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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Precursor" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Precursor"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Precursor </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Precursor-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Outbreak_(1966)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Outbreak_(1966)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Outbreak (1966) </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Outbreak_(1966)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Outbreak (1966) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Outbreak_(1966)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Notification </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mass_rallies_(May–June)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mass_rallies_(May–June)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Mass rallies (May–June) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mass_rallies_(May–June)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bombard_the_Headquarters_(July)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bombard_the_Headquarters_(July)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Bombard the Headquarters (July) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bombard_the_Headquarters_(July)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Red_August_and_the_Sixteen_Points" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Red_August_and_the_Sixteen_Points"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Red August and the Sixteen Points </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Red_August_and_the_Sixteen_Points-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Destruction_of_the_Four_Olds_(August–November)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Destruction_of_the_Four_Olds_(August–November)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Destruction of the Four Olds (August–November) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Destruction_of_the_Four_Olds_(August–November)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Central_Work_Conference_(October)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Central_Work_Conference_(October)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6 Central Work Conference (October) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Central_Work_Conference_(October)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-End_of_the_year" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#End_of_the_year"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7 End of the year </div> </a> <ul id="toc-End_of_the_year-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Seizure_of_power_(1967)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Seizure_of_power_(1967)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Seizure of power (1967) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Seizure_of_power_(1967)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Purges_(1968)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Purges_(1968)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Purges (1968) </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Purges_(1968)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Purges (1968) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Purges_(1968)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mao_meets_with_Red_Guard_leaders_(July)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mao_meets_with_Red_Guard_leaders_(July)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Mao meets with Red Guard leaders (July) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mao_meets_with_Red_Guard_leaders_(July)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mao's_cult_of_personality_and_"mango_fever"_(August)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mao's_cult_of_personality_and_"mango_fever"_(August)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Mao's cult of personality and "mango fever" (August) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mao's_cult_of_personality_and_"mango_fever"_(August)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Down_to_the_Countryside_Movement_(December)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Down_to_the_Countryside_Movement_(December)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Down to the Countryside Movement (December) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Down_to_the_Countryside_Movement_(December)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lin_Biao_(1969–1971)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lin_Biao_(1969–1971)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Lin Biao (1969–1971) </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Lin_Biao_(1969–1971)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Lin Biao (1969–1971) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Lin_Biao_(1969–1971)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-PLA_encroachment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#PLA_encroachment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 PLA encroachment </div> </a> <ul id="toc-PLA_encroachment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Restoration_of_State_Chairman_position" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Restoration_of_State_Chairman_position"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1.1 Restoration of State Chairman position </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Restoration_of_State_Chairman_position-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Project_571" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Project_571"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Project 571 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Project_571-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Lin's_flight_and_plane_crash" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lin's_flight_and_plane_crash"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2.1 Lin's flight and plane crash </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lin's_flight_and_plane_crash-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gang_of_Four_(1972–1976)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gang_of_Four_(1972–1976)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Gang of Four (1972–1976) </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Gang_of_Four_(1972–1976)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Gang of Four (1972–1976) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Gang_of_Four_(1972–1976)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Deng_Xiaoping's_rehabilitation_(1975)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Deng_Xiaoping's_rehabilitation_(1975)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Deng Xiaoping's rehabilitation (1975) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Deng_Xiaoping's_rehabilitation_(1975)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Death_of_Zhou_Enlai" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Death_of_Zhou_Enlai"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Death of Zhou Enlai </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Death_of_Zhou_Enlai-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tiananmen_incident" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tiananmen_incident"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Tiananmen incident </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tiananmen_incident-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Death_of_Mao_Zedong_and_the_Gang_of_Four's_downfall" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Death_of_Mao_Zedong_and_the_Gang_of_Four's_downfall"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Death of Mao Zedong and the Gang of Four's downfall </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Death_of_Mao_Zedong_and_the_Gang_of_Four's_downfall-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aftermath" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aftermath"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Aftermath </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Aftermath-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Aftermath subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Aftermath-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Transitional_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transitional_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Transitional period </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transitional_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Repudiation_and_reform_under_Deng" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Repudiation_and_reform_under_Deng"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Repudiation and reform under Deng </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Repudiation_and_reform_under_Deng-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Atrocities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Atrocities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Atrocities </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Atrocities-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Atrocities subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Atrocities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Death_toll" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Death_toll"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Death toll </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Death_toll-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Massacres" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Massacres"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Massacres </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Massacres-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Violent_struggles,_struggle_sessions,_and_purges" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Violent_struggles,_struggle_sessions,_and_purges"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3 Violent struggles, struggle sessions, and purges </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Violent_struggles,_struggle_sessions,_and_purges-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Repression_of_ethnic_minorities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Repression_of_ethnic_minorities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.4 Repression of ethnic minorities </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Repression_of_ethnic_minorities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rape_and_sexual_abuse" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rape_and_sexual_abuse"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.5 Rape and sexual abuse </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rape_and_sexual_abuse-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cultural_impact_and_influence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cultural_impact_and_influence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Cultural impact and influence </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Cultural_impact_and_influence-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Cultural impact and influence subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Cultural_impact_and_influence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Red_Guards_riot" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Red_Guards_riot"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Red Guards riot </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Red_Guards_riot-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Academics_and_education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Academics_and_education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2 Academics and education </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Academics_and_education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Slogans_and_rhetoric" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slogans_and_rhetoric"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.3 Slogans and rhetoric </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Slogans_and_rhetoric-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arts_and_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arts_and_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.4 Arts and literature </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arts_and_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Visual_arts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Visual_arts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.4.1 Visual arts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Visual_arts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Film" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Film"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.4.2 Film </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Film-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historical_sites" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical_sites"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.5 Historical sites </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historical_sites-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Media" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Media"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.6 Media </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Media-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Foreign_relations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foreign_relations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Foreign relations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Foreign_relations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Opinions_and_views" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Opinions_and_views"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Opinions and views </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Opinions_and_views-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Opinions and views subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Opinions_and_views-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Communist_Party_opinions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Communist_Party_opinions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.1 Communist Party opinions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Communist_Party_opinions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alternative_opinions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alternative_opinions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.2 Alternative opinions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alternative_opinions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contemporary_China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contemporary_China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.3 Contemporary China </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contemporary_China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mao_Zedong's_legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mao_Zedong's_legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.4 Mao Zedong's legacy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mao_Zedong's_legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Outside_mainland_China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Outside_mainland_China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.5 Outside mainland China </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Outside_mainland_China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Academic_debate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Academic_debate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.6 Academic debate </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Academic_debate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15.1 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15.2 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16 Further reading </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Further reading subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-General" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16.1 General </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Specific_topics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Specific_topics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16.2 Specific topics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Specific_topics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Commentaries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Commentaries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16.3 Commentaries </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Commentaries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fictional_treatments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fictional_treatments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16.4 Fictional treatments </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fictional_treatments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Memoirs_by_Chinese_participants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Memoirs_by_Chinese_participants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16.5 Memoirs by Chinese participants </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Memoirs_by_Chinese_participants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 17 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> 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id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Cultural Revolution</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 110 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-110" aria-hidden="true" > 110 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kulturele_Rewolusie" title="Kulturele Rewolusie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Kulturele Rewolusie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kulturrevolution" title="Kulturrevolution – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Kulturrevolution" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AB%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AB%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="الثورة الثقافية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الثورة الثقافية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revoluci%C3%B3n_Cultural" title="Revolución Cultural – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Revolución Cultural" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%83%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%B1" title="সাংস্কৃতিক বিপ্লৱ – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="সাংস্কৃতিক বিপ্লৱ" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revoluci%C3%B3n_Cultural" title="Revolución Cultural – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Revolución Cultural" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arandupy_%C3%91epu%27%C3%A3" title="Arandupy Ñepu'ã – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Arandupy Ñepu'ã" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87ind%C9%99_m%C9%99d%C9%99ni_inqilab" title="Çində mədəni inqilab – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Çində mədəni inqilab" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%87_%D9%85%D8%AF%D9%86%DB%8C_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%82%DB%8C%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A8" title="چینده مدنی اینقیلاب – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="چینده مدنی اینقیلاب" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%83%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%AC" title="সাংস্কৃতিক বিপ্লব – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="সাংস্কৃতিক বিপ্লব" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%BBn-h%C3%B2a_T%C4%81i_Kek-b%C4%93ng" title="Bûn-hòa Tāi Kek-bēng – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Bûn-hòa Tāi Kek-bēng" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%A0%D1%8B%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B9%D2%99%D0%B0%D2%93%D1%8B_%D0%BC%D3%99%D2%99%D3%99%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%B8%D0%BD%D2%A1%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BF" title="Ҡытайҙағы мәҙәни инҡилап – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Ҡытайҙағы мәҙәни инҡилап" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F_%D1%9E_%D0%9A%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%96" title="Культурная рэвалюцыя ў Кітаі – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Культурная рэвалюцыя ў Кітаі" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F_%D1%9E_%D0%9A%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%96" title="Культурная рэвалюцыя ў Кітаі – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Культурная рэвалюцыя ў Кітаі" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Културна революция – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Културна революция" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%A2%E0%BD%B2%E0%BD%82%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%82%E0%BD%93%E0%BD%A6%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%82%E0%BD%A6%E0%BD%A2%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%96%E0%BD%A2%E0%BE%97%E0%BD%BA%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%86%E0%BD%BA%E0%BD%93%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%94%E0%BD%BC" title="རིག་གནས་གསར་བརྗེ་ཆེན་པོ – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="རིག་གནས་གསར་བརྗེ་ཆེན་པོ" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target">བོད་ཡིག</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kulturna_revolucija" title="Kulturna revolucija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Kulturna revolucija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dispac%27h_Sevenadurel" title="Dispac'h Sevenadurel – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Dispac'h Sevenadurel" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B9_%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%91%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D1%85%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BB" title="Хитадай соёлой хубисхал – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Хитадай соёлой хубисхал" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revoluci%C3%B3_Cultural" title="Revolució Cultural – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Revolució Cultural" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kulturn%C3%AD_revoluce" title="Kulturní revoluce – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Kulturní revoluce" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chwyldro_Diwylliannol" title="Chwyldro Diwylliannol – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Chwyldro Diwylliannol" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kulturrevolutionen" title="Kulturrevolutionen – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Kulturrevolutionen" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kulturrevolution" title="Kulturrevolution – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Kulturrevolution" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kultuurirevolutsioon" title="Kultuurirevolutsioon – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Kultuurirevolutsioon" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%B9%CF%84%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%95%CF%80%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%AC%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%B7" title="Πολιτιστική Επανάσταση – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Πολιτιστική Επανάσταση" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revoluci%C3%B3n_Cultural" title="Revolución Cultural – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Revolución Cultural" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kultura_Revolucio" title="Kultura Revolucio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Kultura Revolucio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Txinako_Iraultza_Kulturala" title="Txinako Iraultza Kulturala – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Txinako Iraultza Kulturala" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%82%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D9%81%D8%B1%D9%87%D9%86%DA%AF%DB%8C_%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86" title="انقلاب فرهنگی چین – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="انقلاب فرهنگی چین" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Cultural Revolution" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9volution_culturelle" title="Révolution culturelle – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Révolution culturelle" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kulturele_Revol%C3%BAsje" title="Kulturele Revolúsje – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Kulturele Revolúsje" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9abhl%C3%B3id_Chult%C3%BArtha_na_S%C3%ADne" title="Réabhlóid Chultúrtha na Síne – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Réabhlóid Chultúrtha na Síne" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revoluci%C3%B3n_Cultural" title="Revolución Cultural – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Revolución Cultural" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%B9n-fa_Thai-kiet-min" title="Vùn-fa Thai-kiet-min – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Vùn-fa Thai-kiet-min" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%AC%B8%ED%99%94%EB%8C%80%ED%98%81%EB%AA%85" title="문화대혁명 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="문화대혁명" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Cultural Revolution" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%89%D5%AB%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%BD%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%AB_%D5%B4%D5%B7%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%B0%D5%A5%D5%B2%D5%A1%D6%83%D5%B8%D5%AD%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Չինաստանի մշակութային հեղափոխություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Չինաստանի մշակութային հեղափոխություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF" title="सांस्कृतिक क्रांति – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="सांस्कृतिक क्रांति" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kineska_kulturna_revolucija" title="Kineska kulturna revolucija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Kineska kulturna revolucija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kulturala_Revoluciono" title="Kulturala Revoluciono – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Kulturala Revoluciono" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kultural_a_Rebolusion" title="Kultural a Rebolusion – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Kultural a Rebolusion" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolusi_Kebudayaan" title="Revolusi Kebudayaan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Revolusi Kebudayaan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menningarbyltingin" title="Menningarbyltingin – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Menningarbyltingin" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rivoluzione_culturale" title="Rivoluzione culturale – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Rivoluzione culturale" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%94%D7%A4%D7%9B%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%AA%D7%A8%D7%91%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%91%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%9F" title="מהפכת התרבות בסין – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מהפכת התרבות בסין" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-krc mw-list-item"><a href="https://krc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%8A%D1%8B%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%B4%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Къытайда культура революция – Karachay-Balkar" lang="krc" hreflang="krc" data-title="Къытайда культура революция" data-language-autonym="Къарачай-малкъар" data-language-local-name="Karachay-Balkar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Къарачай-малкъар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A9%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%97%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%99%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%95%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A3%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ჩინეთის კულტურული რევოლუცია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ჩინეთის კულტურული რევოლუცია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%9A%D1%8B%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%B4%D0%B0%D2%93%D1%8B_%D0%BC%D3%99%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5%D1%82_%D1%82%D3%A9%D2%A3%D0%BA%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%96%D1%81%D1%96" title="Қытайдағы мәдениет төңкерісі – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Қытайдағы мәдениет төңкерісі" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domhwelans_Gonisogethel" title="Domhwelans Gonisogethel – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Domhwelans Gonisogethel" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mapinduzi_ya_utamaduni" title="Mapinduzi ya utamaduni – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Mapinduzi ya utamaduni" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9volousyon_kiltir%C3%A8l" title="Révolousyon kiltirèl – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Révolousyon kiltirèl" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%8B%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B3%D1%8B_%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Кытайдагы маданий революция – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Кытайдагы маданий революция" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magna_Culturae_Conversio_Proletariana" title="Magna Culturae Conversio Proletariana – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Magna Culturae Conversio Proletariana" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kult%C5%ABras_revol%C5%ABcija" title="Kultūras revolūcija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Kultūras revolūcija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kult%C5%ABrin%C4%97_revoliucija" title="Kultūrinė revoliucija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Kultūrinė