular reactivity, stress, and physical activity"</a>. Frontiers in Physiology. 4: 314. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffphys.2013.00314">10.3389/fphys.2013.00314</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3819592">3819592</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24223557">24223557</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Physiology&rft.atitle=Cardiovascular+reactivity%2C+stress%2C+and+physical+activity&rft.volume=4&rft.pages=314&rft.date=2013-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3819592%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24223557&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3389%2Ffphys.2013.00314&rft.aulast=Huang&rft.aufirst=CJ&rft.au=Webb%2C+HE&rft.au=Zourdos%2C+MC&rft.au=Acevedo%2C+EO&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3819592&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKemeny2003" class="citation journal cs1">Kemeny ME (August 2003). "The Psychobiology of Stress". Current Directions in Psychological Science. 12 (4): 124–129. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1467-8721.01246">10.1111/1467-8721.01246</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145293197">145293197</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Directions+in+Psychological+Science&rft.atitle=The+Psychobiology+of+Stress&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E124-%3C%2Fspan%3E129&rft.date=2003-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2F1467-8721.01246&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145293197%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Kemeny&rft.aufirst=ME&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> Kobasa, S. C. (1982). "The Hardy Personality: Toward a Social Psychology of Stress and Health". In G. S. Sanders & J. Suls (Eds.), Social Psychology of Health and Illness (pp. 1–25). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Assoc. </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKingstonSchuurmans-Stekhoven2016" class="citation journal cs1">Kingston C, Schuurmans-Stekhoven J (December 2016). "Life hassles and delusional ideation: Scoping the potential role of cognitive and affective mediators". Psychology and Psychotherapy. 89 (4): 445–463. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fpapt.12089">10.1111/papt.12089</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26846698">26846698</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychology+and+Psychotherapy&rft.atitle=Life+hassles+and+delusional+ideation%3A+Scoping+the+potential+role+of+cognitive+and+affective+mediators&rft.volume=89&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E445-%3C%2Fspan%3E463&rft.date=2016-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fpapt.12089&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26846698&rft.aulast=Kingston&rft.aufirst=C&rft.au=Schuurmans-Stekhoven%2C+J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMahSzabuniewiczFiocco2016" class="citation journal cs1">Mah L, Szabuniewicz C, Fiocco AJ (January 2016). "Can anxiety damage the brain?". Current Opinion in Psychiatry (Review). 29 (1): 56–63. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1097%2FYCO.0000000000000223">10.1097/YCO.0000000000000223</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26651008">26651008</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:17911798">17911798</a>. <q>Pathological anxiety and chronic stress lead to structural degeneration and impaired functioning of the hippocampus and the PFC, which may account for the increased risk of developing neuropsychiatric disorders, including depression and dementia.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Opinion+in+Psychiatry&rft.atitle=Can+anxiety+damage+the+brain%3F&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E56-%3C%2Fspan%3E63&rft.date=2016-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A17911798%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26651008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1097%2FYCO.0000000000000223&rft.aulast=Mah&rft.aufirst=L&rft.au=Szabuniewicz%2C+C&rft.au=Fiocco%2C+AJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKellerLitzelmanWiskMaddox2012" class="citation journal cs1">Keller A, Litzelman K, Wisk LE, Maddox T, Cheng ER, Creswell PD, Witt WP (September 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3374921">"Does the perception that stress affects health matter? The association with health and mortality"</a>. Health Psychology. 31 (5): 677–684. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fa0026743">10.1037/a0026743</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3374921">3374921</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22201278">22201278</a>. <q>High amounts of stress and the perception that stress impacts health are each associated with poor health and mental health. Individuals who perceived that stress affects their health and reported a large amount of stress had an increased risk of premature death.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Health+Psychology&rft.atitle=Does+the+perception+that+stress+affects+health+matter%3F+The+association+with+health+and+mortality&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E677-%3C%2Fspan%3E684&rft.date=2012-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3374921%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22201278&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2Fa0026743&rft.aulast=Keller&rft.aufirst=A&rft.au=Litzelman%2C+K&rft.au=Wisk%2C+LE&rft.au=Maddox%2C+T&rft.au=Cheng%2C+ER&rft.au=Creswell%2C+PD&rft.au=Witt%2C+WP&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3374921&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-blog.ted.com-73">^ <a href="#cite_ref-blog.ted.com_73-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-blog.ted.com_73-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://blog.ted.com/could-stress-be-good-for-you-recent-research-that-suggests-it-has-benefits/">"Stress as a positive: Recent research that suggests it has benefits"</a>. 