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.mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Original_research plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Original_research" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article possibly contains <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research" title="Wikipedia:No original research">original research</a>. Please <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Western_canon&action=edit">improve it</a> by <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verifying</a> the claims made and adding <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Inline_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">inline citations</a>. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (December 2021) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> The Western canon is the embodiment of <a href="/wiki/High_culture" title="High culture">high-culture</a> literature, music, philosophy, and works of art that are highly cherished across the <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Western world</a>, such works having achieved the status of <a href="/wiki/Classic" title="Classic">classics</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Parnaso_09.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Parnaso_09.jpg/220px-Parnaso_09.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="266" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Parnaso_09.jpg/330px-Parnaso_09.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Parnaso_09.jpg/440px-Parnaso_09.jpg 2x" data-file-width="635" data-file-height="768"></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a>, <a href="/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Virgil" title="Virgil">Virgil</a> in <a href="/wiki/Raphael_Sanzio" class="mw-redirect" title="Raphael Sanzio">Raphael</a>'s <a href="/wiki/The_Parnassus" title="The Parnassus">Parnassus</a> fresco (1511), key figures in the Western canon</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cropped_image_of_Sappho_from_Raphael%27s_Parnassus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Cropped_image_of_Sappho_from_Raphael%27s_Parnassus.jpg/220px-Cropped_image_of_Sappho_from_Raphael%27s_Parnassus.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Cropped_image_of_Sappho_from_Raphael%27s_Parnassus.jpg/330px-Cropped_image_of_Sappho_from_Raphael%27s_Parnassus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Cropped_image_of_Sappho_from_Raphael%27s_Parnassus.jpg/440px-Cropped_image_of_Sappho_from_Raphael%27s_Parnassus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="917" data-file-height="1146"></a><figcaption>Detail of <a href="/wiki/Sappho" title="Sappho">Sappho</a> from Raphael's Parnassus (1510–11), shown alongside other poets. In her left hand, she holds a scroll with her name written on it.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pablo_Picasso,_1910,_Girl_with_a_Mandolin_(Fanny_Tellier),_oil_on_canvas,_100.3_x_73.6_cm,_Museum_of_Modern_Art_New_York..jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1c/Pablo_Picasso%2C_1910%2C_Girl_with_a_Mandolin_%28Fanny_Tellier%29%2C_oil_on_canvas%2C_100.3_x_73.6_cm%2C_Museum_of_Modern_Art_New_York..jpg/220px-Pablo_Picasso%2C_1910%2C_Girl_with_a_Mandolin_%28Fanny_Tellier%29%2C_oil_on_canvas%2C_100.3_x_73.6_cm%2C_Museum_of_Modern_Art_New_York..jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="304" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1c/Pablo_Picasso%2C_1910%2C_Girl_with_a_Mandolin_%28Fanny_Tellier%29%2C_oil_on_canvas%2C_100.3_x_73.6_cm%2C_Museum_of_Modern_Art_New_York..jpg/330px-Pablo_Picasso%2C_1910%2C_Girl_with_a_Mandolin_%28Fanny_Tellier%29%2C_oil_on_canvas%2C_100.3_x_73.6_cm%2C_Museum_of_Modern_Art_New_York..jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1c/Pablo_Picasso%2C_1910%2C_Girl_with_a_Mandolin_%28Fanny_Tellier%29%2C_oil_on_canvas%2C_100.3_x_73.6_cm%2C_Museum_of_Modern_Art_New_York..jpg/440px-Pablo_Picasso%2C_1910%2C_Girl_with_a_Mandolin_%28Fanny_Tellier%29%2C_oil_on_canvas%2C_100.3_x_73.6_cm%2C_Museum_of_Modern_Art_New_York..jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="1770"></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Picasso" class="mw-redirect" title="Picasso">Picasso</a>, Girl with a Mandolin (Fanny Tellier) (1910), oil on canvas, 100.3 × 73.6 cm, <a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Modern_Art" title="Museum of Modern Art">Museum of Modern Art</a>, New York</figcaption></figure> Recent discussions upon the matter emphasise cultural diversity within the canon.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> The canons of music and visual arts have been broadened to encompass often overlooked periods, whilst recent media like cinema grapple with a precarious position. Criticism arises, with some viewing changes as prioritising activism over aesthetic values, often associated with critical theory, as well as <a href="/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">postmodernism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Wilczek-2006-3">[3]</a> Another critique highlights a narrow interpretation of the West, dominated by British and American culture, at least under contemporary circumstances, prompting demands for a more diversified canon amongst the hemisphere.<a href="#cite_note-Wilczek-2006-3">[3]</a> <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Literary_canon">1 Literary canon</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#Classic_book">1.1 Classic book</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Great_Books_Program">1.2 Great Books Program</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Debate">1.3 Debate</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#In_the_English-speaking_world">1.4 In the English-speaking world</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-6"><a href="#British_renaissance_poetry">1.4.1 British renaissance poetry</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Expansion_of_the_literary_canon_in_the_20th_century">1.5 Expansion of the literary canon in the 20th century</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-8"><a href="#Feminism_and_the_literary_canon">1.5.1 Feminism and the literary canon</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-9"><a href="#African-American_authors">1.5.2 African-American authors</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-10"><a href="#Latin_America">1.5.3 Latin America</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><a href="#Canon_of_philosophers">2 Canon of philosophers</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Renaissance_philosophy">2.1 Renaissance philosophy</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Seventeenth-century_philosophers">2.2 Seventeenth-century philosophers</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Eighteenth-century_philosophers">2.3 Eighteenth-century philosophers</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#Nineteenth-century_philosophers">2.4 Nineteenth-century philosophers</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="#Twentieth-century_philosophers">2.5 Twentieth-century philosophers</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17"><a href="#Music">3 Music</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-18"><a href="#Visual_arts">4 Visual arts</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="#Women_and_art">4.1 Women and art</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-20"><a href="#Historical_exclusion_of_women">4.1.1 Historical exclusion of women</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-21"><a href="#Sources_containing_canonical_lists">5 Sources containing canonical lists</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22"><a href="#English_literature">5.1 English literature</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-23"><a href="#International_literature">5.2 International literature</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-24"><a href="#American_and_Canadian_university_reading_lists">5.2.1 American and Canadian university reading lists</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-25"><a href="#Contemporary_anthologies_of_renaissance_literature">5.2.2 Contemporary anthologies of renaissance literature</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-26"><a href="#German_literature">5.3 German literature</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-27"><a href="#Best_German_Novels_of_the_Twentieth_Century">5.3.1 Best German Novels of the Twentieth Century</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-28"><a href="#French_literature">5.4 French literature</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-29"><a href="#Canon_of_Dutch_Literature">5.5 Canon of Dutch Literature</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-30"><a href="#Scandinavia">5.6 Scandinavia</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-31"><a href="#Danish_Culture_Canon">5.6.1 Danish Culture Canon</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-32"><a href="#Sweden">5.6.2 Sweden</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-33"><a href="#Norway">5.6.3 Norway</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-34"><a href="#Spain">5.7 Spain</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-35"><a href="#See_also">6 See also</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-36"><a href="#References">7 References</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-37"><a href="#Further_reading">8 Further reading</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-38"><a href="#External_links">9 External links</a></li> </ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><h2 id="Literary_canon">Literary canon</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_canon&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Literary canon" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classic_book">Classic book</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_canon&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Classic book" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:William_Shakespeare_by_John_Taylor,_edited.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/William_Shakespeare_by_John_Taylor%2C_edited.jpg/220px-William_Shakespeare_by_John_Taylor%2C_edited.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="280" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="3059"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 280px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/William_Shakespeare_by_John_Taylor%2C_edited.jpg/220px-William_Shakespeare_by_John_Taylor%2C_edited.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="280" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/William_Shakespeare_by_John_Taylor%2C_edited.jpg/330px-William_Shakespeare_by_John_Taylor%2C_edited.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/William_Shakespeare_by_John_Taylor%2C_edited.jpg/440px-William_Shakespeare_by_John_Taylor%2C_edited.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Chandos_portrait" title="Chandos portrait">Chandos portrait</a> of the English playwright and poet <a href="/wiki/William_Shakespeare" title="William Shakespeare">William Shakespeare</a></figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Classic_book" title="Classic book">Classic book</a></div> A <a href="/wiki/Classic" title="Classic">classic</a> is a book, or any other work of art, accepted as being exemplary or noteworthy. In the second-century <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Roman</a> <a href="/wiki/Miscellany" title="Miscellany">miscellany</a> <a href="/wiki/Attic_Nights" class="mw-redirect" title="Attic Nights">Attic Nights</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aulus_Gellius" title="Aulus Gellius">Aulus Gellius</a> refers to writers as "classicus... scriptor, non proletarius" ("A distinguished, not a commonplace writer").<a href="#cite_note-Gellius-4">[4]</a> Such classification were initiated with the Greeks' ranking their cultural works, with the word <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/canon" class="extiw" title="wikt:canon">canon</a> (ancient Greek κανών, kanṓn: "measuring rod, standard").<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> Similarly, early <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christian</a> Church Fathers <a href="/wiki/Biblical_canon" title="Biblical canon">declared as canon</a> the authoritative texts of the <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a>, preserving them given the expense of <a href="/wiki/Vellum" title="Vellum">vellum</a> and <a href="/wiki/Papyrus" title="Papyrus">papyrus</a> and mechanical book reproduction. Thus, being included in a canon ensured a book's preservation as the best way to retain information about a civilization. In contemporary use, the Western canon defines the best of <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Western culture</a>. In the ancient world, at the <a href="/wiki/Alexandrian_Library" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexandrian Library">Alexandrian Library</a>, scholars coined the Greek term Hoi enkrithentes ["the admitted", "the included"] to identify the writers in the canon. Although the term is often associated with the Western canon, it can be applied to works of literature, music and art, etc. from all traditions, such as the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_classics" title="Chinese classics">Chinese classics</a>. With regard to books, what makes a book "classic" has concerned various authors, from <a href="/wiki/Mark_Twain" title="Mark Twain">Mark Twain</a> to <a href="/wiki/Italo_Calvino" title="Italo Calvino">Italo Calvino</a>, and questions such as "Why Read the Classics?", and "What Is a Classic?" have been considered by others, including <a href="/wiki/T._S._Eliot" title="T. S. Eliot">T. S. Eliot</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Augustin_Sainte-Beuve" title="Charles Augustin Sainte-Beuve">Charles Augustin Sainte-Beuve</a>, <a href="/wiki/Michael_Dirda" title="Michael Dirda">Michael Dirda</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ezra_Pound" title="Ezra Pound">Ezra Pound</a>. The terms "classic book" and Western canon are closely related concepts, but are not necessarily synonymous. A "canon" is a list of books considered to be "essential", and it can be published as a collection (such as <a href="/wiki/Great_Books_of_the_Western_World" title="Great Books of the Western World">Great Books of the Western World</a>, <a href="/wiki/Modern_Library" title="Modern Library">Modern Library</a>, <a href="/wiki/Everyman%27s_Library" title="Everyman's Library">Everyman's Library</a> or <a href="/wiki/Penguin_Classics" title="Penguin Classics">Penguin Classics</a>), presented as a list with an academic's imprimatur (such as <a href="/wiki/Harold_Bloom" title="Harold Bloom">Harold Bloom</a>'s<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a>), or be the official reading list of a university. In <a href="/wiki/The_Western_Canon" title="The Western Canon">The Western Canon</a> Bloom lists "the major Western writers" as <a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante Alighieri</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Chaucer" title="Geoffrey Chaucer">Geoffrey Chaucer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Miguel_de_Cervantes" title="Miguel de Cervantes">Miguel de Cervantes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Michel_de_Montaigne" title="Michel de Montaigne">Michel de Montaigne</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Shakespeare" title="William Shakespeare">William Shakespeare</a>, <a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Johann Wolfgang von Goethe</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Wordsworth" title="William Wordsworth">William Wordsworth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Dickens" title="Charles Dickens">Charles Dickens</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leo_Tolstoy" title="Leo Tolstoy">Leo Tolstoy</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_Joyce" title="James Joyce">James Joyce</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marcel_Proust" title="Marcel Proust">Marcel Proust</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Great_Books_Program">Great Books Program</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_canon&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Great Books Program" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Great_Books.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Great_Books.jpg/220px-Great_Books.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3008" data-file-height="2000"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 146px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Great_Books.jpg/220px-Great_Books.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="146" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Great_Books.jpg/330px-Great_Books.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Great_Books.jpg/440px-Great_Books.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Great_Books_of_the_Western_World" title="Great Books of the Western World">Great Books of the Western World</a> in 60 volumes</figcaption></figure> A university or college <a href="/wiki/Great_Books" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Books">Great Books</a> Program is a program inspired by the Great Books movement begun in the United States in the 1920s by <a href="/wiki/John_Erskine_(educator)" title="John Erskine (educator)">John Erskine</a> of <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a>, which proposed to improve the higher education system by returning it to the western <a href="/wiki/Liberal_arts" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberal arts">liberal arts</a> tradition of broad cross-disciplinary learning. These academics and educators included <a href="/wiki/Robert_Maynard_Hutchins" title="Robert Maynard Hutchins">Robert Hutchins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mortimer_Adler" class="mw-redirect" title="Mortimer Adler">Mortimer Adler</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stringfellow_Barr" title="Stringfellow Barr">Stringfellow Barr</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scott_Buchanan" title="Scott Buchanan">Scott Buchanan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Barzun" title="Jacques Barzun">Jacques Barzun</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Meiklejohn" title="Alexander Meiklejohn">Alexander Meiklejohn</a>. The view among them was that the emphasis on narrow specialization in American colleges had harmed the quality of <a href="/wiki/Higher_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Higher education">higher education</a> by failing to expose students to the important products of Western civilization and thought. The essential component of such programs is a high degree of engagement with primary texts, called the Great Books. The curricula of Great Books programs often follow a canon of texts considered more or less essential to a student's education, such as Plato's Republic, or Dante's Divine Comedy. Such programs often focus exclusively on Western culture. Their employment of primary texts dictates an interdisciplinary approach, as most of the Great Books do not fall neatly under the prerogative of a single contemporary academic discipline. Great Books programs often include designated discussion groups as well as lectures, and have small class sizes. In general students in such programs receive an abnormally high degree of attention from their professors, as part of the overall aim of fostering a community of learning. Over 100 institutions of higher learning, mostly in the United States, offer some version of a Great Books Program as an option for students.