revoliucija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revoluzzion_Colturala" title="Revoluzzion Colturala – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Revoluzzion Colturala" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kultur%C3%A1lis_forradalom" title="Kulturális forradalom – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Kulturális forradalom" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Културна револуција – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Културна револуција" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%82%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95_%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%82" title="സാംസ്കാരിക വിപ്ലവം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="സാംസ്കാരിക വിപ്ലവം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolusi_Kebudayaan" title="Revolusi Kebudayaan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Revolusi Kebudayaan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%99ng-hu%C3%A1_D%C3%A2i-g%C3%A1ik-m%C3%AAng" title="Ùng-huá Dâi-gáik-mêng – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Ùng-huá Dâi-gáik-mêng" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%9D%D0%A5%D0%90%D0%A3-%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%91%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D1%85%D1%83%D0%B2%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BB" title="БНХАУ-ын Соёлын хувьсгал – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="БНХАУ-ын Соёлын хувьсгал" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9A%E1%80%89%E1%80%BA%E1%80%80%E1%80%BB%E1%80%B1%E1%80%B8%E1%80%99%E1%80%BE%E1%80%AF_%E1%80%90%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9C%E1%80%BE%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9B%E1%80%B1%E1%80%B8" title="ယဉ်ကျေးမှု တော်လှန်ရေး – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ယဉ်ကျေးမှု တော်လှန်ရေး" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culturele_Revolutie" title="Culturele Revolutie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Culturele Revolutie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF" title="चीनको सांस्कृतिक क्रान्ति – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="चीनको सांस्कृतिक क्रान्ति" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%96%87%E5%8C%96%E5%A4%A7%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD" title="文化大革命 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="文化大革命" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%87%D1%83%D1%8C%D1%80%D0%B0_%D0%BE%D1%8C%D0%B7%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8" title="Цийчуьра оьздангаллин революци – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Цийчуьра оьздангаллин революци" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kulturrevolusjonen" title="Kulturrevolusjonen – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Kulturrevolusjonen" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kulturrevolusjonen" title="Kulturrevolusjonen – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Kulturrevolusjonen" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolucion_Culturala" title="Revolucion Culturala – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Revolucion Culturala" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B8%E0%A9%B1%E0%A8%AD%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%9A%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%95_%E0%A8%87%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%AC" title="ਸੱਭਿਆਚਾਰਕ ਇਨਕਲਾਬ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਸੱਭਿਆਚਾਰਕ ਇਨਕਲਾਬ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AB%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%AA%DB%8C_%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%82%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A8" title="ثقافتی انقلاب – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ثقافتی انقلاب" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%84%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%82%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A8" title="کلتوري انقلاب – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="کلتوري انقلاب" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolchral_Revaluushan" title="Kolchral Revaluushan – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Kolchral Revaluushan" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%94%E1%9E%8A%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%8F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%8F%E1%9E%93%E1%9F%8D%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%94%E1%9E%92%E1%9E%98%E1%9F%8C" title="បដិវត្តន៍វប្បធម៌ – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="បដិវត្តន៍វប្បធម៌" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target">ភាសាខ្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rewolucja_kulturalna" title="Rewolucja kulturalna – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Rewolucja kulturalna" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolu%C3%A7%C3%A3o_Cultural_Chinesa" title="Revolução Cultural Chinesa – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Revolução Cultural Chinesa" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolu%C8%9Bia_Cultural%C4%83" title="Revoluția Culturală – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Revoluția Culturală" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%86%D1%96%D0%B0" title="Културна револуціа – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Културна револуціа" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B2_%D0%9A%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B5" title="Культурная революция в Китае – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Культурная революция в Китае" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%8B%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%B3%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%82%D1%83%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0_%D3%A9%D1%80%D3%A9%D0%B1%D3%A9%D0%BB%D2%AF%D2%AF%D1%81%D1%81%D2%AF%D0%B9%D1%8D%D1%82%D1%8D" title="Кытайга култуура өрөбөлүүссүйэтэ – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Кытайга култуура өрөбөлүүссүйэтэ" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Cultural Revolution" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolucioni_Kulturor_Kinez" title="Revolucioni Kulturor Kinez – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Revolucioni Kulturor Kinez" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Cultural Revolution" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ve%C4%BEk%C3%A1_prolet%C3%A1rska_kult%C3%BArna_revol%C3%BAcia" title="Veľká proletárska kultúrna revolúcia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Veľká proletárska kultúrna revolúcia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kulturna_revolucija" title="Kulturna revolucija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Kulturna revolucija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%DB%86%DA%95%D8%B4%DB%8C_%DA%86%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF%DB%8C%DB%8C_%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86" title="شۆڕشی چاندیی چین – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="شۆڕشی چاندیی چین" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Културна револуција – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Културна револуција" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kulturna_revolucija" title="Kulturna revolucija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Kulturna revolucija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kulttuurivallankumous" title="Kulttuurivallankumous – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kulttuurivallankumous" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kulturrevolutionen" title="Kulturrevolutionen – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Kulturrevolutionen" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Himagsikang_Pangkalinangan" title="Himagsikang Pangkalinangan – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Himagsikang Pangkalinangan" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%80%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF" title="சீனப் பண்பாட்டுப் புரட்சி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="சீனப் பண்பாட்டுப் புரட்சி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%9A%E0%B1%88%E0%B0%A8%E0%B0%BE_%E0%B0%B8%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%83%E0%B0%A4%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%95_%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%AA%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B2%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%82" title="చైనా సాంస్కృతిక విప్లవం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="చైనా సాంస్కృతిక విప్లవం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%8F%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%92%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%98%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A1" title="การปฏิวัติทางวัฒนธรรม – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การปฏิวัติทางวัฒนธรรม" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%BClt%C3%BCr_Devrimi" title="Kültür Devrimi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Kültür Devrimi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%B2_%D0%9A%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%97" title="Культурна революція в Китаї – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Культурна революція в Китаї" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AB%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%AA%DB%8C_%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%82%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A8" title="ثقافتی انقلاب – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="ثقافتی انقلاب" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vwnzva_Dagwzming" title="Vwnzva Dagwzming – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Vwnzva Dagwzming" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vahcuengh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kul%27turrevol%C3%BCcii_Kitai%C5%A1" title="Kul'turrevolücii Kitaiš – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Kul'turrevolücii Kitaiš" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vepsän kel’</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_C%C3%A1ch_m%E1%BA%A1ng_V%C4%83n_h%C3%B3a_v%C3%B4_s%E1%BA%A3n" title="Đại Cách mạng Văn hóa vô sản – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Đại Cách mạng Văn hóa vô sản" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%96%87%E5%8C%96%E5%A4%A7%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD" title="文化大革命 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="文化大革命" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebolusyon_ha_kultura" title="Rebolusyon ha kultura – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Rebolusyon ha kultura" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%96%87%E5%8C%96%E5%A4%A7%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD" title="文化大革命 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="文化大革命" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%98%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%A2%D7%9C%D7%A2_%D7%A8%D7%A2%D7%95%D7%95%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%A2" title="קולטורעלע רעוואלוציע – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="קולטורעלע רעוואלוציע" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%96%87%E5%8C%96%E5%A4%A7%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD" title="文化大革命 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="文化大革命" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolt%C5%ABr%C4%97n%C4%97_revoliuc%C4%97j%C4%97" 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For events elsewhere also called the "Cultural Revolution", see <a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Cultural Revolution (disambiguation)">Cultural Revolution (disambiguation)</a>. For revolutions in culture generally, see <a href="/wiki/List_of_cultural,_intellectual,_philosophical_and_technological_revolutions" title="List of cultural, intellectual, philosophical and technological revolutions">List of cultural, intellectual, philosophical and technological revolutions</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Very_long plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-very_long" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article may be <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Article_size" title="Wikipedia:Article size">too long</a> to read and navigate comfortably. When this tag was added, its <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:SIZERULE" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:SIZERULE">readable prose size</a> was 16,483 words. Consider <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Splitting" title="Wikipedia:Splitting">splitting</a> content into sub-articles, <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Summary_style" title="Wikipedia:Summary style">condensing</a> it, or adding <a href="/wiki/Help:Section#Subsections" title="Help:Section">subheadings</a>. Please discuss this issue on the article's <a href="/wiki/Talk:Cultural_Revolution" title="Talk:Cultural Revolution">talk page</a>. (October 2024)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent"><caption class="infobox-title summary">Cultural Revolution</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="border-bottom:#aaa solid 1px"><a href="/wiki/File:Cultural_Revolution_poster.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c6/Cultural_Revolution_poster.jpg/250px-Cultural_Revolution_poster.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c6/Cultural_Revolution_poster.jpg/375px-Cultural_Revolution_poster.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/c6/Cultural_Revolution_poster.jpg 2x" data-file-width="377" data-file-height="264" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">Propaganda poster depicting <a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a>, above a group of soldiers from the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army" title="People's Liberation Army">People's Liberation Army</a>. The caption reads, "The Chinese People's Liberation Army is the great school of <a href="/wiki/Maoism" title="Maoism">Mao Zedong Thought</a>".</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Duration</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align: left;">16 May 1966 – 6 October 1976 (1966-05-16 – 1976-10-06) (10 years and 143 days)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Location</th><td class="infobox-data location" style="text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Motive</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align: left;">Preservation of communism by purging capitalist and traditional elements, and power struggle between Maoists and pragmatists.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Organized by</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Politburo of the Chinese Communist Party">Chinese Communist Party Politburo</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Outcome</th><td class="infobox-data description" style="text-align: left;">Economic activity impaired, historical and cultural material destroyed.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Deaths</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align: left;">Estimates vary from hundreds of thousands to millions (see <a href="#Death_toll">§ Death toll</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Property damage</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/Cemetery_of_Confucius" title="Cemetery of Confucius">Cemetery of Confucius</a>, <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Heaven" title="Temple of Heaven">Temple of Heaven</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ming_tombs" title="Ming tombs">Ming tombs</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Arrests</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/Jiang_Qing" title="Jiang Qing">Jiang Qing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Chunqiao" title="Zhang Chunqiao">Zhang Chunqiao</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yao_Wenyuan" title="Yao Wenyuan">Yao Wenyuan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Wang_Hongwen" title="Wang Hongwen">Wang Hongwen</a></td></tr></tbody></table><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="color: #202122;background-color:#b0c4de">Cultural Revolution</th></tr><tr style="display:none;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%96%87%E5%8C%96%E5%A4%A7%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:文化大革命">文化大革命</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Literal meaning</th><td class="infobox-data">"Great Cultural Revolution"</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Wénhuà dàgémìng</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Bopomofo" title="Bopomofo">Bopomofo</a></th><td class="infobox-data">ㄨㄣˊ ㄏㄨㄚˋ ㄉㄚˋ ㄍㄜˊ ㄇㄧㄥˋ</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Spelling_in_Gwoyeu_Romatzyh" title="Spelling in Gwoyeu Romatzyh">Gwoyeu Romatzyh</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Wenhuah dahgerminq</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Wen2-hua4 ta4-ko2-ming4</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Tongyong_Pinyin" title="Tongyong Pinyin">Tongyong Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Wún-huà dà-gé-mìng</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">IPA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">[wə̌n.xwâ tâ.kɤ̌.mîŋ]</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Wu_Chinese" title="Wu Chinese">Wu</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Wu_Chinese" title="Romanization of Wu Chinese">Romanization</a></th><td class="infobox-data">[Ven平ho去 du去 keh入min去] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 9) (<a href="/wiki/Category:Transliteration_template_errors" title="Category:Transliteration template errors">help</a>)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Hakka_Chinese" title="Hakka Chinese">Hakka</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Pha%CC%8Dk-fa-s%E1%B9%B3" title="Pha̍k-fa-sṳ">Pha̍k-fa-sṳ</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Vùn-fa thai-kiet-min</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Yue: Cantonese</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Yale_romanization_of_Cantonese" title="Yale romanization of Cantonese">Yale Romanization</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Màhn-faa daaih-gaak-mihng</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jyutping" title="Jyutping">Jyutping</a></th><td class="infobox-data">man4 faa3 daai6 gaak3 ming6</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Cantonese" title="Help:IPA/Cantonese">IPA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Cantonese" title="Help:IPA/Cantonese">[mɐn˩ fa˧ taj˨ kak̚˧ mɪŋ˨]</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Southern_Min" title="Southern Min">Southern Min</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hokkien" title="Hokkien">Hokkien</a> <a href="/wiki/Pe%CC%8Dh-%C5%8De-j%C4%AB" title="Pe̍h-ōe-jī">POJ</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Bûn-hoà tāi-kek-bēng</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Min" title="Eastern Min">Eastern Min</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Fuzhou_dialect" title="Fuzhou dialect">Fuzhou</a> <a href="/wiki/Foochow_Romanized" class="mw-redirect" title="Foochow Romanized">BUC</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Ùng-huá dâi gáik-mêng</td></tr></tbody></table></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #b0c4de;">Formal name</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Simplified Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data">无产阶级文化大革命</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Traditional Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data">無產階級文化大革命</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Literal meaning</th><td class="infobox-data">"Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution"</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Wúchǎnjiējí wénhuà dàgémìng</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Bopomofo" title="Bopomofo">Bopomofo</a></th><td class="infobox-data">ㄨˊ ㄔㄢˇ ㄐㄧㄝㄐㄧˊ ㄨㄣˊ ㄏㄨㄚˋ ㄉㄚˋ ㄍㄜˊ ㄇㄧㄥˋ</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Wu2-chʻan2-chieh1-chi2 wen2-hua4 ta4-ko2-ming4</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Tongyong_Pinyin" title="Tongyong Pinyin">Tongyong Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Wú-chǎn-jie-jí wún-huà dà-gé-mìng</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">IPA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">[ǔ.ʈʂʰàn.tɕjé.tɕǐ wə̌n.xwâ tâ.kɤ̌.mîŋ]</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Wu_Chinese" title="Wu Chinese">Wu</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Wu_Chinese" title="Romanization of Wu Chinese">Romanization</a></th><td class="infobox-data">[Vu平tshae上cia平cih入 ven平ho去 du去 keh入min去] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 8) (<a href="/wiki/Category:Transliteration_template_errors" title="Category:Transliteration template errors">help</a>)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Hakka_Chinese" title="Hakka Chinese">Hakka</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Pha%CC%8Dk-fa-s%E1%B9%B3" title="Pha̍k-fa-sṳ">Pha̍k-fa-sṳ</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Vû-sán-kiê-kip vùn-fa thai-kiet-min</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Yue: Cantonese</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jyutping" title="Jyutping">Jyutping</a></th><td class="infobox-data">mou4 caan2 gaai1 kap1 man4 faa3 daai6 gaak3 ming6</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Cantonese" title="Help:IPA/Cantonese">IPA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Cantonese" title="Help:IPA/Cantonese">[mɔw˩ tsʰan˧˥ kaj˥ kʰɐp̚˥ mɐn˩ fa˧ taj˨ kak̚˧ mɪŋ˨]</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Southern_Min" title="Southern Min">Southern Min</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hokkien" title="Hokkien">Hokkien</a> <a href="/wiki/Pe%CC%8Dh-%C5%8De-j%C4%AB" title="Pe̍h-ōe-jī">POJ</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Bû-sán-kai-kip bûn-hòa tōa kek-bēng</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Min" title="Eastern Min">Eastern Min</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Fuzhou_dialect" title="Fuzhou dialect">Fuzhou</a> <a href="/wiki/Foochow_Romanized" class="mw-redirect" title="Foochow Romanized">BUC</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Ù-sāng-găi-ngék ùng-huá dâi gáik-mêng</td></tr></tbody></table></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": 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.sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output 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.sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1222630338">.mw-parser-output .prc-body{max-width:20em}.mw-parser-output .prc-title{font-size:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .prc-title a{white-space:normal}.mw-parser-output .prc-emblem{padding-bottom:1em}.mw-parser-output .prc-heading{border-top:thin solid #707070;border-bottom:thin solid #707070;background-color:white;font-size:1em}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks prc-body hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title prc-title"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="History of the People's Republic of China">History of the People's Republic of China</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image prc-emblem"><a href="/wiki/File:National_Emblem_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_(2).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="National emblem of the People's Republic of China"><img alt="National emblem of the People's Republic of China" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/National_Emblem_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_%282%29.svg/85px-National_Emblem_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_%282%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="85" height="92" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/National_Emblem_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_%282%29.svg/128px-National_Emblem_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_%282%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/National_Emblem_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_%282%29.svg/170px-National_Emblem_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_%282%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="976" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title prc-heading" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_(1949%E2%80%931976)" title="History of the People's Republic of China (1949–1976)">1949–1976: Mao era</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Revolution" title="Chinese Communist Revolution">Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_Reform_Movement" title="Land Reform Movement">Land Reform Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Proclamation of the People's Republic of China">Proclamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_to_Suppress_Counterrevolutionaries" title="Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries">Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-anti_and_Five-anti_Campaigns" title="Three-anti and Five-anti Campaigns">Three-anti and Five-anti Campaigns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_five-year_plan_(China)" title="First five-year plan (China)">First five-year plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Principles_of_Peaceful_Coexistence" title="Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence">Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bandung_Conference" title="Bandung Conference">Bandung Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufan_movement" title="Sufan movement">Sufan movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Flowers_Campaign" title="Hundred Flowers Campaign">Hundred Flowers Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Rightist_Campaign" title="Anti-Rightist Campaign">Anti-Rightist Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canton_Fair" title="Canton Fair">Canton Fair</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Leap_Forward" title="Great Leap Forward">Great Leap Forward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Chinese_Famine" title="Great Chinese Famine">Great Chinese Famine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two_Bombs,_One_Satellite" title="Two Bombs, One Satellite">Two Bombs, One Satellite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Thousand_Cadres_Conference" title="Seven Thousand Cadres Conference">Seven Thousand Cadres Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Education_Movement" title="Socialist Education Movement">Socialist Education Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Front_(China)" title="Third Front (China)">Third Front</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Cultural Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UN_General_Assembly_Resolution_2758" class="mw-redirect" title="UN General Assembly Resolution 2758">UN representation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1972_visit_by_Richard_Nixon_to_China" title="1972 visit by Richard Nixon to China">Richard Nixon visit</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title prc-heading" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_(1976%E2%80%931989)" title="History of the People's Republic of China (1976–1989)">1976–1989: Deng era</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gang_of_Four" title="Gang of Four">Gang of Four</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boluan_Fanzheng" title="Boluan Fanzheng">Boluan Fanzheng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1978_Truth_Criterion_Controversy" title="1978 Truth Criterion Controversy">1978 Truth Criterion Controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Enlightenment_(China)" title="New Enlightenment (China)">New Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reforms_and_Opening_Up" class="mw-redirect" title="Reforms and Opening Up">Reforms and Opening Up</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Special_economic_zones_of_China" title="Special economic zones of China">Special economic zones</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="China–United States relations">China–United States relations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Three_Communiqu%C3%A9s" title="Three Communiqués">Three Communiqués</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Modernizations" title="Four Modernizations">Four Modernizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Vietnamese_War" title="Sino-Vietnamese War">Sino-Vietnamese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beijing_Spring" title="Beijing Spring">Beijing Spring</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Strike_Hard_Against_Crime_Campaign_(1983)" title="Strike Hard Against Crime Campaign (1983)">Strike Hard Against Crime Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-British_Joint_Declaration" title="Sino-British Joint Declaration">Sino-British Joint Declaration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_against_spiritual_pollution" title="Campaign against spiritual pollution">Campaign against spiritual pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bourgeois_liberalization" title="Bourgeois liberalization">Bourgeois liberalization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-bourgeois_liberalization" title="Anti-bourgeois liberalization">Opposition</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/863_Program" title="863 Program">863 Program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1986_Chinese_student_demonstrations" title="1986 Chinese student demonstrations">1986 Chinese student demonstrations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Portuguese_Joint_Declaration" title="Sino-Portuguese Joint Declaration">Sino-Portuguese Joint Declaration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1989_Tiananmen_Square_protests_and_massacre" title="1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre">1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title prc-heading" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_(1989%E2%80%932002)" title="History of the People's Republic of China (1989–2002)">1989–2002: Jiang