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href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Projet:Accueil?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Projet:Accueil">projets correspondants</a>.</p> </div> </div> <p>L’<b>observation</b> est un des régimes de la <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Preuve_scientifique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Preuve scientifique">preuve scientifique</a><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Observation?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-1"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>1<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup> : c'est une <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Exp%C3%A9rience?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Expérience">expérience</a> d'accumulation et de recueil d'informations sur un <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Ph%C3%A9nom%C3%A8ne?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Phénomène">phénomène</a>, un objet d'étude, en absence de <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Variable_(math%C3%A9matiques)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Variable (mathématiques)">variables</a> ou sans contrôler les variables et les paramètres. L'observation est une étape différente, et souvent complémentaire, d'une expérimentation ou expérience dite contrôlée.</p> <p>Elle permet de valider/invalider des <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Hypoth%C3%A8se?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Hypothèse">hypothèses</a> ou de vérifier des observations ou des expérimentations antérieures. Ce stade de la recherche est indispensable dans tous les domaines scientifiques, dans les <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Sciences_naturelles?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Sciences naturelles">sciences naturelles</a> comme dans les <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Sciences_humaines?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Sciences humaines">sciences humaines</a> et <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Sciences_sociales?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Sciences sociales">sociales</a>, par exemple en <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Observation_(psychologie)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Observation (psychologie)">psychologie</a>.</p> <p>L'observation, en tant que régime de preuve, fait partie des sciences palétiologiques ou historiques mais participe également à toutes les expériences scientifiques<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Observation?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-2"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>2<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference cite_virgule">,</sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Observation?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-3"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>3<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference cite_virgule">,</sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Observation?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-4"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>4<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>.</p> <p>Les observations peuvent être :</p> <ul> <li>qualitatives : seule l'absence ou la présence d'une propriété est notée ;</li> <li>quantitatives : si une valeur numérique est attachée au phénomène observé par comptage ou mesure.</li> </ul> <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"> <input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"> <div class="toctitle" lang="fr" dir="ltr"> <h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Sommaire</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span> </div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Observation?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Histoire"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Histoire</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Observation?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#M%C3%A9thode_scientifique"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Méthode scientifique</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Observation?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Formulation_d'hypoth%C3%A8se"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Formulation d'hypothèse</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Observation?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Processus_it%C3%A9ratif_d'observation"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Processus itératif d'observation</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Observation?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Mesurer_les_observations"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Mesurer les observations</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Observation?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#L'effet_observateur"><span class="tocnumber">3.3</span> <span class="toctext">L'effet observateur</span></a></li> </ul></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Observation?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Paradoxes"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Paradoxes</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Observation?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Notes_et_r%C3%A9f%C3%A9rences"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Notes et références</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Observation?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Voir_aussi"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Voir aussi</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Observation?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Bibliographie"><span class="tocnumber">6.1</span> <span class="toctext">Bibliographie</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Observation?