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> For much of the 20th century, the <a href="/wiki/Modern_Library" title="Modern Library">Modern Library</a> provided a larger convenient list of the Western canon.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> The list numbered more than 300 items by the 1950s, by authors from Aristotle to Albert Camus, and has continued to grow. When in the 1990s the concept of the Western canon was vehemently condemned, just as earlier Modern Library lists had been criticized as "too American," Modern Library responded by preparing new lists of "100 Best Novels" and "100 Best Nonfiction" compiled by famous writers, and later compiled lists nominated by book purchasers and readers.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Debate">Debate</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_canon&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Debate" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Some intellectuals have championed a "high conservative modernism" that insists that universal truths exist, and have opposed approaches that deny the existence of universal truths.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> <a href="/wiki/Yale_University" title="Yale University">Yale University</a> Professor of Humanities and famous literary critic <a href="/wiki/Harold_Bloom" title="Harold Bloom">Harold Bloom</a> also argued strongly in favor of the canon, in his 1994 book <a href="/wiki/The_Western_Canon:_The_Books_and_School_of_the_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="The Western Canon: The Books and School of the Ages">The Western Canon: The Books and School of the Ages</a>, and in general the canon remains as a represented idea in many institutions.<a href="#cite_note-Searle-11">[11]</a> <a href="/wiki/Allan_Bloom" title="Allan Bloom">Allan Bloom</a> (no relation), in his highly influential <a href="/wiki/The_Closing_of_the_American_Mind" title="The Closing of the American Mind">The Closing of the American Mind: How Higher Education Has Failed Democracy and Impoverished the Souls of Today's Students</a> (1987), argues that moral degradation results from ignorance of the great <a href="/wiki/Classics" title="Classics">classics</a> that shaped Western culture. Bloom further comments: "But one thing is certain: wherever the Great Books make up a central part of the curriculum, the students are excited and satisfied."<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> His book was widely cited by some intellectuals for its argument that the classics contained universal truths and timeless values which were being ignored by <a href="/wiki/Cultural_relativism" title="Cultural relativism">cultural relativists</a>.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> <a href="/wiki/Classicist" class="mw-redirect" title="Classicist">Classicist</a> <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Knox" title="Bernard Knox">Bernard Knox</a> made direct reference to this topic when he delivered his 1992 <a href="/wiki/Jefferson_Lecture" title="Jefferson Lecture">Jefferson Lecture</a> (the U.S. federal government's highest honor for achievement in the <a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">humanities</a>).<a href="#cite_note-jefflect-15">[15]</a> Knox used the intentionally "provocative" title "The Oldest Dead White European Males"<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> as the title of his lecture and his subsequent book of the same name, in both of which Knox defended the continuing relevance of <a href="/wiki/Classics" title="Classics">classical</a> culture to modern society.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lehmann-18">[18]</a> Defenders maintain that those who undermine the canon do so out of primarily political interests, and that such criticisms are misguided and/or disingenuous. As <a href="/wiki/John_Searle" title="John Searle">John Searle</a>, Professor of Philosophy at the University of California, Berkeley, has written: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">There is a certain irony in this [i.e., politicized objections to the canon] in that earlier student generations, my own for example, found the critical tradition that runs from <a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a> through the <a href="/wiki/The_Federalist_Papers" title="The Federalist Papers">Federalist Papers</a>, through the writings of <a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a> and <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a>, down to the twentieth century, to be liberating from the stuffy conventions of traditional American politics and pieties. Precisely by inculcating a critical attitude, the "canon" served to demythologize the conventional pieties of the American bourgeoisie and provided the student with a perspective from which to critically analyze American culture and institutions. Ironically, the same tradition is now regarded as oppressive. The texts once served an unmasking function; now we are told that it is the texts which must be unmasked.<a href="#cite_note-Searle-11">[11]</a></blockquote> One of the main objections to a canon of literature is the question of authority; who should have the power to determine what works are worth reading? <a href="/wiki/Charles_Altieri" title="Charles Altieri">Charles Altieri</a>, of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley" title="University of California, Berkeley">University of California, Berkeley</a>, states that canons are "an institutional form for exposing people to a range of idealized attitudes." It is according to this notion that work may be removed from the canon over time to reflect the contextual relevance and thoughts of society.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> American historian <a href="/wiki/Todd_M._Compton" class="mw-redirect" title="Todd M. Compton">Todd M. Compton</a> argues that canons are always communal in nature; that there are limited canons for, say a literature survey class, or an English department reading list, but there is no such thing as one absolute canon of literature. Instead, there are many conflicting canons. He regards Bloom's "Western Canon" as a personal canon only.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> The process of defining the boundaries of the canon is endless. The philosopher <a href="/wiki/John_Searle" title="John Searle">John Searle</a> has said, "In my experience there never was, in fact, a fixed 'canon'; there was rather a certain set of tentative judgments about what had importance and quality. Such judgments are always subject to revision, and in fact they were constantly being revised."<a href="#cite_note-Searle-11">[11]</a> One of the notable attempts at compiling an authoritative canon for literature in the English-speaking world was the <a href="/wiki/Great_Books_of_the_Western_World" title="Great Books of the Western World">Great Books of the Western World</a> program. This program, developed in the middle third of the 20th century, grew out of the curriculum at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a>. University president <a href="/wiki/Robert_Maynard_Hutchins" title="Robert Maynard Hutchins">Robert Maynard Hutchins</a> and his collaborator <a href="/wiki/Mortimer_Adler" class="mw-redirect" title="Mortimer Adler">Mortimer Adler</a> developed a program that offered reading lists, books, and organizational strategies for reading clubs to the general public.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> An earlier attempt had been made in 1909 by <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a> president <a href="/wiki/Charles_W._Eliot" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles W. Eliot">Charles W. Eliot</a>, with the <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Classics" title="Harvard Classics">Harvard Classics</a>, a 51-volume anthology of classic works from world literature. Eliot's view was the same as that of Scottish philosopher and historian <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Thomas Carlyle</a>: "The true University of these days is a Collection of Books". ("The Hero as Man of Letters", 1840) <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_the_English-speaking_world">In the English-speaking world</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_canon&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: In the English-speaking world" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="British_renaissance_poetry">British renaissance poetry</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_canon&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: British renaissance poetry" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_literature" title="Elizabethan literature">Elizabethan literature</a> and <a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_poets" title="Metaphysical poets">Metaphysical poets</a></div> The canon of Renaissance English poetry of the 16th and early 17th century has always been in some form of flux and towards the end of the 20th century the established canon was criticised, especially by those who wished to expand it to include, for example, more women writers.<a href="#cite_note-Waller-2013-24">[24]</a> However, the central figures of the British renaissance canon remain, <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Spenser" title="Edmund Spenser">Edmund Spenser</a>, Sir <a href="/wiki/Philip_Sidney" title="Philip Sidney">Philip Sidney</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Marlowe" title="Christopher Marlowe">Christopher Marlowe</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Shakespeare" title="William Shakespeare">William Shakespeare</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ben_Jonson" title="Ben Jonson">Ben Jonson</a>, and <a href="/wiki/John_Donne" title="John Donne">John Donne</a>.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Spenser" title="Edmund Spenser">Spenser</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Donne" title="John Donne">Donne</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ben_Jonson" title="Ben Jonson">Jonson</a> were major influences on 17th-century poetry. However, poet <a href="/wiki/John_Dryden" title="John Dryden">John Dryden</a> condemned aspects of the metaphysical poets in his criticism. In the 18th century <a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Metaphysical poetry">Metaphysical poetry</a> fell into further disrepute,<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> while the interest in <a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_literature" title="Elizabethan literature">Elizabethan poetry</a> was rekindled through the scholarship of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Warton" title="Thomas Warton">Thomas Warton</a> and others. However, the canon of Renaissance poetry was formed in the Victorian period with anthologies like Palgrave's <a href="/wiki/Golden_Treasury" class="mw-redirect" title="Golden Treasury">Golden Treasury</a>.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> In the twentieth century <a href="/wiki/T._S._Eliot" title="T. S. Eliot">T. S. Eliot</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yvor_Winters" title="Yvor Winters">Yvor Winters</a> were two literary critics who were especially concerned with revising the canon of renaissance English literature. Eliot, for example, championed poet <a href="/wiki/Sir_John_Davies" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir John Davies">Sir John Davies</a> in an article in <a href="/wiki/The_Times_Literary_Supplement" title="The Times Literary Supplement">The Times Literary Supplement</a> in 1926. During the course of the 1920s, Eliot did much to establish the importance of the metaphysical school, both through his critical writing and by applying their method in his own work. However, by 1961 <a href="/wiki/A._Alvarez" class="mw-redirect" title="A. Alvarez">A. Alvarez</a> was commenting that "it may perhaps be a little late in the day to be writing about the Metaphysicals. The great vogue for Donne passed with the passing of the Anglo-American experimental movement in modern poetry."<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> Two decades later, a hostile view was expressed that emphasis on their importance had been an attempt by Eliot and his followers to impose a 'high Anglican and royalist literary history' on 17th-century English poetry.<a href="#cite_note-ODNB-29">[29]</a> The American critic <a href="/wiki/Yvor_Winters" title="Yvor Winters">Yvor Winters</a> suggested in 1939 an alternative canon of <a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Elizabethan poetry">Elizabethan poetry</a>,<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> which would exclude the famous representatives of the <a href="/wiki/Petrarchan" class="mw-redirect" title="Petrarchan">Petrarchan school</a> of poetry, represented by Sir <a href="/wiki/Philip_Sidney" title="Philip Sidney">Philip Sidney</a> and <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Spenser" title="Edmund Spenser">Edmund Spenser</a>. Winters claimed that the Native or Plain Style anti-Petrarchan movement had been undervalued and argued that <a href="/wiki/George_Gascoigne" title="George Gascoigne">George Gascoigne</a> (1525–1577) "deserves to be ranked […] among the six or seven greatest lyric poets of the century, and perhaps higher".<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> Towards the end of the 20th century the established canon was increasingly disputed.<a href="#cite_note-Waller-2013-24">[24]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Expansion_of_the_literary_canon_in_the_20th_century">Expansion of the literary canon in the 20th century</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_canon&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Expansion of the literary canon in the 20th century" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> In the twentieth century there was a general reassessment of the <a href="/wiki/Literary_canon" class="mw-redirect" title="Literary canon">literary canon</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_writing_in_English" class="mw-redirect" title="Women's writing in English">women's writing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Post-colonial_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-colonial literature">post-colonial literatures</a>, <a href="/wiki/LGBT_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT literature">gay and lesbian literature</a>, writing by racialized minorities, working people's writing, and the cultural productions of historically marginalized groups. This reassessment has resulted in a whole scale expansion of what is considered "literature", and genres hitherto not regarded as "literary", such as children's writing, journals, letters, travel writing, and many others are now the subjects of scholarly interest.<a href="#cite_note-Blain-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> The Western literary canon has also expanded to include the literature of Asia, Africa, the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>, and South America. Writers from Africa, Turkey, China, Egypt, Peru, and Colombia, Japan, etc., have received Nobel prizes since the late 1960s. Writers from Asia and Africa have also been nominated for, and also won, the <a href="/wiki/List_of_winners_and_shortlisted_authors_of_the_Booker_Prize_for_Fiction" class="mw-redirect" title="List of winners and shortlisted authors of the Booker Prize for Fiction">Booker prize</a> in recent years. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Feminism_and_the_literary_canon">Feminism and the literary canon</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_canon&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Feminism and the literary canon" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/%C3%89criture_f%C3%A9minine" title="Écriture féminine">Écriture féminine</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_American_feminist_literature" title="List of American feminist literature">List of American feminist literature</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_feminist_literature" title="List of feminist literature">List of feminist literature</a>, and <a href="/wiki/List_of_feminist_poets" title="List of feminist poets">List of feminist poets</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sartre_and_de_Beauvoir_at_Balzac_Memorial.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Sartre_and_de_Beauvoir_at_Balzac_Memorial.jpg/220px-Sartre_and_de_Beauvoir_at_Balzac_Memorial.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="345" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1355" data-file-height="2127"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 345px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Sartre_and_de_Beauvoir_at_Balzac_Memorial.jpg/220px-Sartre_and_de_Beauvoir_at_Balzac_Memorial.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="345" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Sartre_and_de_Beauvoir_at_Balzac_Memorial.jpg/330px-Sartre_and_de_Beauvoir_at_Balzac_Memorial.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Sartre_and_de_Beauvoir_at_Balzac_Memorial.jpg/440px-Sartre_and_de_Beauvoir_at_Balzac_Memorial.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Jean-Paul Sartre</a> and <a href="/wiki/Simone_de_Beauvoir" title="Simone de Beauvoir">Simone de Beauvoir</a> at <a href="/wiki/Balzac" class="mw-redirect" title="Balzac">Balzac</a> Memorial </figcaption></figure> Susan Hardy Aitken argues that the Western canon has maintained itself by excluding and marginalising women, whilst idealising the works of men.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> Where women's work is introduced it can be considered inappropriately rather than recognising the importance of their work; a work's greatness is judged against socially situated factors which exclude women, whilst being portrayed as an intellectual approach.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> The feminist movement produced both feminist fiction and non-fiction and created new interest in women's writing. It also prompted a general reevaluation of women's <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_history" title="Women's history">historical</a> and academic contributions in response to the belief that women's lives and contributions have been underrepresented as areas of scholarly interest.