era</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shanghai_Stock_Exchange" title="Shanghai Stock Exchange">Shanghai Stock Exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pudong_New_District" class="mw-redirect" title="Pudong New District">Pudong New District</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deng_Xiaoping%27s_southern_tour" title="Deng Xiaoping's southern tour">Deng's southern tour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1992_consensus" class="mw-redirect" title="1992 consensus">1992 consensus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One_country,_two_systems" title="One country, two systems">One country, two systems</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Handover_of_Hong_Kong" title="Handover of Hong Kong">Handover of Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Handover_of_Macau" title="Handover of Macau">Handover of Macau</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1998_China_floods" title="1998 China floods">1998 floods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/US_bombing_of_the_Chinese_embassy_in_Belgrade" class="mw-redirect" title="US bombing of the Chinese embassy in Belgrade">US bombing of the Belgrade embassy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Falun_Gong" title="Persecution of Falun Gong">Persecution of Falun Gong</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/China_Western_Development" title="China Western Development">China Western Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hainan_Island_incident" title="Hainan Island incident">Hainan Island incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/APEC_China_2001" title="APEC China 2001">APEC China 2001</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_and_the_World_Trade_Organization" title="China and the World Trade Organization">Accession to the WTO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forum_on_China%E2%80%93Africa_Cooperation" title="Forum on China–Africa Cooperation">Forum on China–Africa Cooperation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shanghai_Cooperation_Organisation" title="Shanghai Cooperation Organisation">Shanghai Cooperation Organisation</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title prc-heading" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_(2002%E2%80%93present)" title="History of the People's Republic of China (2002–present)">2002–2012: Hu era</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2002%E2%80%932004_SARS_outbreak" title="2002–2004 SARS outbreak">2002–2004 SARS outbreak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shenzhou_5" title="Shenzhou 5">Shenzhou 5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2005_Pan%E2%80%93Blue_visits_to_mainland_China" class="mw-redirect" title="2005 Pan–Blue visits to mainland China">Visit of Lien Chan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South%E2%80%93North_Water_Transfer_Project" title="South–North Water Transfer Project">South–North Water Transfer Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qinghai%E2%80%93Tibet_railway" title="Qinghai–Tibet railway">Qinghai–Tibet railway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008_Sichuan_earthquake" title="2008 Sichuan earthquake">2008 Sichuan earthquake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Links" title="Three Links">Three Links with Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008_Summer_Olympics" title="2008 Summer Olympics">2008 Summer Olympics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expo_2010" title="Expo 2010">Expo 2010</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BRICS" title="BRICS">BRICS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Gorges_Dam" title="Three Gorges Dam">Three Gorges Dam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West%E2%80%93East_Gas_Pipeline" title="West–East Gas Pipeline">West–East Gas Pipeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-speed_rail_in_China" title="High-speed rail in China">High-speed rail</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title prc-heading" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_(2002%E2%80%93present)" title="History of the People's Republic of China (2002–present)">2012–present: Xi era</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-corruption_campaign_under_Xi_Jinping" title="Anti-corruption campaign under Xi Jinping">Anti-corruption campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belt_and_Road_Initiative" title="Belt and Road Initiative">Belt and Road Initiative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chang%27e_3" title="Chang'e 3">Chang'e 3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supercomputing_in_China" title="Supercomputing in China">Supercomputing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/APEC_China_2014" title="APEC China 2014">APEC China 2014</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma-Xi_Meeting" class="mw-redirect" title="Ma-Xi Meeting">Meeting with Ma Ying-Jeou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2016_G20_Hangzhou_summit" title="2016 G20 Hangzhou summit">2016 G20 Hangzhou summit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiong%27an" title="Xiong'an">Xiong'an</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/9th_BRICS_summit" title="9th BRICS summit">9th BRICS summit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Uyghurs_in_China" title="Persecution of Uyghurs in China">Persecution of Uyghurs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xinjiang_internment_camps" title="Xinjiang internment camps">Xinjiang internment camps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China%E2%80%93United_States_trade_war" title="China–United States trade war">China–United States trade war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_International_Import_Expo" title="China International Import Expo">China International Import Expo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_space_program" title="Chinese space program">Space program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019%E2%80%932020_Hong_Kong_protests" title="2019–2020 Hong Kong protests">2019–2020 Hong Kong protests</a> <ul><li><a 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style="border-top:1px solid #707070;padding:0.3em 0.3em 0.5em;font-weight:bold;border-bottom:1px solid #707070;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Culture of the People's Republic of China">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_China" title="Economy of China">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_China" title="Education in China">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_China" title="Geography of China">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_China" title="Politics of China">Politics</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="padding:0.3em 0.3em 0.5em;border-bottom:1px solid #707070;"> <img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/16px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/24px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:China" title="Portal:China">China portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output 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revolution</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_Le_28_Juillet._La_Libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="French Revolution"><img alt="French Revolution" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_Le_28_Juillet._La_Libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple.jpg/250px-Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_Le_28_Juillet._La_Libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_Le_28_Juillet._La_Libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple.jpg/375px-Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_Le_28_Juillet._La_Libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_Le_28_Juillet._La_Libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple.jpg/500px-Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_Le_28_Juillet._La_Libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5946" data-file-height="4771" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">By class</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bourgeois_revolution" title="Bourgeois revolution">Bourgeois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_revolution" title="Communist revolution">Communist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-revolutionary" title="Counter-revolutionary">Counter-revolutionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_revolution" title="Democratic revolution">Democratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proletarian_revolution" title="Proletarian revolution">Proletarian</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">By other characteristic</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colour_revolution" title="Colour revolution">Colour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolution_from_above" title="Revolution from above">From above</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonviolent_revolution" title="Nonviolent revolution">Nonviolent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive_revolution" title="Passive revolution">Passive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permanent_revolution" title="Permanent revolution">Permanent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_revolution" title="Social revolution">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_wave" title="Revolutionary wave">Wave</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Methods</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boycott" title="Boycott">Boycott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_disorder" title="Civil disorder">Civil disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_war" title="Civil war">Civil war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_conflict" title="Class conflict">Class conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contentious_politics" title="Contentious politics">Contentious politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="Coup d'état">Coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_demonstration" title="Political demonstration">Demonstration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_chain_(politics)" title="Human chain (politics)">Human chain</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_action" title="Direct action">Direct action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_warfare" title="Guerrilla warfare">Guerrilla warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurgency" title="Insurgency">Insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_mobilization" title="Mass mobilization">Mass mobilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutiny" title="Mutiny">Mutiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protest" title="Protest">Protest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebellion" title="Rebellion">Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistance_movement" title="Resistance movement">Resistance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nonviolent_resistance" title="Nonviolent resistance">Nonviolent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_resistance" title="Civil resistance">Civil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_disobedience" title="Civil disobedience">Disobedience</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riot" title="Riot">Riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samizdat" title="Samizdat">Samizdat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strike_action" title="Strike action">Strike action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_resistance" title="Tax resistance">Tax resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_terror" title="Revolutionary terror">Terror</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Examples</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_Revolution" title="English Revolution">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Revolutions" title="Atlantic Revolutions">Atlantic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brabant_Revolution" title="Brabant Revolution">Brabant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li%C3%A8ge_Revolution" title="Liège Revolution">Liège</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_Revolution" title="Haitian Revolution">Haitian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_American_wars_of_independence" title="Spanish American wars of independence">Spanish American</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Revolution" title="Serbian Revolution">Serbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_War_of_Independence" title="Greek War of Independence">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1820" class="mw-redirect" title="Revolutions of 1820">1820</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1830" title="Revolutions of 1830">1830</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/July_Revolution" title="July Revolution">July</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_Revolution" title="Belgian Revolution">Belgian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas_Revolution" title="Texas Revolution">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">1848</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848_in_the_Italian_states" title="Revolutions of 1848 in the Italian states">Italian states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution_of_1848" title="French Revolution of 1848">February</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848_in_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Revolutions of 1848 in Germany">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1848" title="Hungarian Revolution of 1848">Hungarian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eureka_Rebellion" title="Eureka Rebellion">Eureka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_unification" title="Bulgarian unification">Bulgarian unification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_Revolution" title="Philippine Revolution">Philippine</a></li> <li>Iranian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Constitutional_Revolution" title="Persian Constitutional Revolution">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Revolution">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Young_Turk_Revolution" title="Young Turk Revolution">Young Turk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_Revolution" title="Mexican Revolution">Mexican</a></li> <li>Chinese <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1911_Revolution" title="1911 Revolution">Xinhai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Revolution" title="Chinese Communist Revolution">Communist</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Cultural</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1917%E2%80%931923" title="Revolutions of 1917–1923">1917–1923</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Revolution_of_1918%E2%80%931919" class="mw-redirect" title="German Revolution of 1918–1919">German</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siamese_Revolution_of_1932" class="mw-redirect" title="Siamese Revolution of 1932">Siamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Revolution_of_1936" title="Spanish Revolution of 1936">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/August_Revolution" title="August Revolution">August</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guatemalan_Revolution" title="Guatemalan Revolution">Guatemalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1956" title="Hungarian Revolution of 1956">Hungarian (1956)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_Revolution" title="Cuban Revolution">Cuban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rwandan_Revolution" title="Rwandan Revolution">Rwandan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicaraguan_Revolution" title="Nicaraguan Revolution">Nicaraguan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argentine_Revolution" title="Argentine Revolution">Argentine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnation_Revolution" title="Carnation Revolution">Carnation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saur_Revolution" title="Saur Revolution">Saur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People_Power_Revolution" title="People Power Revolution">People Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1989" title="Revolutions of 1989">1989</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-bureaucratic_revolution" title="Anti-bureaucratic revolution">Yogurt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velvet_Revolution" title="Velvet Revolution">Velvet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanian Revolution">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singing_Revolution" title="Singing Revolution">Singing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bolivarian_Revolution" title="Bolivarian Revolution">Bolivarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overthrow_of_Slobodan_Milo%C5%A1evi%C4%87" title="Overthrow of Slobodan Milošević">Bulldozer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rose_Revolution" title="Rose Revolution">Rose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orange_Revolution" title="Orange Revolution">Orange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulip_Revolution" title="Tulip Revolution">Tulip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_Revolution_of_2010" class="mw-redirect" title="Kyrgyz Revolution of 2010">Kyrgyz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Spring" title="Arab Spring">Arab Spring</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_revolution" title="Tunisian revolution">Tunisian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_revolution_of_2011" class="mw-redirect" title="Egyptian revolution of 2011">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemeni_revolution" title="Yemeni revolution">Yemeni</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euromaidan" title="Euromaidan">Euromaidan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Arab_Spring" title="Second Arab Spring">Second Arab Spring</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sudanese_revolution" title="Sudanese revolution">Sudanese</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <a href="/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/16px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/24px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/32px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Revolution_sidebar" title="Template:Revolution sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Revolution_sidebar" title="Template talk:Revolution sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Revolution_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Revolution sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> The Cultural Revolution, formally known as the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, was a <a href="/wiki/Social_movement" title="Social movement">sociopolitical movement</a> in the <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">People's Republic of China</a> (PRC). It was launched by <a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a> in 1966 and lasted until <a href="/wiki/Death_and_state_funeral_of_Mao_Zedong" title="Death and state funeral of Mao Zedong">his death</a> in 1976. Its stated goal was to preserve <a href="/wiki/Ideology_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Ideology of the Chinese Communist Party">Chinese socialism</a> by purging remnants of <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalist</a> and traditional elements from <a href="/wiki/Chinese_culture" title="Chinese culture">Chinese society</a>. Though it failed to achieve its main objectives, the Cultural Revolution marked the effective return of Mao to the center of power in China after <a href="/wiki/Seven_Thousand_Cadres_Conference" title="Seven Thousand Cadres Conference">his political sidelining</a>, in the aftermath of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Leap_Forward" title="Great Leap Forward">Great Leap Forward</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Great_Chinese_Famine" title="Great Chinese Famine">Great Chinese Famine</a>. In May 1966, with the help of the <a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution_Group" title="Cultural Revolution Group">Cultural Revolution Group</a>, Mao launched the Revolution and said that <a href="/wiki/Bourgeoisie" title="Bourgeoisie">bourgeois elements</a> had infiltrated the government and society with the aim of restoring capitalism. Mao called on young people to <a href="/wiki/Bombard_the_Headquarters" title="Bombard the Headquarters">bombard the headquarters</a>, and proclaimed that "to rebel is justified". Mass upheaval began in <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a> with <a href="/wiki/Red_August" title="Red August">Red August</a> in 1966. Many young people, mainly students, responded by forming <a href="/wiki/Cadre_system_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Cadre system of the Chinese Communist Party">cadres</a> of <a href="/wiki/Red_Guards" title="Red Guards">Red Guards</a> throughout the country. A selection of Mao's sayings were compiled into the <a href="/wiki/Quotations_from_Chairman_Mao_Tse-tung" title="Quotations from Chairman Mao Tse-tung">Little Red Book</a>, which became revered within <a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong%27s_cult_of_personality" title="Mao Zedong's cult of personality">his cult of personality</a>. In 1967, emboldened radicals began <a href="/wiki/Seizure_of_power_(Cultural_Revolution)" title="Seizure of power (Cultural Revolution)">seizing power</a> from local governments and party branches, establishing new <a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_committee_(China)" title="Revolutionary committee (China)">revolutionary committees</a> in their place. These committees often split into rival factions, precipitating <a href="/wiki/Violent_Struggle" title="Violent Struggle">armed clashes among the radicals</a>. After the <a href="/wiki/Lin_Biao_incident" title="Lin Biao incident">fall of Lin Biao</a> in 1971, the <a href="/wiki/Gang_of_Four" title="Gang of Four">Gang of Four</a> became influential in 1972, and the Revolution continued until Mao's death in 1976, soon followed by the arrest of the Gang of Four. The Cultural Revolution was characterized by violence and chaos across Chinese society, including <a href="/wiki/Guangxi_Massacre" title="Guangxi Massacre">a massacre in Guangxi</a> that included acts of <a href="/wiki/Human_cannibalism" title="Human cannibalism">cannibalism</a>, as well as massacres in Beijing, <a href="/wiki/Inner_Mongolia_incident" title="Inner Mongolia incident">Inner Mongolia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guangdong_Cultural_Revolution_Massacre" title="Guangdong Cultural Revolution Massacre">Guangdong</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yunnan_Cultural_Revolution_Massacre_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Yunnan Cultural Revolution Massacre (disambiguation)">Yunnan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hunan_Cultural_Revolution_Massacre_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Hunan Cultural Revolution Massacre (disambiguation)">Hunan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Song-2011a-1">[1]</a> Estimates of the death toll vary widely, typically ranging from 1–2 million. Red Guards sought to destroy the <a href="/wiki/Four_Olds" title="Four Olds">Four Olds</a> (old ideas, old culture, old customs, and old habits), which often took the form of destroying historical artifacts, cultural and religious sites, and targeting others deemed to be representative of the Four Olds. Tens of millions were persecuted, including senior officials: most notably, president <a href="/wiki/Liu_Shaoqi" title="Liu Shaoqi">Liu Shaoqi</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Deng_Xiaoping" title="Deng Xiaoping">Deng Xiaoping</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peng_Dehuai" title="Peng Dehuai">Peng Dehuai</a>, and <a href="/wiki/He_Long" title="He Long">He Long</a>. Millions were persecuted for being members of the <a href="/wiki/Five_Black_Categories" title="Five Black Categories">Five Black Categories</a>. Intellectuals and scientists were considered to be the <a href="/wiki/Stinking_Old_Ninth" title="Stinking Old Ninth">Stinking Old Ninth</a>, and many were persecuted. The country's schools and universities were closed, and the <a href="/wiki/Gaokao" title="Gaokao">National College Entrance Examination</a> were cancelled. Over 10 million <a href="/wiki/Sent-down_youth" title="Sent-down youth">youth from urban areas</a> were relocated under the <a href="/wiki/Down_to_the_Countryside_Movement" title="Down to the Countryside Movement">Down to the Countryside Movement</a> policy. In December 1978, Deng Xiaoping became the new <a href="/wiki/Paramount_leader" title="Paramount leader">paramount leader of China</a>, replacing Mao's successor <a href="/wiki/Hua_Guofeng" title="Hua Guofeng">Hua Guofeng</a>. Deng and his allies introduced the <a href="/wiki/Boluan_Fanzheng" title="Boluan Fanzheng">Boluan Fanzheng</a> program and initiated <a href="/wiki/Chinese_economic_reform" title="Chinese economic reform">reforms and opening of China</a>, which, together with the <a href="/wiki/New_Enlightenment_(China)" title="New Enlightenment (China)">New Enlightenment movement</a>, gradually dismantled the ideology of Cultural Revolution. In 1981, the Communist Party publicly acknowledged numerous failures of the Cultural Revolution, declaring it "responsible for the most severe setback and the heaviest losses suffered by the people, the country, and the party since the founding of the People's Republic." Given its broad scope and social impact, memories and perspectives of the Cultural Revolution are varied and complex in contemporary China. It is often referred to as the "ten years of chaos" (十年动乱; shí nián dòngluàn) or "ten years of havoc" (十年浩劫; shí nián hàojié).<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cultural_Revolution&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology">edit</a>]</div> The terminology of cultural revolution appeared in communist party discourses and newspapers prior to the founding of the People's Republic of China. During this period, the term was used interchangeably with "cultural construction" and referred to eliminating illiteracy in order to widen public participation in civic matters. This usage of "cultural revolution" continued through the 1950s and into the 1960s, and often involved drawing parallels to the <a href="/wiki/May_Fourth_Movement" title="May Fourth Movement">May Fourth Movement</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution_in_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural Revolution in the Soviet Union">Soviet cultural revolution</a> of 1928–1931.<a href="#cite_note-Thornton2019-4">[4]</a>: 56  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cultural_Revolution&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Background">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Creation_of_the_People's_Republic">Creation of the People's Republic</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cultural_Revolution&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Creation of the People's Republic">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Proclamation of the People's Republic of China">Proclamation of the People's Republic of China</a></div> On 1 October 1949, Mao Zedong declared the People's Republic of China, symbolically bringing the decades-long <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a> to a close. Remaining <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of China">Republican</a> forces fled to <a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Taiwan" title="Geography of Taiwan">Taiwan</a>, and continued to resist the People's Republic in various ways. Many soldiers of the Chinese Republicans were left in mainland China, and Mao Zedong launched the <a href="/wiki/Campaign_to_Suppress_Counterrevolutionaries" title="Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries">Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries</a> to eliminate these soldiers left behind, as well as elements of Chinese society viewed as potentially dangerous to Mao's new government. This was one of the earliest examples of mass arrests, detainments, and killings across all of China that would later be mirrored in the Cultural Revolution. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Great_Leap_Forward">Great Leap Forward</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cultural_Revolution&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Great Leap Forward">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Great_Leap_Forward" title="Great Leap Forward">Great Leap Forward</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Seven_Thousand_Cadres_Conference" title="Seven Thousand Cadres Conference">Seven Thousand Cadres Conference</a></div> The Great Leap Forward, similar to the <a href="/wiki/Five-year_plans_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Five-year plans of the Soviet Union">Five-year plans of the Soviet Union</a>, was Mao Zedong's proposal to make the newly created People's Republic of China an industrial superpower. Beginning in 1958, the Great Leap Forward did produce, at least on the surface, incredible industrialization, but also caused some of the worst famines in modern history, while still falling short of projected goals. The Great Leap Forward soon came to be seen as one of Mao's greatest mistakes, eventually costing him some of his official status in the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Communist Party</a>. <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Great_Leap_Forward" title="Great Leap Forward">Great Leap Forward</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Great_Leap_Forward&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Iron_smelting_in_1958_China,_from-_Backyardfurnace5_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Iron_smelting_in_1958_China%2C_from-_Backyardfurnace5_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Iron_smelting_in_1958_China%2C_from-_Backyardfurnace5_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Iron_smelting_in_1958_China%2C_from-_Backyardfurnace5_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Iron_smelting_in_1958_China%2C_from-_Backyardfurnace5_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Iron_smelting_in_1958_China%2C_from-_Backyardfurnace5_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Iron_smelting_in_1958_China%2C_from-_Backyardfurnace5_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="474" data-file-height="349" /></a><figcaption>Rural workers smelting iron during the nighttime in 1958</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1157919884">.