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Articles_connexes"><span class="tocnumber">6.2</span> <span class="toctext">Articles connexes</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Observation?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Liens_externes"><span class="tocnumber">6.3</span> <span class="toctext">Liens externes</span></a></li> </ul></li> </ul> </div> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"> <span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span> <h2 id="Histoire">Histoire</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Observation&action=edit&section=1&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Modifier la section : Histoire" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>modifier</span> </a> </span> </div> <section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> <p>Même si les scientifiques ont toujours examiné la nature, l’observation en tant que telle n’a pas toujours fait partie de la méthode scientifique et le sens attribué à ce mot a varié au cours de l’histoire.</p> <p>Au <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Moyen_%C3%82ge?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Moyen Âge">Moyen Âge</a>, l’observation existe sous la forme de techniques ou de pratiques mais ne fait pas l’objet d’une réflexion méthodologique particulière. Le mot latin <i>observatio</i> est surtout utilisé pour décrire la connaissance pratique que des marins, des cultivateurs, etc. ont de la nature. Dans la science, ce sont plutôt les termes <i>experimentum</i> ou <i>experientia</i> qui sont utilisés<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Observation?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-5"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>5<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. La connaissance est avant tout conçue comme un dialogue avec les autorités.</p> <p>À partir de la <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Renaissance?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>, le mot <i>observation</i>, très souvent utilisé dans les titres d’ouvrages, devient le nom d’un genre d’écrit scientifique<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Observation?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-6"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>6<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. Francis Bacon, dans son <i><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Novum_Organum?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Novum Organum">Novum Organum</a></i>, propose de refonder le savoir scientifique sur l’induction et l’observation. Les progrès en anatomie témoignent de ce nouveau rapport au réel.</p> <p>Un changement important advient dans la seconde moitié du XVIIIe siècle avec la parution de traités scientifiques explicitement consacrés à l’observation et plus uniquement à l’expérience : <i>L’Art d’observer</i> de <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Jean_Senebier?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Jean Senebier">Jean Senebier</a> (1775), notamment, qui introduit la différence entre l’observation et l’expérimentation<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Observation?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-7"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>7<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. L’observation des Lumières repose davantage sur l’analyse des relations entre les phénomènes que sur leur perception sensible<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Observation?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-8"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>8<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. Elle est avant tout un talent, le « génie observateur » : ce n’est qu’au cours du XIXe siècle qu’elle sera peu à peu pensée comme une méthode à proprement parler<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Observation?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-9"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>9<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. La fin des Lumières correspond par ailleurs à un changement de « régime de perception »<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Observation?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-10"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>10<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup> et à une nouvelle façon de concevoir la vue, désormais inscrite dans la physiologie et dans le temps<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Observation?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-11"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>11<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>.</p> <p>Au XIXe siècle, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Auguste_Comte?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a> contribue à disqualifier l’observation introspective au profit d’une observation extérieure des objets et des phénomènes. Cette observation doit se conformer au nouveau dogme scientifique de l’objectivité, supposant une reproduction mécanique du monde<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Observation?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-12"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>12<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Claude_Bernard?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Claude Bernard">Claude Bernard</a>, dans son <i>Introduction à l’étude de la médecine expérimentale</i>, fixe la définition positiviste du terme en l’opposant à l’expérimentation.</p> <p>Durant le XXe siècle, l’histoire de l’observation se diversifie selon les disciplines. L’<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Observation_participante?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Observation participante">observation participante</a>, consistant à observer un groupe humain en y jouant un rôle, est développée par les sociologues de l’école de Chicago avant d’être reprise par la sociologie et l’ethnographie<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Observation?