<a href="#cite_note-Blain-32">[32]</a> However, in Britain and America at least women achieved major literary success from the late eighteenth century, and many major nineteenth-century British novelists were women, including <a href="/wiki/Jane_Austen" title="Jane Austen">Jane Austen</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Bront%C3%ABs" class="mw-redirect" title="Brontës">Brontë family</a>, <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Gaskell" title="Elizabeth Gaskell">Elizabeth Gaskell</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mary_Ann_Evans" class="mw-redirect" title="Mary Ann Evans">George Eliot</a>. There were also three major female poets, <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Barrett_Browning" title="Elizabeth Barrett Browning">Elizabeth Barrett Browning</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Leighton-37">[37]</a> <a href="/wiki/Christina_Rossetti" title="Christina Rossetti">Christina Rossetti</a> and <a href="/wiki/Emily_Dickinson" title="Emily Dickinson">Emily Dickinson</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Bloo9-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> In the twentieth century there were also many major female writers, including <a href="/wiki/Katherine_Mansfield" title="Katherine Mansfield">Katherine Mansfield</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Richardson" title="Dorothy Richardson">Dorothy Richardson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Virginia_Woolf" title="Virginia Woolf">Virginia Woolf</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eudora_Welty" title="Eudora Welty">Eudora Welty</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Marianne_Moore" title="Marianne Moore">Marianne Moore</a>. Notable female writers in France include <a href="/wiki/Colette" title="Colette">Colette</a>, <a href="/wiki/Simone_de_Beauvoir" title="Simone de Beauvoir">Simone de Beauvoir</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marguerite_Yourcenar" title="Marguerite Yourcenar">Marguerite Yourcenar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nathalie_Sarraute" title="Nathalie Sarraute">Nathalie Sarraute</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marguerite_Duras" title="Marguerite Duras">Marguerite Duras</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7oise_Sagan" title="Françoise Sagan">Françoise Sagan</a>. Much of the early period of feminist literary scholarship was given over to the rediscovery and reclamation of texts written by women. <a href="/wiki/Virago_Press" title="Virago Press">Virago Press</a> began to publish its large list of 19th and early 20th-century novels in 1975 and became one of the first commercial presses to join in the project of reclamation. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="African-American_authors">African-American authors</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_canon&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: African-American authors" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> In the twentieth century, the Western literary canon started to include African writers not only from <a href="/wiki/African-American_literature" title="African-American literature">African-American writers</a>, but also from the <a href="/wiki/African_diaspora" title="African diaspora">wider African diaspora</a> of writers in Britain, France, Latin America, and Africa. This correlated largely with the shift in social and political views during the <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">civil rights movement</a> in the United States. The first global recognition came in 1950 when <a href="/wiki/Gwendolyn_Brooks" title="Gwendolyn Brooks">Gwendolyn Brooks</a> was the first African American to win a <a href="/wiki/Pulitzer_Prize" title="Pulitzer Prize">Pulitzer Prize</a> for Literature. American <a href="/wiki/Toni_Morrison" title="Toni Morrison">Toni Morrison</a> was the first African-American woman to win the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="Nobel Prize in Literature">Nobel Prize in Literature</a>, in 1993. Some early African-American writers were inspired to defy ubiquitous <a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">racial prejudice</a> by proving themselves equal to <a href="/wiki/European_American" class="mw-redirect" title="European American">European American</a> authors. As Henry Louis Gates Jr., has said, "it is fair to describe the subtext of the history of black letters as this urge to refute the claim that because blacks had no written traditions they were bearers of an inferior culture."<a href="#cite_note-Stryz_p140-40">[40]</a> African-American writers were also attempting to subvert the literary and power traditions of the United States. Some scholars assert that writing has traditionally been seen as "something defined by the dominant culture as a white male activity."<a href="#cite_note-Stryz_p140-40">[40]</a> This means that, in American society, literary acceptance has traditionally been intimately tied in with the very power dynamics which perpetrated such evils as racial discrimination. By borrowing from and incorporating the non-written oral traditions and folk life of the <a href="/wiki/African_diaspora" title="African diaspora">African diaspora</a>, African-American literature broke "the mystique of connection between literary authority and <a href="/wiki/Patriarchal" class="mw-redirect" title="Patriarchal">patriarchal</a> power."<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> In producing their own literature, African Americans were able to establish their own literary traditions devoid of the European intellectual filter. This view of African-American literature as a tool in the struggle for African-American political and cultural liberation has been stated for decades, most famously by <a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a>.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:WoleSoyinka2015.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/WoleSoyinka2015.jpg/220px-WoleSoyinka2015.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1885" data-file-height="2513"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 293px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/WoleSoyinka2015.jpg/220px-WoleSoyinka2015.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="293" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/WoleSoyinka2015.jpg/330px-WoleSoyinka2015.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/WoleSoyinka2015.jpg/440px-WoleSoyinka2015.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Nobel laureate <a href="/wiki/Wole_Soyinka" title="Wole Soyinka">Wole Soyinka</a> in 2015.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Latin_America">Latin America</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_canon&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Latin America" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gabogarciamarquez1.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/52/Gabogarciamarquez1.png" decoding="async" width="133" height="207" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="133" data-file-height="207"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 133px;height: 207px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/52/Gabogarciamarquez1.png" data-width="133" data-height="207" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Garc%C3%ADa_M%C3%A1rquez" class="mw-redirect" title="García Márquez">García Márquez</a> signing a copy of <a href="/wiki/One_Hundred_Years_of_Solitude" title="One Hundred Years of Solitude">One Hundred Years of Solitude</a> in <a href="/wiki/Havana" title="Havana">Havana</a>, Cuba</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Octavio_Paz_Lozano" class="mw-redirect" title="Octavio Paz Lozano">Octavio Paz Lozano</a> (1914–1998) was a Mexican poet and diplomat. For his body of work, he was awarded the 1981 <a href="/wiki/Miguel_de_Cervantes_Prize" title="Miguel de Cervantes Prize">Miguel de Cervantes Prize</a>, the 1982 <a href="/wiki/Neustadt_International_Prize_for_Literature" title="Neustadt International Prize for Literature">Neustadt International Prize for Literature</a>, and the 1990 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="Nobel Prize in Literature">Nobel Prize in Literature</a>. <a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Garc%C3%ADa_M%C3%A1rquez" title="Gabriel García Márquez">Gabriel García Márquez</a><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> (1927–2014) was a <a href="/wiki/Colombian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Colombian people">Colombian</a> novelist, short-story writer, screenwriter, and journalist. Considered one of the most significant authors of the 20th century and one of the best in the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_literature" title="Spanish literature">Spanish language</a>, he was awarded the 1972 <a href="/wiki/Neustadt_International_Prize_for_Literature" title="Neustadt International Prize for Literature">Neustadt International Prize for Literature</a> and the 1982 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="Nobel Prize in Literature">Nobel Prize in Literature</a>.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> García Márquez started as a journalist, and wrote many acclaimed non-fiction works and short stories, but is best known for his novels, such as <a href="/wiki/One_Hundred_Years_of_Solitude" title="One Hundred Years of Solitude">One Hundred Years of Solitude</a> (1967), <a href="/wiki/The_Autumn_of_the_Patriarch" title="The Autumn of the Patriarch">The Autumn of the Patriarch</a> (1975), and <a href="/wiki/Love_in_the_Time_of_Cholera" title="Love in the Time of Cholera">Love in the Time of Cholera</a> (1985). His works have achieved significant critical acclaim and widespread commercial success, most notably for popularizing a literary style labeled as <a href="/wiki/Magic_realism" class="mw-redirect" title="Magic realism">magic realism</a>, which uses magical elements and events in otherwise ordinary and realistic situations. Some of his works are set in a fictional village called <a href="/wiki/Macondo" title="Macondo">Macondo</a> (the town mainly inspired by his birthplace <a href="/wiki/Aracataca" title="Aracataca">Aracataca</a>), and most of them explore the theme of <a href="/wiki/Solitude" title="Solitude">solitude</a>. On his death in April 2014, <a href="/wiki/Juan_Manuel_Santos" title="Juan Manuel Santos">Juan Manuel Santos</a>, the President of Colombia, described him as "the greatest Colombian who ever lived."<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mario_Vargas_Llosa" title="Mario Vargas Llosa">Mario Vargas Llosa</a>, (b. 1936)<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> is a Peruvian writer, politician, journalist, essayist, college professor, and recipient of the 2010 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="Nobel Prize in Literature">Nobel Prize in Literature</a>.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> Vargas Llosa is one of Latin America's most significant novelists and essayists, and one of the leading writers of his generation. Some critics consider him to have had a larger international impact and worldwide audience than any other writer of the <a href="/wiki/Latin_American_Boom" title="Latin American Boom">Latin American Boom</a>.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> Upon announcing the 2010 Nobel Prize in Literature, the <a href="/wiki/Swedish_Academy" title="Swedish Academy">Swedish Academy</a> said it had been given to Vargas Llosa "for his cartography of structures of power and his trenchant images of the individual's resistance, revolt, and defeat".<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><h2 id="Canon_of_philosophers">Canon of philosophers</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_canon&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Canon of philosophers" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Disputed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-disputed" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article's factual accuracy is <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute">disputed</a>. Relevant discussion may be found on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Western_canon#Disputed" title="Talk:Western canon">talk page</a>. Please help to ensure that disputed statements are <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources" title="Wikipedia:Reliable sources">reliably sourced</a>. (December 2021) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_important_publications_in_philosophy" title="List of important publications in philosophy">List of important publications in philosophy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plato_Silanion_Musei_Capitolini_MC1377.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Plato_Silanion_Musei_Capitolini_MC1377.jpg/220px-Plato_Silanion_Musei_Capitolini_MC1377.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="3600"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 330px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Plato_Silanion_Musei_Capitolini_MC1377.jpg/220px-Plato_Silanion_Musei_Capitolini_MC1377.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="330" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Plato_Silanion_Musei_Capitolini_MC1377.jpg/330px-Plato_Silanion_Musei_Capitolini_MC1377.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Plato_Silanion_Musei_Capitolini_MC1377.jpg/440px-Plato_Silanion_Musei_Capitolini_MC1377.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>. Luni marble, Roman copy of the portrait made by <a href="/wiki/Silanion" title="Silanion">Silanion</a> ca. 370 BC for the Academia in Athens</figcaption></figure> Many <a href="/wiki/Philosopher" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosopher">philosophers</a> today agree that Greek philosophy has influenced much of <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Western culture</a> since its inception. <a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred North Whitehead</a> once noted: "The safest general characterization of the European philosophical tradition is that it consists of a series of footnotes to <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>."<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> Clear, unbroken lines of influence lead from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophers</a> to <a href="/wiki/Early_Islamic_philosophy" title="Early Islamic philosophy">Early Islamic philosophy</a>, the European <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a>.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> was a <a href="/wiki/Philosopher" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosopher">philosopher</a> in <a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical Greece</a> and the founder of the <a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">Academy</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Athens" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Athens">Athens</a>. He is widely considered the most pivotal figure in the development of philosophy, especially the <a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western tradition</a>.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> was an <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greek</a> <a href="/wiki/Philosopher" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosopher">philosopher</a>. His writings cover many subjects – including <a href="/wiki/Physics_(Aristotle)" title="Physics (Aristotle)">physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aristotle%27s_biology" title="Aristotle's biology">biology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zoology" title="Zoology">zoology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">aesthetics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">rhetoric</a>, <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a>, politics and government—and constitute the first comprehensive system of <a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-philosophy1972-54">[54]</a> Aristotle's views on <a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_physics" title="Aristotelian physics">physical science</a> had a profound influence on medieval scholarship. Their influence extended from <a href="/wiki/Late_Antiquity" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Antiquity">Late Antiquity</a> into the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>, and his views were not replaced systematically until <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">the Enlightenment</a> and theories such as <a href="/wiki/Classical_mechanics" title="Classical mechanics">classical mechanics</a>. In metaphysics, <a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a> profoundly influenced <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)" title="Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)">Judeo-Islamic philosophical and theological thought</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> and continues to influence <a href="/wiki/Christian_theology" title="Christian theology">Christian theology</a>, especially the <a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Early_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Church">Early Church</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">scholastic</a> tradition of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic Church">Roman Catholic Church</a>. Aristotle was well known among medieval Muslim intellectuals and revered as "The First Teacher" (<a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: المعلم الأول). His ethics, though always influential, gained renewed interest with the modern advent of <a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">virtue ethics</a>. <a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</a>' <a href="/wiki/On_the_Consolation_of_Philosophy" title="On the Consolation of Philosophy">On the Consolation of Philosophy</a> (<a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: De consolatione philosophiae) is often acclaimed as a central work from <a href="/wiki/Late_Antiquity" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Antiquity">Late Antiquity</a>, at the cusp of the <a href="/wiki/Early_medieval_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Early medieval period">early medieval period</a>, that remained influential throughout the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>. Of Boethius, it has been said that "[along] with <a href="/wiki/Augustine" class="mw-redirect" title="Augustine">Augustine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, he is the fundamental philosophical and theological author in the Latin tradition";<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> <a href="/wiki/Edward_Gibbon" title="Edward Gibbon">Edward Gibbon</a> wrote of the Consolatione that it is "a golden volume not unworthy of the leisure of <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> or <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Tully</a>",<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a> wrote that, by merit of the same, Boethius "would have been remarkable in any age; in the age in which he lived he is utterly amazing."<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> The vast body of <a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian philosophy</a> is typically represented on reading lists mainly by <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a>. The academic canon of <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">early modern philosophy</a> generally includes <a href="/wiki/Descartes" class="mw-redirect" title="Descartes">Descartes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spinoza" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinoza">Spinoza</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a>, <a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">Berkeley</a>, <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a>.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Renaissance_philosophy">Renaissance philosophy</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_canon&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Renaissance philosophy" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Major philosophers of the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> include <a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Niccolò Machiavelli</a>, <a href="/wiki/Michel_de_Montaigne" title="Michel de Montaigne">Michel de Montaigne</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pico_della_Mirandola" class="mw-redirect" title="Pico della Mirandola">Pico della Mirandola</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_of_Cusa" title="Nicholas of Cusa">Nicholas of Cusa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Giordano_Bruno" title="Giordano Bruno">Giordano Bruno</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marsilio_Ficino" title="Marsilio Ficino">Marsilio Ficino</a><a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gemistos_Plethon" title="Gemistos Plethon">Gemistos Plethon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Seventeenth-century_philosophers">Seventeenth-century philosophers</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_canon&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Seventeenth-century philosophers" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Leviathan_frontispiece_cropped_British_Library.