4 September 2013. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160911215227/http://blog.ted.com/could-stress-be-good-for-you-recent-research-that-suggests-it-has-benefits/">Archived</a> from the original on 11 September 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Stress+as+a+positive%3A+Recent+research+that+suggests+it+has+benefits&rft.date=2013-09-04&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fblog.ted.com%2Fcould-stress-be-good-for-you-recent-research-that-suggests-it-has-benefits%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cohen2007-74"><a href="#cite_ref-Cohen2007_74-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohenJanicki-DevertsMiller2007" class="citation journal cs1">Cohen S, Janicki-Deverts D, Miller GE (October 2007). "Psychological stress and disease". JAMA. 298 (14): 1685–1687. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1001%2Fjama.298.14.1685">10.1001/jama.298.14.1685</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17925521">17925521</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=JAMA&rft.atitle=Psychological+stress+and+disease&rft.volume=298&rft.issue=14&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1685-%3C%2Fspan%3E1687&rft.date=2007-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1001%2Fjama.298.14.1685&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17925521&rft.aulast=Cohen&rft.aufirst=S&rft.au=Janicki-Deverts%2C+D&rft.au=Miller%2C+GE&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.natap.org/2007/HIV/101107_02.htm">"Psychological Stress and Disease (HIV/AIDS)"</a>. www.natap.org. Retrieved 2018-10-01.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.natap.org&rft.atitle=Psychological+Stress+and+Disease+%28HIV%2FAIDS%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.natap.org%2F2007%2FHIV%2F101107_02.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMillerChenCole2009" class="citation journal cs1">Miller G, Chen E, Cole SW (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.psych.60.110707.163551">"Health psychology: developing biologically plausible models linking the social world and physical health"</a>. Annual Review of Psychology. 60: 501–524. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.psych.60.110707.163551">10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163551</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19035829">19035829</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Psychology&rft.atitle=Health+psychology%3A+developing+biologically+plausible+models+linking+the+social+world+and+physical+health&rft.volume=60&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E501-%3C%2Fspan%3E524&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.psych.60.110707.163551&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19035829&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=G&rft.au=Chen%2C+E&rft.au=Cole%2C+SW&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1146%252Fannurev.psych.60.110707.163551&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sleep-77">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sleep_77-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sleep_77-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sleep_77-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sleep_77-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sleep_77-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCravenHirnleJensen2013" class="citation book cs1">Craven R, Hirnle C, Jensen S (2013). Fundamentals of Nursing: Human and Health Function (7 ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 1319.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fundamentals+of+Nursing%3A+Human+and+Health+Function&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pages=1319&rft.edition=7&rft.pub=Lippincott+Williams+%26+Wilkins&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Craven&rft.aufirst=R&rft.au=Hirnle%2C+C&rft.au=Jensen%2C+S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cultural_Differences-78"><a href="#cite_ref-Cultural_Differences_78-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorrison-Valfre2009" class="citation book cs1">Morrison-Valfre M (2009). Foundations of mental health care (4th ed.). St. Louis, Mo.: Mosby/Elsevier. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-323-05644-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-323-05644-1"><bdi>978-0-323-05644-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Foundations+of+mental+health+care&rft.place=St.+Louis%2C+Mo.&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Mosby%2FElsevier&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-323-05644-1&rft.aulast=Morrison-Valfre&rft.aufirst=M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002059.htm">"Stress in childhood: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia"</a>. medlineplus.gov. Retrieved 2018-10-01.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=medlineplus.gov&rft.atitle=Stress+in+childhood%3A+MedlinePlus+Medical+Encyclopedia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmedlineplus.gov%2Fency%2Farticle%2F002059.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUchino2009" class="citation journal cs1">Uchino BN (May 2009). "Understanding the Links Between Social Support and Physical Health: A Life-Span Perspective With Emphasis on the Separability of Perceived and Received Support". Perspectives on Psychological Science. 4 (3): 236–255. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.713.8624">10.1.1.713.8624</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1745-6924.2009.01122.x">10.1111/j.1745-6924.2009.01122.