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-13"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>13<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>. En physique, la découverte des propriétés quantiques soulève des questions épistémologiques tenant au fait que l’observation détermine ici toujours les phénomènes et qu’on ne peut plus clairement faire une distinction entre les faits et la théorie. Des questions similaires se posent dans d’autres domaines comme la médecine, où l’observation transite souvent par des instruments ou des machines<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Observation?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-14"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>14<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>.</p> <p>La fin du XXe et le début du XXIe se caractérisent enfin par une critique de l’objectivité, particulièrement dans les sciences humaines, au profit d’une conception plus « située » du savoir<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Observation?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-15"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>15<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>.</p> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"> <span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span> <h2 id="Méthode_scientifique"><span id="M.C3.A9thode_scientifique"></span>Méthode scientifique</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Observation&action=edit&section=2&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Modifier la section : Méthode scientifique" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>modifier</span> </a> </span> </div> <section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <p>La méthode scientifique consiste à observer les <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Ph%C3%A9nom%C3%A8ne_naturel?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Phénomène naturel">phénomènes naturels</a> pour formuler et tester des hypothèses. Telle qu'elle a été conceptualisée par Michel-Eugène Chevreul en 1856, elle passe par trois étapes : l'observation, l'hypothèse et l'expérimentation.</p> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"> <span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span> <h2 id="Formulation_d'hypothèse"><span id="Formulation_d.27hypoth.C3.A8se"></span>Formulation d'hypothèse</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Observation&action=edit&section=3&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Modifier la section : Formulation d'hypothèse" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>modifier</span> </a> </span> </div> <section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Processus_itératif_d'observation"><span id="Processus_it.C3.A9ratif_d.27observation"></span>Processus itératif d'observation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Observation&action=edit&section=4&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Modifier la section : Processus itératif d'observation" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>modifier</span> </a> </span> </div> <p>Un autre processus consiste à formuler une <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Hypoth%C3%A8se?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Hypothèse">hypothèse</a> qui répond provisoirement à la question, en suivant les étapes suivantes :</p> <ol> <li><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Pr%C3%A9diction_dynamique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Prédiction dynamique">Prévoir</a> des <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Cons%C3%A9quent_(logique)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Conséquent (logique)">conséquences</a> logiques et observables de l'hypothèse qui n'ont pas encore été étudiées ;</li> <li>Tester les prédictions de l'hypothèse par une <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/M%C3%A9thode_exp%C3%A9rimentale?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Méthode expérimentale">méthode expérimentale</a>, une étude d'observation, une <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/%C3%89tude_sur_le_terrain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Étude sur le terrain">étude sur le terrain</a> ou une <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Simulation_de_ph%C3%A9nom%C3%A8nes?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Simulation de phénomènes">simulation</a> ;</li> <li>Tirer une conclusion des données recueillies lors de l'expérience, réviser ou re-formuler l'hypothèse et réitérer le processus ;</li> <li>Rédiger une description de la méthode d'observation et des résultats ou conclusions obtenus ;</li> <li>Demander à des pairs ayant l'expérience de la recherche sur le même phénomène d'évaluer les résultats.</li> </ol> <p>Les observations jouent un rôle plus important dans la deuxième et cinquième étape de la méthode scientifique présentée ci-dessus. Cependant, afin de reproduire une méthode implique que les observations de différents observateurs puissent être comparables. Nos <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Sens_(physiologie)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Sens (physiologie)">impressions sensorielles</a> humaines sont subjectives et qualitatives, ce qui les rend difficiles à enregistrer ou à comparer.</p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Mesurer_les_observations">Mesurer les observations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Observation&action=edit&section=5&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Modifier la section : Mesurer les observations" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>modifier</span> </a> </span> </div> <p>L'utilisation de mesures s'est développée afin de permettre l'enregistrement et la comparaison d'observations faites à différents moments et en différents lieux, par différentes personnes. Cette <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Mesure_physique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Mesure physique">mesure</a> consiste à utiliser l'observation et à comparer le phénomène observé à une <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Unit%C3%A9_de_mesure?