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Leviathan_frontispiece_cropped_British_Library.jpg/220px-Leviathan_frontispiece_cropped_British_Library.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="351" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1930" data-file-height="3078"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 351px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Leviathan_frontispiece_cropped_British_Library.jpg/220px-Leviathan_frontispiece_cropped_British_Library.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="351" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Leviathan_frontispiece_cropped_British_Library.jpg/330px-Leviathan_frontispiece_cropped_British_Library.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Leviathan_frontispiece_cropped_British_Library.jpg/440px-Leviathan_frontispiece_cropped_British_Library.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Frontispiece of <a href="/wiki/Hobbes" class="mw-redirect" title="Hobbes">Hobbes</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Leviathan_(Hobbes_book)" title="Leviathan (Hobbes book)">Leviathan</a></figcaption></figure> The seventeenth century was important for philosophy, and the major figures were <a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Blaise Pascal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Britannica-2024-61">[61]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eighteenth-century_philosophers">Eighteenth-century philosophers</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_canon&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Eighteenth-century philosophers" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Major philosophers of the eighteenth century include <a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">George Berkeley</a>, <a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a>, <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a>, <a href="/wiki/Giambattista_Vico" title="Giambattista Vico">Giambattista Vico</a>,<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> <a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a>, <a href="/wiki/Denis_Diderot" title="Denis Diderot">Denis Diderot</a>, <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Edmund Burke</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Jeremy Bentham</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Britannica-2024-61">[61]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nineteenth-century_philosophers">Nineteenth-century philosophers</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_canon&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Nineteenth-century philosophers" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Western_canon" title="Special:EditPage/Western canon">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>. (February 2024) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> Important nineteenth century philosophers include <a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel</a> (1770–1831), <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Giuseppe Mazzini</a>,<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Arthur Schopenhauer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a>, <a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a>, <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Friedrich Engels</a> and <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zentralbibliothek_Z%C3%BCrich_Das_Kapital_Marx_1867.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Zentralbibliothek_Z%C3%BCrich_Das_Kapital_Marx_1867.jpg/170px-Zentralbibliothek_Z%C3%BCrich_Das_Kapital_Marx_1867.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="287" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="997" data-file-height="1681"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 287px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Zentralbibliothek_Z%C3%BCrich_Das_Kapital_Marx_1867.jpg/170px-Zentralbibliothek_Z%C3%BCrich_Das_Kapital_Marx_1867.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="287" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Zentralbibliothek_Z%C3%BCrich_Das_Kapital_Marx_1867.jpg/255px-Zentralbibliothek_Z%C3%BCrich_Das_Kapital_Marx_1867.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Zentralbibliothek_Z%C3%BCrich_Das_Kapital_Marx_1867.jpg/340px-Zentralbibliothek_Z%C3%BCrich_Das_Kapital_Marx_1867.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The first volume of <a href="/wiki/Marx" class="mw-redirect" title="Marx">Marx</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Capital:_Critique_of_Political_Economy" class="mw-redirect" title="Capital: Critique of Political Economy">Das Kapital</a>, 1867</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Twentieth-century_philosophers">Twentieth-century philosophers</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_canon&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Twentieth-century philosophers" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Western_canon" title="Special:EditPage/Western canon">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>. (February 2024) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> Major twentieth century figures include <a href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Henri Bergson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Husserl" title="Edmund Husserl">Edmund Husserl</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a>, <a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Martin Heidegger</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Jean-Paul Sartre</a>, <a href="/wiki/Simone_de_Beauvoir" title="Simone de Beauvoir">Simone de Beauvoir</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Simone_Weil" title="Simone Weil">Simone Weil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Michel Foucault</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Bourdieu" title="Pierre Bourdieu">Pierre Bourdieu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Derrida" title="Jacques Derrida">Jacques Derrida</a> and <a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Jürgen Habermas</a>. A porous distinction between <a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">analytic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">continental</a> approaches emerged during this period. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><h2 id="Music">Music</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_canon&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Music" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Johann_Sebastian_Bach.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Johann_Sebastian_Bach.jpg/220px-Johann_Sebastian_Bach.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="271" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="480" data-file-height="591"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 271px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Johann_Sebastian_Bach.jpg/220px-Johann_Sebastian_Bach.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="271" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Johann_Sebastian_Bach.jpg/330px-Johann_Sebastian_Bach.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Johann_Sebastian_Bach.jpg/440px-Johann_Sebastian_Bach.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Johann_Sebastian_Bach" title="Johann Sebastian Bach">Johann Sebastian Bach</a> </figcaption></figure> Classical music forms the core of canon music and remains mostly unchanged to our days. It integrates a huge body of works starting from the 17th century and are reproduced on an ensemble of all acoustic musical instruments that were common in that century's Europe. The term "classical music" did not appear until the early 19th century, in an attempt to distinctly canonize the period from <a href="/wiki/Johann_Sebastian_Bach" title="Johann Sebastian Bach">Johann Sebastian Bach</a> to <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_van_Beethoven" title="Ludwig van Beethoven">Ludwig van Beethoven</a> as a golden age. In addition to Bach and Beethoven, the other major figures from this period were <a href="/wiki/George_Frideric_Handel" title="George Frideric Handel">George Frideric Handel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Haydn" title="Joseph Haydn">Joseph Haydn</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Amadeus_Mozart" title="Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart">Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart</a>.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> The earliest reference to "classical music" recorded by the <a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a> is from about 1836.<a href="#cite_note-Music_2007-65">[65]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Classical_music" title="Classical music">classical music</a>, during the nineteenth century a "canon" developed which focused on what was felt to be the most important works written since 1600, with a great concentration on the later part of this period, termed the <a href="/wiki/Classical_period_(music)" title="Classical period (music)">Classical period</a>, which is generally taken to begin around 1750. After Beethoven, the major nineteenth-century composers include <a href="/wiki/Franz_Schubert" title="Franz Schubert">Franz Schubert</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Schumann" title="Robert Schumann">Robert Schumann</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Chopin" title="Frédéric Chopin">Frédéric Chopin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hector_Berlioz" title="Hector Berlioz">Hector Berlioz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Franz_Liszt" title="Franz Liszt">Franz Liszt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Richard_Wagner" title="Richard Wagner">Richard Wagner</a>, <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Brahms" title="Johannes Brahms">Johannes Brahms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anton_Bruckner" title="Anton Bruckner">Anton Bruckner</a>, <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Verdi" title="Giuseppe Verdi">Giuseppe Verdi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gustav_Mahler" title="Gustav Mahler">Gustav Mahler</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Ilyich_Tchaikovsky" title="Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky">Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky</a>.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> In the 2000s, the standard concert repertoire of professional orchestras, chamber music groups, and choirs tends to focus on works by a relatively small number of mainly 18th- and 19th-century male composers. Many of the works deemed to be part of the musical canon are from genres regarded as the most serious, such as the <a href="/wiki/Symphony" title="Symphony">symphony</a>, <a href="/wiki/Concerto" title="Concerto">concerto</a>, <a href="/wiki/String_quartet" title="String quartet">string quartet</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Opera" title="Opera">opera</a>. <a href="/wiki/Folk_music" title="Folk music">Folk music</a> was already giving <a href="/wiki/Art_music" title="Art music">art music</a> melodies, and from the late 19th century, in an atmosphere of increasing <a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">nationalism</a>, folk music began to influence composers in formal and other ways, before being admitted to some sort of status in the canon itself. Since the early twentieth century <a href="/wiki/Non-Western_music" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-Western music">non-Western music</a> has begun to influence Western composers. In particular, direct homages to <a href="/wiki/Java" title="Java">Javanese</a> <a href="/wiki/Gamelan_music" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamelan music">gamelan music</a> are found in works for western instruments by <a href="/wiki/Claude_Debussy" title="Claude Debussy">Claude Debussy</a>, <a href="/wiki/B%C3%A9la_Bart%C3%B3k" title="Béla Bartók">Béla Bartók</a>, <a href="/wiki/Francis_Poulenc" title="Francis Poulenc">Francis Poulenc</a>, <a href="/wiki/Olivier_Messiaen" title="Olivier Messiaen">Olivier Messiaen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Boulez" title="Pierre Boulez">Pierre Boulez</a>, <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Britten" title="Benjamin Britten">Benjamin Britten</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Cage" title="John Cage">John Cage</a>, <a href="/wiki/Steve_Reich" title="Steve Reich">Steve Reich</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Philip_Glass" title="Philip Glass">Philip Glass</a>.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> Debussy was immensely interested in non-Western music and its approaches to composition. Specifically, he was drawn to the Javanese gamelan,<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> which he first heard at the <a href="/wiki/Exposition_Universelle_(1889)" title="Exposition Universelle (1889)">1889 Paris Exposition</a>. He was not interested in directly quoting his non-Western influences, but instead allowed this non-Western aesthetic to generally influence his own musical work, for example, by frequently using quiet, unresolved dissonances, coupled with the damper pedal, to emulate the "shimmering" effect created by a gamelan ensemble. American composer Philip Glass was not only influenced by the eminent French composition teacher <a href="/wiki/Nadia_Boulanger" title="Nadia Boulanger">Nadia Boulanger</a>,<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> but also by the Indian musicians <a href="/wiki/Ravi_Shankar" title="Ravi Shankar">Ravi Shankar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alla_Rakha" title="Alla Rakha">Alla Rakha</a>, His distinctive style arose from his work with Shankar and Rakha and their perception of rhythm in Indian music as being entirely additive.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Concert_A22894.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/The_Concert_A22894.jpg/220px-The_Concert_A22894.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="131" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="16219" data-file-height="9666"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 131px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/The_Concert_A22894.jpg/220px-The_Concert_A22894.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="131" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/The_Concert_A22894.jpg/330px-The_Concert_A22894.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/The_Concert_A22894.jpg/440px-The_Concert_A22894.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Musicians of the late Renaissance/early Baroque era (<a href="/wiki/Gerard_van_Honthorst" title="Gerard van Honthorst">Gerard van Honthorst</a>, The Concert, 1623)</figcaption></figure> In the latter half of the 20th century the canon expanded to cover the so-called <a href="/wiki/Early_music" title="Early music">Early music</a> of the pre-classical period, and <a href="/wiki/Baroque_music" title="Baroque music">Baroque music</a> by composers other than Bach and <a href="/wiki/George_Frideric_Handel" title="George Frideric Handel">George Frideric Handel</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Vivaldi" title="Antonio Vivaldi">Antonio Vivaldi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Claudio_Monteverdi" title="Claudio Monteverdi">Claudio Monteverdi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Domenico_Scarlatti" title="Domenico Scarlatti">Domenico Scarlatti</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Scarlatti" title="Alessandro Scarlatti">Alessandro Scarlatti</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henry_Purcell" title="Henry Purcell">Henry Purcell</a>, <a href="/wiki/Georg_Philipp_Telemann" title="Georg Philipp Telemann">Georg Philipp Telemann</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Lully" title="Jean-Baptiste Lully">Jean-Baptiste Lully</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jean-Philippe_Rameau" title="Jean-Philippe Rameau">Jean-Philippe Rameau</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marc-Antoine_Charpentier" title="Marc-Antoine Charpentier">Marc-Antoine Charpentier</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arcangelo_Corelli" title="Arcangelo Corelli">Arcangelo Corelli</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Couperin" title="François Couperin">François Couperin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Sch%C3%BCtz" title="Heinrich Schütz">Heinrich Schütz</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dieterich_Buxtehude" title="Dieterich Buxtehude">Dieterich Buxtehude</a>. Earlier composers, such as <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Pierluigi_da_Palestrina" title="Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina">Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Orlande_de_Lassus" class="mw-redirect" title="Orlande de Lassus">Orlande de Lassus</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_Byrd" title="William Byrd">William Byrd</a>, have also received more attention in the last hundred years.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> The absence of women composers from the classical canon was brought to the forefront of musicological literature in the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries. Even though many <a href="/wiki/Women_composers" class="mw-redirect" title="Women composers">women composers</a> have written music in the common practice period and beyond, their works remain extremely underrepresented in concert programs, music history curriculums, and music anthologies. In particular, musicologist Marcia J Citron has examined "the practices and attitudes that have led to the exclusion of women composers from the received 'canon' of performed musical works."<a href="#cite_note-Citron-72">[72]</a> Since around 1980 the music of <a href="/wiki/Hildegard_von_Bingen" class="mw-redirect" title="Hildegard von Bingen">Hildegard von Bingen</a> (1098–1179), a German Benedictine abbess, and Finnish composer <a href="/wiki/Kaija_Saariaho" title="Kaija Saariaho">Kaija Saariaho</a> (born 1952) has begun to enter the canon. Saariaho's opera <a href="/wiki/L%27amour_de_loin" class="mw-redirect" title="L'amour de loin">L'amour de loin</a> has been staged in some of the world's major opera houses, including The <a href="/wiki/English_National_Opera" title="English National Opera">English National Opera</a> (2009)<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> and in 2016 the <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Opera" title="Metropolitan Opera">Metropolitan Opera</a> in New York. The classical ensemble canon very rarely integrates musical instruments that are not acoustic and of western origins, it stayed apart from the wide use of electric, electronic and digital instruments that are common in today's popular music. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><h2 id="Visual_arts">Visual arts</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_canon&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Visual arts" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Western_canon" title="Special:EditPage/Western canon">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2018) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Capitoline_Venus_-_Palazzo_Nuovo_-_Musei_Capitolini_-_Rome_2016.