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26158961">26158961</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:17551921">17551921</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Perspectives+on+Psychological+Science&rft.atitle=Understanding+the+Links+Between+Social+Support+and+Physical+Health%3A+A+Life-Span+Perspective+With+Emphasis+on+the+Separability+of+Perceived+and+Received+Support&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E236-%3C%2Fspan%3E255&rft.date=2009-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.713.8624%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A17551921%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26158961&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1745-6924.2009.01122.x&rft.aulast=Uchino&rft.aufirst=BN&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerkmanGlassBrissetteSeeman2000" class="citation journal cs1">Berkman LF, Glass T, Brissette I, Seeman TE (September 2000). "From social integration to health: Durkheim in the new millennium". Social Science & Medicine. 51 (6): 843–857. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fs0277-9536%2800%2900065-4">10.1016/s0277-9536(00)00065-4</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10972429">10972429</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Social+Science+%26+Medicine&rft.atitle=From+social+integration+to+health%3A+Durkheim+in+the+new+millennium&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E843-%3C%2Fspan%3E857&rft.date=2000-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fs0277-9536%2800%2900065-4&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10972429&rft.aulast=Berkman&rft.aufirst=LF&rft.au=Glass%2C+T&rft.au=Brissette%2C+I&rft.au=Seeman%2C+TE&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohenWills1985" class="citation journal cs1">Cohen S, Wills TA (September 1985). "Stress, social support, and the buffering hypothesis". Psychological Bulletin. 98 (2): 310–357. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0033-2909.98.2.310">10.1037/0033-2909.98.2.310</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3901065">3901065</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:18137066">18137066</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychological+Bulletin&rft.atitle=Stress%2C+social+support%2C+and+the+buffering+hypothesis&rft.volume=98&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E310-%3C%2Fspan%3E357&rft.date=1985-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A18137066%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F3901065&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F0033-2909.98.2.310&rft.aulast=Cohen&rft.aufirst=S&rft.au=Wills%2C+TA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cohen,_S._2004-83">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cohen,_S._2004_83-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cohen,_S._2004_83-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohen2004" class="citation journal cs1">Cohen S (November 2004). "Social relationships and health". The American Psychologist. 59 (8): 676–684. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0003-066x.59.8.676">10.1037/0003-066x.59.8.676</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15554821">15554821</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Psychologist&rft.atitle=Social+relationships+and+health&rft.volume=59&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E676-%3C%2Fspan%3E684&rft.date=2004-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F0003-066x.59.8.676&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15554821&rft.aulast=Cohen&rft.aufirst=S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOrr2004" class="citation journal cs1">Orr ST (December 2004). "Social support and pregnancy outcome: a review of the literature". Clinical Obstetrics and Gynecology. 47 (4): 842–855. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1097%2F01.grf.0000141451.68933.9f">10.1097/01.grf.0000141451.68933.9f</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15596938">15596938</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Clinical+Obstetrics+and+Gynecology&rft.atitle=Social+support+and+pregnancy+outcome%3A+a+review+of+the+literature&rft.volume=47&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E842-%3C%2Fspan%3E855&rft.date=2004-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1097%2F01.grf.0000141451.68933.9f&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15596938&rft.aulast=Orr&rft.aufirst=ST&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreenberg" class="citation book cs1">Greenberg. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=D6Xr2waR9UEC&pg=PA261">Comprehensive Stress Management 10E</a>. McGraw-Hill Education. pp. 261–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-067104-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-067104-1"><bdi>978-0-07-067104-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170218174937/https://books.google.com/books?id=D6Xr2waR9UEC&pg=PA261">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-02-18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Comprehensive+Stress+Management+10E&rft.pages=261-&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Education&rft.isbn=978-0-07-067104-1&rft.au=Greenberg&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DD6Xr2waR9UEC%26pg%3DPA261&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Robertson_2012-86"><a href="#cite_ref-Robertson_2012_86-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobertson,_D2012" class="citation book cs1">Robertson, D (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QwIstsEgkBMC">Build your Resilience</a>. London: Hodder. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4441-6871-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4441-6871-6"><bdi>978-1-4441-6871-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Build+your+Resilience&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Hodder&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-4441-6871-6&rft.au=Robertson%2C+D&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQwIstsEgkBMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sutarto2012-87"><a href="#cite_ref-Sutarto2012_87-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSutartoWahabZin2015" class="citation journal cs1">Sutarto AP, Wahab MN, Zin NM (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F10803548.2012.11076959">"Resonant breathing biofeedback training for stress reduction among manufacturing operators"</a>. International Journal of Occupational Safety and Ergonomics. 