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Unité de mesure">unité standard</a>. Cette unité standard peut également être un <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Art%C3%A9fact_(erreur)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Artéfact (erreur)">artefact</a>, un processus ou une définition qui peut être dupliqué ou partagé par tous les observateurs.</p> <p>Dans une mesure, on compte le nombre d'unités standard qui est égal à l'observation. Cette mesure réduit une observation à un nombre qui peut être enregistré. Puis, deux observations qui aboutissent au même nombre seront égales dans le cadre de la résolution du processus.</p> <p>Par ailleurs, les sens humains ont leurs limites physiques et peuvent être sujets à des erreurs de perception, telles que les <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Illusion_d%27optique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Illusion d'optique">illusions d'optique</a>. Les <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Instrument_scientifique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Instrument scientifique">instruments scientifiques</a> se sont donc développés pour assister les chercheurs dans leurs capacités d'observation. Par exemple, les <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Balance_(instrument)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Balance (instrument)">balances</a>, les <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Horloge?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Horloge">horloges</a>, les <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/T%C3%A9lescope?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Télescope">télescopes</a>, les <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Microscope?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Microscope">microscopes</a>, les <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Thermom%C3%A8tre?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Thermomètre">thermomètres</a>, les <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Appareil_photographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Appareil photographique">appareils photo</a>, les <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Cam%C3%A9ra?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Caméra">caméras</a>, les <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Magn%C3%A9tophone?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Magnétophone">magnétophones</a>, <abbr class="abbr" title="et cetera">etc.</abbr></p> <p>D'autres instruments traduisent sous une forme perceptible des événements qui ne sont pas observables par les sens, tels que les <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Indicateur_de_pH?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Indicateur de pH">indicateurs de pH</a>, les <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Voltm%C3%A8tre?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Voltmètre">voltmètres</a>, les <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Spectrom%C3%A8tre?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Spectromètre">spectromètres</a>, les <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Cam%C3%A9ra_thermique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Caméra thermique">caméras infrarouges</a>, les <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Oscilloscope?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Oscilloscope">oscilloscopes</a>, les <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Interf%C3%A9rom%C3%A9trie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Interférométrie">interféromètres</a>, les <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Compteur_Geiger?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Compteur Geiger">compteurs Geiger</a>, les <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/R%C3%A9cepteur_radio?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Récepteur radio">récepteurs radio</a>, <abbr class="abbr" title="et cetera">etc.</abbr></p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="L'effet_observateur"><span id="L.27effet_observateur"></span>L'effet observateur</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Observation&action=edit&section=6&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Modifier la section : L'effet observateur" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>modifier</span> </a> </span> </div> <p>Un des problèmes rencontrés dans la majorité des domaines scientifiques est que l'observation peut affecter le processus observé. C'est-à-dire que l'observation entraîne un résultat différent de celui obtenu si le processus n'était pas observé. C'est ce qu'on appelle l'effet observateur.</p> <p>Par exemple, il n'est normalement pas possible de vérifier la pression d'un pneu de voiture sans laisser échapper une partie de l'air contenue dans le <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Pneumatique_(v%C3%A9hicule)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Pneumatique (véhicule)">pneumatique</a>.</p> <p>Néanmoins, dans la plupart de ces domaines scientifiques, il sera possible de réduire les effets de l'observation à un niveau insignifiant en utilisant de meilleurs instruments.</p> <p>Toutes les formes d'observation, qu'elles soient humaines ou instrumentales, sont considérées comme un processus physique. Ce qui implique une amplification. Ils sont donc des processus <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Thermodynamique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Thermodynamique">thermodynamiquement</a> irréversibles qui augmentent l'<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Entropie_(thermodynamique)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Entropie (thermodynamique)">entropie</a>.