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Capitoline_Venus_-_Palazzo_Nuovo_-_Musei_Capitolini_-_Rome_2016.jpg/170px-Capitoline_Venus_-_Palazzo_Nuovo_-_Musei_Capitolini_-_Rome_2016.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="270" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="5184"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 270px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Capitoline_Venus_-_Palazzo_Nuovo_-_Musei_Capitolini_-_Rome_2016.jpg/170px-Capitoline_Venus_-_Palazzo_Nuovo_-_Musei_Capitolini_-_Rome_2016.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="270" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Capitoline_Venus_-_Palazzo_Nuovo_-_Musei_Capitolini_-_Rome_2016.jpg/255px-Capitoline_Venus_-_Palazzo_Nuovo_-_Musei_Capitolini_-_Rome_2016.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Capitoline_Venus_-_Palazzo_Nuovo_-_Musei_Capitolini_-_Rome_2016.jpg/340px-Capitoline_Venus_-_Palazzo_Nuovo_-_Musei_Capitolini_-_Rome_2016.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Capitoline_Venus" title="Capitoline Venus">Capitoline Venus</a> (<a href="/wiki/Capitoline_Museums" title="Capitoline Museums">Capitoline Museums</a>), an <a href="/wiki/Antonine" class="mw-redirect" title="Antonine">Antonine</a> copy of a late <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic">Hellenistic</a> sculpture that ultimately derives from <a href="/wiki/Praxiteles" title="Praxiteles">Praxiteles</a>.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Art_history" title="Art history">Art history</a></div> The backbone of traditional Western <a href="/wiki/Art_history" title="Art history">art history</a> are <a href="/wiki/Artwork" class="mw-redirect" title="Artwork">artworks</a> commissioned by wealthy patrons for private or public enjoyment. Much of this was religious art, mostly <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic art">Roman Catholic art</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Classical_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical art">classical art</a> of Greece and Rome has, since the Renaissance, been the fount of the Western tradition. <a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Vasari" title="Giorgio Vasari">Giorgio Vasari</a> (1511–1574) is the originator of the artistic canon and the originator of many of the concepts it embodies. His <a href="/wiki/Lives_of_the_Most_Excellent_Painters,_Sculptors,_and_Architects" title="Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects">Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects</a> covers only artists working in Italy,<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> with a strong pro-Florentine prejudice, and has cast a long shadow over succeeding centuries. Northern European art has arguably never quite caught up to Italy in terms of prestige, and Vasari's placing of <a href="/wiki/Giotto" title="Giotto">Giotto</a> as the founding father of "modern" painting has largely been retained. In painting, the rather vague term of <a href="/wiki/Old_master" class="mw-redirect" title="Old master">Old master</a> covers painters up to about the time of <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Goya" title="Francisco Goya">Goya</a>. This "canon" remains prominent, as indicated by the selection present in art history textbooks, as well as the prices obtained in the <a href="/wiki/Art_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Art trade">art trade</a>. But there have been considerable swings in what is valued. In the 19th century the <a href="/wiki/Baroque" title="Baroque">Baroque</a> fell into great disfavour, but it was revived from around the 1920s, by which time the <a href="/wiki/Academic_art" title="Academic art">art</a> of the 18th and 19th century was largely disregarded. The <a href="/wiki/High_Renaissance" title="High Renaissance">High Renaissance</a>, which Vasari regarded as the greatest period, has always retained its prestige, including works by <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci" title="Leonardo da Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</a>, <a href="/wiki/Michelangelo" title="Michelangelo">Michelangelo</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Raphael" title="Raphael">Raphael</a>, but the succeeding period of <a href="/wiki/Mannerism" title="Mannerism">Mannerism</a> has fallen in and out of favour. In the 19th century the beginnings of academic art history, led by German universities, led to much better understanding and appreciation of <a href="/wiki/Medieval_art" title="Medieval art">medieval art</a>, and a more nuanced understanding of classical art, including the realization that many if not most treasured masterpieces of sculpture were late Roman copies rather than Greek originals. The European tradition of art was expanded to include <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_art" title="Byzantine art">Byzantine art</a> and the new discoveries of <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeology</a>, notably <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_art" title="Etruscan art">Etruscan art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Celtic_art" title="Celtic art">Celtic art</a> and <a href="/wiki/Upper_Paleolithic_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Upper Paleolithic art">Upper Paleolithic art</a>. Since the 20th century there has been an effort to re-define the discipline to be more inclusive of art made by women; vernacular creativity, especially in printed media; and an expansion to include works in the Western tradition produced outside Europe. At the same time there has been a much greater appreciation of non-Western traditions, including their place with Western art in wider global or <a href="/wiki/Eurasia" title="Eurasia">Eurasian</a> traditions. The <a href="/wiki/Decorative_arts" title="Decorative arts">decorative arts</a> have traditionally had a much lower critical status than <a href="/wiki/Fine_art" title="Fine art">fine art</a>, although often highly valued by collectors, and still tend to be given little prominence in undergraduate studies or popular coverage on television and in print. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Women_and_art">Women and art</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_canon&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Women and art" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Women_artists" title="Women artists">Women artists</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Blue_and_Green_Music_by_Georgia_O%27Keeffe,_1921.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Blue_and_Green_Music_by_Georgia_O%27Keeffe%2C_1921.jpg/170px-Blue_and_Green_Music_by_Georgia_O%27Keeffe%2C_1921.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="203" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="642" data-file-height="768"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 203px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Blue_and_Green_Music_by_Georgia_O%27Keeffe%2C_1921.jpg/170px-Blue_and_Green_Music_by_Georgia_O%27Keeffe%2C_1921.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="203" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Blue_and_Green_Music_by_Georgia_O%27Keeffe%2C_1921.jpg/255px-Blue_and_Green_Music_by_Georgia_O%27Keeffe%2C_1921.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Blue_and_Green_Music_by_Georgia_O%27Keeffe%2C_1921.jpg/340px-Blue_and_Green_Music_by_Georgia_O%27Keeffe%2C_1921.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Blue_and_Green_Music" title="Blue and Green Music">Blue and Green Music</a> (1921), <a href="/wiki/Georgia_O%27Keeffe" title="Georgia O'Keeffe">Georgia O'Keeffe</a>, oil on canvas</figcaption></figure> English artist and sculptor <a href="/wiki/Barbara_Hepworth" title="Barbara Hepworth">Barbara Hepworth</a> <a href="/wiki/Order_of_the_British_Empire" title="Order of the British Empire">DBE</a> (1903 – 1975), whose work exemplifies <a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a>, and in particular modern sculpture, is one of the few female artists to achieve international prominence.<a href="#cite_note-gale-75">[75]</a> In 2016 the art of American <a href="/wiki/Modernist" class="mw-redirect" title="Modernist">modernist</a> <a href="/wiki/Georgia_O%27Keeffe" title="Georgia O'Keeffe">Georgia O'Keeffe</a> has been staged at the <a href="/wiki/Tate_Modern" title="Tate Modern">Tate Modern</a>, in London, and is then moving in December 2016 to <a href="/wiki/Vienna" title="Vienna">Vienna</a>, Austria, before visiting the <a href="/wiki/Art_Gallery_of_Ontario" title="Art Gallery of Ontario">Art Gallery of Ontario</a>, Canada in 2017.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Historical_exclusion_of_women">Historical exclusion of women</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_canon&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Historical exclusion of women" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Women were discriminated against in terms of obtaining the training necessary to be an artist in the mainstream Western traditions. In addition, since the Renaissance the <a href="/wiki/Nude_(art)" title="Nude (art)">nude</a>, more often than not female,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] has had a special position as subject matter. In her 1971 essay, "<a href="/wiki/Why_Have_There_Been_No_Great_Women_Artists%3F" title="Why Have There Been No Great Women Artists?">Why Have There Been No Great Women Artists?</a>", <a href="/wiki/Linda_Nochlin" title="Linda Nochlin">Linda Nochlin</a> analyzes what she sees as the embedded privilege in the predominantly male Western art world and argues that women's outsider status allowed them a unique viewpoint to not only critique women's position in art, but to additionally examine the discipline's underlying assumptions about gender and ability.<a href="#cite_note-Nochlin_women_artists-77">[77]</a> Nochlin's essay develops the argument that both formal and social education restricted artistic development to men, preventing women (with rare exception) from honing their talents and gaining entry into the art world.<a href="#cite_note-Nochlin_women_artists-77">[77]</a> In the 1970s, feminist art criticism continued this critique of the institutionalized sexism of art history, art museums, and galleries, and questioned which genres of art were deemed museum-worthy.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> This position is articulated by artist <a href="/wiki/Judy_Chicago" title="Judy Chicago">Judy Chicago</a>: "[I]t is crucial to understand that one of the ways in which the importance of male experience is conveyed is through the art objects that are exhibited and preserved in our museums. Whereas men experience presence in our art institutions, women experience primarily absence, except in images that do not necessarily reflect women's own sense of themselves."<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><h2 id="Sources_containing_canonical_lists">Sources containing canonical lists</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_canon&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Sources containing canonical lists" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Classical_music_composers_montage.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Classical_music_composers_montage.JPG/350px-Classical_music_composers_montage.JPG" decoding="async" width="350" height="350" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="5120" data-file-height="5120"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 350px;height: 350px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Classical_music_composers_montage.JPG/350px-Classical_music_composers_montage.JPG" data-width="350" data-height="350" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Classical_music_composers_montage.JPG/525px-Classical_music_composers_montage.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Classical_music_composers_montage.JPG/700px-Classical_music_composers_montage.JPG 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>A montage of composers, all of whom have notable pieces in the canon of <a href="/wiki/Classical_music" title="Classical music">classical music</a>. From left to right: Top row: <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Vivaldi" title="Antonio Vivaldi">Antonio Vivaldi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Johann_Sebastian_Bach" title="Johann Sebastian Bach">Johann Sebastian Bach</a>, <a href="/wiki/George_Frideric_Handel" title="George Frideric Handel">George Frideric Handel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Amadeus_Mozart" title="Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart">Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_van_Beethoven" title="Ludwig van Beethoven">Ludwig van Beethoven</a> second row: <a href="/wiki/Gioachino_Rossini" title="Gioachino Rossini">Gioachino Rossini</a>, <a href="/wiki/Felix_Mendelssohn" title="Felix Mendelssohn">Felix Mendelssohn</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Chopin" title="Frédéric Chopin">Frédéric Chopin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Richard_Wagner" title="Richard Wagner">Richard Wagner</a>, <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Verdi" title="Giuseppe Verdi">Giuseppe Verdi</a> third row: <a href="/wiki/Johann_Strauss_II" title="Johann Strauss II">Johann Strauss II</a>, <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Brahms" title="Johannes Brahms">Johannes Brahms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Georges_Bizet" title="Georges Bizet">Georges Bizet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Ilyich_Tchaikovsky" title="Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky">Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anton%C3%ADn_Dvo%C5%99%C3%A1k" title="Antonín Dvořák">Antonín Dvořák</a> bottom row: <a href="/wiki/Edvard_Grieg" title="Edvard Grieg">Edvard Grieg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edward_Elgar" title="Edward Elgar">Edward Elgar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sergei_Rachmaninoff" title="Sergei Rachmaninoff">Sergei Rachmaninoff</a>, <a href="/wiki/George_Gershwin" title="George Gershwin">George Gershwin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aram_Khachaturian" title="Aram Khachaturian">Aram Khachaturian</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="English_literature">English literature</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_canon&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: English literature" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Library_100_Best_Novels" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern Library 100 Best Novels">Modern Library 100 Best Novels</a> – English-language novels of the 20th century</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Library_of_America" title="Library of America">Library of America</a>, classic American literature</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="International_literature">International literature</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_canon&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: International literature" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblioth%C3%A8que_de_la_Pl%C3%A9iade" title="Bibliothèque de la Pléiade">Bibliothèque de la Pléiade</a><a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Everyman%27s_Library" title="Everyman's Library">Everyman's Library</a> (Modern works)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Books_of_the_Western_World" title="Great Books of the Western World">Great Books of the Western World</a></li> <li>História da Literatura Ocidental (in Portuguese) by <a href="/wiki/Otto_Maria_Carpeaux" title="Otto Maria Carpeaux">Otto Maria Carpeaux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Le_Monde%27s_100_Books_of_the_Century" title="Le Monde's 100 Books of the Century">Le Monde's 100 Books of the Century</a> – books of the 20th century</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Library" title="Modern Library">Modern Library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxford_World%27s_Classics" title="Oxford World's Classics">Oxford World's Classics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penguin_Classics" title="Penguin Classics">Penguin Classics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Cowper_Powys" title="John Cowper Powys">John Cowper Powys</a>: One Hundred Best Books (1916)<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a></li> <li>Verso Books' <a href="/wiki/List_of_Radical_Thinkers_releases" title="List of Radical Thinkers releases">Radical Thinkers</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=ZEIT-Bibliothek_der_100_B%C3%BCcher&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ZEIT-Bibliothek der 100 Bücher (page does not exist)">ZEIT-Bibliothek der 100 Bücher</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZEIT-Bibliothek_der_100_B%C3%BCcher" class="extiw" title="de:ZEIT-Bibliothek der 100 Bücher">de</a>] – <a href="/wiki/Die_Zeit" title="Die Zeit">Die Zeit</a> list of 100 books</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="American_and_Canadian_university_reading_lists">American and Canadian university reading lists</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_canon&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: American and Canadian university reading lists" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brigham_Young_University" title="Brigham Young University">Brigham Young University</a>'s Honors Program's Great Works List<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bard_College" title="Bard College">Bard College</a>'s Language & Thinking program, a series of seminars on great books taken on by all incoming freshmen<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._John%27s_College_(Annapolis/Santa_Fe)#Great_Books_program" title="St. John's College (Annapolis/Santa Fe)">St. John's College Great Books reading list</a> (established by <a href="/wiki/Scott_Buchanan" title="Scott Buchanan">Scott Buchanan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stringfellow_Barr" title="Stringfellow Barr">Stringfellow Barr</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baylor_University" title="Baylor University">Baylor University</a>'s Great Texts Reading List<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Classics" title="Harvard Classics">Harvard Classics</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Contemporary_anthologies_of_renaissance_literature">Contemporary anthologies of renaissance literature</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_canon&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Contemporary anthologies of renaissance literature" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The preface to the <a href="/wiki/Wiley-Blackwell" title="Wiley-Blackwell">Blackwell</a> anthology of Renaissance Literature from 2003 acknowledges the importance of online access to literary texts on the selection of what to include, meaning that the selection can be made on basis of functionality rather than representativity".