18 (4): 549–561. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F10803548.2012.11076959">10.1080/10803548.2012.11076959</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23294659">23294659</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Occupational+Safety+and+Ergonomics&rft.atitle=Resonant+breathing+biofeedback+training+for+stress+reduction+among+manufacturing+operators&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E549-%3C%2Fspan%3E561&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F10803548.2012.11076959&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23294659&rft.aulast=Sutarto&rft.aufirst=AP&rft.au=Wahab%2C+MN&rft.au=Zin%2C+NM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%252F10803548.2012.11076959&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-88">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_88-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_88-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_88-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_88-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://adaa.org/living-with-anxiety/managing-anxiety/exercise-stress-and-anxiety">"Exercise for Stress and Anxiety"</a>. Anxiety and Depression Association of America.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Anxiety+and+Depression+Association+of+America&rft.atitle=Exercise+for+Stress+and+Anxiety&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fadaa.org%2Fliving-with-anxiety%2Fmanaging-anxiety%2Fexercise-stress-and-anxiety&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-89">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_89-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_89-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_89-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBreusO'Connor1998" class="citation journal cs1">Breus MJ, O'Connor PJ (July 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1097%2F00005768-199807000-00013">"Exercise-induced anxiolysis: a test of the "time out" hypothesis in high anxious females"</a>. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 30 (7): 1107–1112. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1097%2F00005768-199807000-00013">10.1097/00005768-199807000-00013</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9662680">9662680</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Medicine+and+Science+in+Sports+and+Exercise&rft.atitle=Exercise-induced+anxiolysis%3A+a+test+of+the+%22time+out%22+hypothesis+in+high+anxious+females&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1107-%3C%2Fspan%3E1112&rft.date=1998-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1097%2F00005768-199807000-00013&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9662680&rft.aulast=Breus&rft.aufirst=MJ&rft.au=O%27Connor%2C+PJ&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1097%252F00005768-199807000-00013&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Coping_With_Stress-90">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Coping_With_Stress_90-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Coping_With_Stress_90-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Coping_With_Stress_90-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSnyderLefcourt2001" class="citation book cs1">Snyder CR, Lefcourt HM (2001). Coping With Stress. New York: Oxford University. pp. 68–88.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Coping+With+Stress&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E68-%3C%2Fspan%3E88&rft.pub=Oxford+University&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Snyder&rft.aufirst=CR&rft.au=Lefcourt%2C+HM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKellerLitzelmanWiskMaddox2012" class="citation journal cs1">Keller, Abiola; Litzelman, Kristin; Wisk, Lauren E.; Maddox, Torsheika; Cheng, Erika Rose; Creswell, Paul D.; Witt, Whitney P. (September 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3374921">"Does the perception that stress affects health matter? The association with health and mortality"</a>. Health Psychology. 31 (5): 677–684. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fa0026743">10.1037/a0026743</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3374921">3374921</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22201278">22201278</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Health+Psychology&rft.atitle=Does+the+perception+that+stress+affects+health+matter%3F+The+association+with+health+and+mortality&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E677-%3C%2Fspan%3E684&rft.date=2012-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3374921%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22201278&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2Fa0026743&rft.aulast=Keller&rft.aufirst=Abiola&rft.au=Litzelman%2C+Kristin&rft.au=Wisk%2C+Lauren+E.&rft.au=Maddox%2C+Torsheika&rft.au=Cheng%2C+Erika+Rose&rft.au=Creswell%2C+Paul+D.&rft.au=Witt%2C+Whitney+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3374921&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Levo,_Lynn_M._2003-92">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Levo,_Lynn_M._2003_92-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Levo,_Lynn_M._2003_92-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevo2003" class="citation journal cs1">Levo LM (September 2003). "Understanding Defense Mechanisms". Lukenotes. 7 (4). Silver Spring, Maryland: St. Luke Institute.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Lukenotes&rft.atitle=Understanding+Defense+Mechanisms.