</p> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"> <span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span> <h2 id="Paradoxes">Paradoxes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Observation&action=edit&section=7&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Modifier la section : Paradoxes" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>modifier</span> </a> </span> </div> <section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <p>Dans certains domaines scientifiques spécifiques, les résultats d'une observation particulière diffèrent en fonction de facteurs moins importants dans l'observation quotidienne. Celles-ci sont généralement illustrées par des « paradoxes » dans lesquels un événement apparaît différent lorsqu'il est observé de deux points de vue différents, qui semblent contredire le « bon sens ».</p> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"> <span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span> <h2 id="Notes_et_références"><span id="Notes_et_r.C3.A9f.C3.A9rences"></span>Notes et références</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Observation&action=edit&section=8&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Modifier la section : Notes et références" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>modifier</span> </a> </span> </div> <section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <ul> <li><abbr class="abbr indicateur-langue" title="Langue : anglais">(en)</abbr> Cet article est partiellement ou en totalité issu de l’article de Wikipédia en anglais intitulé <span class="plainlinks">« <a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observation" class="extiw" title="en:Observation">Observation</a> » <small>(<a class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observation?action%3Dhistory">voir la liste des auteurs</a>)</small></span>.</li> </ul> <div class="references-small decimal" style=""> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink noprint"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Observation?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-1">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="Fortin,_Corinne.Lecointre,_Guillaume.2009"><span class="nom_auteur">Fortin, Corinne.</span> et <span class="nom_auteur">Lecointre, Guillaume.</span>, <cite class="italique">Guide critique de l'évolution</cite>, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Belin_%C3%A9diteur?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Belin éditeur">Belin</a>, <time>2009</time>, 571 <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Sp%C3%A9cial:Ouvrages_de_r%C3%A9f%C3%A9rence/978-2-7011-4797-0?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Spécial:Ouvrages de référence/978-2-7011-4797-0"><span class="nowrap">978-2-7011-4797-0</span></a> et <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Sp%C3%A9cial:Ouvrages_de_r%C3%A9f%C3%A9rence/2701147972?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Spécial:Ouvrages de référence/2701147972"><span class="nowrap">2701147972</span></a>, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Online_Computer_Library_Center?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Online Computer Library Center">OCLC</a> <span class="plainlinks noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://worldcat.org/fr/title/662406598">662406598</a></span>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Guide+critique+de+l%27%C3%A9volution&rft.pub=Belin&rft.aulast=Fortin%2C+Corinne.&rft.au=Lecointre%2C+Guillaume.&rft.date=2009&rft.tpages=571&rft.isbn=978-2-7011-4797-0&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F662406598&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3AObservation"></span></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink noprint"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Observation?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-2">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text">Conférence : De Ricqlès, A (collège de France).« L'évolution, faits, hypothèse ou théorie : le problème de l'administration de la preuve dans les sciences historiques et son retentissement pour leur enseignement », 27 février 2009, université Claude Bernard, Lyon 1.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink noprint"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Observation?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-3">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="2014">« <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00976344/document"><cite style="font-style:normal;">L’enseignement de concept de ”parenté” au regard de la démarche expérimentale</cite></a> », sur <span class="italique">hal.archives-ouvertes.fr</span>, <time class="nowrap" datetime="2014-04-09" data-sort-value="2014-04-09">9 avril 2014</time></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink noprint"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Observation?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-4">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="de_Ricqlès"><span class="ouvrage" id="Armand_de_Ricqlès">Armand de Ricqlès, « <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=http://acces.ens-lyon.fr/acces/logiciels/videotheque/enseigner-evolution/enseigner-evolution-actes/textes/conference_dericqles.pdf"><cite style="font-style:normal;">Le message des fossiles : témoignages sur l’évolution du vivant</cite></a> », sur <span class="italique">acces.ens-lyon.fr</span></span></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink noprint"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Observation?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-5">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text">Park, Katharine, « Observation in the Margins, 500-1500 », dans <i>Histories of scientific observation</i>, éd. Lorraine Daston, Elizabeth Lunbeck, Chicago / Londres, University of Chicago Press, 2010, p. 45-80.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink noprint"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Observation?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-6">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text">POMATA, Giana, « Observation rising. Birth of an epistemic genre, 1500-1650 » dans <i>Histories of scientific observation</i>, op. cit., p. 45-80</span></li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink noprint"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Observation?