<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> This anthology has made its selection based on three principles. One is "unabashedly canonical", meaning that Sidney, Spenser, Marlowe, Shakespeare, and Jonson have been given the space prospective users would expect. A second principle is "non-canonical", giving female writers such as <a href="/wiki/Anne_Askew" title="Anne Askew">Anne Askew</a>, <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Cary,_Lady_Falkland" class="mw-redirect" title="Elizabeth Cary, Lady Falkland">Elizabeth Cary</a>, <a href="/wiki/Emilia_Lanier" title="Emilia Lanier">Emilia Lanier</a>, <a href="/wiki/Martha_Moulsworth" title="Martha Moulsworth">Martha Moulsworth</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lady_Mary_Wroth" title="Lady Mary Wroth">Lady Mary Wroth</a> a representative selection. It also includes texts that may not be representative of the qualitatively best efforts of Renaissance literature, but of the quantitatively most numerous texts, such as homilies and erotica. A third principle has been thematic, so that the anthology aims to include texts that shed light on issues of special interest to contemporary scholars. The Blackwell anthology is still firmly organised around authors, however. A different strategy has been observed by The Penguin Book of Renaissance Verse from 1992.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> Here the texts are organised according to topic, under the headings The Public World, Images of Love, Topographies, Friends, Patrons and the Good Life, Church, State and Belief, Elegy and Epitaph, Translation, Writer, Language and Public. It is arguable that such an approach is more suitable for the interested reader than for the student. While the two anthologies are not directly comparable, since the Blackwell anthology also includes prose and the Penguin anthology goes up to 1659, it is telling that while the larger Blackwell anthology contains work by 48 poets, seven of which are women, the Penguin anthology contains 374 poems by 109 poets, including 13 women and one poet each in Welsh, <a href="/wiki/Si%C3%B4n_Phylip" title="Siôn Phylip">Siôn Phylip</a>, and Irish, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Eochaidh_%C3%93_He%C3%B3ghusa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Eochaidh Ó Heóghusa (page does not exist)">Eochaidh Ó Heóghusa</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="German_literature">German literature</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_canon&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: German literature" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Best_German_Novels_of_the_Twentieth_Century">Best German Novels of the Twentieth Century</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_canon&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Best German Novels of the Twentieth Century" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The <a href="/wiki/Best_German_Novels_of_the_Twentieth_Century" title="Best German Novels of the Twentieth Century">Best German Novels of the Twentieth Century</a> is a list of books compiled in 1999 by <a href="/wiki/Literaturhaus_M%C3%BCnchen" title="Literaturhaus München">Literaturhaus München</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bertelsmann" title="Bertelsmann">Bertelsmann</a>, in which 99 prominent German authors, literary critics, and scholars of German ranked the most significant German-language novels of the twentieth century.<a href="#cite_note-Headlines-87">[87]</a> The group brought together 23 experts from each of the three categories.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> Each was allowed to name three books as having been the most important of the century. Cited by the group were five titles by both <a href="/wiki/Franz_Kafka" title="Franz Kafka">Franz Kafka</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arno_Schmidt" title="Arno Schmidt">Arno Schmidt</a>, four by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Walser_(writer)" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Walser (writer)">Robert Walser</a>, and three by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Mann" title="Thomas Mann">Thomas Mann</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Broch" title="Hermann Broch">Hermann Broch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anna_Seghers" title="Anna Seghers">Anna Seghers</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Roth" title="Joseph Roth">Joseph Roth</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Headlines-87">[87]</a> <a href="/wiki/Der_Kanon" title="Der Kanon">Der Kanon</a>, edited by <a href="/wiki/Marcel_Reich-Ranicki" title="Marcel Reich-Ranicki">Marcel Reich-Ranicki</a>, is a large <a href="/wiki/Anthology" title="Anthology">anthology</a> of exemplary works of German literature.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="French_literature">French literature</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_canon&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: French literature" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> See <a href="/wiki/French_literature#Key_texts" title="French literature">key texts of French literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Le_Monde%27s_100_Books_of_the_Century" title="Le Monde's 100 Books of the Century">Le Monde's 100 Books of the Century</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Canon_of_Dutch_Literature">Canon of Dutch Literature</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_canon&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Canon of Dutch Literature" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The <a href="/w/index.php?title=Canon_of_Dutch_Literature&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Canon of Dutch Literature (page does not exist)">Canon of Dutch Literature</a> comprises a list of 1000 works of <a href="/wiki/Dutch-language_literature" title="Dutch-language literature">Dutch-language literature</a> important to the cultural heritage of the <a href="/wiki/Low_Countries" title="Low Countries">Low Countries</a>, and is published on the <a href="/wiki/Digital_Library_for_Dutch_Literature" title="Digital Library for Dutch Literature">DBNL</a>. Several of these works are lists themselves; such as early dictionaries, lists of songs, recipes, biographies, or encyclopedic compilations of information such as mathematical, scientific, medical, or plant reference books. Other items include early translations of literature from other countries, history books, first-hand diaries, and published correspondence. Notable original works can be found by author name. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scandinavia">Scandinavia</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_canon&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Scandinavia" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Danish_Culture_Canon">Danish Culture Canon</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_canon&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Danish Culture Canon" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The <a href="/wiki/Danish_Culture_Canon" title="Danish Culture Canon">Danish Culture Canon</a> consists of 108 works of cultural excellence in eight categories: <a href="/wiki/Architecture" title="Architecture">architecture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Visual_arts" title="Visual arts">visual arts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Design" title="Design">design and crafts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Film" title="Film">film</a>, <a href="/wiki/Literature" title="Literature">literature</a>, <a href="/wiki/Music" title="Music">music</a>, <a href="/wiki/Performing_arts" title="Performing arts">performing arts</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Children%27s_culture" title="Children's culture">children's culture</a>. An initiative of <a href="/wiki/Brian_Mikkelsen" title="Brian Mikkelsen">Brian Mikkelsen</a> in 2004, it was developed by a series of committees under the auspices of the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Culture_(Denmark)" title="Ministry of Culture (Denmark)">Danish Ministry of Culture</a> in 2006–2007 as "a collection and presentation of the greatest, most important works of Denmark's cultural heritage." Each category contains 12 works, although music contains 12 works of score music and 12 of popular music, and the literature section's 12th item is an anthology of 24 works.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sweden">Sweden</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_canon&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Sweden" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <a href="/wiki/V%C3%A4rldsbiblioteket" title="Världsbiblioteket">Världsbiblioteket</a> (The World Library) was a <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Swedish</a> list of the 100 best books in the world, created in 1991 by the Swedish literary magazine <a href="/w/index.php?title=Tidningen_Boken&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tidningen Boken (page does not exist)">Tidningen Boken</a>. The list was compiled through votes from members of the <a href="/wiki/Svenska_Akademien" class="mw-redirect" title="Svenska Akademien">Svenska Akademien</a>, <a href="/wiki/Swedish_Crime_Writers%27_Academy" title="Swedish Crime Writers' Academy">Swedish Crime Writers' Academy</a>, librarians, authors, and others. Approximately 30 of the books were Swedish. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Norway">Norway</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_canon&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Norway" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bokklubben_World_Library" title="Bokklubben World Library">Bokklubben World Library</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spain">Spain</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_canon&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Spain" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> For the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Spanish culture">Spanish culture</a>, specially for the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_literature" title="Spanish literature">Spanish literature</a>, during the 19th and the first third of the 20th century similar lists were created trying to define the literary canon. This canon was established mainly through teaching programs, and literary critics like <a href="/wiki/Pedro_Estala" title="Pedro Estala">Pedro Estala</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gil_y_Z%C3%A1rate" title="Antonio Gil y Zárate">Antonio Gil y Zárate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marcelino_Men%C3%A9ndez_Pelayo" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcelino Menéndez Pelayo">Marcelino Menéndez Pelayo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ram%C3%B3n_Men%C3%A9ndez_Pidal" title="Ramón Menéndez Pidal">Ramón Menéndez Pidal</a>, or <a href="/w/index.php?title=Juan_Bautista_Bergua&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Juan Bautista Bergua (page does not exist)">Juan Bautista Bergua</a>. In the last decades, other important critics have been contributing to the topic, among them, <a href="/wiki/Fernando_L%C3%A1zaro_Carreter" title="Fernando Lázaro Carreter">Fernando Lázaro Carreter</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jos%C3%A9_Manuel_Blecua_Perdices&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="José Manuel Blecua Perdices (page does not exist)">José Manuel Blecua Perdices</a>, <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Rico" class="mw-redirect" title="Francisco Rico">Francisco Rico</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Carlos_Mainer" title="José Carlos Mainer">José Carlos Mainer</a>. Other Spanish languages have also their own literary canons. A good introduction to the Catalan literary canon is La invenció de la tradició literària by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Manel_Oll%C3%A9&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Manel Ollé (page does not exist)">Manel Ollé</a>, from the Open University of Catalonia.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biblioteca_de_Autores_Espa%C3%B1oles&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Biblioteca de Autores Españoles (page does not exist)">Biblioteca de Autores Españoles</a>, BAE (<a href="/wiki/Manuel_Rivadeneyra" class="mw-redirect" title="Manuel Rivadeneyra">Manuel Rivadeneyra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Buenaventura_Carlos_Aribau" title="Buenaventura Carlos Aribau">Buenaventura Carlos Aribau</a>, 1846–1888)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nueva_Biblioteca_de_Autores_Espa%C3%B1oles&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nueva Biblioteca de Autores Españoles (page does not exist)">Nueva Biblioteca de Autores Españoles</a> (<a href="/wiki/Marcelino_Men%C3%A9ndez_y_Pelayo" title="Marcelino Menéndez y Pelayo">Marcelino Menéndez y Pelayo</a>, ed. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bailly-Bailli%C3%A8re&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bailly-Baillière (page does not exist)">Bailly-Baillière</a>, 1905–1918); the same author selected Las cien mejores poesías de la lengua castellana, Victoriano Suárez, 1908<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cl%C3%A1sicos_Castellanos&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Clásicos Castellanos (page does not exist)">Clásicos Castellanos</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ram%C3%B3n_Men%C3%A9ndez_Pidal" title="Ramón Menéndez Pidal">Ramón Menéndez Pidal</a>, Centro de Estudios Históricos, eds. La Lectura, and <a href="/wiki/Espasa_Calpe" class="mw-redirect" title="Espasa Calpe">Espasa Calpe</a>, 1910–1935)<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Las_mil_mejores_poes%C3%ADas_de_la_lengua_castellana&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Las mil mejores poesías de la lengua castellana (page does not exist)">Las mil mejores poesías de la lengua castellana</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Juan_Bautista_Bergua&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Juan Bautista Bergua (page does not exist)">Juan Bautista Bergua</a>)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mil_libros&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mil libros (page does not exist)">Mil libros</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Luis_Nueda&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Luis Nueda (page does not exist)">Luis Nueda</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Antonio_Espina&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Antonio Espina (page does not exist)">Antonio Espina</a>, since 1940 —not limited to the books in Spanish—)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Floresta_de_la_l%C3%ADrica_espa%C3%B1ola&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Floresta de la lírica española (page does not exist)">Floresta de la lírica española</a> (<a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Manuel_Blecua_Teijeiro" title="José Manuel Blecua Teijeiro">José Manuel Blecua Teijeiro</a>, Antología Hispánica, Gredos, 1957)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centro_Virtual_Cervantes" class="mw-redirect" title="Centro Virtual Cervantes">Centro Virtual Cervantes</a> (<a href="/wiki/Instituto_Cervantes" title="Instituto Cervantes">Instituto Cervantes</a>, online, since 1997)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biblioteca_Cl%C3%A1sica&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Biblioteca Clásica (page does not exist)">Biblioteca Clásica</a> (<a href="/wiki/Francisco_Rico" class="mw-redirect" title="Francisco Rico">Francisco Rico</a>, <a href="/wiki/Real_Academia_Espa%C3%B1ola" class="mw-redirect" title="Real Academia Española">Real Academia Española</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=C%C3%ADrculo_de_Lectores&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Círculo de Lectores (page does not exist)">Círculo de Lectores</a>, 2011)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Les_millors_obres_de_la_literatura_catalana&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Les millors obres de la literatura catalana (page does not exist)">Les millors obres de la literatura catalana</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Joaquim_Molas&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Joaquim Molas (page does not exist)">Joaquim Molas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Josep_Maria_Castellet" title="Josep Maria Castellet">Edicions 62</a>, and <a href="/wiki/La_Caixa" title="La Caixa">La Caixa</a>)</li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_canon&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: See also" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Africana_philosophy" title="Africana philosophy">Africana philosophy</a> – Area of study within Africana studies</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artistic_canons_of_body_proportions" title="Artistic canons of body proportions">Artistic canons of body proportions</a> – Criteria used in formal figurative art</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Canada%27s_100_Greatest_Books" title="Atlantic Canada's 100 Greatest Books">Atlantic Canada's 100 Greatest Books</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catalogue_raisonn%C3%A9" title="Catalogue raisonné">Catalogue raisonné</a> – Comprehensive, annotated listing of all the known artworks by an artist</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship" title="Censorship">Censorship</a> – Suppression of speech or other information <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_books_banned_by_governments" title="List of books banned by governments">List of books banned by governments</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_classics" title="Chinese classics">Chinese classics</a> – Classic texts of Chinese literature <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese philosophy</a> – Type of philosophy</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Conversation" title="Great Conversation">Great Conversation</a> – Concept in the philosophy of literature</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_literature" title="Indian literature">Indian literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian philosophy</a> – Philosophical traditions of the Indian subcontinent</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates_in_Literature" title="List of Nobel laureates in Literature">List of Nobel laureates in Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_fiction" title="Literary fiction">Literary fiction</a> – Well-written, non-genre, fiction</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcolonial_Literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Postcolonial Literature">Postcolonial Literature</a> – Literature by people from formerly colonized countriesPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Western culture</a> – Norms, values, customs and political systems of the Western world</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_education" title="Western education">Western education</a> – Education from the Western world</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_writing_in_English" class="mw-redirect" title="Women's writing in English">Women's writing in English</a> – Academic disciplinePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_literature" title="World literature">World literature</a> – Circulation of literature beyond its country of origin</li></ul></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"><h2 id="References">References</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_canon&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: References" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://stanforddaily.com/2024/01/26/can-a-course-on-the-western-canon-serve-a-diverse-student-body/">"SLE challenges the boundaries of the Western canon"</a>. www.stanforddaily.com. 26 January 2024. Retrieved 2024-07-24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.stanforddaily.com&rft.atitle=SLE+challenges+the+boundaries+of+the+Western+canon&rft.date=2024-01-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fstanforddaily.com%2F2024%2F01%2F26%2Fcan-a-course-on-the-western-canon-serve-a-diverse-student-body%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+canon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44029759">"Review: Foundational Myths of Multiculturalism and Strategies of Canon Formation"</a>. www.jstor.org. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44029759">44029759</a>. 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In Cudak, Romuald (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7CIZAQAAIAAJ&q=%22CZY+ISTNIEJE+KANON+LITERATURY+POLSKIEJ">Literatura polska w świecie</a> (in Polish). Wydawnictwo Gnome. pp. 13–23. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-83-87819-05-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-83-87819-05-7"><bdi>978-83-87819-05-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Czy+istnieje+kanon+literatury+polskiej%3F&rft.btitle=Literatura+polska+w+%C5%9Bwiecie&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E13-%3C%2Fspan%3E23&rft.pub=Wydawnictwo+Gnome&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-83-87819-05-7&rft.aulast=Wilczek&rft.aufirst=Piotr&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7CIZAQAAIAAJ%26q%3D%2522CZY%2BISTNIEJE%2BKANON%2BLITERATURY%2BPOLSKIEJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+canon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gellius-4"><a href="#cite_ref-Gellius_4-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGellius" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Gellius, Aulus. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/auligelliinocte02gellgoog/page/n3">Noctes Atticae</a> (in Latin). pp. Book 19, Par. 8, Line 15. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/auligelliinocte02gellgoog">the original</a> on March 25, 2008. Retrieved 5 November 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Noctes+Atticae&rft.pages=Book+19%2C+Par.+8%2C+Line+15&rft.aulast=Gellius&rft.aufirst=Aulus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fauligelliinocte02gellgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+canon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKennedy2016" class="citation book cs1">Kennedy, George A. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pLVFOkXrAR4C&pg=PA105">"The Origin of the Concept of a Canon and Its Application to the Greek and Latin Classics"</a>. In Gorek, Jan (ed.). Canon Vs. Culture | Reflections on the Current Debate. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781138988064" title="Special:BookSources/9781138988064"><bdi>9781138988064</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Origin+of+the+Concept+of+a+Canon+and+Its+Application+to+the+Greek+and+Latin+Classics&rft.btitle=Canon+Vs.+Culture+%7C+Reflections+on+the+Current+Debate&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9781138988064&rft.aulast=Kennedy&rft.aufirst=George+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpLVFOkXrAR4C%26pg%3DPA105&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+canon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBloom,_Harold1994" class="citation book cs1">Bloom, Harold (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/westerncanonbook00bloorich">The Western Canon: The Books and School of the Ages</a>. 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Russello, The Postmodern Imagination of Russell Kirk (2007) p. 14 </li> <li id="cite_note-Searle-11">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Searle_11-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Searle_11-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Searle_11-2">c</a> Searle, John. (1990) "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1990/12/06/the-storm-over-the-university/">The Storm Over the University</a>", The New York Review of Books, December 6, 1990. </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> Allan Bloom (2008), p. 344. </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFM._Keith_Booker2005" class="citation book cs1">M. Keith Booker (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JcFC4oiDmpgC&pg=PA180">Encyclopedia of Literature and Politics: A–G</a>. 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London: Routledge. pp. 263–270. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0582090965" title="Special:BookSources/978-0582090965"><bdi>978-0582090965</bdi></a>. Retrieved 30 March 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=English+Poetry+of+the+Sixteenth+Century&rft.place=London&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E263-%3C%2Fspan%3E270&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0582090965&rft.aulast=Waller&rft.aufirst=Gary+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DL9gFBAAAQBAJ%26q%3DWaller%2C%2BGary.%2BEnglish%2BPoetry%2Bof%2Bthe%2BSixteenth%2BCentury%26pg%3DPR4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+canon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBednarz" class="citation web cs1">Bednarz, James P. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195399301/obo-9780195399301-0209.xml">"English Poetry"</a>. Oxford Bibliographies. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141018190048/http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195399301/obo-9780195399301-0209.xml">Archived</a> from the original on 2014-10-18. Retrieved 2020-10-12.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Oxford+Bibliographies&rft.atitle=English+Poetry&rft.aulast=Bednarz&rft.aufirst=James+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordbibliographies.com%2Fview%2Fdocument%2Fobo-9780195399301%2Fobo-9780195399301-0209.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+canon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> "Life of Cowley", in Samuel Johnson's Lives of the Poets </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> Gary F. Waller, (2013). English Poetry of the Sixteenth Century. London: Routledge. p. 262 </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> Alvarez, p. 11 </li> <li id="cite_note-ODNB-29"><a href="#cite_ref-ODNB_29-0">^</a> Brown & Taylor (2004), ODNB </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> Poetry, LII (1939), pp. 258–272, excerpted in Paul. J. Alpers (ed): Elizabethan Poetry. Modern Essays in Criticism. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1967. </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> Poetry, LII (1939), pp. 258–272, excerpted in Paul. J. Alpers (ed): Elizabethan Poetry. Modern Essays in Criticism. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1967: 98 </li> <li id="cite_note-Blain-32">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Blain_32-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Blain_32-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlain,_VirginiaClements,_PatriciaGrundy,_Isobel1990" class="citation book cs1">Blain, Virginia; Clements, Patricia; Grundy, Isobel (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/feministcompanio00blai/page/">The feminist companion to literature in English: women writers from the Middle Ages to the present</a>. 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College English. 48 (3): 289–292.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=College+English&rft.atitle=Women+and+the+Question+of+Canonicity&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E289-%3C%2Fspan%3E292&rft.date=1986&rft.aulast=Hardy+Aiken&rft.aufirst=Susan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+canon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHardy_Aiken1986" class="citation journal cs1">Hardy Aiken, Susan (1986). "Women and the Question of Canonicity". 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The Observer – via www.theguardian.com.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Observer&rft.atitle=Gabriel+Garc%C3%ADa+M%C3%A1rquez%3A+%27The+greatest+Colombian+who+ever+lived%27&rft.date=2014-04-19&rft.aulast=Vulliamy&rft.aufirst=Ed&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fbooks%2F2014%2Fapr%2F19%2Fgabrielgarciamarquez-colombia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+canon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/mario+vargas+llosa">"Vargas Llosa"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141231151539/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/mario%2Bvargas%2Bllosa">Archived</a> December 31, 2014, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. <a href="/wiki/Random_House_Webster%27s_Unabridged_Dictionary" title="Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary">Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/books/perus-mario-vargas-llosa-wins-nobel-literature-prize-2100592.html">"Peru's Mario Vargas Llosa wins Nobel Literature Prize"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Independent" title="The Independent">The Independent</a>. 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I. </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141031222017/http://kevinscharp.com/Kevin%20Scharp%20-%20%20Diagrams.htm">Kevin Scharp (Department of Philosophy, Ohio State University) – Diagrams</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> "...the subject of philosophy, as it is often conceived—a rigorous and systematic examination of ethical, political, metaphysical, and epistemological issues, armed with a distinctive method—can be called his invention" (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKraut2013" class="citation web cs1">Kraut, Richard (11 September 2013). Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/plato/">"Plato"</a>. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Stanford University. 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(ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2021/entries/boethius/">"Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius"</a>, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2021 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, retrieved 2024-12-17</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Anicius+Manlius+Severinus+Boethius&rft.date=2021&rft.aulast=Marenbon&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Fwin2021%2Fentries%2Fboethius%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+canon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGibbon1782" class="citation book cs1">Gibbon, Edward (1782). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/25717/25717-h/25717-h.htm#linknote-39.97">"Chapter XXXIX: Gothic Kingdom Of Italy, Part III"</a>. The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Vol. 4 (2nd ed.) (published 1845).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+XXXIX%3A+Gothic+Kingdom+Of+Italy%2C+Part+III&rft.btitle=The+History+of+the+Decline+and+Fall+of+the+Roman+Empire&rft.edition=2nd&rft.date=1782&rft.aulast=Gibbon&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gutenberg.org%2Ffiles%2F25717%2F25717-h%2F25717-h.htm%23linknote-39.97&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+canon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell1961" class="citation book cs1">Russell, Bertrand (1961). History of Western Philosophy. London, England. p. 366.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Western+Philosophy&rft.place=London%2C+England&rft.pages=366&rft.date=1961&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Bertrand&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+canon" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> Aloysius Martinich, Fritz Allhoff, Anand Vaidya, Early modern philosophy: essential readings with commentary. Oxford : Blackwell, 2007 </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> Steadman, Ian. "Should We Forget the Thinker in the Text? Marsilio Ficino and the Challenges of Canon Formation." PhilArchive (2020). Accessed October 24, 2024. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://philarchive.org/archive/STESFT-4">https://philarchive.org/archive/STESFT-4</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> The following work discusses the importance of Neoplatonism as an essential part of the western canon: Hermes in the Academy: Ten Years’ Study of Western Esotericism at the University of Amsterdam. Accessed October 24, 2024. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.amsterdamhermetica.nl/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/Hermes-in-the-Academy.pdf">https://www.amsterdamhermetica.nl/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/Hermes-in-the-Academy.pdf</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Britannica-2024-61">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Britannica-2024_61-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Britannica-2024_61-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Western-philosophy">"Western philosophy"</a>. Encyclopedia Britannica. 22 March 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Western+philosophy&rft.date=2024-03-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FWestern-philosophy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+canon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> Bloom, Harold. The Western Canon: The Books and School of the Ages. Appendixes. New York: Harcourt Brace & Company, 1994. © 1994 by Harold Bloom </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> Körner, Axel (July 2009). "The Risorgimento's literary canon and the aesthetics of reception: some methodological considerations." Nations & Nationalism, 15(3), 410-418. </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Rushton,_Julian" class="mw-redirect" title="Rushton, Julian">Rushton, Julian</a>, Classical Music, (London, 1994), 10 </li> <li id="cite_note-Music_2007-65"><a href="#cite_ref-Music_2007_65-0">^</a> "Classical", The Oxford Concise Dictionary of Music, ed. Michael Kennedy, (Oxford, 2007), Oxford Reference Online. Retrieved July 23, 2007. </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> "Ten Top Romantic Composers".Gramapne <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.gramophone.co.uk/feature/top-10-romantic-composers">[1]</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.coastonline.org/mml/topic/topicsSearch_detail.php?id=312">Western Artists and Gamelan</a>", CoastOnline.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140307082145/http://www.coastonline.org/mml/topic/topicsSearch_detail.php?id=312">Archived</a> 2014-03-07 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoss2008" class="citation book cs1">Ross, Alex (2008). The Rest Is Noise. London: Fourth Estate. p. 41. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84115-475-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84115-475-6"><bdi>978-1-84115-475-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rest+Is+Noise&rft.place=London&rft.pages=41&rft.pub=Fourth+Estate&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-84115-475-6&rft.aulast=Ross&rft.aufirst=Alex&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+canon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKostelanetz1989" class="citation cs2">Kostelanetz, Richard (1989), "Philip Glass", in Kostelanetz, Richard (ed.), Writings on Glass, Berkeley, Los Angeles; London: University of California Press, p. 109, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-21491-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-21491-9"><bdi>0-520-21491-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Philip+Glass&rft.btitle=Writings+on+Glass&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+Los+Angeles%3B+London&rft.pages=109&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=0-520-21491-9&rft.aulast=Kostelanetz&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+canon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLa_Barbara1989" class="citation cs2">La Barbara, Joan (1989), "Philip Glass and Steve Reich: Two from the Steady State School", in Kostelanetz, Richard (ed.), Writings on Glass, Berkeley, Los Angeles; London: University of California Press, pp. 40–41, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-21491-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-21491-9"><bdi>0-520-21491-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Philip+Glass+and+Steve+Reich%3A+Two+from+the+Steady+State+School&rft.btitle=Writings+on+Glass&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+Los+Angeles%3B+London&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E40-%3C%2Fspan%3E41&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=0-520-21491-9&rft.aulast=La+Barbara&rft.aufirst=Joan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+canon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-musicappreciationtheory/chapter/overview-of-baroque-instrumental-music/">"Overview of Baroque Instrumental Music | Music Appreciation 1"</a>. courses.lumenlearning.com. 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CUP Archive, 1993. </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFiona_Maddocks2009" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Fiona_Maddocks" title="Fiona Maddocks">Fiona Maddocks</a> (2009-07-11). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/music/2009/jul/12/rusalka-glyndebourne-opera-review-coliseum">"Singin' through the pain"</a>. The Guardian. Retrieved 2016-12-26.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Singin%27+through+the+pain&rft.date=2009-07-11&rft.au=Fiona+Maddocks&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fmusic%2F2009%2Fjul%2F12%2Frusalka-glyndebourne-opera-review-coliseum&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+canon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> With nods in the text to <a href="/wiki/Jan_van_Eyck" title="Jan van Eyck">Jan van Eyck</a> and <a href="/wiki/Albrecht_D%C3%BCrer" title="Albrecht Dürer">Albrecht Dürer</a>, but not lives. </li> <li id="cite_note-gale-75"><a href="#cite_ref-gale_75-0">^</a> Gale, Matthew <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tate.org.uk/art/artists/dame-barbara-hepworth-1274">"Artist Biography: Barbara Hepworth 1903–75"</a> Retrieved 31 January 2014. </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200924150951/http://www.ago.net/art-gallery-of-ontario-partners-with-tate-modern-to-present-georgia-okeeffe-retrospective-in-summer-2017">"Art Gallery of Ontario partners with Tate Modern to present Georgia O'Keeffe retrospective in summer 2017 – AGO Art Gallery of Ontario"</a>. www.ago.net. 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"<a href="/wiki/Why_Have_There_Been_No_Great_Women_Artists%3F" title="Why Have There Been No Great Women Artists?">Why Have There Been No Great Women Artists?</a>". Women, Art and Power and Other Essays. Westview Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Why+Have+There+Been+No+Great+Women+Artists%3F&rft.btitle=Women%2C+Art+and+Power+and+Other+Essays&rft.pub=Westview+Press&rft.date=1971&rft.aulast=Nochlin&rft.aufirst=Linda&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+canon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAtkins2013" class="citation book cs1">Atkins, Robert (2013). Artspeak: A Guide to Contemporary Ideas, Movements, and Buzzwords, 1945 to the Present (3rd ed.). 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University Scholars | Baylor University. 19 April 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=University+Scholars+%26%23124%3B+Baylor+University&rft.atitle=University+Scholars&rft.date=2023-04-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.baylor.edu%2Funsc%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+canon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> Michael Payne & John Hunter (eds). Renaissance Literature: an anthology. Oxford: Blackell, 2003, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-631-19897-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-631-19897-0">0-631-19897-0</a>, p. xix </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> David Norbrook & H. R. Woudhuysen (eds.): The Penguin Book of Renaissance Verse. London: Penguin Books, 1992, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-042346-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-14-042346-X">0-14-042346-X</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Headlines-87">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Headlines_87-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Headlines_87-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20010607003313/http://www.literaturhaus.at/headlines/1999/01/142/">"Musils Mann ohne Eigenschaften ist 'wichtigster Roman des Jahrhunderts'"</a> (in German). LiteraturHaus. 