&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=4&rft.date=2003-09&rft.aulast=Levo&rft.aufirst=LM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-DSM-IV_Adaptive_Functioning_Scale_1994-93">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DSM-IV_Adaptive_Functioning_Scale_1994_93-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DSM-IV_Adaptive_Functioning_Scale_1994_93-1">b</a> Adapted from DSM-IV Adaptive Functioning Scale, APA, 1994. </li> <li id="cite_note-Communication_in_Nursing-94">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Communication_in_Nursing_94-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Communication_in_Nursing_94-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Communication_in_Nursing_94-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Communication_in_Nursing_94-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRiley2012" class="citation book cs1">Riley J (2012). Communication in Nursing (7 ed.). Missouri: Mosby/Elsevier. pp. 160–173.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Communication+in+Nursing&rft.place=Missouri&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E160-%3C%2Fspan%3E173&rft.edition=7&rft.pub=Mosby%2FElsevier&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Riley&rft.aufirst=J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLefcourt2001" class="citation book cs1">Lefcourt HM (2001). "The Humour Solution". In Snyder CR (ed.). Coping with Stress: Effective People and Processes. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 68–92. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0198029953" title="Special:BookSources/978-0198029953"><bdi>978-0198029953</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Humour+Solution&rft.btitle=Coping+with+Stress%3A+Effective+People+and+Processes.&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E68-%3C%2Fspan%3E92&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0198029953&rft.aulast=Lefcourt&rft.aufirst=HM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVaillant2000" class="citation journal cs1">Vaillant GE (January 2000). "Adaptive mental mechanisms. Their role in a positive psychology". The American Psychologist. 55 (1): 89–98. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0003-066x.55.1.89">10.1037/0003-066x.55.1.89</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11392869">11392869</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Psychologist&rft.atitle=Adaptive+mental+mechanisms.+Their+role+in+a+positive+psychology&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E89-%3C%2Fspan%3E98&rft.date=2000-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F0003-066x.55.1.89&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11392869&rft.aulast=Vaillant&rft.aufirst=GE&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFolkmanMoskowitz2000" class="citation journal cs1">Folkman S, Moskowitz J (2000). "Stress, Positive Emotion, and Coping". Current Directions in Psychological Science. 9 (4): 115–118. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1467-8721.00073">10.1111/1467-8721.00073</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1288773">1288773</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Directions+in+Psychological+Science&rft.atitle=Stress%2C+Positive+Emotion%2C+and+Coping&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E115-%3C%2Fspan%3E118&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2F1467-8721.00073&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A1288773%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Folkman&rft.aufirst=S&rft.au=Moskowitz%2C+J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid17532104-98"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid17532104_98-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchokKleberElandsWeerts2008" class="citation journal cs1">Schok ML, Kleber RJ, Elands M, Weerts JM (March 2008). "Meaning as a mission: a review of empirical studies on appraisals of war and peacekeeping experiences". Clinical Psychology Review (Review). 28 (3): 357–365. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cpr.2007.04.005">10.1016/j.cpr.2007.04.005</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17532104">17532104</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Clinical+Psychology+Review&rft.atitle=Meaning+as+a+mission%3A+a+review+of+empirical+studies+on+appraisals+of+war+and+peacekeeping+experiences&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E357-%3C%2Fspan%3E365&rft.date=2008-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.cpr.2007.04.005&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17532104&rft.aulast=Schok&rft.aufirst=ML&rft.au=Kleber%2C+RJ&rft.au=Elands%2C+M&rft.au=Weerts%2C+JM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> "displacement n." A Dictionary of Psychology. Edited by Andrew M. Colman. Oxford University Press 2009. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press. </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaumeisterDaleSommer1998" class="citation journal cs1">Baumeister RF, Dale K, Sommer KL (December 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.secretintelligenceservice.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Freudian-defense-mechanisms.pdf">"Freudian defense mechanisms and empirical findings in modern social psychology: Reaction formation, projection, displacement, undoing, isolation, sublimation, and denial"</a> (PDF). Journal of Personality. 66 (6): 1081–124. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1467-6494.00043">10.1111/1467-6494.00043</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Personality&rft.atitle=Freudian+defense+mechanisms+and+empirical+findings+in+modern+social+psychology%3A+Reaction+formation%2C+projection%2C+displacement%2C+undoing%2C+isolation%2C+sublimation%2C+and+denial&rft.volume=66&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1081-%3C%2Fspan%3E124&rft.date=1998-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2F1467-6494.00043&rft.aulast=Baumeister&rft.aufirst=RF&rft.au=Dale%2C+K&rft.au=Sommer%2C+KL&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.secretintelligenceservice.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2016%2F02%2FFreudian-defense-mechanisms.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPotter2014" class="citation book cs1">Potter P (2014). Canadian Fundamentals of Nursing (5th ed.). Toronto: Elsevier. pp. 472–488.