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-7">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text">DASTON, Lorraine, « Observation and Enlightenment », dans <i>Scholars in action. The practice of knowledge and the figure of the savant in the 18th century</i>, éd. A. Holenstein, H. Steinke, M. Stuber, Boston, Brill, 2013, t. I, p. 657-677</span></li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink noprint"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Observation?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-8">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text">SINGY, Patrick, « Huber’s eyes. The art of scientific observation before the emergence of posi-tivism », <i>Representations</i>, 1 (2006), p. 54-75.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink noprint"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Observation?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-9">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text">DERAINNE, Lucien, <i>« Qu’il naisse l’observateur ». Penser l’observation (1750-1850)</i>, Genève, Droz, 2022</span></li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink noprint"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Observation?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-10">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text">P. Singy, art. cité.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink noprint"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Observation?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-11">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text">CRARY, Jonathan, <i>L'art de l'observateur. Vision et modernité au XIXe siècle</i>, trad. Frédéric Maurin, Nîmes, J. Chambon, coll. « Rayon photo », 1994.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink noprint"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Observation?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-12">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text">DASTON, Lorraine, GALISON, Peter, <i>Objectivity</i>, New York, Zone books, 2010.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink noprint"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Observation?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-13">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text">PENEFF, Jean, <i>Le goût de l’observation. Comprendre et pratiquer l’observation participante en sciences sociales</i>, Paris, La Découverte, coll. « Grands repères », 2009.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink noprint"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Observation?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-14">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text">ISRAEL-JOST Vincent, <i>L'Observation scientifique - Aspects philosophiques et pratiques</i>, Paris, Classiques Garnier, coll. " Histoire et philosophie des sciences", 2015.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink noprint"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Observation?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-15">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text">Haraway, Donna, « Situated Knowledges : The Science Question in Feminism and the Privilege of Partial Perspective », <i>Feminist Studies</i>, vol. 14, n°3, 1988, p. 575-599</span></li> </ol> </div> </div> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"> <span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span> <h2 id="Voir_aussi">Voir aussi</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Observation&action=edit&section=9&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Modifier la section : Voir aussi" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>modifier</span> </a> </span> </div> <section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Bibliographie">Bibliographie</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Observation&action=edit&section=10&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Modifier la section : Bibliographie" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>modifier</span> </a> </span> </div> <ul> <li>BOURDIEU, Pierre, « L’objectivation participante », <i>Actes de la recherche en sciences sociales </i>, 150 (2003), p. 43-58.</li> <li>CORNU, Roger, « L’observateur entre perception et action », dans <i>De la perception à l’action. Contenus perceptifs et perception de l’action </i>, éd. Pierre Livet, Paris, J. Vrin, coll. « Analyse et philosophie », 2000, p. 195-218.</li> <li>CRARY, Jonathan, <i>L'art de l'observateur. Vision et modernité au XIXe siècle </i>, trad. Frédéric Maurin, Nîmes, J. Chambon, coll. « Rayon photo », 1994.</li> <li>DASTON, Lorraine, « Observation and Enlightenment », dans <i>Scholars in action. The practice of knowledge and the figure of the savant in the 18th century </i>, éd. A. Holenstein, H. Steinke, M. Stuber, Boston, Brill, 2013, t. I, p. 657-677.</li> <li>DASTON, Lorraine, « The empire of observation : 1600-1800 », dans <i>Histories of Scientific Observation </i>, éd. Lorraine Daston, Elizabeth Lunbeck, Chicago / Londres, University of Chicago Press, 2011, p. 81-114.</li> <li>DASTON, Lorraine, GALISON, Peter, <i>Objectivity </i>, New York, Zone books, 2010.</li> <li>DERAINNE, Lucien, <i>« Qu’il naisse l’observateur ». Penser l’observation (1750-1850) </i>, Ge-nève, Droz, 2022</li> <li>HACKING, Ian, <i>Representing and Intervening. Introductory topics in the philosophy of natural science </i>, Cambridge University Press, 1983.</li> <li>HARAWAY, Donna, « Situated Knowledges : The Science Question in Feminism and the Privilege of Partial Per-spective », <i>Feminist Studies </i>, vol. 14, n°3, 1988, p. 575-599</li> <li>ISRAEL-JOST Vincent, <i>L'Observation scientifique - Aspects philosophiques et pratiques </i>, Paris, Classiques Garnier, coll. " Histoire et philosophie des sciences", 2015.</li> <li>LECLERC, Gérard, <i>L’observation de l’homme. Une histoire des enquêtes sociales </i>, Paris, Seuil, 1979.</li> <li>MARX, Jacques, « L’art d’observer au XVIIIe siècle. Jean Senebier et Charles Bonnet », <i>Janus. Revue internationale de l’histoire des sciences, de la médecine, de la pharmacie et de la technique </i>, Amsterdam, LXI (1974), p. 201-220.