1999. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.literaturhaus.at/headlines/1999/01/142/">the original</a> on June 7, 2001. Retrieved August 21, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Musils+Mann+ohne+Eigenschaften+ist+%27wichtigster+Roman+des+Jahrhunderts%27&rft.pub=LiteraturHaus&rft.date=1999&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.literaturhaus.at%2Fheadlines%2F1999%2F01%2F142%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+canon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> Wolfgang Riedel, "Robert Musil: Der Mann ohne Eigenschaften" in Lektüren für das 21. Jahrhundert: Schlüsseltexte der deutschen Literatur von 1200 bis 1900, ed. Dorothea Klein and Sabine M. Schneider, Würzburg: Königshausen & Neumann, 2000, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-8260-1948-2" title="Special:BookSources/3-8260-1948-2">3-8260-1948-2</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ce_Bu0Zv-sEC&dq=Musil+Mann+ohne+Eigenschaften+Thomas+Mann+Der+Zauberberg+Bertelsmann&pg=PA265">p. 265</a> (in German) </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090518013603/http://www.derkanon.de/interviews.html">"Interviews"</a>. 18 May 2009. 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Retrieved 11 January 2013. </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.denstoredanske.dk/Kunst_og_kultur/Litteratur/Genrebegreber/Kulturkanon">"Kulturkanon"</a>, Den Store Danske. (in Danish) Retrieved 11 January 2013. </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOllé" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Ollé, Manel. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://openaccess.uoc.edu/webapps/o2/bitstream/10609/48681/5/Ordre%20i%20c%C3%A0non%20a%20la%20literatura%20catalana_M%C3%B2dul4_La%20invenci%C3%B3%20de%20la%20tradici%C3%B3%20liter%C3%A0ria.pdf">La invenció de latradició literària</a> (PDF) (in Catalan). Universitat Oberta de Catalunya.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+invenci%C3%B3+de+latradici%C3%B3+liter%C3%A0ria&rft.pub=Universitat+Oberta+de+Catalunya&rft.aulast=Oll%C3%A9&rft.aufirst=Manel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fopenaccess.uoc.edu%2Fwebapps%2Fo2%2Fbitstream%2F10609%2F48681%2F5%2FOrdre%2520i%2520c%25C3%25A0non%2520a%2520la%2520literatura%2520catalana_M%25C3%25B2dul4_La%2520invenci%25C3%25B3%2520de%2520la%2520tradici%25C3%25B3%2520liter%25C3%25A0ria.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+canon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.camagueycuba.org/cienpoesias/">"Las Cien Mejores Poesías (Líricas) de la Lengua Castellana – Marcelino Menéndez y Pelayo"</a>. www.camagueycuba.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.camagueycuba.org&rft.atitle=Las+Cien+Mejores+Poes%C3%ADas+%28L%C3%ADricas%29+de+la+Lengua+Castellana+%E2%80%93+Marcelino+Men%C3%A9ndez+y+Pelayo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.camagueycuba.org%2Fcienpoesias%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+canon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> Antonio Marco García, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cvc.cervantes.es/literatura/aih/pdf/10/aih_10_3_009.pdf">Propósitos filológicos de la colección «Clásicos Castellanos» de la editorial La Lectura (1910–1935)</a>, AIH, Actas, 1989. </li> </ol></div></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(8)"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_canon&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Further reading" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-8"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/E._D._Hirsch" title="E. D. Hirsch">Hirsch, E. D.</a>; <a href="/wiki/James_Trefil" title="James Trefil">Trefil, James</a>; Kett, Joseph F. (1988). <a href="/wiki/E._D._Hirsch#Cultural_Literacy" title="E. D. Hirsch">The dictionary of cultural literacy</a>. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780395437483" title="Special:BookSources/9780395437483"><bdi>9780395437483</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+dictionary+of+cultural+literacy&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=9780395437483&rft.aulast=Hirsch&rft.aufirst=E.+D.&rft.au=Trefil%2C+James&rft.au=Kett%2C+Joseph+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+canon" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Guillory" title="John Guillory">Guillory, John</a> (1993). Cultural capital the problem of literary canon formation. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780226310442" title="Special:BookSources/9780226310442"><bdi>9780226310442</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cultural+capital+the+problem+of+literary+canon+formation&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=9780226310442&rft.aulast=Guillory&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+canon" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Knox" title="Bernard Knox">Knox, Bernard</a> (1994). The oldest dead white European males and other reflections on the classics. New York: W.W. Norton. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780393312331" title="Special:BookSources/9780393312331"><bdi>9780393312331</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+oldest+dead+white+European+males+and+other+reflections+on+the+classics&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=9780393312331&rft.aulast=Knox&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+canon" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Harold_Bloom" title="Harold Bloom">Bloom, Harold</a> (1995). <a href="/wiki/The_Western_Canon:_The_Books_and_School_of_the_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="The Western Canon: The Books and School of the Ages">The Western canon: the books and school of the ages</a>. New York: Riverhead Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781573225144" title="Special:BookSources/9781573225144"><bdi>9781573225144</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Western+canon%3A+the+books+and+school+of+the+ages&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Riverhead+Books&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=9781573225144&rft.aulast=Bloom&rft.aufirst=Harold&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+canon" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Owens, W. R. (1996). Shakespeare, Aphra Behn, and the Canon. New York: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a> in association with the <a href="/wiki/Open_University_(UK)" class="mw-redirect" title="Open University (UK)">Open University</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415135757" title="Special:BookSources/9780415135757"><bdi>9780415135757</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shakespeare%2C+Aphra+Behn%2C+and+the+Canon&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Routledge+in+association+with+the+Open+University&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=9780415135757&rft.aulast=Owens&rft.aufirst=W.+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+canon" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Harold_Bloom" title="Harold Bloom">Bloom, Harold</a> (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/shakespeare00bloo">Shakespeare: The Invention of the Human</a>. New York: Riverhead Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781573227513" title="Special:BookSources/9781573227513"><bdi>9781573227513</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shakespeare%3A+The+Invention+of+the+Human&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Riverhead+Books&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=9781573227513&rft.aulast=Bloom&rft.aufirst=Harold&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fshakespeare00bloo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+canon" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Ross, Trevor (1998). The making of the English literary canon from the Middle Ages to the late eighteenth century. Montreal Que: McGill-Queen's University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780773520806" title="Special:BookSources/9780773520806"><bdi>9780773520806</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+making+of+the+English+literary+canon+from+the+Middle+Ages+to+the+late+eighteenth+century&rft.place=Montreal+Que&rft.pub=McGill-Queen%27s+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=9780773520806&rft.aulast=Ross&rft.aufirst=Trevor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+canon" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Kolbas, E. Dean (2001). Critical Theory and the Literary Canon, Boulder: Westview Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0813398134" title="Special:BookSources/0813398134">0813398134</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Morrissey, Lee (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/debatingcanonrea0000unse">Debating the Canon: A Reader from Addison to Nafisii</a>. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781403968203" title="Special:BookSources/9781403968203"><bdi>9781403968203</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Debating+the+Canon%3A+A+Reader+from+Addison+to+Nafisii&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9781403968203&rft.aulast=Morrissey&rft.aufirst=Lee&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdebatingcanonrea0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+canon" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Brzyski, Anna, ed. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dukeupress.edu/partisan-canons">Partisan Canons</a>. Duke University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780822341062" title="Special:BookSources/9780822341062"><bdi>9780822341062</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Partisan+Canons&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780822341062&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dukeupress.edu%2Fpartisan-canons&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+canon" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Owens, W. R. (2009), "The Canon and the curriculum", in Gupta, Suman; Katsarska, Milena (eds.), English studies on this side: post-2007 reckonings, Plovdiv, Bulgaria: <a href="/wiki/Plovdiv_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Plovdiv University">Plovdiv University Press</a>, pp. 47–59, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789544235680" title="Special:BookSources/9789544235680"><bdi>9789544235680</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Canon+and+the+curriculum&rft.btitle=English+studies+on+this+side%3A+post-2007+reckonings&rft.place=Plovdiv%2C+Bulgaria&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E47-%3C%2Fspan%3E59&rft.pub=Plovdiv+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9789544235680&rft.aulast=Owens&rft.aufirst=W.+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+canon" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Gorak, Jan (2013). The making of the modern canon: genesis and crisis of a literary idea. London: Bloomsbury Academic. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781472513274" title="Special:BookSources/9781472513274"><bdi>9781472513274</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+making+of+the+modern+canon%3A+genesis+and+crisis+of+a+literary+idea&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Academic&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9781472513274&rft.aulast=Gorak&rft.aufirst=Jan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+canon" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Otto_Maria_Carpeaux" title="Otto Maria Carpeaux">Carpeaux, Otto Maria</a> (2014). Historia da literatura ocidental [The History of Western Literature] (in Portuguese). Rio de Janeiro: <a href="/wiki/Grupo_Leya" title="Grupo Leya">LeYa</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788544101179" title="Special:BookSources/9788544101179"><bdi>9788544101179</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/889331083">889331083</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historia+da+literatura+ocidental&rft.place=Rio+de+Janeiro&rft.pub=LeYa&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F889331083&rft.isbn=9788544101179&rft.aulast=Carpeaux&rft.aufirst=Otto+Maria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+canon" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Aston, Robert J. (2020). The role of the literary canon in the teaching of literature. New York: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780367432621" title="Special:BookSources/9780367432621"><bdi>9780367432621</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+role+of+the+literary+canon+in+the+teaching+of+literature&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=9780367432621&rft.aulast=Aston&rft.aufirst=Robert+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWestern+canon" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(9)"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_canon&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: External links" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-9 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-9"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiquote-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 34px;height: 40px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="34" data-height="40" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Canon" class="extiw" title="q:Canon">Canon</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.interleaves.org/~rteeter/greatbks.html">"Great Books Lists: Lists of Classics, Eastern and Western": this has numerous lists, including Harold Bloom's</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://toddmcompton.com/infinitecanonsprint.htm">Compton, "Infinite Canons: A Few Axioms and Questions, and in Addition, a Proposed Definition. A response to Harold Bloom"</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ditext.com/searle/searle1.html">John Searle, "The Storm Over the University," The New York Review of Books, December 6, 1990</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div>    </section></div> <noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=mobile&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Western_canon&oldid=1276124981">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Western_canon&oldid=1276124981</a>"</div></div> </div> <div class="post-content" id="page-secondary-actions"> </div> </main> <footer class="mw-footer minerva-footer" role="contentinfo"> <a class="last-modified-bar" href="/w/index.php?title=Western_canon&action=history"> <div class="post-content last-modified-bar__content"> Last edited on 17 February 2025, at 00:55 </div> </a> <div class="post-content footer-content"> <div id='mw-data-after-content'> <div class="read-more-container"></div> </div> <div id="p-lang"> <h4>Languages</h4> <section> <ul id="p-variants" class="minerva-languages"></ul> <ul class="minerva-languages"><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westerse_kanon" title="Westerse kanon – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Westerse kanon" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%AC%D8%B9%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%AF%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="المرجعية الأدبية الغربية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="المرجعية الأدبية الغربية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z%C3%A1padn%C3%AD_k%C3%A1non" title="Západní kánon – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Západní kánon" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canon_occidental" title="Canon occidental – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Canon occidental" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okcidenta_kanono" title="Okcidenta kanono – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Okcidenta kanono" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mendebaldeko_kanon" title="Mendebaldeko kanon – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Mendebaldeko kanon" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D8%AB%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AC%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%87_%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A8%DB%8C" title="آثار برجسته غربی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="آثار برجسته غربی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canon_occidental" title="Canon occidental – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Canon occidental" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%80" title="पाश्चात्य ग्रंथावली – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="पाश्चात्य ग्रंथावली" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knji%C5%BEevni_kanon" title="Književni kanon – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Književni kanon" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canon_occidental" title="Canon occidental – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Canon occidental" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canon_occidental" title="Canon occidental – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Canon occidental" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingue</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canone_occidentale" title="Canone occidentale – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Canone occidentale" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canon_Occidentalis" title="Canon Occidentalis – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Canon Occidentalis" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canon_ueste" title="Canon ueste – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Canon ueste" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%BA_%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%BB" title="വെസ്റ്റൺ കാനൻ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="വെസ്റ്റൺ കാനൻ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanon_literatury_zachodniej" title="Kanon literatury zachodniej – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Kanon literatury zachodniej" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A2none_ocidental" title="Cânone ocidental – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Cânone ocidental" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Западный канон – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Западный канон" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%8D%E0%B8%8D%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%81" title="บัญญัติตะวันตก – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="บัญญัติตะวันตก" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E6%96%B9%E6%AD%A3%E5%85%B8" title="西方正典 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="西方正典" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li></ul> </section> </div> <div class="minerva-footer-logo"><img src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" alt="Wikipedia" width="120" height="18" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"/> </div> <ul id="footer-info" class="footer-info hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 17 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