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person{border:4px double #d69d36}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person .sidebar-title{font-size:110%;padding:0;line-height:150%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person-title-image{background-color:#002466;vertical-align:middle;padding:5px}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person-title{background-color:#002466;vertical-align:middle;padding:6px;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person-title>div{font-size:88%;line-height:normal}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person .sidebar-content{padding:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person .sidebar-navbar{text-align:center}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239334494">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1214851843">.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{box-sizing:border-box;width:100%;padding:5px;border:none;font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .hidden-title{font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .hidden-content{text-align:left}@media all and (max-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{width:auto!important;clear:none!important;float:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks sidebar-person vcard hlist" style="border-color: #FFFF00"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><table><tbody><tr> <td class="sidebar-person-title-image" style="background-color:#EE1C25;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/File:Mao_Zedong_in_1965_Color_(4x5_close_cropped).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Mao_Zedong_in_1965_Color_%284x5_close_cropped%29.png/75px-Mao_Zedong_in_1965_Color_%284x5_close_cropped%29.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="94" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Mao_Zedong_in_1965_Color_%284x5_close_cropped%29.png/113px-Mao_Zedong_in_1965_Color_%284x5_close_cropped%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Mao_Zedong_in_1965_Color_%284x5_close_cropped%29.png/150px-Mao_Zedong_in_1965_Color_%284x5_close_cropped%29.png 2x" data-file-width="924" data-file-height="1155" /></a></td> <td class="sidebar-person-title" style="background-color:#EE1C25;color: #FFF;"><div>This article is part of a series about</div><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a></td> </tr></tbody></table></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <hr /> <div class="hidden-begin mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style=""><div class="hidden-title skin-nightmode-reset-color" style="">Personal</div><div class="hidden-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_life_of_Mao_Zedong" title="Early life of Mao Zedong">Early life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Former_Residence_of_Mao_Zedong" title="Former Residence of Mao Zedong">Former Residence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_and_state_funeral_of_Mao_Zedong" title="Death and state funeral of Mao Zedong">Death and state funeral</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chairman_Mao_Memorial_Hall" title="Chairman Mao Memorial Hall">Memorial Hall</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maoism" title="Maoism">Maoism</a></li></ul> </div></div> <hr /> <div class="hidden-begin mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style=""><div class="hidden-title skin-nightmode-reset-color" style="">1st Chairman of the People's Republic of China</div><div class="hidden-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_(1949%E2%80%931976)" title="History of the People's Republic of China (1949–1976)">Tenure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Revolution" title="Chinese Communist Revolution">Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_Reform_Movement" title="Land Reform Movement">Land Reform Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Proclamation of the People's Republic of China">Proclamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_to_Suppress_Counterrevolutionaries" title="Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries">Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-anti_and_Five-anti_Campaigns" title="Three-anti and Five-anti Campaigns">Three-anti and Five-anti Campaigns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_five-year_plan_(China)" title="First five-year plan (China)">First five-year plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Principles_of_Peaceful_Coexistence" title="Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence">Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bandung_Conference" title="Bandung Conference">Bandung Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufan_movement" title="Sufan movement">Sufan movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Flowers_Campaign" title="Hundred Flowers Campaign">Hundred Flowers Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Rightist_Campaign" title="Anti-Rightist Campaign">Anti-Rightist Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canton_Fair" title="Canton Fair">Canton Fair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Leap_Forward" title="Great Leap Forward">Great Leap Forward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Chinese_Famine" title="Great Chinese Famine">Great Chinese Famine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two_Bombs,_One_Satellite" title="Two Bombs, One Satellite">Two Bombs, One Satellite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Thousand_Cadres_Conference" title="Seven Thousand Cadres Conference">Seven Thousand Cadres Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Education_Movement" title="Socialist Education Movement">Socialist Education Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Front_(China)" title="Third Front (China)">Third Front</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Cultural Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UN_General_Assembly_Resolution_2758" class="mw-redirect" title="UN General Assembly Resolution 2758">UN representation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1972_visit_by_Richard_Nixon_to_China" title="1972 visit by Richard Nixon to China">Richard Nixon visit</a></li></ul> </div></div> <hr /> <div class="hidden-begin mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style=""><div class="hidden-title skin-nightmode-reset-color" style="">Works</div><div class="hidden-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bombard_the_Headquarters" title="Bombard the Headquarters">Bombard the Headquarters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Critique_of_Soviet_Economics" title="A Critique of Soviet Economics">A Critique of Soviet Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Contradiction" title="On Contradiction">On Contradiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Guerrilla_Warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="On Guerrilla Warfare">On Guerrilla Warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_New_Democracy" title="On New Democracy">On New Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Practice" title="On Practice">On Practice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Protracted_War" title="On Protracted War">On Protracted War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Correct_Handling_of_Contradictions_Among_the_People" title="On the Correct Handling of Contradictions Among the People">On the Correct Handling of Contradictions Among the People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_People%27s_Democratic_Dictatorship" title="On the People's Democratic Dictatorship">On the People's Democratic Dictatorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oppose_Book_Worship" title="Oppose Book Worship">Oppose Book Worship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quotations_from_Chairman_Mao_Tse-tung" title="Quotations from Chairman Mao Tse-tung">Quotations from Chairman Mao Tse-tung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reply_to_Li_Shuyi" title="Reply to Li Shuyi">Reply to Li Shuyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Report_on_an_Investigation_of_the_Peasant_Movement_in_Hunan" title="Report on an Investigation of the Peasant Movement in Hunan">Report on an Investigation of the Peasant Movement in Hunan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selected_Works_of_Mao_Tse-Tung" title="Selected Works of Mao Tse-Tung">Selected Works of Mao Tse-Tung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Shian_Kian_Weekly_Review" title="The Shian Kian Weekly Review">The Shian Kian Weekly Review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ten_Major_Relationships" title="Ten Major Relationships">Ten Major Relationships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poetry_of_Mao_Zedong" title="Poetry of Mao Zedong">Poetry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Changsha_(poem)" title="Changsha (poem)">Changsha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Double_Ninth" title="The Double Ninth">The Double Ninth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loushan_Pass" title="Loushan Pass">Loushan Pass</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></div> <hr /> <div class="hidden-begin mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style=""><div class="hidden-title skin-nightmode-reset-color" style="">Legacy</div><div class="hidden-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong%27s_cult_of_personality" title="Mao Zedong's cult of personality">Cult of personality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chairman_Mao_en_route_to_Anyuan" title="Chairman Mao en route to Anyuan">Chairman Mao en route to Anyuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portraits_overlooking_Tiananmen" title="Portraits overlooking Tiananmen">Portraits overlooking Tiananmen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1989_Mao_portrait_vandalism_incident" title="1989 Mao portrait vandalism incident">1989 vandalism incident</a></li></ul></li> <li>Statues <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Young_Mao_Zedong_statue" title="Young Mao Zedong statue">Young</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Mao_Zedong,_Fuzhou" title="Statue of Mao Zedong, Fuzhou">Fuzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Mao_Zedong,_Chengdu" title="Statue of Mao Zedong, Chengdu">Chengdu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_Live_the_Victory_of_Mao_Zedong_Thought" title="Long Live the Victory of Mao Zedong Thought">Long Live the Victory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memorial_for_Chairman_Mao%27s_inspection_of_the_North_Park_Commune" title="Memorial for Chairman Mao's inspection of the North Park Commune">North Park Commune inspection</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></div> <hr /> <div class="skin-invert-image"><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong's signature"><img alt="Mao Zedong's signature" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Mao_Zedong_signature.svg/90px-Mao_Zedong_signature.svg.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="32" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Mao_Zedong_signature.svg/135px-Mao_Zedong_signature.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Mao_Zedong_signature.svg/180px-Mao_Zedong_signature.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="263" data-file-height="94" /></a></div> <a href="/wiki/File:National_Emblem_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_(2).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/National_Emblem_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_%282%29.svg/40px-National_Emblem_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_%282%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="43" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/National_Emblem_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_%282%29.svg/60px-National_Emblem_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_%282%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/National_Emblem_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_%282%29.svg/80px-National_Emblem_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_%282%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="976" /></a></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Mao_Zedong_series" title="Template:Mao Zedong series"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Mao_Zedong_series&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:Mao Zedong series (page does not exist)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Mao_Zedong_series" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Mao Zedong series"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> The Great Leap Forward stemmed from multiple factors, including "the purge of intellectuals, the surge of less-educated radicals, the need to find new ways to generate domestic capital, rising enthusiasm about the potential results mass mobilization might produce, and reaction against the sociopolitical results of the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet</a>'s development strategy."&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(June_2024)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELieberthal2003[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_June_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(June_2024)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;-5">[5]</a> Mao ambitiously sought an increase in rural grain production and an increase in industrial activity. Mao was dismissive of technical experts and basic economic principles, which meant that industrialization of the countryside would solely be dependent on the peasants. Grain quotas were introduced with the idea of having peasants provide grains for themselves and support urban areas. Output from the industrial activities such as steel was also supposed to be used for urban growth.&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(June_2024)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELieberthal2003[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_June_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(June_2024)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;-5">[5]</a> Local officials were fearful of <a href="/wiki/Anti-Rightist_Campaign" title="Anti-Rightist Campaign">Anti-Rightist Campaigns</a> and they competed to fulfill or over-fulfill quotas which were based on Mao's exaggerated claims, collecting non-existent "surpluses" and leaving farmers to starve to death. Higher officials did not dare to report the economic disaster which was being caused by these policies, and national officials, blaming bad weather for the decline in food output, took little or no action.</div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Impact_of_international_tensions_and_anti-revisionism">Impact of international tensions and anti-revisionism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cultural_Revolution&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Impact of international tensions and anti-revisionism">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_split" title="Sino-Soviet split">Sino-Soviet split</a></div> In the early 1950s, the PRC and the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> (USSR) were the world's two largest communist states. Although initially they were mutually supportive, disagreements arose after <a href="/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev" title="Nikita Khrushchev">Nikita Khrushchev</a> took power in the USSR. In 1956, Khrushchev <a href="/wiki/On_the_Cult_of_Personality_and_Its_Consequences" title="On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences">denounced his predecessor Josef Stalin and his policies</a>, and began implementing <a href="/wiki/Khrushchev_Thaw" title="Khrushchev Thaw">economic reforms</a>. Mao and many other CCP members opposed these changes, believing that they would damage the worldwide communist movement.<a href="#cite_note-Mac-6">[6]</a>: 4–7  Mao believed that Khrushchev was a <a href="/wiki/Revisionism_(Marxism)" title="Revisionism (Marxism)">revisionist</a>, altering <a href="/wiki/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism" title="Marxism–Leninism">Marxist–Leninist</a> concepts, which Mao claimed would give capitalists control of the USSR. Relations soured. The USSR refused to support China's case for joining the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> and reneged on its pledge to supply China with a nuclear weapon.<a href="#cite_note-Mac-6">[6]</a>: 4–7  Mao publicly denounced revisionism in April 1960. Without pointing at the USSR, Mao criticized its Balkan ally, the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Communists_of_Yugoslavia" title="League of Communists of Yugoslavia">League of Communists of Yugoslavia</a>. In turn, the USSR criticized China's Balkan ally, the <a href="/wiki/Party_of_Labour_of_Albania" title="Party of Labour of Albania">Party of Labour of Albania</a>. In 1963, CCP began to denounce the USSR, publishing nine polemics. One was titled On Khrushchev's Phoney Communism and Historical Lessons for the World, in which Mao charged that Khrushchev was a revisionist and risked capitalist restoration. Khrushchev's defeat by an internal <a href="/wiki/Coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="Coup d'état">coup d'état</a> in 1964 contributed to Mao's fears, mainly because of his declining prestige after the Great Leap Forward.<a href="#cite_note-Mac-6">[6]</a>: 7  Other Soviet actions increased concerns about potential <a href="/wiki/Fifth_columnists" class="mw-redirect" title="Fifth columnists">fifth columnists</a>. As a result of the tensions following the Sino-Soviet split, Soviet leaders authorized radio broadcasts into China stating that the Soviet Union would assist "genuine communists" who overthrew Mao and his "erroneous course".<a href="#cite_note-Meyskens2020-7">[7]</a>: 141  Chinese leadership also feared the increasing military conflict between the United States and <a href="/wiki/North_Vietnam" title="North Vietnam">North Vietnam</a>, concerned that China's support would lead to the United States to seek out potential Chinese assets.<a href="#cite_note-Meyskens2020-7">[7]</a>: 141  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Precursor">Precursor</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cultural_Revolution&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Precursor">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Socialist_Education_Movement" title="Socialist Education Movement">Socialist Education Movement</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hai_Rui_Dismissed_from_Office" title="Hai Rui Dismissed from Office">Hai Rui Dismissed from Office</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Luo_Ruiqing.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Luo_Ruiqing.jpg/170px-Luo_Ruiqing.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="247" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Luo_Ruiqing.jpg/255px-Luo_Ruiqing.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/62/Luo_Ruiqing.jpg 2x" data-file-width="275" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption>The purge of General <a href="/wiki/Luo_Ruiqing" title="Luo Ruiqing">Luo Ruiqing</a> solidified the PLA's loyalty to Mao</figcaption></figure> In 1963, Mao launched the <a href="/wiki/Socialist_Education_Movement" title="Socialist Education Movement">Socialist Education Movement</a>, the Cultural Revolution's precursor.<a href="#cite_note-Baum-1969-8">[8]</a> Mao set the scene by "<a href="/wiki/Purge" title="Purge">cleansing</a>" powerful Beijing officials of questionable loyalty. His approach was not transparent, executed via newspaper articles, internal meetings, and by his network of political allies.<a href="#cite_note-Baum-1969-8">[8]</a> In late 1959, historian and deputy mayor of Beijing <a href="/wiki/Wu_Han_(historian)" title="Wu Han (historian)">Wu Han</a> published a historical drama entitled <a href="/wiki/Hai_Rui_Dismissed_from_Office" title="Hai Rui Dismissed from Office">Hai Rui Dismissed from Office</a>. In the play, an honest <a href="/wiki/Civil_servant" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil servant">civil servant</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hai_Rui" title="Hai Rui">Hai Rui</a>, is dismissed by a corrupt emperor. While Mao initially praised the play, in February 1965, he secretly commissioned his wife <a href="/wiki/Jiang_Qing" title="Jiang Qing">Jiang Qing</a> and Shanghai propagandist <a href="/wiki/Yao_Wenyuan" title="Yao Wenyuan">Yao Wenyuan</a> to publish an article criticizing it. Yao described the play as an allegory attacking Mao; flagging Mao as the emperor, and Peng Dehuai, who had previously questioned Mao during the <a href="/wiki/Lushan_Conference" title="Lushan Conference">Lushan Conference</a>, as the honest civil servant.<a href="#cite_note-Mac-6">[6]</a>: 15–18  Yao's article put Beijing mayor <a href="/wiki/Peng_Zhen" title="Peng Zhen">Peng Zhen</a> on the defensive. Peng, Wu Han's direct superior, was the head of the <a href="/wiki/Five_Man_Group" title="Five Man Group">Five Man Group</a>, a committee commissioned by Mao to study the potential for a cultural revolution. Peng Zhen, aware that he would be implicated if Wu indeed wrote an "anti-Mao" play, wished to contain Yao's influence. Yao's article was initially published only in select local newspapers. Peng forbade its publication in the nationally distributed <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Daily" title="People's Daily">People's Daily</a> and other major newspapers under his control, instructing them to write exclusively about "academic discussion", and not pay heed to Yao's petty politics.<a href="#cite_note-Mac-6">[6]</a>: 14–19  While the "literary battle" against Peng raged, Mao fired <a href="/wiki/Yang_Shangkun" title="Yang Shangkun">Yang Shangkun</a>—director of the <a href="/wiki/General_Office_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="General Office of the Chinese Communist Party">party's General Office</a>, an organ that controlled internal communications—making unsubstantiated charges. He installed loyalist <a href="/wiki/Wang_Dongxing" title="Wang Dongxing">Wang Dongxing</a>, head of Mao's security detail. Yang's dismissal likely emboldened Mao's allies to move against their factional rivals.<a href="#cite_note-Mac-6">[6]</a>: 14–19  On 12 February 1966, the "Five Man Group" issued a report known as the February Outline. The Outline as sanctioned by the party center defined Hai Rui as a constructive academic discussion and aimed to distance Peng Zhen formally from any political implications. However, Jiang Qing and Yao Wenyuan continued their denunciations. Meanwhile, Mao sacked <a href="/wiki/Propaganda_Department_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="Propaganda Department of the Chinese Communist Party">Propaganda Department</a> director <a href="/wiki/Lu_Dingyi" title="Lu Dingyi">Lu Dingyi</a>, a Peng ally.<a href="#cite_note-Mac-6">[6]</a>: 20–27  Lu's removal gave Maoists unrestricted access to the press. Mao delivered his final blow to Peng at a high-profile Politburo meeting through loyalists <a href="/wiki/Kang_Sheng" title="Kang Sheng">Kang Sheng</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chen_Boda" title="Chen Boda">Chen Boda</a>. They accused Peng of opposing Mao, labeled the February Outline "evidence of Peng Zhen's revisionism", and grouped him with three other disgraced officials as part of the "Peng-Luo-Lu-Yang Anti-Party Clique".<a href="#cite_note-Mac-6">[6]</a>: 20–27  On 16 May, the Politburo formalized the decisions by releasing an official document condemning Peng and his "anti-party allies" in the strongest terms, disbanding his "Five Man Group", and replacing it with the Maoist Cultural Revolution Group (CRG).<a href="#cite_note-Mac-6">[6]</a>: 27–35  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Outbreak_(1966)">Outbreak (1966)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cultural_Revolution&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Outbreak (1966)">edit</a>]</div> The Cultural Revolution can be divided into two main periods: <ul><li>spring 1966 to summer 1968 (when most of the key events took place)</li> <li>a tailing period that lasted until fall 1976<a href="#cite_note-Russo-2020a-9">[9]</a></li></ul> The early phase was characterized by mass movement and political pluralization. Virtually anyone could create a political organization, even without party approval. Known as Red Guards, these organizations originally arose in schools and universities and later in factories and other institutions. After 1968, most of these organizations ceased to exist, although their legacies were a topic of controversy later.<a href="#cite_note-Russo-2020a-9">[9]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notification">Notification</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cultural_Revolution&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Notification">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/16_May_Notification" title="16 May Notification">16 May Notification</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E4%BA%BA%E6%B0%91%E6%97%A5%E6%8A%A5516.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/%E4%BA%BA%E6%B0%91%E6%97%A5%E6%8A%A5516.jpg/250px-%E4%BA%BA%E6%B0%91%E6%97%A5%E6%8A%A5516.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="236" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/%E4%BA%BA%E6%B0%91%E6%97%A5%E6%8A%A5516.jpg/375px-%E4%BA%BA%E6%B0%91%E6%97%A5%E6%8A%A5516.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/%E4%BA%BA%E6%B0%91%E6%97%A5%E6%8A%A5516.jpg/500px-%E4%BA%BA%E6%B0%91%E6%97%A5%E6%8A%A5516.jpg 2x" data-file-width="812" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>The 16 May Notification</figcaption></figure> In May 1966, an expanded session of the <a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Politburo of the Chinese Communist Party">Politburo</a> was called in Beijing. The conference was laden with Maoist political rhetoric on <a href="/wiki/Class_struggle" class="mw-redirect" title="Class struggle">class struggle</a> and filled with meticulously prepared 'indictments' of recently ousted leaders such as Peng Zhen and <a href="/wiki/Luo_Ruiqing" title="Luo Ruiqing">Luo Ruiqing</a>. One of these documents, distributed on 16 May, was prepared with Mao's personal supervision and was particularly damning:<a href="#cite_note-Mac-6">[6]</a>: 39–40  <blockquote>Those representatives of the bourgeoisie who have sneaked into the Party, the government, the army, and various spheres of culture are a bunch of counter-revolutionary revisionists. Once conditions are ripe, they will seize political power and turn the <a href="/wiki/Dictatorship_of_the_proletariat" title="Dictatorship of the proletariat">dictatorship of the proletariat</a> into a dictatorship of the bourgeoisie. Some of them we have already seen through; others we have not. Some are still trusted by us and are being trained as our successors, persons like Khrushchev for example, who are still nestling beside us.<a href="#cite_note-Mac-6">[6]</a>: 47 </blockquote> Later known as the "16 May Notification", this document summarized Mao's ideological justification for CR.<a href="#cite_note-Mac-6">[6]</a>: 40  Initially kept secret, distributed only among high-ranking party members, it was later declassified and published in <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Daily" title="People's Daily">People's Daily</a> on 17 May 1967.<a href="#cite_note-Mac-6">[6]</a>: 41  Effectively it implied that enemies of the Communist cause could be found within the Party: class enemies who "wave the red flag to oppose the red flag." The only way to identify these people was through "the telescope and microscope of <a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong_Thought" class="mw-redirect" title="Mao Zedong Thought">Mao Zedong Thought</a>."<a href="#cite_note-Mac-6">[6]</a>: 46  While the party leadership was relatively united in approving Mao's agenda, many Politburo members were not enthusiastic, or simply confused about the direction.<a href="#cite_note-Nianyi-10">[10]</a>: 13  The charges against party leaders such as Peng disturbed China's intellectual community and the <a href="/wiki/United_Front_(China)" class="mw-redirect" title="United Front (China)">eight non-Communist parties</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Mac-6">[6]</a>: 41  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mass_rallies_(May–June)">Mass rallies (May–June)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cultural_Revolution&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Mass rallies (May–June)">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1966-08_1966%E5%B9%B4%E6%A8%AA%E6%89%AB%E4%B8%80%E5%88%87%E7%89%9B%E9%AC%BC%E8%9B%87%E7%A5%9E.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/1966-08_1966%E5%B9%B4%E6%A8%AA%E6%89%AB%E4%B8%80%E5%88%87%E7%89%9B%E9%AC%BC%E8%9B%87%E7%A5%9E.jpg/220px-1966-08_1966%E5%B9%B4%E6%A8%AA%E6%89%AB%E4%B8%80%E5%88%87%E7%89%9B%E9%AC%BC%E8%9B%87%E7%A5%9E.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/1966-08_1966%E5%B9%B4%E6%A8%AA%E6%89%AB%E4%B8%80%E5%88%87%E7%89%9B%E9%AC%BC%E8%9B%87%E7%A5%9E.jpg/330px-1966-08_1966%E5%B9%B4%E6%A8%AA%E6%89%AB%E4%B8%80%E5%88%87%E7%89%9B%E9%AC%BC%E8%9B%87%E7%A5%9E.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/1966-08_1966%E5%B9%B4%E6%A8%AA%E6%89%AB%E4%B8%80%E5%88%87%E7%89%9B%E9%AC%BC%E8%9B%87%E7%A5%9E.jpg/440px-1966-08_1966%E5%B9%B4%E6%A8%AA%E6%89%AB%E4%B8%80%E5%88%87%E7%89%9B%E9%AC%BC%E8%9B%87%E7%A5%9E.jpg 2x" data-file-width="921" data-file-height="568" /></a><figcaption>"<a href="/wiki/Sweep_Away_All_Cow_Demons_and_Snake_Spirits" title="Sweep Away All Cow Demons and Snake Spirits">Sweep Away All Cow Demons and Snake Spirits</a>", an editorial published on the front page of <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Daily" title="People's Daily">People's Daily</a> on 1 June 1966, calling for the proletariat to "completely eradicate" the "<a href="/wiki/Four_Olds" title="Four Olds">Four Olds</a> [...] that have poisoned the people of China for thousands of years, fostered by the exploiting classes".