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Canadian+Fundamentals+of+Nursing&rft.place=Toronto&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E472-%3C%2Fspan%3E488&rft.edition=5th&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Potter&rft.aufirst=P&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReference-OED2-_stress" class="citation book cs1">"stress". <a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a> (2nd ed.). <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. 1989.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=stress&rft.btitle=Oxford+English+Dictionary&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> - "1955 H. Basowitz et al. Anxiety & Stress i. 7 Anxiety has been defined in terms of an affective response; stress is the stimulus condition likely to arouse such response." </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarper" class="citation web cs1">Harper D. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.etymonline.com/?term=stress">"stress"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Etymology_Dictionary" title="Online Etymology Dictionary">Online Etymology Dictionary</a>. Retrieved 2019-04-19.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Online+Etymology+Dictionary&rft.atitle=stress&rft.aulast=Harper&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2F%3Fterm%3Dstress&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> - "stress (n.) [...] The purely psychological sense is attested from 1955." </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLinn1986" class="citation book cs1">Linn MW (1986). "Elderly Women's Health and Psychological Adjustment: Life Stressors and Social Support". In Hobfoll SE (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BJYiAwAAQBAJ">Stress, Social Support, And Women</a>. Clinical and Community Psychology. Abingdon: Taylor & Francis (published 2014). p. 233. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781317770602" title="Special:BookSources/9781317770602"><bdi>9781317770602</bdi></a>. Retrieved 20 July 2020. <q>Although the SRRS identified women with high and low stress, it also appeared limited in covering certain areas of stress currently felt by these women. For example, worry and concern about events that have not happened, or in some cases did happen but were not included on the scale, were common.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Elderly+Women%27s+Health+and+Psychological+Adjustment%3A+Life+Stressors+and+Social+Support&rft.btitle=Stress%2C+Social+Support%2C+And+Women&rft.place=Abingdon&rft.series=Clinical+and+Community+Psychology&rft.pages=233&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=9781317770602&rft.aulast=Linn&rft.aufirst=MW&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBJYiAwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> Once widely recognised, passion appears to wane in importance as the concept of "stress" becomes popular. See <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=passion%2Cstress&year_start=1750&year_end=2019&corpus=26&smoothing=3">a usage Ngram for the two terms</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> For example: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPinkham1876" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lydia_Pinkham" title="Lydia Pinkham">Pinkham, Lydia E.</a> (1876). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zm2pwwEACAAJ">Nerve Strain: The Busy Lives of American Women, the Cause of Their Ill Health, and the Remedy</a>. Retrieved 24 May 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nerve+Strain%3A+The+Busy+Lives+of+American+Women%2C+the+Cause+of+Their+Ill+Health%2C+and+the+Remedy&rft.date=1876&rft.aulast=Pinkham&rft.aufirst=Lydia+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dzm2pwwEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> For example: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarr2012" class="citation book cs1">Carr A (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=u4aDPdw0Fi4C">Clinical Psychology: An Introduction</a>. London: Routledge. p. 22. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415683975" title="Special:BookSources/9780415683975"><bdi>9780415683975</bdi></a>. Retrieved 2019-04-19. <q>This stress-induced focus on the self is compounded by exposure to 'pop-psychology' advice to use selffocused stress management techniques during interviews.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Clinical+Psychology%3A+An+Introduction&rft.place=London&rft.pages=22&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9780415683975&rft.aulast=Carr&rft.aufirst=A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Du4aDPdw0Fi4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohen2011" class="citation book cs1">Cohen LJ (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7MYDiuupuhYC">"Mental Health and Mental Illness"</a>. The Handy Psychology Answer Book. The Handy Answer Book Series. Detroit: Visible Ink Press. p. 401. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781578593545" title="Special:BookSources/9781578593545"><bdi>9781578593545</bdi></a>. Retrieved 2019-04-19. <q>Popular or pop psychology is aimed at a popular audience and communicated through the mass media. It addresses topics related to psychology—such as romantic relationships, stress management, child rearing, and sexuality [...]</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mental+Health+and+Mental+Illness&rft.btitle=The+Handy+Psychology+Answer+Book&rft.place=Detroit&rft.series=The+Handy+Answer+Book+Series&rft.pages=401&rft.pub=Visible+Ink+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9781578593545&rft.aulast=Cohen&rft.aufirst=LJ&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7MYDiuupuhYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Monroe_2008_33–52-109">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Monroe_2008_33–52_109-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Monroe_2008_33–52_109-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMonroe2008" class="citation journal cs1">Monroe SM (2008). "Modern approaches to conceptualizing and measuring human life stress". Annual Review of Clinical Psychology. 