</li> <li>PARK, Katharine, « Observation in the Margins, 500-1500 », dans <i>Histories of scientific observa-tion </i>, éd. Lorraine Daston, Elizabeth Lunbeck, Chicago / Londres, University of Chicago Press, 2010, p. 45-80.</li> <li>PENEFF, Jean, <i>Le goût de l’observation. Comprendre et pratiquer l’observation participante en sciences sociales </i>, Paris, La Découverte, coll. « Grands repères », 2009.</li> <li>POMATA, Giana, « Observation rising. Birth of an epistemic genre, 1500-1650 » dans <i>Histo-ries of scientific observation </i>, éd. Lorraine Daston, Elizabeth Lunbeck, Chicago / Londres, University of Chicago Press, 2010, p. 45-80.</li> <li>SINGY, Patrick, « Huber’s eyes. The art of scientific observation before the emergence of posi-tivism », <i>Representations </i>, 1 (2006), p. 54-75.</li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Articles_connexes">Articles connexes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Observation&action=edit&section=11&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Modifier la section : Articles connexes" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>modifier</span> </a> </span> </div> <ul> <li><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/M%C3%A9thode_d%27observation_participante?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Méthode d'observation participante">Méthode d'observation participante</a></li> <li><span class="page_h" title="Ce lien renvoie vers une page 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lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Παρατήρηση" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="grec" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-en mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observation" title="Observation – anglais" lang="en" hreflang="en" data-title="Observation" data-language-autonym="English" data-language-local-name="anglais" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>English</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observado" title="Observado – espéranto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Observado" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="espéranto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es 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href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E0%25A4%25AA%25E0%25A5%258D%25E0%25A4%25B0%25E0%25A5%2587%25E0%25A4%2595%25E0%25A5%258D%25E0%25A4%25B7%25E0%25A4%25A3" title="प्रेक्षण – hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="प्रेक्षण" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opa%25C5%25BEanje" title="Opažanje – croate" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Opažanje" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="croate" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D5%2580%25D5%25B8%25D5%25A3%25D5%25A5%25D5%25A2%25D5%25A1%25D5%25B6%25D5%25A1%25D5%25AF%25D5%25A1%25D5%25B6_%25D5%25A4%25D5%25AB%25D5%25BF%25D5%25B8%25D6%2582%25D5%25B4" title="Հոգեբանական դիտում – arménien" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հոգեբանական դիտում" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="arménien" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pengamatan" title="Pengamatan – indonésien" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Pengamatan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="indonésien" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osservazione" title="Osservazione – italien" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Osservazione" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="italien" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E8%25A6%25B3%25E6%25B8%25AC" title="観測 – japonais" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="観測" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="japonais" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panit%25C3%25A8n" title="Panitèn – javanais" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Panitèn" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="javanais" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E0%25B2%25B5%25E0%25B3%2580%25E0%25B2%2595%25E0%25B3%258D%25E0%25B2%25B7%25E0%25B2%25A3%25E0%25B3%2586" title="ವೀಕ್ಷಣೆ – kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ವೀಕ್ಷಣೆ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25EA%25B4%2580%25EC%25B8%25A1" title="관측 – coréen" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="관측" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="coréen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observatio" title="Observatio – latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Observatio" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nov%25C4%2593ro%25C5%25A1ana" title="Novērošana – letton" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Novērošana" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="letton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%2590%25D0%25B6%25D0%25B8%25D0%25B3%25D0%25BB%25D0%25B0%25D0%25BB%25D1%2582" title="Ажиглалт – mongol" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Ажиглалт" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="mongol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E0%25A4%25A8%25E0%25A4%25BF%25E0%25A4%25B0%25E0%25A5%2580%25E0%25A4%2595%25E0%25A5%258D%25E0%25A4%25B7%25E0%25A4%25A3" title="निरीक्षण – marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="निरीक्षण" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pencerapan" title="Pencerapan – malais" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Pencerapan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="malais" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E0%25A4%2585%25E0%25A4%25B5%25E0%25A4%25B2%25E0%25A5%258B%25E0%25A4%2595%25E0%25A4%25A8" title="अवलोकन – népalais" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="अवलोकन" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="népalais" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observatie" title="Observatie – néerlandais" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Observatie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="néerlandais" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observasjon" title="Observasjon – norvégien nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Observasjon" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="norvégien nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observasjon" title="Observasjon – norvégien bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Observasjon" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="norvégien bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observacion" title="Observacion – occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Observacion" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E0%25A8%25AE%25E0%25A9%2581%25E0%25A8%2586%25E0%25A8%2587%25E0%25A8%25A8%25E0%25A8%25BE" title="ਮੁਆਇਨਾ – pendjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਮੁਆਇਨਾ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="pendjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obserwacja_(nauki_spo%25C5%2582eczne)" title="Obserwacja (nauki społeczne) – polonais" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Obserwacja (nauki społeczne)" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="polonais" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D9%2585%25D8%25B4%25D8%25A7%25D9%2587%25D8%25AF%25D9%2587" title="مشاهده – pachto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="مشاهده" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="pachto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observa%25C3%25A7%25C3%25A3o" title="Observação – portugais" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Observação" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="portugais" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observare" title="Observare – roumain" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Observare" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="roumain" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%259D%25D0%25B0%25D1%2583%25D1%2587%25D0%25BD%25D0%25BE%25D0%25B5_%25D0%25BD%25D0%25B0%25D0%25B1%25D0%25BB%25D1%258E%25D0%25B4%25D0%25B5%25D0%25BD%25D0%25B8%25D0%25B5" title="Научное наблюдение – russe" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Научное наблюдение" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="russe" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D9%2585%25D8%25B4%25D8%25A7%25DA%25BE%25D8%25AF%25D9%2588" title="مشاھدو – sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="مشاھدو" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posmatranje" title="Posmatranje – serbo-croate" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Posmatranje" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="serbo-croate" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observation" title="Observation – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Observation" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pozorovanie" title="Pozorovanie – slovaque" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Pozorovanie" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="slovaque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cherechedza" title="Cherechedza – shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Cherechedza" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="shona" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiShona</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%259F%25D0%25BE%25D1%2581%25D0%25BC%25D0%25B0%25D1%2582%25D1%2580%25D0%25B0%25D1%259A%25D0%25B5" title="Посматрање – serbe" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Посматрање" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="serbe" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observation" title="Observation – suédois" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Observation" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="suédois" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E0%25AE%2585%25E0%25AE%25B5%25E0%25AE%25A4%25E0%25AE%25BE%25E0%25AE%25A9%25E0%25AE%25BF%25E0%25AE%25AA%25E0%25AF%258D%25E0%25AE%25AA%25E0%25AF%2581" title="அவதானிப்பு – tamoul" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="அவதானிப்பு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="tamoul" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E0%25B8%2581%25E0%25B8%25B2%25E0%25B8%25A3%25E0%25B8%25AA%25E0%25B8%25B1%25E0%25B8%2587%25E0%25B9%2580%25E0%25B8%2581%25E0%25B8%2595" title="การสังเกต – thaï" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การสังเกต" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="thaï" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagmamalas" title="Pagmamalas – tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Pagmamalas" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%25C3%25B6zlem" title="Gözlem – turc" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Gözlem" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="turc" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%25A1%25D0%25BF%25D0%25BE%25D1%2581%25D1%2582%25D0%25B5%25D1%2580%25D0%25B5%25D0%25B6%25D0%25B5%25D0%25BD%25D0%25BD%25D1%258F" title="Спостереження – ukrainien" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Спостереження" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="ukrainien" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quan_s%25C3%25A1t" title="Quan sát – vietnamien" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Quan sát" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="vietnamien" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obserbasyon" title="Obserbasyon – waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Obserbasyon" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E8%25A7%2582%25E5%25AF%259F" title="观察 – wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="观察" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E8%25A7%2582%25E5%25AF%259F" title="观察 – chinois" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="观察" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="chinois" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E8%25A7%2580%25E5%25AF%259F" title="觀察 – cantonais" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="觀察" 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