<a href="#cite_note-Gao1987-11">[11]</a>: 50 </figcaption></figure> After the purge of Peng Zhen, the Beijing Party Committee effectively ceased to function, paving the way for disorder in the capital. On 25 May, under the guidance of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Cao_Yi%27ou&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cao Yi'ou (page does not exist)">Cao Yi'ou</a> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9B%B9%E8%BD%B6%E6%AC%A7" class="extiw" title="zh:曹轶欧">zh</a>]—wife of Mao loyalist Kang Sheng—<a href="/wiki/Nie_Yuanzi" title="Nie Yuanzi">Nie Yuanzi</a>, a philosophy lecturer at <a href="/wiki/Peking_University" title="Peking University">Peking University</a>, authored a <a href="/wiki/Big-character_poster" title="Big-character poster">big-character poster</a> along with other leftists and posted it to a public bulletin. Nie attacked the university's party administration and its leader Lu Ping. Nie insinuated that the university leadership, much like Peng, were trying to contain revolutionary fervor in a "sinister" attempt to oppose the party and advance revisionism.<a href="#cite_note-Mac-6">[6]</a>: 56–58  Mao promptly endorsed Nie's poster as "the first Marxist big-character poster in China". Approved by Mao, the poster rippled across educational institutions. Students began to revolt against their school's party establishments. Classes were cancelled in Beijing primary and secondary schools, followed by a decision on 13 June to expand the class suspension nationwide. By early June, throngs of young demonstrators lined the capital's major thoroughfares holding giant portraits of Mao, beating drums, and shouting slogans.<a href="#cite_note-Mac-6">[6]</a>: 59–61  When the dismissal of Peng and the municipal party leadership became public in early June, confusion was widespread. The public and foreign missions were kept in the dark on the reason for Peng's ousting. Top Party leadership was caught off guard by the sudden protest wave and struggled with how to respond. After seeking Mao's guidance in <a href="/wiki/Hangzhou" title="Hangzhou">Hangzhou</a>, Liu Shaoqi and <a href="/wiki/Deng_Xiaoping" title="Deng Xiaoping">Deng Xiaoping</a> decided to send in 'work teams'—effectively 'ideological guidance' squads of cadres—to the city's schools and People's Daily to restore some semblance of order and re-establish party control.<a href="#cite_note-Mac-6">[6]</a>: 62–64  The work teams had a poor understanding of student sentiment. Unlike the political movement of the 1950s that squarely targeted intellectuals, the new movement was focused on established party cadres, many of whom were part of the work teams. As a result, the work teams came under increasing suspicion as thwarting revolutionary fervor.<a href="#cite_note-Mac-6">[6]</a>: 71  Party leadership subsequently became divided over whether or not work teams should continue. Liu Shaoqi insisted on continuing work-team involvement and suppressing the movement's most radical elements, fearing that the movement would spin out of control.<a href="#cite_note-Mac-6">[6]</a>: 75  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bombard_the_Headquarters_(July)">Bombard the Headquarters (July)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cultural_Revolution&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Bombard the Headquarters (July)">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:232px;max-width:232px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Mao–Liu conflict</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:114px;max-width:114px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:149px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:1968-01_1968%E5%B9%B4_%E6%AF%9B%E6%B3%BD%E4%B8%9C.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Mao Zedong, Chairman" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/1968-01_1968%E5%B9%B4_%E6%AF%9B%E6%B3%BD%E4%B8%9C.jpg/112px-1968-01_1968%E5%B9%B4_%E6%AF%9B%E6%B3%BD%E4%B8%9C.jpg" decoding="async" width="112" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/1968-01_1968%E5%B9%B4_%E6%AF%9B%E6%B3%BD%E4%B8%9C.jpg/168px-1968-01_1968%E5%B9%B4_%E6%AF%9B%E6%B3%BD%E4%B8%9C.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/1968-01_1968%E5%B9%B4_%E6%AF%9B%E6%B3%BD%E4%B8%9C.jpg/224px-1968-01_1968%E5%B9%B4_%E6%AF%9B%E6%B3%BD%E4%B8%9C.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1535" data-file-height="2060" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:114px;max-width:114px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:149px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:LiuShaoqi_Colour.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Liu Shaoqi, President" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/LiuShaoqi_Colour.jpg/112px-LiuShaoqi_Colour.jpg" decoding="async" width="112" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/LiuShaoqi_Colour.jpg/168px-LiuShaoqi_Colour.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/LiuShaoqi_Colour.jpg/224px-LiuShaoqi_Colour.jpg 2x" data-file-width="336" data-file-height="448" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">In 1966, Mao broke with <a href="/wiki/Liu_Shaoqi" title="Liu Shaoqi">Liu Shaoqi</a> (right), then serving as <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="President of the People's Republic of China">President</a>, over the work-teams issue. Mao's polemic <a href="/wiki/Bombard_the_Headquarters" title="Bombard the Headquarters">Bombard the Headquarters</a> was widely recognized as targeting Liu, the purported "bourgeois" party headquarters</div></div></div></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1966-10_1966%E5%B9%B4%E6%AF%9B%E6%B3%BD%E4%B8%9C%E6%B8%B8%E9%95%BF%E6%B1%9F2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/1966-10_1966%E5%B9%B4%E6%AF%9B%E6%B3%BD%E4%B8%9C%E6%B8%B8%E9%95%BF%E6%B1%9F2.jpg/230px-1966-10_1966%E5%B9%B4%E6%AF%9B%E6%B3%BD%E4%B8%9C%E6%B8%B8%E9%95%BF%E6%B1%9F2.jpg" decoding="async" width="230" height="299" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/1966-10_1966%E5%B9%B4%E6%AF%9B%E6%B3%BD%E4%B8%9C%E6%B8%B8%E9%95%BF%E6%B1%9F2.jpg/345px-1966-10_1966%E5%B9%B4%E6%AF%9B%E6%B3%BD%E4%B8%9C%E6%B8%B8%E9%95%BF%E6%B1%9F2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/60/1966-10_1966%E5%B9%B4%E6%AF%9B%E6%B3%BD%E4%B8%9C%E6%B8%B8%E9%95%BF%E6%B1%9F2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="445" data-file-height="578" /></a><figcaption>Mao waves to the crowd on the banks of the Yangtze before his swim across, July 1966</figcaption></figure> In July, Mao, in Wuhan, crossed the Yangtze River, showing his vigor. He then returned from Wuhan to Beijing and criticized party leadership for its handling of the work-teams issue. Mao accused the work teams of undermining the student movement, calling for their full withdrawal on 24 July. Several days later a rally was held at the <a href="/wiki/Great_Hall_of_the_People" title="Great Hall of the People">Great Hall of the People</a> to announce the decision and reveal the tone of the movement to teachers and students. At the rally, Party leaders encouraged the masses to 'not be afraid' and take charge of the movement, free of Party interference.<a href="#cite_note-Mac-6">[6]</a>: 81–84  The work-teams issue marked a decisive defeat for Liu; it also signaled that disagreement over how to handle the CR's unfolding events would irreversibly split Mao from the party leadership. On 1 August, the Eleventh Plenum of the <a href="/wiki/8th_Central_Committee_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="8th Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party">8th Central Committee</a> was convened to advance Mao's radical agenda. At the plenum, Mao showed disdain for Liu, repeatedly interrupting him as he delivered his opening day speech.<a href="#cite_note-Mac-6">[6]</a>: 94 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tnone center"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:740px;max-width:740px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader" style="text-align:center">Red Guards in Beijing</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:236px;max-width:236px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:1967-11_1967%E5%B9%B4_%E5%8C%97%E4%BA%AC%E5%B8%88%E8%8C%83%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%A6%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%97%E6%8A%A5%E6%89%B9%E8%AF%84%E5%88%98%E5%B0%91%E5%A5%87.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/1967-11_1967%E5%B9%B4_%E5%8C%97%E4%BA%AC%E5%B8%88%E8%8C%83%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%A6%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%97%E6%8A%A5%E6%89%B9%E8%AF%84%E5%88%98%E5%B0%91%E5%A5%87.jpg/234px-1967-11_1967%E5%B9%B4_%E5%8C%97%E4%BA%AC%E5%B8%88%E8%8C%83%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%A6%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%97%E6%8A%A5%E6%89%B9%E8%AF%84%E5%88%98%E5%B0%91%E5%A5%87.jpg" decoding="async" width="234" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/1967-11_1967%E5%B9%B4_%E5%8C%97%E4%BA%AC%E5%B8%88%E8%8C%83%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%A6%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%97%E6%8A%A5%E6%89%B9%E8%AF%84%E5%88%98%E5%B0%91%E5%A5%87.jpg/351px-1967-11_1967%E5%B9%B4_%E5%8C%97%E4%BA%AC%E5%B8%88%E8%8C%83%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%A6%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%97%E6%8A%A5%E6%89%B9%E8%AF%84%E5%88%98%E5%B0%91%E5%A5%87.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/1967-11_1967%E5%B9%B4_%E5%8C%97%E4%BA%AC%E5%B8%88%E8%8C%83%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%A6%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%97%E6%8A%A5%E6%89%B9%E8%AF%84%E5%88%98%E5%B0%91%E5%A5%87.jpg/468px-1967-11_1967%E5%B9%B4_%E5%8C%97%E4%BA%AC%E5%B8%88%E8%8C%83%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%A6%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%97%E6%8A%A5%E6%89%B9%E8%AF%84%E5%88%98%E5%B0%91%E5%A5%87.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1337" data-file-height="913" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:194px;max-width:194px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:1967-11_1967%E5%B9%B4_%E5%8C%97%E4%BA%AC%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%A6%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%97%E6%8A%A5.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/1967-11_1967%E5%B9%B4_%E5%8C%97%E4%BA%AC%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%A6%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%97%E6%8A%A5.jpg/192px-1967-11_1967%E5%B9%B4_%E5%8C%97%E4%BA%AC%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%A6%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%97%E6%8A%A5.jpg" decoding="async" width="192" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/1967-11_1967%E5%B9%B4_%E5%8C%97%E4%BA%AC%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%A6%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%97%E6%8A%A5.jpg/288px-1967-11_1967%E5%B9%B4_%E5%8C%97%E4%BA%AC%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%A6%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%97%E6%8A%A5.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/1967-11_1967%E5%B9%B4_%E5%8C%97%E4%BA%AC%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%A6%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%97%E6%8A%A5.jpg/384px-1967-11_1967%E5%B9%B4_%E5%8C%97%E4%BA%AC%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%A6%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%97%E6%8A%A5.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1204" data-file-height="1005" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:304px;max-width:304px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:1968-02_1967%E5%B9%B4_%E5%8C%97%E4%BA%AC%E4%BA%8C%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%AD%E5%A4%8D%E8%AF%BE%E9%97%B9%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/1968-02_1967%E5%B9%B4_%E5%8C%97%E4%BA%AC%E4%BA%8C%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%AD%E5%A4%8D%E8%AF%BE%E9%97%B9%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD.jpg/302px-1968-02_1967%E5%B9%B4_%E5%8C%97%E4%BA%AC%E4%BA%8C%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%AD%E5%A4%8D%E8%AF%BE%E9%97%B9%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD.jpg" decoding="async" width="302" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/1968-02_1967%E5%B9%B4_%E5%8C%97%E4%BA%AC%E4%BA%8C%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%AD%E5%A4%8D%E8%AF%BE%E9%97%B9%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD.jpg/453px-1968-02_1967%E5%B9%B4_%E5%8C%97%E4%BA%AC%E4%BA%8C%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%AD%E5%A4%8D%E8%AF%BE%E9%97%B9%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/1968-02_1967%E5%B9%B4_%E5%8C%97%E4%BA%AC%E4%BA%8C%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%AD%E5%A4%8D%E8%AF%BE%E9%97%B9%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD.jpg/604px-1968-02_1967%E5%B9%B4_%E5%8C%97%E4%BA%AC%E4%BA%8C%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%AD%E5%A4%8D%E8%AF%BE%E9%97%B9%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2029" data-file-height="1074" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">From left: (1) Students at <a href="/wiki/Beijing_Normal_University" title="Beijing Normal University">Beijing Normal University</a> making big-character posters denouncing <a href="/wiki/Liu_Shaoqi" title="Liu Shaoqi">Liu Shaoqi</a>; (2) Big-characters posted at <a href="/wiki/Peking_University" title="Peking University">Peking University</a>; (3) Students at No. 23 Middle School in Beijing reading <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Daily" title="People's Daily">People's Daily</a> during the "Resume Classes" campaign</div></div></div></div> On 28 July, <a href="/wiki/Red_Guards" title="Red Guards">Red Guard</a> representatives wrote to Mao, calling for rebellion and upheaval to safeguard the revolution. Mao then responded to the letters by writing his own big-character poster entitled <a href="/wiki/Bombard_the_Headquarters" title="Bombard the Headquarters">Bombard the Headquarters</a>, rallying people to target the "command centre (i.e., Headquarters) of counterrevolution." Mao wrote that despite having undergone a communist revolution, a "bourgeois" elite was still thriving in "positions of authority" in the government and Party.<a href="#cite_note-Tang-12">[12]</a> Although no names were mentioned, this provocative statement has been interpreted as a direct indictment of the party establishment under Liu and Deng—the purported "bourgeois headquarters" of China. The personnel changes at the Plenum reflected a radical re-design of the party hierarchy. Liu and Deng kept their seats on the Politburo Standing Committee, but were sidelined from day-to-day party affairs. Lin Biao was elevated to become the CCP's number-two; Liu's rank went from second to eighth and was no longer Mao's heir apparent.<a href="#cite_note-Tang-12">[12]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Guangmei_cultural_revolution.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Guangmei_cultural_revolution.jpg/220px-Guangmei_cultural_revolution.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Guangmei_cultural_revolution.jpg/330px-Guangmei_cultural_revolution.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Guangmei_cultural_revolution.jpg/440px-Guangmei_cultural_revolution.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="438" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Struggle_session" title="Struggle session">struggle session</a> targeting Liu Shaoqi's wife <a href="/wiki/Wang_Guangmei" title="Wang Guangmei">Wang Guangmei</a></figcaption></figure> Along with the top leadership losing power the entire national Party bureaucracy was purged. The extensive <a href="/wiki/Organization_Department_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Organization Department of the Chinese Communist Party">Organization Department</a>, in charge of party personnel, virtually ceased to exist. The top officials in the Propaganda Department were sacked, with many of its functions folded into the CRG.<a href="#cite_note-Mac-6">[6]</a>: 96  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Red_August_and_the_Sixteen_Points">Red August and the Sixteen Points</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cultural_Revolution&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Red August and the Sixteen Points">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Red_August" title="Red August">Red August</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1966-11_1966%E5%B9%B4%E6%AF%9B%E6%B3%BD%E4%B8%9C%E6%9E%97%E5%BD%AA%E4%B8%8E%E7%BA%A2%E5%8D%AB%E5%85%B5.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/1966-11_1966%E5%B9%B4%E6%AF%9B%E6%B3%BD%E4%B8%9C%E6%9E%97%E5%BD%AA%E4%B8%8E%E7%BA%A2%E5%8D%AB%E5%85%B5.jpg/180px-1966-11_1966%E5%B9%B4%E6%AF%9B%E6%B3%BD%E4%B8%9C%E6%9E%97%E5%BD%AA%E4%B8%8E%E7%BA%A2%E5%8D%AB%E5%85%B5.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="331" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/1966-11_1966%E5%B9%B4%E6%AF%9B%E6%B3%BD%E4%B8%9C%E6%9E%97%E5%BD%AA%E4%B8%8E%E7%BA%A2%E5%8D%AB%E5%85%B5.jpg/270px-1966-11_1966%E5%B9%B4%E6%AF%9B%E6%B3%BD%E4%B8%9C%E6%9E%97%E5%BD%AA%E4%B8%8E%E7%BA%A2%E5%8D%AB%E5%85%B5.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/1966-11_1966%E5%B9%B4%E6%AF%9B%E6%B3%BD%E4%B8%9C%E6%9E%97%E5%BD%AA%E4%B8%8E%E7%BA%A2%E5%8D%AB%E5%85%B5.jpg/360px-1966-11_1966%E5%B9%B4%E6%AF%9B%E6%B3%BD%E4%B8%9C%E6%9E%97%E5%BD%AA%E4%B8%8E%E7%BA%A2%E5%8D%AB%E5%85%B5.jpg 2x" data-file-width="613" data-file-height="1127" /></a><figcaption>Mao and <a href="/wiki/Lin_Biao" title="Lin Biao">Lin Biao</a> surrounded by rallying Red Guards in Beijing, December 1966</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Quotations_from_Chairman_Mao_Tse-tung" title="Quotations from Chairman Mao Tse-tung">Little Red Book</a> was the mechanism that led the Red Guards to commit to their objective as China's future. Quotes directly from Mao led to actions by the Red Guards in the views of other Maoist leaders.<a href="#cite_note-Mac-6">[6]</a>: 107  By December 1967, 350 million copies had been printed.<a href="#cite_note-Lu-13">[13]</a>: 61–64  One of these quotes was the famous line "<a href="/wiki/Political_power_grows_out_of_the_barrel_of_a_gun" title="Political power grows out of the barrel of a gun">Political power grows out of the barrel of a gun</a>." The passage continues: <blockquote>Revolutionary war is an antitoxin which not only eliminates the enemy's poison but also purges us of our filth. Every just, revolutionary war is endowed with tremendous power and can transform many things or clear the way for their transformation. The Sino-Japanese war will transform both China and Japan; Provided China perseveres in the War of Resistance and in the united front, the old Japan will surely be transformed into a new Japan and the old China into a new China, and people and everything else in both China and Japan will be transformed during and after the war. The world is yours, as well as ours, but in the last analysis, it is yours. You young people, full of vigor and vitality, are in the bloom of life, like the sun at eight or nine in the morning. Our hope is placed on you ... The world belongs to you. China's future belongs to you.</blockquote>During the Red August of Beijing, on 8 August 1966, the <a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party">party's General Committee</a> passed its "Decision Concerning the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution," later to be known as the "Sixteen Points". This decision defined the Cultural Revolution as "a great revolution that touches people to their very souls and constitutes a new stage in the development of the socialist revolution in our country:"<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mac-6">[6]</a>: 92–93 <blockquote> Although the bourgeoisie has been overthrown, it is still trying to use the old ideas, culture, customs and habits of the exploiting classes to corrupt the masses, capture their minds and endeavour to stage a comeback. The proletariat must do the exact opposite: it must meet head-on every challenge of the bourgeoisie ... to change the mental outlook of the whole of society. At present, our objective is to struggle against and overthrow those persons in authority who are taking the capitalist road, to criticize and repudiate the reactionary bourgeois academic "authorities" and the ideology of the bourgeoisie and all other exploiting classes and to transform education, literature and art and all other parts of the superstructure not in correspondence with the socialist economic base, so as to facilitate the consolidation and development of the socialist system.</blockquote> The implications of the Sixteen Points were far-reaching. It elevated what was previously a student movement to a nationwide mass campaign that would galvanize workers, farmers, soldiers and lower-level party functionaries to rise, challenge authority, and re-shape the <a href="/wiki/Superstructure_(Marxism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Superstructure (Marxism)">superstructure</a> of society. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1966-11_1966%E5%B9%B49%E6%9C%8815%E6%97%A5%E5%A4%A9%E5%AE%89%E9%97%A8%E6%B8%B8%E8%A1%8C-%E5%85%AB%E5%B1%8A%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%80%E4%B8%AD.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/1966-11_1966%E5%B9%B49%E6%9C%8815%E6%97%A5%E5%A4%A9%E5%AE%89%E9%97%A8%E6%B8%B8%E8%A1%8C-%E5%85%AB%E5%B1%8A%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%80%E4%B8%AD.jpg/220px-1966-11_1966%E5%B9%B49%E6%9C%8815%E6%97%A5%E5%A4%A9%E5%AE%89%E9%97%A8%E6%B8%B8%E8%A1%8C-%E5%85%AB%E5%B1%8A%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%80%E4%B8%AD.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/1966-11_1966%E5%B9%B49%E6%9C%8815%E6%97%A5%E5%A4%A9%E5%AE%89%E9%97%A8%E6%B8%B8%E8%A1%8C-%E5%85%AB%E5%B1%8A%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%80%E4%B8%AD.jpg/330px-1966-11_1966%E5%B9%B49%E6%9C%8815%E6%97%A5%E5%A4%A9%E5%AE%89%E9%97%A8%E6%B8%B8%E8%A1%8C-%E5%85%AB%E5%B1%8A%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%80%E4%B8%AD.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/1966-11_1966%E5%B9%B49%E6%9C%8815%E6%97%A5%E5%A4%A9%E5%AE%89%E9%97%A8%E6%B8%B8%E8%A1%8C-%E5%85%AB%E5%B1%8A%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%80%E4%B8%AD.jpg/440px-1966-11_1966%E5%B9%B49%E6%9C%8815%E6%97%A5%E5%A4%A9%E5%AE%89%E9%97%A8%E6%B8%B8%E8%A1%8C-%E5%85%AB%E5%B1%8A%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%80%E4%B8%AD.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1297" data-file-height="461" /></a><figcaption>Tiananmen Square on 15 September 1966, the occasion of Chairman Mao's third of eight mass rallies with Red Guards in 1966.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a></figcaption></figure> On 18 August in Beijing, over a million Red Guards from across the country gathered in and around <a href="/wiki/Tiananmen_Square" title="Tiananmen Square">Tiananmen Square</a> for an audience with the chairman.<a href="#cite_note-Mac-6">[6]</a>: 106–107  Mao mingled with Red Guards and encouraged them, donning a Red Guard armband. Lin also took centre stage, denouncing perceived enemies in society that were impeding the "progress of the revolution".<a href="#cite_note-Nianyi-10">[10]</a>: 66  Subsequently, violence escalated in Beijing and quickly spread.<a href="#cite_note-Wang-2001-1-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jian-2006-17">[17]</a>: xvi  The 18 August rally was filmed and shown to approximately 100 million people in its first month of release.<a href="#cite_note-Li2023-18">[18]</a>: 53  On 22 August, a central directive was issued to prevent police intervention in Red Guard activities, and those in the police force who defied this notice were labeled counter-revolutionaries. Central officials lifted restraints on violent behavior. <a href="/wiki/Xie_Fuzhi" title="Xie Fuzhi">Xie Fuzhi</a>, the national police chief, often pardoned Red Guards for their "crimes".<a href="#cite_note-Mac-6">[6]</a>: 124–126  The campaign included incidents of torture, murder, and public humiliation. Many people who were indicted as counter-revolutionaries died by suicide. During Red August, 1,772 people were murdered in Beijing; many of the victims were teachers who were attacked or killed by their own students.<a href="#cite_note-Wang-2001-19">[19]</a> The first such victim was <a href="/wiki/Bian_Zhongyun" title="Bian Zhongyun">Bian Zhongyun</a>, the deputy principal of <a href="/wiki/Beijing_Normal_University_Female_Middle_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Beijing Normal University Female Middle School">Beijing Normal University Female Middle School</a>, who was killed on 5 August by <a href="/wiki/Red_Guards" title="Red Guards">Red Guards</a> following several hours of physical abuse and public humiliation.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> The leader of the Red Guards, who had organised on campus only days prior, was 19-year-old <a href="/wiki/Song_Binbin" title="Song Binbin">Song Binbin</a>, who was alleged to have participated personally in the murder of Bian. At a mass rally held on 18 August, Song met Mao, and gifted him a Red Guard armband by tying it around his arm.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jian-2006-17">[17]</a>: 12  In September, Shanghai experienced 704 suicides and 534 deaths; in Wuhan, 62 suicides and 32 murders occurred during the same period.<a href="#cite_note-Mac-6">[6]</a>: 124  Peng Dehuai was brought to Beijing to be publicly ridiculed. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Destruction_of_the_Four_Olds_(August–November)">Destruction of the Four Olds (August–November)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cultural_Revolution&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Destruction of the Four Olds (August–November)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Four_Olds" title="Four Olds">Four Olds</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wanlitod.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Wanlitod.jpg/180px-Wanlitod.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="318" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Wanlitod.jpg/270px-Wanlitod.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/Wanlitod.jpg 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="636" /></a><figcaption>The remains of <a href="/wiki/Wanli_Emperor" title="Wanli Emperor">Wanli Emperor</a> at the Ming tombs. Red Guards dragged the remains of the Wanli Emperor and Empresses to the front of the tomb, where they were posthumously "denounced" and burned<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a></figcaption></figure> Between August and November 1966, eight mass rallies were held, drawing in 12 million people, most of whom were Red Guards.<a href="#cite_note-Mac-6">[6]</a>: 106  The government bore the travel expenses of Red Guards.<a href="#cite_note-Mac-6">[6]</a>: 110  At the rallies, Lin called for the destruction of the "Four Olds"; namely, old customs, culture, habits, and ideas.<a href="#cite_note-Nianyi-10">[10]</a>: 66  Some changes associated with the "Four Olds" campaign were mainly benign, such as assigning new names to city streets, places, and even people; millions of babies were born with "revolutionary" names.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> Other aspects were more destructive, particularly in the realms of culture and religion. Historical sites throughout the country were destroyed. The damage was particularly pronounced in the capital, Beijing. Red Guards laid siege to the <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Confucius,_Qufu" title="Temple of Confucius, Qufu">Temple of Confucius</a> in <a href="/wiki/Qufu" title="Qufu">Qufu</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Mac-6">[6]</a>: 119  and other historically significant tombs and artifacts.<a href="#cite_note-Asiaweek,_Volume_10-24">[24]</a> Libraries of historical and foreign texts were destroyed; books were burned. Temples, churches, mosques, monasteries, and cemeteries were closed and sometimes converted to other uses, or looted and destroyed.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> Marxist propaganda depicted <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> as superstition, and religion was looked upon as a means of hostile foreign infiltration, as well as an instrument of the ruling class.<a href="#cite_note-Dan_Smyer_2007-26">[26]</a> Clergy were arrested and sent to camps; many <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan Buddhists</a> were forced to participate in the destruction of their monasteries at gunpoint.<a href="#cite_note-Dan_Smyer_2007-26">[26]</a> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Kong_Yanjin_-_looking_north_-_P1060200.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="The cemetery of Confucius was attacked by Red Guards in November 1966.[24][27]"><img alt="The cemetery of Confucius was attacked by Red Guards in November 1966.[24][27]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Kong_Yanjin_-_looking_north_-_P1060200.JPG/120px-Kong_Yanjin_-_looking_north_-_P1060200.JPG" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Kong_Yanjin_-_looking_north_-_P1060200.JPG/180px-Kong_Yanjin_-_looking_north_-_P1060200.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Kong_Yanjin_-_looking_north_-_P1060200.JPG/240px-Kong_Yanjin_-_looking_north_-_P1060200.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Cemetery_of_Confucius" title="Cemetery of Confucius">cemetery of Confucius</a> was attacked by Red Guards in November 1966.<a href="#cite_note-Asiaweek,_Volume_10-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jeni_Hung-27">[27]</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Statue_of_Emperor_-_Ming_Tombs.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="This statue of the Yongle Emperor was originally carved in stone, and was destroyed in the Cultural Revolution. A metal replica is in its place."><img alt="This statue of the Yongle Emperor was originally carved in stone, and was destroyed in the Cultural Revolution. A metal replica is in its place." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Statue_of_Emperor_-_Ming_Tombs.jpg/90px-Statue_of_Emperor_-_Ming_Tombs.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Statue_of_Emperor_-_Ming_Tombs.jpg/135px-Statue_of_Emperor_-_Ming_Tombs.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Statue_of_Emperor_-_Ming_Tombs.jpg/181px-Statue_of_Emperor_-_Ming_Tombs.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1952" data-file-height="2592" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">This statue of the <a href="/wiki/Yongle_Emperor" title="Yongle Emperor">Yongle Emperor</a> was originally carved in stone, and was destroyed in the Cultural Revolution. A metal replica is in its place.