4 (1): 33–52. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.clinpsy.4.022007.141207">10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.4.022007.141207</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17716038">17716038</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Clinical+Psychology&rft.atitle=Modern+approaches+to+conceptualizing+and+measuring+human+life+stress&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E33-%3C%2Fspan%3E52&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.clinpsy.4.022007.141207&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17716038&rft.aulast=Monroe&rft.aufirst=SM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychological_stress&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKelly_McGonigal2015" class="citation book cs1">Kelly McGonigal (2015). The Upside of Stress: Why Stress Is Good for You, and How to Get Good at It. Avery. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1583335611" title="Special:BookSources/978-1583335611"><bdi>978-1583335611</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Upside+of+Stress%3A+Why+Stress+Is+Good+for+You%2C+and+How+to+Get+Good+at+It&rft.pub=Avery&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1583335611&rft.au=Kelly+McGonigal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIan_Robertson2017" class="citation book cs1">Ian Robertson (2017). The Stress Test: How Pressure Can Make You Stronger and Sharper. Bloomsbury USA. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1632867292" title="Special:BookSources/978-1632867292"><bdi>978-1632867292</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Stress+Test%3A+How+Pressure+Can+Make+You+Stronger+and+Sharper&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+USA&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1632867292&rft.au=Ian+Robertson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychological_stress&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://healthfinder.gov/HealthTopics/Category/health-conditions-and-diseases/heart-health/manage-stress">"Manage Stress - healthfinder.gov"</a>. healthfinder.gov. Retrieved 2019-07-22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=healthfinder.gov&rft.atitle=Manage+Stress+-+healthfinder.gov&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhealthfinder.gov%2FHealthTopics%2FCategory%2Fhealth-conditions-and-diseases%2Fheart-health%2Fmanage-stress&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychological+stress" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-label="Navbox32" style="width:100%; margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 0;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #EAECF0;color:black;">Classification</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:0.8em;"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3500368" class="extiw" title="d:Q3500368">D</a></div><div class="hlist" style="text-align:left;"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medical_Subject_Headings" title="Medical Subject Headings">MeSH</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013315">D013315</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/SNOMED_CT" title="SNOMED CT">SNOMED CT</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://snomed.info/id/73595000">73595000</a></li></ul></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #EAECF0;color:black;">External resources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="hlist" style="text-align:left;"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/MedlinePlus" title="MedlinePlus">MedlinePlus</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003211.htm">003211</a></li></ul></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox1720" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3500368#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4176184-4">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85128705">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb122938190">France</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb122938190">BnF data</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/01034363">Japan</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph116294&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007538831205171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Psychological_stress&oldid=1272594715">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Psychological_stress&oldid=1272594715</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Psychological_stress" title="Category:Psychological stress">Psychological stress</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Stress_(biological_and_psychological)" title="Category:Stress (biological and psychological)">Stress (biological and psychological)</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_May_2018" title="Category:Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from May 2018">Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from May 2018</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_German-language_sources_(de)" title="Category:CS1 German-language sources (de)">CS1 German-language sources (de)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_specifically_marked_weasel-worded_phrases_from_November_2020" title="Category:Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from November 2020">Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from November 2020</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_specifically_marked_weasel-worded_phrases" title="Category:All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases">All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_specifically_marked_weasel-worded_phrases_from_June_2023" title="Category:Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from June 2023">Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from June 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_clarification_from_September_2018" title="Category:Wikipedia articles needing clarification from September 2018">Wikipedia