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Huineng.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The remains of the 8th century Buddhist monk Huineng were attacked during the Cultural Revolution."><img alt="The remains of the 8th century Buddhist monk Huineng were attacked during the Cultural Revolution." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Huineng.jpg/87px-Huineng.jpg" decoding="async" width="87" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Huineng.jpg/131px-Huineng.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Huineng.jpg/174px-Huineng.jpg 2x" data-file-width="233" data-file-height="321" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The remains of the 8th century Buddhist monk <a href="/wiki/Huineng" title="Huineng">Huineng</a> were attacked during the Cultural Revolution.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:SuzhouGardenFrieze.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A frieze damaged during the Cultural Revolution, originally from a garden house of a rich imperial official in Suzhou."><img alt="A frieze damaged during the Cultural Revolution, originally from a garden house of a rich imperial official in Suzhou." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/SuzhouGardenFrieze.jpg/120px-SuzhouGardenFrieze.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="66" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/SuzhouGardenFrieze.jpg/180px-SuzhouGardenFrieze.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/SuzhouGardenFrieze.jpg/240px-SuzhouGardenFrieze.jpg 2x" data-file-width="922" data-file-height="507" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">A frieze damaged during the Cultural Revolution, originally from a garden house of a rich imperial official in Suzhou.</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Central_Work_Conference_(October)">Central Work Conference (October)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cultural_Revolution&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Central Work Conference (October)">edit</a>]</div> In October 1966, Mao convened a "Central Work Conference", mostly to enlist party leaders who had not yet adopted the latest ideology. Liu and Deng were prosecuted and begrudgingly offered self-criticism.<a href="#cite_note-Mac-6">[6]</a>: 137  After the conference, Liu, once a powerful moderate pundit, was placed under house arrest, then sent to a detention camp, where he was denied medical treatment and died in 1969. Deng was sent away for a period of re-education three times and was eventually sent to work in an engine factory in <a href="/wiki/Jiangxi" title="Jiangxi">Jiangxi</a>. Rebellion by <a href="/wiki/Cadre_system_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Cadre system of the Chinese Communist Party">party cadres</a> accelerated after the conference.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="End_of_the_year">End of the year</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cultural_Revolution&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: End of the year">edit</a>]</div> In <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Macau" title="Portuguese Macau">Macau</a>, rioting broke out during the <a href="/wiki/12-3_incident" title="12-3 incident">12-3 incident</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Simpson2023-29">[29]</a>: 84  The event was prompted by the colonial government's delays in approving a new wing for a CCP elementary school in <a href="/wiki/Taipa" title="Taipa">Taipa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Simpson2023-29">[29]</a>: 84  The school board illegally began construction, but the colonial government sent police to stop the workers. Several people were injured in the resulting <a href="/wiki/Melee" title="Melee">melee</a>. On December 3, 1966, two days of rioting occurred in which hundreds were injured and six to eight were killed, leading to a total clampdown by the Portuguese government.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> The event set in motion Portugal's de facto abdication of control over Macau, putting Macau on the path to eventual absorption by China.<a href="#cite_note-Simpson2023-29">[29]</a>: 84–85  By the beginning of 1967, a wide variety of grassroots political organizations had formed. Beyond Red Guard and student rebel groups, these included poor peasant associations, workers' pickets, and Mao Zedong Thought study societies, among others. Communist Party leaders encouraged these groups to "join up", and these groups joined various coalitions and held various cross-group congresses and assemblies.<a href="#cite_note-Thornton2019-4">[4]</a>: 60  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Seizure_of_power_(1967)">Seizure of power (1967)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cultural_Revolution&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Seizure of power (1967)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Seizure_of_power_(Cultural_Revolution)" title="Seizure of power (Cultural Revolution)">Seizure of power (Cultural Revolution)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Violent_struggle" class="mw-redirect" title="Violent struggle">Violent struggle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rebel_Faction_(Cultural_Revolution)" title="Rebel Faction (Cultural Revolution)">Rebel Faction (Cultural Revolution)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Conservative_Faction_(Cultural_Revolution)" title="Conservative Faction (Cultural Revolution)">Conservative Faction (Cultural Revolution)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1968-01_1968%E5%B9%B4_%E4%B8%89%E6%94%AF%E4%B8%A4%E5%86%9B%E5%B7%A5%E4%BD%9C.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/1968-01_1968%E5%B9%B4_%E4%B8%89%E6%94%AF%E4%B8%A4%E5%86%9B%E5%B7%A5%E4%BD%9C.jpg/220px-1968-01_1968%E5%B9%B4_%E4%B8%89%E6%94%AF%E4%B8%A4%E5%86%9B%E5%B7%A5%E4%BD%9C.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/1968-01_1968%E5%B9%B4_%E4%B8%89%E6%94%AF%E4%B8%A4%E5%86%9B%E5%B7%A5%E4%BD%9C.jpg/330px-1968-01_1968%E5%B9%B4_%E4%B8%89%E6%94%AF%E4%B8%A4%E5%86%9B%E5%B7%A5%E4%BD%9C.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/1968-01_1968%E5%B9%B4_%E4%B8%89%E6%94%AF%E4%B8%A4%E5%86%9B%E5%B7%A5%E4%BD%9C.jpg/440px-1968-01_1968%E5%B9%B4_%E4%B8%89%E6%94%AF%E4%B8%A4%E5%86%9B%E5%B7%A5%E4%BD%9C.jpg 2x" data-file-width="968" data-file-height="895" /></a><figcaption>PLA officers and soldiers reading books for the "Three Supports and Two Militaries", 1968</figcaption></figure> Mass organizations coalesced into two hostile factions, the radicals who backed Mao's purge of the Communist party, and the conservatives who backed the moderate party establishment. The "support the left" policy was established in January 1967.<a href="#cite_note-Tanigawa-2018-31">[31]</a> Mao's policy was to support the rebels in seizing power; it required the PLA to support "the broad masses of the revolutionary leftists in their struggle to seize power."<a href="#cite_note-Tanigawa-2018-31">[31]</a> In March 1967, the policy was adapted into the "Three Supports and Two Militaries" initiative, in which PLA troops were sent to schools and work units across the country to stabilize political tumult and end factional warfare.<a href="#cite_note-Xu2022-32">[32]</a>: 345  The three "Supports" were to "support the left", "support the interior", "support industry". The "two Militaries" referred to "military management" and "military training".<a href="#cite_note-Xu2022-32">[32]</a>: 345  The policy of supporting the left failed to define "leftists" at a time when almost all mass organizations claimed to be "leftist" or "revolutionary".<a href="#cite_note-Tanigawa-2018-31">[31]</a> PLA commanders had developed close working relations with the party establishment, leading many military units to repress radicals.<a href="#cite_note-war-33">[33]</a> Spurred by the events in Beijing, <a href="/wiki/Seizure_of_power_(Cultural_Revolution)" title="Seizure of power (Cultural Revolution)">power seizure groups</a> formed across the country and began expanding into factories and the countryside. In Shanghai, a young factory worker named <a href="/wiki/Wang_Hongwen" title="Wang Hongwen">Wang Hongwen</a> organized a far-reaching revolutionary coalition, one that displaced existing Red Guard groups. On 3 January 1967, with support from CRG heavyweights Zhang Chunqiao and Yao Wenyuan, the group of firebrand activists overthrew the Shanghai municipal government under <a href="/wiki/Chen_Pixian" title="Chen Pixian">Chen Pixian</a> in what became known as the <a href="/wiki/January_Storm" title="January Storm">January Storm</a>, and formed in its place the <a href="/wiki/Shanghai_People%27s_Commune" class="mw-redirect" title="Shanghai People's Commune">Shanghai People's Commune</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Jiaqi-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lu-13">[13]</a>: 115  Mao then expressed his approval.<a href="#cite_note-Walder-2016-35">[35]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1967-04_1967%E5%B9%B4%E4%B8%8A%E6%B5%B7%E9%80%A0%E5%8F%8D%E6%B4%BE%E5%BA%86%E7%A5%9D%E6%B8%B8%E8%A1%8C.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/1967-04_1967%E5%B9%B4%E4%B8%8A%E6%B5%B7%E9%80%A0%E5%8F%8D%E6%B4%BE%E5%BA%86%E7%A5%9D%E6%B8%B8%E8%A1%8C.jpg/220px-1967-04_1967%E5%B9%B4%E4%B8%8A%E6%B5%B7%E9%80%A0%E5%8F%8D%E6%B4%BE%E5%BA%86%E7%A5%9D%E6%B8%B8%E8%A1%8C.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/1967-04_1967%E5%B9%B4%E4%B8%8A%E6%B5%B7%E9%80%A0%E5%8F%8D%E6%B4%BE%E5%BA%86%E7%A5%9D%E6%B8%B8%E8%A1%8C.jpg/330px-1967-04_1967%E5%B9%B4%E4%B8%8A%E6%B5%B7%E9%80%A0%E5%8F%8D%E6%B4%BE%E5%BA%86%E7%A5%9D%E6%B8%B8%E8%A1%8C.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/1967-04_1967%E5%B9%B4%E4%B8%8A%E6%B5%B7%E9%80%A0%E5%8F%8D%E6%B4%BE%E5%BA%86%E7%A5%9D%E6%B8%B8%E8%A1%8C.jpg/440px-1967-04_1967%E5%B9%B4%E4%B8%8A%E6%B5%B7%E9%80%A0%E5%8F%8D%E6%B4%BE%E5%BA%86%E7%A5%9D%E6%B8%B8%E8%A1%8C.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1906" data-file-height="1245" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Rebel_faction_(Cultural_Revolution)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rebel faction (Cultural Revolution)">Rebel factions</a> of Red Guards marching in Shanghai, 1967</figcaption></figure> Shanghai's was the first provincial level government overthrown.<a href="#cite_note-Walder-2016-35">[35]</a> Provincial governments and many parts of the state and party bureaucracy were affected, with power seizures taking place. In the next three weeks, 24 more province-level governments were overthrown.<a href="#cite_note-Walder-2016-35">[35]</a> <a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_committee_(China)" title="Revolutionary committee (China)">"Revolutionary committees"</a> were subsequently established, in place of local governments and branches of the Communist Party.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> For example, in Beijing, three separate revolutionary groups declared power seizures on the same day. In Heilongjiang, local party secretary <a href="/wiki/Pan_Fusheng" title="Pan Fusheng">Pan Fusheng</a> seized power from the party organization under his own leadership. Some leaders even wrote the CRG asking to be overthrown.<a href="#cite_note-Mac-6">[6]</a>: 170–72  In Beijing, Jiang Qing and Zhang Chunqiao targeted Vice-Premier <a href="/wiki/Tao_Zhu" title="Tao Zhu">Tao Zhu</a>. The power-seizure movement was appearing in the military as well. In February, prominent generals <a href="/wiki/Ye_Jianying" title="Ye Jianying">Ye Jianying</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chen_Yi_(general)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chen Yi (general)">Chen Yi</a>, as well as Vice-Premier <a href="/wiki/Tan_Zhenlin" title="Tan Zhenlin">Tan Zhenlin</a>, vocally asserted their opposition to the more extreme aspects of the movement, with some party elders insinuating that the CRG's real motives were to remove the revolutionary old guard. Mao, initially ambivalent, took to the Politburo floor on February 18 to denounce the opposition directly, endorsing the radicals' activities. This resistance was branded the "<a href="/wiki/February_Countercurrent" title="February Countercurrent">February Countercurrent</a>"<a href="#cite_note-Mac-6">[6]</a>: 195–196 —effectively silencing critics within the party.<a href="#cite_note-Nianyi-10">[10]</a>: 207–209  <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1967-04_%E8%B4%B5%E5%B7%9E%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD%E6%B4%BE%E9%80%A0%E5%8F%8D.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/1967-04_%E8%B4%B5%E5%B7%9E%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD%E6%B4%BE%E9%80%A0%E5%8F%8D.jpg/220px-1967-04_%E8%B4%B5%E5%B7%9E%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD%E6%B4%BE%E9%80%A0%E5%8F%8D.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="278" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/1967-04_%E8%B4%B5%E5%B7%9E%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD%E6%B4%BE%E9%80%A0%E5%8F%8D.jpg/330px-1967-04_%E8%B4%B5%E5%B7%9E%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD%E6%B4%BE%E9%80%A0%E5%8F%8D.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/1967-04_%E8%B4%B5%E5%B7%9E%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD%E6%B4%BE%E9%80%A0%E5%8F%8D.jpg/440px-1967-04_%E8%B4%B5%E5%B7%9E%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD%E6%B4%BE%E9%80%A0%E5%8F%8D.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1155" data-file-height="1461" /></a><figcaption>Red Guards marching in <a href="/wiki/Guizhou" title="Guizhou">Guizhou</a>, 1967. The banner in the center reads: "The People's Liberation Army firmly supports the proletarian revolutionary faction."</figcaption></figure> Although in early 1967 popular insurgencies were limited outside of the biggest cities, local governments began collapsing all across China.<a href="#cite_note-Walder-2019-1-37">[37]</a>: 21  Revolutionaries dismantled ruling government and party organizations, because power seizures lacked centralized leadership, it was no longer clear who believed in Mao's revolutionary vision and who was exploiting the chaos for their own gain. The formation of rival revolutionary groups and manifestations of long-established local feuds, led to <a href="/wiki/Violent_Struggle" title="Violent Struggle">violent struggles</a> between factions. Tension grew between mass organizations and the military. In response, Lin Biao issued a directive for the army to aid the radicals. At the same time, the army took control of some provinces and locales that were deemed incapable of handling the power transition.<a href="#cite_note-Nianyi-10">[10]</a>: 219–221  In Wuhan, as in many other cities, two major revolutionary organizations emerged, one supporting and one attacking the conservative establishment. <a href="/wiki/Chen_Zaidao" title="Chen Zaidao">Chen Zaidao</a>, the Army general in charge of the area, forcibly repressed the anti-establishment demonstrators. Mao flew to Wuhan with a large entourage of central officials in an attempt to secure military loyalty in the area. On 20 July 1967, local agitators in response kidnapped Mao's emissary <a href="/wiki/Wang_Li_(politician)" title="Wang Li (politician)">Wang Li</a>, in what became known as the <a href="/wiki/Wuhan_Incident" class="mw-redirect" title="Wuhan Incident">Wuhan Incident</a>. Subsequently, Chen was sent to Beijing and tried by Jiang Qing and the rest of the CRG. Chen's resistance was the last major open display of opposition within the PLA.<a href="#cite_note-Mac-6">[6]</a>: 214  The Gang of Four's <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Chunqiao" title="Zhang Chunqiao">Zhang Chunqiao</a> admitted that the most crucial factor in the Cultural Revolution was not the Red Guards or the CRG or the "rebel worker" organisations, but the PLA. When the PLA local garrison supported Mao's radicals, they were able to take over the local government successfully, but if they were not cooperative, the takeovers were unsuccessful.<a href="#cite_note-Mac-6">[6]</a>: 175  Violent clashes occurred in virtually all major cities.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] In response to the Wuhan Incident, Mao and Jiang began establishing a "workers' armed self-defense force", a "revolutionary armed force of mass character" to counter what he saw as rightism in "75% of the PLA officer corps". <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238443738">.mw-parser-output .locmap .od{position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .id{position:absolute;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .locmap .l0{font-size:0;position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv{line-height:110%;position:absolute;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv>div{display:inline;padding:1px}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:left}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pv>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pl>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pr>div{background:#fff!important;color:#000!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .locmap{filter:grayscale(0.6)}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data .locmap div{background:transparent!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .locmap{filter:grayscale(0.6)}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pv>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pl>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pr>div{background:white!important;color:#000!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data .locmap div{background:transparent!important}}</style><div class="locmap noviewer noresize thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:252px"><div style="position:relative;width:250px;border:1px solid lightgray"><a href="/wiki/File:China_edcp_location_map.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Cultural Revolution is located in China"><img alt="Cultural Revolution is located in China" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/China_edcp_location_map.svg/250px-China_edcp_location_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/China_edcp_location_map.svg/375px-China_edcp_location_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/China_edcp_location_map.svg/500px-China_edcp_location_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="408" /></a><div class="od notheme" style="top:48.731%;left:53.517%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><img alt="Wuzhong" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></div><div class="pl" style="width:6em;right:5px"><div><a href="/wiki/Wuzhong,_Ningxia" title="Wuzhong, Ningxia">Wuzhong</a></div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:56.094%;left:66.014%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><img alt="Zhengzhou" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></div><div class="pl" style="width:6em;right:5px"><div><a href="/wiki/Zhengzhou" title="Zhengzhou">Zhengzhou</a></div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:55.839%;left:67.204%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><img alt="Kaifeng" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div><a href="/wiki/Kaifeng" title="Kaifeng">Kaifeng</a></div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:62.685%;left:80.24%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><img alt="Shanghai" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div><a href="/wiki/Shanghai" title="Shanghai">Shanghai</a></div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:74.333%;left:64.084%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><img alt="Lianyuan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div><a href="/wiki/Lianyuan" title="Lianyuan">Lianyuan</a></div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:68.933%;left:56.835%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><img alt="Chongqing" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></div><div class="pl" style="width:6em;right:5px"><div><a href="/wiki/Chongqing" title="Chongqing">Chongqing</a></div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:85.789%;left:67.649%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><img alt="Guangzhou" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div><a href="/wiki/Guangzhou" title="Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a></div></div></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:China_edcp_location_map.svg" title="File:China edcp location map.svg">class=notpageimage| </a></div>Some locations of armed conflict between rebel factions during the summer of 1967.</div></div></div> In <a href="/wiki/Chongqing" title="Chongqing">Chongqing</a>, an arms manufacturing center, during August 1967, battles involved close to 10,000 combatants, killed or wounded close to 1,000, and created 180,000 refugees in <a href="/wiki/Chengdu" title="Chengdu">Chengdu</a> alone. <a href="/wiki/Port_of_Chongqing" title="Port of Chongqing">Chaotianmen harbor district</a> was destroyed in a battle involving tanks, mobile artillery, and anti-aircraft guns. In <a href="/wiki/Wuzhong,_Ningxia" title="Wuzhong, Ningxia">Wuzhong, Ningxia</a>, on 28 August 1967, <a href="/wiki/Kang_Sheng" title="Kang Sheng">Kang Sheng</a> gave orders allowing the PLA to fire on opposing <a href="/wiki/Hui_Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Hui Muslim">Hui Muslim</a> factions, killing approximately 100 people and wounding 133. In <a href="/wiki/Zhengzhou" title="Zhengzhou">Zhengzhou</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kaifeng" title="Kaifeng">Kaifeng</a>, factory clashes killed 37, wounded 290, and led to 300 "prisoners of war", two of whom were <a href="/wiki/Buried_alive" class="mw-redirect" title="Buried alive">buried alive</a>. At <a href="/wiki/Shanghai_Diesel_Engine" class="mw-redirect" title="Shanghai Diesel Engine">Shanghai Diesel Engine Plant</a>, a battle in which <a href="/wiki/Wang_Hongwen" title="Wang Hongwen">Wang Hongwen</a> led the victorious faction, killed 18 and wounded 983. In <a href="/wiki/Lianyuan" title="Lianyuan">Lianyuan</a>, fighting during July and August 1967 killed six and wounded 68. In <a href="/wiki/Wenzhou" title="Wenzhou">Wenzhou</a>, on 13 August 1967, two PLA units mistook each other for rebels and opened fire, killing seven people. At <a href="/wiki/Guangzhou_Baiyun_International_Airport_(former)" title="Guangzhou Baiyun International Airport (former)">Guangzhou Baiyun International Airport</a>, on 10 August 1967, a firefight caused a panicked commercial pilot to depart early, stranding 54 Japanese passengers. Military control was imposed over the <a href="/wiki/Daqing_Oil_Field" title="Daqing Oil Field">Daqing Oil Field</a> in March 1967 and over the <a href="/wiki/Anshan_Iron_%26_Steel" class="mw-redirect" title="Anshan Iron & Steel">Anshan Iron and Steel Plant</a> in August.<a href="#cite_note-Mac-6">[6]</a>: 214–217  <a href="/wiki/Unconventional_warfare" title="Unconventional warfare">Unconventional weapons</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Weapon_of_mass_destruction" title="Weapon of mass destruction">weapon of mass destruction</a>, were seized during conflicts, but not directly used. Citizens wrote letters to the <a href="/wiki/Zhongnanhai" title="Zhongnanhai">Zhongnanhai</a> residence of government leaders, warning of attacks on facilities that stored <a href="/wiki/Pathogenic_bacteria" title="Pathogenic bacteria">pathogenic bacteria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Poisonous_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Poisonous plant">poisonous plant</a> samples, radioactive substances, poison gas, toxicants, and other dangerous substances. In <a href="/wiki/Changchun" title="Changchun">Changchun</a>, rebels working in geological institutes developed and tested the first ever <a href="/wiki/Dirty_bomb" title="Dirty bomb">dirty bomb</a>, testing two "radioactive self-defense bombs" and two "radioactive self-defense mines" on 6 and 11 August.<a href="#cite_note-Mac-6">[6]</a>: 218–220  Nationwide, a total of 18.77 million firearms, 14,828 artillery pieces, 2,719,545 grenades ended up in civilian hands. They were used in the course of violent struggles, which mostly took place from 1967 to 1968. In <a href="/wiki/Chongqing" title="Chongqing">Chongqing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Xiamen" title="Xiamen">Xiamen</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Changchun" title="Changchun">Changchun</a>, tanks, armored vehicles and even warships were deployed in combat.<a href="#cite_note-war-33">[33]</a> During the Cultural Revolution, Mao emphasized the need to improve medical care in rural China.<a href="#cite_note-:0222-39">[39]</a>: 270  The Rural Cooperative Medical System (RCMS) developed in the late 1960s.<a href="#cite_note-:0222-39">[39]</a>: 270  In this system, each large production brigade established a medical cooperative station staffed by <a href="/wiki/Barefoot_doctor" title="Barefoot doctor">barefoot doctors</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0222-39">[39]</a>: 270  The medical cooperative stations provided primary health care.<a href="#cite_note-:0222-39">[39]</a>: 270  <a href="/wiki/Barefoot_doctor" title="Barefoot doctor">Barefoot doctors</a> brought healthcare to rural areas where urban-trained doctors would not settle. They promoted basic <a href="/wiki/Hygiene" title="Hygiene">hygiene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Preventive_healthcare" title="Preventive healthcare">preventive healthcare</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Family_planning" title="Family planning">family planning</a> and treated common <a href="/wiki/Disease" title="Disease">illnesses</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:16-40">[40]</a> Immunizations were provided free of charge.<a href="#cite_note-:0222-39">[39]</a>: 9  Public healthcare was highly effective in curbing infectious diseases in rural China.<a href="#cite_note-:0222-39">[39]</a>: 9  For treatment of major diseases, rural people traveled to state-owned hospitals.<a href="#cite_note-:0222-39">[39]</a>: 270  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Purges_(1968)">Purges (1968)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cultural_Revolution&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Purges (1968)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Cleansing_the_Class_Ranks" title="Cleansing the Class Ranks">Cleansing the Class Ranks</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SZ_%E6%B7%B1%E5%9C%B3%E5%8D%9A%E7%89%A9%E9%A4%A8_Shenzhen_Museum_%E6%B7%B1%E5%9C%B3%E6%94%B9%E9%9D%A9%E9%96%8B%E6%94%BE%E5%89%8D%E6%AD%B7%E5%8F%B2%E5%B1%95%E5%BB%B3_Before_Reform_and_Opening-up_History_IX1_Anti-Liu_Shaoqi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/SZ_%E6%B7%B1%E5%9C%B3%E5%8D%9A%E7%89%A9%E9%A4%A8_Shenzhen_Museum_%E6%B7%B1%E5%9C%B3%E6%94%B9%E9%9D%A9%E9%96%8B%E6%94%BE%E5%89%8D%E6%AD%B7%E5%8F%B2%E5%B1%95%E5%BB%B3_Before_Reform_and_Opening-up_History_IX1_Anti-Liu_Shaoqi.jpg/300px-SZ_%E6%B7%B1%E5%9C%B3%E5%8D%9A%E7%89%A9%E9%A4%A8_Shenzhen_Museum_%E6%B7%B1%E5%9C%B3%E6%94%B9%E9%9D%A9%E9%96%8B%E6%94%BE%E5%89%8D%E6%AD%B7%E5%8F%B2%E5%B1%95%E5%BB%B3_Before_Reform_and_Opening-up_History_IX1_Anti-Liu_Shaoqi.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/SZ_%E6%B7%B1%E5%9C%B3%E5%8D%9A%E7%89%A9%E9%A4%A8_Shenzhen_Museum_%E6%B7%B1%E5%9C%B3%E6%94%B9%E9%9D%A9%E9%96%8B%E6%94%BE%E5%89%8D%E6%AD%B7%E5%8F%B2%E5%B1%95%E5%BB%B3_Before_Reform_and_Opening-up_History_IX1_Anti-Liu_Shaoqi.jpg/450px-SZ_%E6%B7%B1%E5%9C%B3%E5%8D%9A%E7%89%A9%E9%A4%A8_Shenzhen_Museum_%E6%B7%B1%E5%9C%B3%E6%94%B9%E9%9D%A9%E9%96%8B%E6%94%BE%E5%89%8D%E6%AD%B7%E5%8F%B2%E5%B1%95%E5%BB%B3_Before_Reform_and_Opening-up_History_IX1_Anti-Liu_Shaoqi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/SZ_%E6%B7%B1%E5%9C%B3%E5%8D%9A%E7%89%A9%E9%A4%A8_Shenzhen_Museum_%E6%B7%B1%E5%9C%B3%E6%94%B9%E9%9D%A9%E9%96%8B%E6%94%BE%E5%89%8D%E6%AD%B7%E5%8F%B2%E5%B1%95%E5%BB%B3_Before_Reform_and_Opening-up_History_IX1_Anti-Liu_Shaoqi.jpg/600px-SZ_%E6%B7%B1%E5%9C%B3%E5%8D%9A%E7%89%A9%E9%A4%A8_Shenzhen_Museum_%E6%B7%B1%E5%9C%B3%E6%94%B9%E9%9D%A9%E9%96%8B%E6%94%BE%E5%89%8D%E6%AD%B7%E5%8F%B2%E5%B1%95%E5%BB%B3_Before_Reform_and_Opening-up_History_IX1_Anti-Liu_Shaoqi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1368" /></a><figcaption>A rally in opposition to <a href="/wiki/Liu_Shaoqi" title="Liu Shaoqi">Liu Shaoqi</a></figcaption></figure> In May 1968, Mao launched a massive political purge. Many people were sent to the countryside to work in reeducation camps. Generally, the campaign targeted rebels from the CR's earlier, more populist, phase.<a href="#cite_note-Xu2022-32">[32]</a>: 239  On 27 July, the Red Guards' power over the PLA was officially ended, and the establishment sent in units to besiege areas that remained untouched by the Guards. A year later, the Red Guard factions were dismantled entirely; Mao predicted that the chaos might begin running its own agenda and be tempted to turn against revolutionary ideology. Their purpose had been largely fulfilled; Mao and his radical colleagues had largely overturned established power.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Liu was expelled from the CCP at the 12th Plenum of the <a href="/wiki/8th_Central_Committee_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="8th Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party">8th Central Committee</a> in September, and labelled the "headquarters of the bourgeoisie".<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mao_meets_with_Red_Guard_leaders_(July)">Mao meets with Red Guard leaders (July)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cultural_Revolution&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Mao meets with Red Guard leaders (July)">edit</a>]</div> As the Red Guard movement had waned over the preceding year, violence by the remaining Red Guards increased on some Beijing campuses. Violence was particularly pronounced at <a href="/wiki/Qinghua_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Qinghua University">Qinghua University</a>, where a few thousand hardliners of two factions continued to fight. At Mao's initiative, on 27 July 1968, tens of thousands of workers entered the Qinghua campus shouting slogans in opposition to the violence. Red Guards attacked the workers, who remained peaceful. Ultimately, the workers disarmed the students and occupied the campus.<a href="#cite_note-Russo2020-42">[42]</a>: 205–206  On 28 July, Mao and the Central Group met with the five most important remaining Beijing Red Guard leaders to address the movement's excessive violence and political exhaustion.<a href="#cite_note-Russo2020-42">[42]</a>: 205–206  It was the only time during the Cultural Revolution that Mao met and addressed the student leaders directly. In response to a Red Guard leader's telegram sent prior to the meeting, which claimed that some "Black Hand" had maneuvered the workers against the Red Guards, Mao told the student leaders, "The Black Hand is nobody else but me! ... I asked [the workers] how to solve the armed fighting in the universities, and told them to go there to have a look."<a href="#cite_note-Russo2020-42">[42]</a>: 210  During the meeting, Mao and the Central Group for the Cultural Revolution stated, "[W]e want cultural struggle, we do not want armed struggle" and "The masses do not want civil war."<a href="#cite_note-Russo2020-42">[42]</a>: 217  <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">You have been involved in the Cultural Revolution for two years: struggle-criticism-transformation. Now, first, you're not struggling; second, you're not criticizing; and third, you're not transforming. Or rather, you are struggling, but it's an armed struggle. The people are not happy, the workers are not happy, city residents are not happy, most people in schools are not happy, most of the students even in your schools are not happy. Even within the faction that supports you, there are unhappy people. Is this the way to unify the world?</blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mao's_cult_of_personality_and_"mango_fever"_(August)">Mao's cult of personality and "mango fever" (August)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cultural_Revolution&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Mao's cult of personality and "mango fever" (August)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mango_cult" title="Mango cult">Mango cult</a></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong%27s_cult_of_personality" title="Mao Zedong's cult of personality">Mao Zedong's cult of personality</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1967-11_1967%E5%B9%B4_%E6%AF%9B%E6%B3%BD%E4%B8%9C%E6%8E%A5%E8%A7%81%E7%BA%A2%E5%8D%AB%E5%85%B5%E6%B2%B9%E7%94%BB.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/1967-11_1967%E5%B9%B4_%E6%AF%9B%E6%B3%BD%E4%B8%9C%E6%8E%A5%E8%A7%81%E7%BA%A2%E5%8D%AB%E5%85%B5%E6%B2%B9%E7%94%BB.jpg/220px-1967-11_1967%E5%B9%B4_%E6%AF%9B%E6%B3%BD%E4%B8%9C%E6%8E%A5%E8%A7%81%E7%BA%A2%E5%8D%AB%E5%85%B5%E6%B2%B9%E7%94%BB.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="118" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/1967-11_1967%E5%B9%B4_%E6%AF%9B%E6%B3%BD%E4%B8%9C%E6%8E%A5%E8%A7%81%E7%BA%A2%E5%8D%AB%E5%85%B5%E6%B2%B9%E7%94%BB.jpg/330px-1967-11_1967%E5%B9%B4_%E6%AF%9B%E6%B3%BD%E4%B8%9C%E6%8E%A5%E8%A7%81%E7%BA%A2%E5%8D%AB%E5%85%B5%E6%B2%B9%E7%94%BB.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/1967-11_1967%E5%B9%B4_%E6%AF%9B%E6%B3%BD%E4%B8%9C%E6%8E%A5%E8%A7%81%E7%BA%A2%E5%8D%AB%E5%85%B5%E6%B2%B9%E7%94%BB.jpg/440px-1967-11_1967%E5%B9%B4_%E6%AF%9B%E6%B3%BD%E4%B8%9C%E6%8E%A5%E8%A7%81%E7%BA%A2%E5%8D%AB%E5%85%B5%E6%B2%B9%E7%94%BB.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2677" data-file-height="1430" /></a><figcaption>A propaganda oil painting of Mao during the Cultural Revolution (1967)</figcaption></figure> In the spring of 1968, a massive campaign aimed at enhancing Mao's reputation began. A notable example was the "mango fever". On 4 August, Mao was presented with mangoes by the Pakistani foreign minister <a href="/wiki/Sharifuddin_Pirzada" title="Sharifuddin Pirzada">Syed Sharifuddin Pirzada</a>, in an apparent diplomatic gesture.<a href="#cite_note-Murck2013-43">[43]</a> Mao had his aide send the box of mangoes to his propaganda team at <a href="/wiki/Tsinghua_University" title="Tsinghua University">Tsinghua University</a> on 5 August, who were stationed there to quiet strife among Red Guard factions.<a href="#cite_note-Walder2015-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-Murck2013-43">[43]</a> On 7 August, an article was published in People's Daily, saying: <blockquote>In the afternoon of the fifth, when the great happy news of Chairman Mao giving mangoes to the Capital Worker and Peasant Mao Zedong Thought Propaganda Team reached the Tsinghua University campus, people immediately gathered around the gift given by the Great Leader Chairman Mao. They cried out enthusiastically and sang with wild abandonment. Tears swelled up in their eyes, and they again and again sincerely wished that our most beloved Great Leader lived ten thousand years without bounds ... They all made phone calls to their own work units to spread this happy news; and they also organised all kinds of celebratory activities all night long, and arrived at [the national leadership compound] Zhongnanhai despite the rain to report the good news, and to express their loyalty to the Great Leader Chairman Mao.<a href="#cite_note-Walder2015-44">[44]</a></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mangoes,_The_Precious_Gift_that_Great_Leader,_Chairman_Mao_Personally_Gave_to_the_Mao_Zedong_Thought_Propaganda_Team_of_Capital_Workers_%26_Peasants,_China,_1968_-_Jordan_Schnitzer_Museum_of_Art_-_DSC09533.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Mangoes%2C_The_Precious_Gift_that_Great_Leader%2C_Chairman_Mao_Personally_Gave_to_the_Mao_Zedong_Thought_Propaganda_Team_of_Capital_Workers_%26_Peasants%2C_China%2C_1968_-_Jordan_Schnitzer_Museum_of_Art_-_DSC09533.jpg/220px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Mangoes%2C_The_Precious_Gift_that_Great_Leader%2C_Chairman_Mao_Personally_Gave_to_the_Mao_Zedong_Thought_Propaganda_Team_of_Capital_Workers_%26_Peasants%2C_China%2C_1968_-_Jordan_Schnitzer_Museum_of_Art_-_DSC09533.jpg/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Mangoes%2C_The_Precious_Gift_that_Great_Leader%2C_Chairman_Mao_Personally_Gave_to_the_Mao_Zedong_Thought_Propaganda_Team_of_Capital_Workers_%26_Peasants%2C_China%2C_1968_-_Jordan_Schnitzer_Museum_of_Art_-_DSC09533.jpg/440px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3935" data-file-height="3141" /></a><figcaption>Poster featuring mangoes, 1968</figcaption></figure> Subsequent articles also propagandized the mangoes,<a href="#cite_note-Schrift2001-45">[45]</a> and another poem in the People's Daily said: "Seeing that golden mango/Was as if seeing the great leader Chairman Mao ... Again and again touching that golden mango/the golden mango was so warm."<a href="#cite_note-Moore2013-46">[46]</a> Few people at this time had ever seen a mango before, and a mango was seen as "a fruit of extreme rarity, like Mushrooms of Immortality".<a href="#cite_note-Moore2013-46">[46]</a> One mango was sent to the Beijing Textile Factory,<a href="#cite_note-Walder2015-44">[44]</a> whose revolutionary committee organized a rally in its honor.<a href="#cite_note-Schrift2001-45">[45]</a> Workers read quotations from Mao and celebrated the gift. Altars prominently displayed the fruit. When the mango began to rot after a few days, the fruit was peeled and boiled. Workers then filed by and each was given a spoonful of mango water. The revolutionary committee made a wax replica and displayed it in the factory.<a href="#cite_note-Walder2015-44">[44]</a> Several months of "mango fever" followed as the fruit became a focus of a "boundless loyalty" campaign for Mao. More replica mangoes were created, and the replicas were sent on tour around Beijing and elsewhere. Many revolutionary committees visited the mangoes in Beijing from outlying provinces. Approximately half a million people greeted the replicas when they arrived in <a href="/wiki/Chengdu" title="Chengdu">Chengdu</a>. Badges and wall posters featuring the mangoes and Mao were produced in the millions.<a href="#cite_note-Walder2015-44">[44]</a> The fruit was shared among all institutions that had been a part of the propaganda team, and large processions were organized in support of the "precious gift", as the mangoes were known.<a href="#cite_note-Leese2011-47">[47]</a> A dentist in a small town, Dr. Han, saw the mango and said it was nothing special and looked just like a sweet potato. He was put on trial for "malicious slander", found guilty, paraded publicly throughout the town, and then shot in the head.<a href="#cite_note-Moore2013-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> It has been claimed that Mao used the mangoes to express support for the workers who would go to whatever lengths necessary to end the factional fighting among students, and a "prime example of Mao's strategy of symbolic support."<a href="#cite_note-Schrift2001-45">[45]</a> Through early 1969, participants of Mao Zedong Thought study classes in Beijing returned with mass-produced mango facsimiles, gaining media attention in the provinces.<a href="#cite_note-Leese2011-47">[47]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Down_to_the_Countryside_Movement_(December)">Down to the Countryside Movement (December)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cultural_Revolution&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Down to the Countryside Movement (December)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Down_to_the_Countryside_Movement" title="Down to the Countryside Movement">Down to the Countryside Movement</a></div> In December 1968, Mao began the Down to the Countryside Movement. During this movement, which lasted for the following decade, young bourgeoisie living in cities were ordered to go to the countryside to experience working life. The term "young intellectuals" was used to refer to recent college graduates. In the late 1970s, these students returned to their home cities. Many students who were previously Red Guard supported the movement and Mao's vision. This movement was thus in part a means of moving Red Guards from the cities to the countryside, where they would cause less social disruption. It also served to spread revolutionary ideology geographically.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Lin_Biao_(1969–1971)">Lin Biao (1969–1971)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cultural_Revolution&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Lin Biao (1969–1971)">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/9th_National_Congress_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="9th National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party">9th National Congress</a> was held in April 1969. It served as a means to "revitalize" the party with fresh thinking—as well as new cadres, after much of the old guard had been destroyed in the struggles of the preceding years.<a href="#cite_note-Mac-6">[6]</a>: 285  The party framework established two decades earlier broke down almost entirely: rather than through an election by party members, delegates for this Congress were effectively selected by Revolutionary Committees.<a href="#cite_note-Mac-6">[6]</a>: 288  Representation of the military increased by a large margin from the previous Congress, reflected in the election of more PLA members to the new Central Committee—over 28%. Many officers now elevated to senior positions were loyal to PLA Marshal Lin Biao, which would open a new rift between the military and civilian leadership.<a href="#cite_note-Mac-6">[6]</a>: 292  <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:30%; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> We do not only feel boundless joy because we have as our great leader the greatest Marxist–Leninist of our era, Chairman Mao, but also great joy because we have Vice Chairman Lin as Chairman Mao's universally recognized successor. </blockquote> <div style="padding-bottom: 0; padding-top: 0.5em"><cite class="left-aligned" style="">— Premier Zhou Enlai at the 9th Party Congress<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a></cite></div> </div> Reflecting this, Lin was officially elevated to become the Party's preeminent figure outside of Mao, with his name written into the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Constitution of the Chinese Communist Party">party constitution</a> as his "closest comrade-in-arms" and "universally recognized successor".<a href="#cite_note-Mac-6">[6]</a>: 291  At the time, no other Communist parties or governments anywhere in the world had adopted the practice of enshrining a successor to the current leader into their constitutions. Lin delivered the keynote address at the Congress: a document drafted by hardliner leftists Yao Wenyuan and Zhang Chunqiao under Mao's guidance.<a href="#cite_note-Mac-6">[6]</a>: 289  The report was heavily critical of Liu Shaoqi and other "counter-revolutionaries" and drew extensively from quotations in the Little Red Book. The Congress solidified the central role of Maoism within the party, re-introducing Maoism as the official guiding ideology in the party constitution. The Congress elected a new Politburo with Mao, Lin, Chen, Zhou Enlai and Kang as the members of the new Politburo Standing Committee.<a href="#cite_note-Mac-6">[6]</a>: 290  Lin, Chen, and Kang were all beneficiaries of the Cultural Revolution. Zhou, who was demoted in rank, voiced his unequivocal support for Lin at the Congress.<a href="#cite_note-Mac-6">[6]</a>: 290  Mao restored the function of some formal party institutions, such as the operations of the Politburo, which ceased functioning between 1966 and 1968 because the CCRG held de facto control.<a href="#cite_note-Mac-6">[6]</a>: 296  In early 1970, the nationwide "<a href="/wiki/One_Strike-Three_Anti_Campaign" title="One Strike-Three Anti Campaign">One Strike-Three Anti Campaign</a>" was launched by Mao and the Communist Party Central, aiming to consolidate the new organs of power by targeting counterrevolutionary thoughts and actions.<a href="#cite_note-Song-2011a-1">[1]</a> A large number of "minor criminals" were executed or forced to commit suicide between 1970 and 1972.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> According to government statistics released after the Cultural Revolution, during the campaign 1.87 million people were persecuted as traitors, spies, and counterrevolutionaries, and over 284,800 were arrested or killed from February to November 1970 alone.<a href="#cite_note-Song-2011a-1">[1]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="PLA_encroachment">PLA encroachment</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cultural_Revolution&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: PLA encroachment">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mao_Zedong_and_Lin_Biao_during_the_1967_May_Day_parade.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Mao_Zedong_and_Lin_Biao_during_the_1967_May_Day_parade.jpg/400px-Mao_Zedong_and_Lin_Biao_during_the_1967_May_Day_parade.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="296" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Mao_Zedong_and_Lin_Biao_during_the_1967_May_Day_parade.jpg/600px-Mao_Zedong_and_Lin_Biao_during_the_1967_May_Day_parade.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Mao_Zedong_and_Lin_Biao_during_the_1967_May_Day_parade.jpg/800px-Mao_Zedong_and_Lin_Biao_during_the_1967_May_Day_parade.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2129" data-file-height="1573" /></a><figcaption>Mao (left) and Lin (right) in 1967, riding in the back of a vehicle during an <a href="/wiki/International_Workers%27_Day" title="International Workers' Day">International Workers' Day</a> parade</figcaption></figure> Mao's efforts at re-organizing party and state institutions generated mixed results. The situation in some of the provinces remained volatile, even as the political situation in Beijing stabilized. Factional struggles, many violent, continued at a local level despite the declaration that the 9th National Congress marked a temporary victory for the CR.<a href="#cite_note-Mac-6">[6]</a>: 316  Furthermore, despite Mao's efforts to put on a show of unity at the Congress, the factional divide between Lin's PLA camp and the Jiang-led radical camp was intensifying. Indeed, a personal dislike of Jiang drew many civilian leaders, including Chen, closer to Lin.<a href="#cite_note-Jin-53">[53]</a>: 115  Between 1966 and 1968, China was isolated internationally, having declared its enmity towards both the USSR and the US. The friction with the USSR intensified after <a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_border_conflict" title="Sino-Soviet border conflict">border clashes</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Ussuri_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Ussuri River">Ussuri River</a> in March 1969 as Chinese leaders prepared for all-out war.<a href="#cite_note-Mac-6">[6]</a>: 317  In June 1969, the PLA's enforcement of political discipline and suppression of the factions that had emerged during the Cultural Revolution became intertwined with the central Party's efforts to accelerate <a href="/wiki/Third_Front_(China)" title="Third Front (China)">Third Front</a> Those who did not return to work would be viewed as engaging in 'schismatic activity' which risked undermining preparations to defend China from potential invasion.<a href="#cite_note-Meyskens2020-7">[7]</a>: 150–151  In October 1969, the Party attempted to focus more on war preparedness and less on suppressing factions.<a href="#cite_note-Meyskens2020-7">[7]</a>: 151  That month, senior leaders were evacuated from Beijing. Amid the tension, Lin issued what appeared to be an executive order to prepare for war to the PLA's eleven <a href="/wiki/Military_regions_of_the_People%27s_Liberation_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Military regions of the People's Liberation Army">military regions</a> on October 18 without going through Mao. This drew the ire of the chairman, who saw it as evidence that his declared successor was usurping his authority.<a href="#cite_note-Mac-6">[6]</a>: 317  The prospect of war elevated the PLA to greater prominence in domestic politics, increasing Lin's stature at Mao's expense.<a href="#cite_note-Mac-6">[6]</a>: 321  Some evidence suggests that Mao was pushed to seek closer relations with the US as a means to avoid PLA dominance that would result from a military confrontation with the Soviet Union.<a href="#cite_note-Mac-6">[6]</a>: 321  During his later meeting with <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a> in 1972, Mao hinted that Lin had opposed better relations with the U.S.<a href="#cite_note-Mac-6">[6]</a>: 322  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Restoration_of_State_Chairman_position">Restoration of State Chairman position</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cultural_Revolution&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Restoration of State Chairman position">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E5%89%8D%E4%B8%AD%E5%85%B1%E5%9C%8B%E5%AE%B6%E4%B8%BB%E5%B8%AD%E5%8A%89%E5%B0%91%E5%A5%87%E5%9C%A8%E6%96%87%E9%9D%A9%E4%B8%AD%E8%A2%AB%E9%AC%A5%E7%88%AD%EF%BC%8C%E4%B8%A6%E9%81%AD%E8%BB%9F%E7%A6%81%E6%8A%98%E7%A3%A8%EF%BC%8C%E7%B5%82%E6%96%BC%E7%97%85%E9%80%9D%E6%B2%B3%E5%8D%97%EF%BC%8C%E5%85%B6%E9%81%BA%E9%AB%94%E8%A2%AB%E7%A7%98%E5%AF%86%E7%81%AB%E5%8C%96.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/%E5%89%8D%E4%B8%AD%E5%85%B1%E5%9C%8B%E5%AE%B6%E4%B8%BB%E5%B8%AD%E5%8A%89%E5%B0%91%E5%A5%87%E5%9C%A8%E6%96%87%E9%9D%A9%E4%B8%AD%E8%A2%AB%E9%AC%A5%E7%88%AD%EF%BC%8C%E4%B8%A6%E9%81%AD%E8%BB%9F%E7%A6%81%E6%8A%98%E7%A3%A8%EF%BC%8C%E7%B5%82%E6%96%BC%E7%97%85%E9%80%9D%E6%B2%B3%E5%8D%97%EF%BC%8C%E5%85%B6%E9%81%BA%E9%AB%94%E8%A2%AB%E7%A7%98%E5%AF%86%E7%81%AB%E5%8C%96.jpg/220px-%E5%89%8D%E4%B8%AD%E5%85%B1%E5%9C%8B%E5%AE%B6%E4%B8%BB%E5%B8%AD%E5%8A%89%E5%B0%91%E5%A5%87%E5%9C%A8%E6%96%87%E9%9D%A9%E4%B8%AD%E8%A2%AB%E9%AC%A5%E7%88%AD%EF%BC%8C%E4%B8%A6%E9%81%AD%E8%BB%9F%E7%A6%81%E6%8A%98%E7%A3%A8%EF%BC%8C%E7%B5%82%E6%96%BC%E7%97%85%E9%80%9D%E6%B2%B3%E5%8D%97%EF%BC%8C%E5%85%B6%E9%81%BA%E9%AB%94%E8%A2%AB%E7%A7%98%E5%AF%86%E7%81%AB%E5%8C%96.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/%E5%89%8D%E4%B8%AD%E5%85%B1%E5%9C%8B%E5%AE%B6%E4%B8%BB%E5%B8%AD%E5%8A%89%E5%B0%91%E5%A5%87%E5%9C%A8%E6%96%87%E9%9D%A9%E4%B8%AD%E8%A2%AB%E9%AC%A5%E7%88%AD%EF%BC%8C%E4%B8%A6%E9%81%AD%E8%BB%9F%E7%A6%81%E6%8A%98%E7%A3%A8%EF%BC%8C%E7%B5%82%E6%96%BC%E7%97%85%E9%80%9D%E6%B2%B3%E5%8D%97%EF%BC%8C%E5%85%B6%E9%81%BA%E9%AB%94%E8%A2%AB%E7%A7%98%E5%AF%86%E7%81%AB%E5%8C%96.jpg/330px-%E5%89%8D%E4%B8%AD%E5%85%B1%E5%9C%8B%E5%AE%B6%E4%B8%BB%E5%B8%AD%E5%8A%89%E5%B0%91%E5%A5%87%E5%9C%A8%E6%96%87%E9%9D%A9%E4%B8%AD%E8%A2%AB%E9%AC%A5%E7%88%AD%EF%BC%8C%E4%B8%A6%E9%81%AD%E8%BB%9F%E7%A6%81%E6%8A%98%E7%A3%A8%EF%BC%8C%E7%B5%82%E6%96%BC%E7%97%85%E9%80%9D%E6%B2%B3%E5%8D%97%EF%BC%8C%E5%85%B6%E9%81%BA%E9%AB%94%E8%A2%AB%E7%A7%98%E5%AF%86%E7%81%AB%E5%8C%96.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/%E5%89%8D%E4%B8%AD%E5%85%B1%E5%9C%8B%E5%AE%B6%E4%B8%BB%E5%B8%AD%E5%8A%89%E5%B0%91%E5%A5%87%E5%9C%A8%E6%96%87%E9%9D%A9%E4%B8%AD%E8%A2%AB%E9%AC%A5%E7%88%AD%EF%BC%8C%E4%B8%A6%E9%81%AD%E8%BB%9F%E7%A6%81%E6%8A%98%E7%A3%A8%EF%BC%8C%E7%B5%82%E6%96%BC%E7%97%85%E9%80%9D%E6%B2%B3%E5%8D%97%EF%BC%8C%E5%85%B6%E9%81%BA%E9%AB%94%E8%A2%AB%E7%A7%98%E5%AF%86%E7%81%AB%E5%8C%96.jpg/440px-%E5%89%8D%E4%B8%AD%E5%85%B1%E5%9C%8B%E5%AE%B6%E4%B8%BB%E5%B8%AD%E5%8A%89%E5%B0%91%E5%A5%87%E5%9C%A8%E6%96%87%E9%9D%A9%E4%B8%AD%E8%A2%AB%E9%AC%A5%E7%88%AD%EF%BC%8C%E4%B8%A6%E9%81%AD%E8%BB%9F%E7%A6%81%E6%8A%98%E7%A3%A8%EF%BC%8C%E7%B5%82%E6%96%BC%E7%97%85%E9%80%9D%E6%B2%B3%E5%8D%97%EF%BC%8C%E5%85%B6%E9%81%BA%E9%AB%94%E8%A2%AB%E7%A7%98%E5%AF%86%E7%81%AB%E5%8C%96.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="446" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Liu_Shaoqi" title="Liu Shaoqi">Liu Shaoqi</a> (1898–1969) on his deathbed</figcaption></figure> After Lin was confirmed as Mao's successor, his supporters focused on the restoration of the position of State Chairman,<a href="#cite_note-54">[note 1]</a> which had been abolished by Mao after Liu's purge. They hoped that by allowing Lin to ease into a constitutionally sanctioned role, whether Chairman or vice-chairman, Lin's succession would be institutionalized. The consensus within the <a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Politburo of the Chinese Communist Party">Politburo</a> was that Mao should assume the office with Lin as vice-chairman; but perhaps wary of Lin's ambitions or for other unknown reasons, Mao voiced his explicit opposition.<a href="#cite_note-Mac-6">[6]</a>: 327  Factional rivalries intensified at the Second Plenum of the Ninth Congress in Lushan held in late August 1970. Chen, now aligned with the PLA faction loyal to Lin, galvanized support for the restoration of the office of President of China, despite Mao's wishes. Moreover, Chen launched an assault on Zhang, a staunch Maoist who embodied the chaos of the Cultural Revolution, over the evaluation of Mao's legacy.<a href="#cite_note-Mac-6">[6]</a>: 328–331  The attacks on Zhang found favour with many Plenum attendees and may have been construed by Mao as an indirect attack on the CR. Mao confronted Chen openly, denouncing him as a "false Marxist",<a href="#cite_note-Mac-6">[6]</a>: 332  and removed him from the Politburo Standing Committee. In addition to the purge of Chen, Mao asked Lin's principal generals to write self-criticisms on their political positions as a warning to Lin. Mao also inducted several of his supporters to the Central Military Commission and placed loyalists in leadership roles of the <a href="/wiki/Beijing_Military_Region" title="Beijing Military Region">Beijing Military Region</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Mac-6">[6]</a>: 332  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Project_571">Project 571</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cultural_Revolution&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Project 571">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Project_571" title="Project 571">Project 571</a></div> By 1971, the diverging interests of the civilian and military leaders was apparent. Mao was troubled by the PLA's newfound prominence, and the purge of Chen marked the beginning of a gradual scaling-down of the PLA's political involvement.<a href="#cite_note-Mac-6">[6]</a>: 353  According to official sources, sensing the reduction of Lin's power base and his declining health, Lin's supporters plotted to use the military power still at their disposal to oust Mao in a coup.<a href="#cite_note-Jin-53">[53]</a> Lin's son <a href="/wiki/Lin_Liguo" title="Lin Liguo">Lin Liguo</a>, along with other high-ranking military conspirators, formed a coup apparatus in Shanghai and dubbed the plan to oust Mao Outline for Project 571 – in the original Mandarin, the phrase sounds similar to the term for 'military uprising'. It is disputed whether Lin Biao was directly involved in this process. While official sources maintain that Lin did plan and execute the coup attempt, scholars such as Jin Qiu portray Lin as passive, cajoled by elements among his family and supporters. Qiu contests that Lin Biao was ever personally involved in drafting the Outline, with evidence suggesting that Lin Liguo was directly responsible for the draft.<a href="#cite_note-Jin-53">[53]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lin's_flight_and_plane_crash">Lin's flight and plane crash</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cultural_Revolution&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Lin's flight and plane crash">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Lin_Biao_incident" title="Lin Biao incident">Lin Biao incident</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Huayangpalace_layers_2007_09.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Huayangpalace_layers_2007_09.jpg/300px-Huayangpalace_layers_2007_09.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Huayangpalace_layers_2007_09.jpg/450px-Huayangpalace_layers_2007_09.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Huayangpalace_layers_2007_09.jpg/600px-Huayangpalace_layers_2007_09.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1936" data-file-height="1288" /></a><figcaption>Graffiti of Lin Biao's foreword to the <a href="/wiki/Little_Red_Book" class="mw-redirect" title="Little Red Book">Little Red Book</a>, with his name (lower right) later scratched out</figcaption></figure> According to the official narrative, on 13 September Lin Biao, his wife <a href="/wiki/Ye_Qun" title="Ye Qun">Ye Qun</a>, Lin Liguo, and members of his staff attempted to flee to the USSR ostensibly to seek political asylum. En route, Lin's plane crashed in Mongolia, killing all on board. The plane apparently ran out of fuel. A Soviet investigative team was not able to determine the cause of the crash but hypothesized that the pilot was flying low to evade radar and misjudged the plane's altitude. The official account was questioned by foreign scholars, who raised doubts over Lin's choice of the USSR as a destination, the plane's route, the identity of the passengers, and whether or not a coup was actually taking place.<a href="#cite_note-Jin-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-55">[54]</a> On 13 September, the Politburo met in an emergency session to discuss Lin. His death was confirmed in Beijing only on 30 September, which led to the cancellation of the <a href="/wiki/National_Day_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="National Day of the People's Republic of China">National Day</a> celebration events the following day. The Central Committee did not release news of Lin's death to the public until two months later. Many Lin supporters sought refuge in Hong Kong. Those who remained on the mainland were purged.<a href="#cite_note-Jin-53">[53]</a> The event caught the party leadership off guard: the concept that Lin could betray Mao de-legitimized a vast body of Cultural Revolution political rhetoric and by extension, Mao's absolute authority. For several months following the incident, the party information apparatus struggled to find a "correct way" to frame the incident for public consumption, but as the details came to light, the majority of the Chinese public felt disillusioned and realised they had been manipulated for political purposes.<a href="#cite_note-Jin-53">[53]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gang_of_Four_(1972–1976)">Gang of Four (1972–1976)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cultural_Revolution&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Gang of Four (1972–1976)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Gang_of_Four" title="Gang of Four">Gang of Four</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:272px;max-width:272px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:150px;max-width:150px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:147px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Wanghongwen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Wanghongwen.jpg/148px-Wanghongwen.jpg" decoding="async" width="148" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Wanghongwen.jpg/222px-Wanghongwen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Wanghongwen.jpg/296px-Wanghongwen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="401" data-file-height="512" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:118px;max-width:118px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:147px;overflow:hidden"><a 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class="thumbcaption">The "<a href="/wiki/Gang_of_Four" title="Gang of Four">Gang of Four</a>", clockwise from top-left: <a href="/wiki/Wang_Hongwen" title="Wang Hongwen">Wang Hongwen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Chunqiao" title="Zhang Chunqiao">Zhang Chunqiao</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yao_Wenyuan" title="Yao Wenyuan">Yao Wenyuan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jiang_Qing" title="Jiang Qing">Jiang Qing</a></div></div></div></div> Mao became depressed and reclusive after the Lin incident. With Lin gone, Mao had no answer for who would succeed him. Sensing a sudden loss of direction, Mao reached out to old comrades whom he had denounced in the past. Meanwhile, in September 1972, Mao transferred a 38-year-old cadre from Shanghai, Wang Hongwen, to Beijing and made him Party vice-chairman. Wang, a former factory worker from a peasant background,<a href="#cite_note-Mac-6">[6]</a>: 357  was seemingly getting groomed for succession.<a href="#cite_note-Mac-6">[6]</a>: 364  Jiang's position strengthened after Lin's flight. She held tremendous influence with the radical camp. With Mao's health on the decline, Jiang's political ambitions began to emerge. She allied herself with Wang and propaganda specialists Zhang Chunqiao and Yao Wenyuan, forming a political clique later pejoratively dubbed as the <a href="/wiki/Gang_of_Four" title="Gang of Four">Gang of Four</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Yao_Wenyuan-56">[55]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1967-03_1966%E5%B9%B412%E6%9C%8826%E6%97%A5%E6%B1%9F%E9%9D%92%E5%91%A8%E6%81%A9%E6%9D%A5%E5%BA%B7%E7%94%9F%E6%8E%A5%E8%A7%81%E7%BA%A2%E5%8D%AB%E5%85%B5.