articles needing clarification from September 2018</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_pages_needing_factual_verification" title="Category:All pages needing factual verification">All pages needing factual verification</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_factual_verification_from_January_2013" title="Category:Wikipedia articles needing factual verification from January 2013">Wikipedia articles needing factual verification from January 2013</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_in_need_of_updating_from_May_2024" title="Category:Wikipedia articles in need of updating from May 2024">Wikipedia articles in need of updating from May 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_Wikipedia_articles_in_need_of_updating" title="Category:All Wikipedia articles in need of updating">All Wikipedia articles in need of updating</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_May_2024" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from May 2024">Articles with unsourced statements from May 2024</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 29 January 2025, at 12:21 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Psychological_stress&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" lang="en" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><picture><source media="(min-width: 500px)" srcset="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" width="88" height="31"><img src="/w/resources/assets/mediawiki_compact.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="25" height="25" loading="lazy"></picture></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-header-container vector-sticky-header-container"> <div id="vector-sticky-header" class="vector-sticky-header"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-start"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-start vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" aria-hidden="true"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-sticky-header-search-toggle" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.vector-sticky-search-form.icon"> Search </button> </div> <div role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box"> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="vector-sticky-search-form" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia"> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-sticky-header-toc vector-sticky-header-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-sticky-header-toc-label" for="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar-primary" aria-hidden="true" >Psychological stress</div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-end" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icons"> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-talk-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="talk-sticky-header"> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-subject-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="subject-sticky-header"> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-history-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="history-sticky-header"> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only mw-watchlink" id="ca-watchstar-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="watch-sticky-header"> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="wikitext-edit-sticky-header"> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-ve-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-sticky-header"> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-viewsource-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-protected-sticky-header"> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-buttons"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet mw-interlanguage-selector" id="p-lang-btn-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn-sticky-header"> 29 languages </button> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive" id="ca-addsection-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="addsection-sticky-header"> Add topic </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-end"> <div class="vector-user-links"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-b766959bd-wdv74","wgBackendResponseTime":144,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.114","walltime":"1.269","ppvisitednodes":{"value":8506,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":269258,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":9039,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":19,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":19,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":415269,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1114.187 1 -total"," 53.37% 594.639 1 Template:Reflist"," 21.40% 238.438 54 Template:Cite_journal"," 12.40% 138.129 33 Template:Cite_book"," 7.41% 82.519 1 Template:Infobox_medical_condition"," 6.67% 74.370 1 Template:Cite_news"," 6.42% 71.478 2 Template:Short_description"," 6.20% 69.129 1 Template:Medical_resources"," 6.10% 67.998 1 Template:Infobox"," 5.82% 64.900 1 Template:Navbox"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.692","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":8873909,"limit":52428800}},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-b766959bd-l5b2v","timestamp":"20250215190159","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Psychological stress","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Psychological_stress","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q3500368","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q3500368","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2011-04-25T23:57:33Z","dateModified":"2025-01-29T12:21:30Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/1\/1e\/Headache-1557872_960_720.jpg","headline":"psychological feeling of strain and pressure, that could increase the risk of strokes, heart attacks, ulcers, and mental illnesses such as depression and aggravation of a pre-existing condition"}</script> </body> </html>