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/1967-03_1966%E5%B9%B412%E6%9C%8826%E6%97%A5%E6%B1%9F%E9%9D%92%E5%91%A8%E6%81%A9%E6%9D%A5%E5%BA%B7%E7%94%9F%E6%8E%A5%E8%A7%81%E7%BA%A2%E5%8D%AB%E5%85%B5.jpg/220px-1967-03_1966%E5%B9%B412%E6%9C%8826%E6%97%A5%E6%B1%9F%E9%9D%92%E5%91%A8%E6%81%A9%E6%9D%A5%E5%BA%B7%E7%94%9F%E6%8E%A5%E8%A7%81%E7%BA%A2%E5%8D%AB%E5%85%B5.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/1967-03_1966%E5%B9%B412%E6%9C%8826%E6%97%A5%E6%B1%9F%E9%9D%92%E5%91%A8%E6%81%A9%E6%9D%A5%E5%BA%B7%E7%94%9F%E6%8E%A5%E8%A7%81%E7%BA%A2%E5%8D%AB%E5%85%B5.jpg/330px-1967-03_1966%E5%B9%B412%E6%9C%8826%E6%97%A5%E6%B1%9F%E9%9D%92%E5%91%A8%E6%81%A9%E6%9D%A5%E5%BA%B7%E7%94%9F%E6%8E%A5%E8%A7%81%E7%BA%A2%E5%8D%AB%E5%85%B5.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/1967-03_1966%E5%B9%B412%E6%9C%8826%E6%97%A5%E6%B1%9F%E9%9D%92%E5%91%A8%E6%81%A9%E6%9D%A5%E5%BA%B7%E7%94%9F%E6%8E%A5%E8%A7%81%E7%BA%A2%E5%8D%AB%E5%85%B5.jpg/440px-1967-03_1966%E5%B9%B412%E6%9C%8826%E6%97%A5%E6%B1%9F%E9%9D%92%E5%91%A8%E6%81%A9%E6%9D%A5%E5%BA%B7%E7%94%9F%E6%8E%A5%E8%A7%81%E7%BA%A2%E5%8D%AB%E5%85%B5.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1482" data-file-height="1104" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Jiang_Qing" title="Jiang Qing">Jiang Qing</a> (left) receiving Red Guards in Beijing with <a href="/wiki/Zhou_Enlai" title="Zhou Enlai">Zhou Enlai</a> (center) and <a href="/wiki/Kang_Sheng" title="Kang Sheng">Kang Sheng</a>, with each holding a copy of the Little Red Book</figcaption></figure> By 1973, round after round of political struggles had left many lower-level institutions, including local government, factories, and railways, short of competent staff to carry out basic functions.<a href="#cite_note-Mac-6">[6]</a>: 340  China's economy had fallen into disarray, which led to the rehabilitation of purged lower-level officials. The party's core became heavily dominated by Cultural Revolution beneficiaries and radicals, whose focus remained ideological purity over economic productivity. The economy remained mostly Zhou's domain, one of the few remaining moderates. Zhou attempted to restore the economy, but was resented by the Gang of Four, who identified him as their primary political succession threat.<a href="#cite_note-57">[56]</a> In late 1973, to weaken Zhou's political position and to distance themselves from Lin's apparent betrayal, the <a href="/wiki/Criticize_Lin,_Criticize_Confucius" title="Criticize Lin, Criticize Confucius">Criticize Lin, Criticize Confucius</a> campaign began under Jiang's leadership.<a href="#cite_note-Mac-6">[6]</a>: 366  Its stated goals were to purge China of <a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianist</a> thinking and denounce Lin's actions as traitorous and regressive.<a href="#cite_note-Mac-6">[6]</a>: 372  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Deng_Xiaoping's_rehabilitation_(1975)">Deng Xiaoping's rehabilitation (1975)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cultural_Revolution&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Deng Xiaoping's rehabilitation (1975)">edit</a>]</div> With a fragile economy and Zhou falling ill to cancer, Deng Xiaoping returned to the political scene, assuming the post of Vice-Premier in March 1973, in the first of a series of Mao-approved promotions. After Zhou withdrew from active politics in January 1975, Deng was effectively put in charge of the government, party, and military, then adding the additional titles of <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army_General_Staff_Department" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Liberation Army General Staff Department">PLA General Chief of Staff</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vice_Chairman_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Vice Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party">Vice Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party</a>, and vice-chairman of the <a href="/wiki/Central_Military_Commission_(China)" title="Central Military Commission (China)">Central Military Commission</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Mac-6">[6]</a>: 381  The speed of Deng's rehabilitation took the radical camp by surprise. Mao wanted to use Deng as a counterweight to the military faction in government to suppress former Lin loyalists. In addition, Mao had also lost confidence in the Gang of Four and saw Deng as the alternative. Leaving the country in grinding poverty would damage the positive legacy of the CR, which Mao worked hard to protect. Deng's return set the scene for a protracted factional struggle between the radical Gang of Four and moderates led by Zhou and Deng.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] At the time, Jiang and associates held effective control of mass media and the party's <a href="/wiki/Propaganda_in_China" title="Propaganda in China">propaganda network</a>, while Zhou and Deng held control of most government organs. On some decisions, Mao sought to mitigate the Gang's influence, but on others, he acquiesced to their demands. The Gang of Four's political and media control did not prevent Deng from enacting his economic policies. Deng emphatically opposed Party factionalism, and his policies aimed to promote unity to restore economic productivity. Much like the post-Great Leap restructuring led by Liu Shaoqi, Deng streamlined the <a href="/wiki/Rail_transport_in_China" title="Rail transport in China">railway system</a>, <a href="/wiki/Steel_industry_in_China" title="Steel industry in China">steel production</a>, etc. By late 1975, however, Mao saw that Deng's economic restructuring might negate the CR's legacy and launched the <a href="/wiki/Counterattack_the_Right-Deviationist_Reversal-of-Verdicts_Trend" title="Counterattack the Right-Deviationist Reversal-of-Verdicts Trend">Counterattack the Right-Deviationist Reversal-of-Verdicts Trend</a>, a campaign to oppose "rehabilitating the case for the rightists", alluding to Deng as the country's foremost "rightist". Mao directed Deng to write self-criticisms in November 1975, a move lauded by the Gang of Four.<a href="#cite_note-Mac-6">[6]</a>: 381  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Death_of_Zhou_Enlai">Death of Zhou Enlai</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cultural_Revolution&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Death of Zhou Enlai">edit</a>]</div> On 8 January 1976, Zhou Enlai died of bladder cancer. On 15 January, Deng delivered Zhou's eulogy in a funeral attended by all of China's most senior leaders with the notable absence of Mao, who had grown increasingly critical of Zhou.<a href="#cite_note-Teiwes-58">[57]</a>: 217–218 <a href="#cite_note-Spence-59">[58]</a>: 610  After Zhou's death, Mao selected the relatively unknown <a href="/wiki/Hua_Guofeng" title="Hua Guofeng">Hua Guofeng</a> instead of a member of the Gang of Four or Deng to become Premier.<a href="#cite_note-60">[59]</a> The Gang of Four grew apprehensive that spontaneous, large-scale popular support for Zhou could turn the political tide against them. They acted through the media to impose restrictions on public displays of mourning for Zhou. Years of resentment over the CR, the public persecution of Deng—seen as Zhou's ally—and the prohibition against public mourning led to a rise in popular discontent against Mao and the Gang of Four. Official attempts to enforce the mourning restrictions included removing public memorials and tearing down posters commemorating Zhou's achievements. On 25 March 1976, Shanghai's <a href="/wiki/Wen_Hui_Bao" class="mw-redirect" title="Wen Hui Bao">Wen Hui Bao</a> published an article calling Zhou "the <a href="/wiki/Capitalist_roader" title="Capitalist roader">capitalist roader</a> inside the Party [who] wanted to help the unrepentant capitalist roader [Deng] regain his power." These propaganda efforts at smearing Zhou's image, however, only strengthened public attachment to Zhou's memory.<a href="#cite_note-Teiwes-58">[57]</a>: 213–214  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tiananmen_incident">Tiananmen incident</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cultural_Revolution&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Tiananmen incident">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/1976_Tiananmen_incident" title="1976 Tiananmen incident">1976 Tiananmen incident</a></div> On 4 April 1976, on the eve of China's annual <a href="/wiki/Qingming_Festival" title="Qingming Festival">Qingming Festival</a>, a traditional day of mourning, thousands of people gathered around the <a href="/wiki/Monument_to_the_People%27s_Heroes" title="Monument to the People's Heroes">Monument to the People's Heroes</a> in Tiananmen Square to commemorate Zhou. They honored Zhou by laying wreaths, banners, poems, placards, and flowers at the foot of the Monument.<a href="#cite_note-Spence-59">[58]</a>: 612  The most apparent purpose of this memorial was to eulogize Zhou, but the Gang of Four were also attacked for their actions against the Premier. A small number of slogans left at Tiananmen even attacked Mao and his Cultural Revolution.<a href="#cite_note-Teiwes-58">[57]</a>: 218  Up to two million people may have visited Tiananmen Square on 4 April. All levels of society, from the most impoverished peasants to high-ranking PLA officers and the children of high-ranking cadres, were represented in the activities. Those who participated were motivated by a mixture of anger over Zhou's treatment, revolt against the Cultural Revolution and apprehension for China's future. The event did not appear to have coordinated leadership.<a href="#cite_note-Teiwes-58">[57]</a>: 218–220  The Central Committee, under the leadership of Jiang Qing, labelled the event 'counter-revolutionary' and cleared the square of memorial items shortly after midnight on April 6. Attempts to suppress the mourners led to a riot. Police cars were set on fire, and a crowd of over 100,000 people forced its way into several government buildings surrounding the square. Many of those arrested were later sentenced to prison. Similar incidents occurred in other major cities. Jiang and her allies attacked Deng as the incident's 'mastermind', and issued reports on official media to that effect. Deng was formally stripped of all positions inside and outside the Party on 7 April. This marked Deng's second purge.<a href="#cite_note-Spence-59">[58]</a>: 612  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Death_of_Mao_Zedong_and_the_Gang_of_Four's_downfall">Death of Mao Zedong and the Gang of Four's downfall</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cultural_Revolution&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Death of Mao Zedong and the Gang of Four's downfall">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Death_and_state_funeral_of_Mao_Zedong" title="Death and state funeral of Mao Zedong">Death and state funeral of Mao Zedong</a></div> On 9 September 1976, Mao Zedong died. To Mao's supporters, his death symbolized the loss of China's revolutionary foundation. His death was announced on 9 September.<a href="#cite_note-61">[60]</a> The nation descended into grief and mourning, with people weeping in the streets and public institutions closing for over a week. Hua Guofeng chaired the Funeral Committee and delivered the memorial speech.<a href="#cite_note-62">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-63">[62]</a> Shortly before dying, Mao had allegedly written the message "<a href="/wiki/With_you_in_charge,_I%27m_at_ease" title="With you in charge, I'm at ease">With you in charge, I'm at ease</a>," to Hua. Hua used this message to substantiate his position as successor. Hua had been widely considered to be lacking in political skill and ambitions, and seemingly posed no serious threat to the Gang of Four in the race for succession. However, the Gang's radical ideas also clashed with influential elders and many Party reformers. With army backing and the support of Marshal Ye Jianying, Director of Central Office <a href="/wiki/Wang_Dongxing" title="Wang Dongxing">Wang Dongxing</a>, Vice Premier <a href="/wiki/Li_Xiannian" title="Li Xiannian">Li Xiannian</a> and party elder <a href="/wiki/Chen_Yun" title="Chen Yun">Chen Yun</a>, on October 6, the <a href="/wiki/Central_Security_Bureau" class="mw-redirect" title="Central Security Bureau">Central Security Bureau</a>'s Special Unit 8341 had all members of the Gang of Four arrested in a bloodless coup.<a href="#cite_note-64">[63]</a> After Mao's death, people characterized as 'beating-smashing-looting elements', who were seen as having disturbed the social order during the CR, were purged or punished. "Beating-smashing-looting elements" had typically been aligned with rebel factions.<a href="#cite_note-Xu2022-32">[32]</a>: 359  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aftermath">Aftermath</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cultural_Revolution&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Aftermath">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transitional_period">Transitional period</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cultural_Revolution&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Transitional period">edit</a>]</div> Although Hua publicly denounced the Gang of Four in 1976, he continued to invoke Mao's name to justify Mao-era policies. Hua spearheaded what became known as the <a href="/wiki/Two_Whatevers" title="Two Whatevers">Two Whatevers</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Harding-65">[64]</a> namely, "Whatever policy originated from Chairman Mao, we must continue to support," and "Whatever directions were given to us from Chairman Mao, we must continue to follow." Like Deng, Hua wanted to reverse the CR's damage; but unlike Deng, who wanted new economic models for China, Hua intended to move the Chinese economic and political system towards Soviet-style planning.<a href="#cite_note-66">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-67">[66]</a> It became increasingly clear to Hua, that without Deng, it was difficult to continue daily affairs of state. On 10 October, Deng wrote a letter to Hua asking to be transferred back to state and party affairs; party elders also called for Deng's return. With increasing pressure from all sides, Premier Hua named Deng Vice-Premier in July 1977, and later promoted him to various other positions, effectively elevating Deng to be China's second-most powerful figure. In August, the <a href="/wiki/11th_National_Congress_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="11th National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party">11th National Congress</a> was held in Beijing, officially naming (in ranking order) Hua Guofeng, Ye Jianying, Deng Xiaoping, <a href="/wiki/Li_Xiannian" title="Li Xiannian">Li Xiannian</a> and Wang Dongxing as new members of the Politburo Standing Committee.<a href="#cite_note-68">[67]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Repudiation_and_reform_under_Deng">Repudiation and reform under Deng</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cultural_Revolution&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Repudiation and reform under Deng">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Boluan_Fanzheng" title="Boluan Fanzheng">Boluan Fanzheng</a>, <a href="/wiki/1978_Truth_Criterion_Controversy" title="1978 Truth Criterion Controversy">1978 Truth Criterion Controversy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Reforms_and_Opening_Up" class="mw-redirect" title="Reforms and Opening Up">Reforms and Opening Up</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Deng_Xiaoping.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Deng_Xiaoping.jpg/220px-Deng_Xiaoping.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="272" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Deng_Xiaoping.jpg/330px-Deng_Xiaoping.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Deng_Xiaoping.jpg/440px-Deng_Xiaoping.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1077" data-file-height="1330" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Deng_Xiaoping" title="Deng Xiaoping">Deng Xiaoping</a> became the <a href="/wiki/Paramount_Leader_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Paramount Leader of China">paramount leader of China</a> in 1978. He started the process of <a href="/wiki/Reforms_and_Opening_Up" class="mw-redirect" title="Reforms and Opening Up">reform and opening up</a></figcaption></figure> Deng Xiaoping first proposed what he called Boluan Fanzheng in September 1977 in order to correct the mistakes of the Cultural Revolution.<a href="#cite_note-69">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-70">[69]</a> In May 1978, Deng seized the opportunity to elevate his protégé <a href="/wiki/Hu_Yaobang" title="Hu Yaobang">Hu Yaobang</a> to power. Hu published an article in the <a href="/wiki/Guangming_Daily_(China)" class="mw-redirect" title="Guangming Daily (China)">Guangming Daily</a>, making clever use of Mao's quotations, while lauding Deng's ideas. Following this article, Hua began to shift his tone in support of Deng. On 1 July, Deng publicized Mao's self-criticism report of 1962 regarding the failure of the Great Leap Forward. As his power base expanded, in September Deng began openly attacking Hua Guofeng's "Two Whatevers".<a href="#cite_note-Harding-65">[64]</a> The "<a href="/wiki/1978_Truth_Criterion_Controversy" title="1978 Truth Criterion Controversy">1978 Truth Criterion Discussion</a>", launched by Deng and Hu and their allies, also triggered a decade-long <a href="/wiki/New_Enlightenment_(China)" title="New Enlightenment (China)">New Enlightenment</a> movement in mainland China, promoting democracy, <a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">humanism</a> and universal values, while opposing the ideology of Cultural Revolution.<a href="#cite_note-71">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-72">[71]</a> On 18 December 1978, <a href="/wiki/3rd_Plenary_Session_of_the_11th_Central_Committee_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="3rd Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party">Third Plenum of the 11th Central Committee</a> was held. At the congress, Deng called for "a liberation of thoughts" and urged the party to "<a href="/wiki/Seek_truth_from_facts" title="Seek truth from facts">seek truth from facts</a>" and abandon ideological dogma. The Plenum officially marked the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Economic_reform_in_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic reform in the People's Republic of China">economic reform era</a>, as Deng rose to become the #2 leader of China. Hua Guofeng engaged in self-criticism and called his "Two Whatevers" a mistake. Mao's trusted ally Wang Dongxing was also criticized. At the Plenum, the Party reversed its verdict on the Tiananmen Incident. Former Chinese president Liu Shaoqi was given a belated state funeral.<a href="#cite_note-73">[72]</a> Peng Dehuai, one of China's <a href="/wiki/Ten_Marshals" class="mw-redirect" title="Ten Marshals">ten marshals</a> and the first Minister of National Defense, who was persecuted to death during the Cultural Revolution was rehabilitated in 1978. At the Fifth Plenum held in 1980, Peng Zhen, <a href="/wiki/He_Long" title="He Long">He Long</a> and other leaders who had been purged during the Cultural Revolution were rehabilitated. Hu Yaobang became head of the <a href="/wiki/Secretariat_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Secretariat of the Chinese Communist Party">party secretariat</a> as its <a href="/wiki/Secretary-general_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="Secretary-general of the Chinese Communist Party">secretary-general</a>. In September, Hua Guofeng resigned and <a href="/wiki/Zhao_Ziyang" title="Zhao Ziyang">Zhao Ziyang</a>, another Deng ally, was named <a href="/wiki/Premier_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Premier of the People's Republic of China">premier</a>. Hua remained on the <a href="/wiki/Central_Military_Commission_(China)" title="Central Military Commission (China)">Central Military Commission</a>, but formal power was transferred to a new generation of pragmatic reformers, who reversed Cultural Revolution policies to a large extent. Within a few years, Deng and Hu helped rehabilitate over 3 million "unjust, false, erroneous" cases.<a href="#cite_note-74">[73]</a> In particular, the trial of the Gang of Four took place in Beijing from 1980 to 1981, and the court stated that 729,511 people had been persecuted by the Gang, of whom 34,800 were said to have died.<a href="#cite_note-75">[74]</a> In 1981, the Chinese Communist Party passed a resolution and declared that the Cultural Revolution was "responsible for the most severe setback and the heaviest losses suffered by the Party, the country, and the people since the founding of the People's Republic."<a href="#cite_note-PRC-2020-76">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-Wilson_Center-1981-77">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-CCCCP-11-78">[77]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Atrocities">Atrocities</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cultural_Revolution&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Atrocities">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Death_toll">Death toll</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cultural_Revolution&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Death toll">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Xi_Zhongxun_on_struggle_session_in_September_1967.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Xi_Zhongxun_on_struggle_session_in_September_1967.jpg/220px-Xi_Zhongxun_on_struggle_session_in_September_1967.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Xi_Zhongxun_on_struggle_session_in_September_1967.jpg/330px-Xi_Zhongxun_on_struggle_session_in_September_1967.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Xi_Zhongxun_on_struggle_session_in_September_1967.jpg/440px-Xi_Zhongxun_on_struggle_session_in_September_1967.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Struggle_session" title="Struggle session">struggle session</a> in September 1967 targeting <a href="/wiki/Xi_Zhongxun" title="Xi Zhongxun">Xi Zhongxun</a>, the father of <a href="/wiki/Xi_Jinping" title="Xi Jinping">Xi Jinping</a>, who had been labeled an "anti-party element"<a href="#cite_note-79">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-80">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-81">[80]</a></figcaption></figure> Fatality estimates vary across different sources, ranging from hundreds of thousands to millions, or even tens of millions.<a href="#cite_note-82">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-Song-2011c-83">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ling-2011-84">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pye-1986-85">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-WangS-2012-86">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-Strauss-1994-87">[86]</a> In addition to various regimes of secrecy and obfuscation concerning the Revolution, both top-down as perpetuated by authorities, as well as laterally among the Chinese public in the decades since, the discrepancies are due in large part to the totalistic nature of the Revolution itself: it is a significant challenge for historians to discern whether and in what ways discrete events that took place during the Cultural Revolution should be ascribed to it.<a href="#cite_note-88">[87]</a> For example, the <a href="/wiki/1975_Banqiao_Dam_failure" title="1975 Banqiao Dam failure">1975 Banqiao Dam failure</a>, considered by some to be the greatest technological catastrophe of the 20th century, itself resulted in between 26,600 and 240,000 deaths. The scope of the collapse, which occurred near the end of the CR, was covered up by authorities until at least 1989.<a href="#cite_note-89">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-90">[89]</a> Most deaths occurred after the mass movements ended,<a href="#cite_note-Walder2019a-91">[90]</a> when organized campaigns attempted to consolidate order in workplaces and communities.<a href="#cite_note-Walder-20192-92">[91]</a>: 172  As Walder summarizes, "The cure for factional warfare was far worse than the disease."<a href="#cite_note-Walder2019a-91">[90]</a> <a href="/wiki/Literature_review" title="Literature review">Literature reviews</a> of the overall death toll due to the Cultural Revolution usually include the following:<a href="#cite_note-Song-2011c-83">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-Yan2016-93">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-open2012-94">[93]</a> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <caption> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Time </th> <th>Source </th> <th>Deaths (in millions) </th> <th>Remarks </th></tr> <tr> <td>2014 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Andrew_G._Walder" title="Andrew G. Walder">Andrew G. Walder</a> </td> <td>1.1–1.6<a href="#cite_note-Walder-2014-95">[94]</a> </td> <td>Examines the period between 1966 and 1971.<a href="#cite_note-Walder-2014-95">[94]</a> Walder reviewed the reported deaths in 2,213 annals from every <a href="/wiki/County_(China)" class="mw-redirect" title="County (China)">county</a> and interpreted the annals' vague language in the most conservative manner. For instance, "some died" and "a couple died" were interpreted as zero death, while "death in the scale of tens/hundreds/thousands" were interpreted as "ten/a hundred/a thousand died". The reported deaths underestimate the actual deaths, especially because some annals actively covered up deaths.<a href="#cite_note-Song-2011c-83">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-open2012-94">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-Song-2017-96">[95]</a> Annal editors were supervised by the <a href="/wiki/Propaganda_Department_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="Propaganda Department of the Chinese Communist Party">CCP Propaganda Department</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Song-2011c-83">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-Song-2017-96">[95]</a> In 2003, Walder and Yang Su coauthored a paper along this approach, but with fewer county annals available at the time.<a href="#cite_note-Yan2016-93">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-97">[96]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1999 </td> <td>Ding Shu </td> <td>2<a href="#cite_note-Open_Magazine-1999-98">[97]</a> </td> <td>Ding's figures include 100,000 killed in the Red Terror during 1966, with 200,000 forced to commit suicide, plus 300,000–500,000 killed in violent struggles, 500,000 during <a href="/wiki/Cleansing_the_Class_Ranks" title="Cleansing the Class Ranks">Cleansing the Class Ranks</a>, 200,000 during <a href="/wiki/One_Strike-Three_Anti_Campaign" title="One Strike-Three Anti Campaign">One Strike-Three Anti Campaign</a> and the <a href="/wiki/May_Sixteenth_elements" title="May Sixteenth elements">Anti-May Sixteenth Elements Campaign</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Open_Magazine-1999-98">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-Song-2011c-83">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-Yan2016-93">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-open2012-94">[93]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1996 </td> <td>CCP History Research Center </td> <td>1.728<a href="#cite_note-ConsensusNet-2016-99">[98]</a> </td> <td>The 1.728 million were counted as "<a href="/wiki/Unnatural_death" class="mw-redirect" title="Unnatural death">unnatural deaths</a>", among which 9.4% (162,000) were CCP party members and 252,000 were intellectuals. The figures were extracted from 建国以来历次政治运动事实; 'Facts on the Successive Political Movements since the Founding of the PRC', a book by the party's History Research Center, which states that "according to CCP internal investigations in 1978 and 1984 ... 21.44 million were investigated, 125 million got implicated in these investigations; [...] 4.2 million were detained (by Red Guards and other non-police), 1.3 million were arrested by police, 1.728 million of unnatural deaths; [...] 135,000 were executed for crimes of counter-revolution; [...] during violent struggles 237,000 were killed and 7.03 million became disabled".<a href="#cite_note-ConsensusNet-2016-99">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-100">[99]</a> While these internal investigations were never mentioned or published in any other official documents, the scholarly consensus found these figures very reasonable.<a href="#cite_note-open2012-94">[93]</a> <a href="/wiki/Chen_Yung-fa" title="Chen Yung-fa">Chen Yung-fa</a> endorsed the figures, yet he noted that peasants suffered far more in the GLF than in the CR.<a href="#cite_note-Chen_1998-101">[100]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1991 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Rudolph_J._Rummel" class="mw-redirect" title="Rudolph J. Rummel">Rudolph J. Rummel</a> </td> <td>7.731<a href="#cite_note-Rummel-1991-102">[101]</a> </td> <td>Rummel included his estimate of <a href="/wiki/Laogai" title="Laogai">Laogai</a> camp deaths in this figure.<a href="#cite_note-Yan2016-93">[92]</a> He estimated that 5% of the 10 million people in the Laogai camps died each year of the 12-year period, and that this amounts to roughly 6 million. He estimated that another 1.613 million were killed outright, a middle-ground figure he picked between 285,000 and 10,385,000, a range he deemed plausible.<a href="#cite_note-Rummel-1991-102">[101]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1982 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ye_Jianying" title="Ye Jianying">Ye Jianying</a> </td> <td>3.42–20<a href="#cite_note-open2012-94">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pye-1986-85">[84]</a> </td> <td>Several sources have quoted a statement made by <a href="/wiki/Yuanshuai#People's_Republic_of_China" title="Yuanshuai">Marshal</a> <a href="/wiki/Ye_Jianying" title="Ye Jianying">Ye Jianying</a>, of "683,000 deaths in the cities, 2.5 million deaths in the countryside, plus 123,700 deaths due to <a href="/wiki/Violent_Struggle" title="Violent Struggle">violent struggles</a> and 115,500 deaths due to <a href="/wiki/Struggle_session" title="Struggle session">struggle sessions</a> and imprisonment, in addition to 557,000 people missing."<a href="#cite_note-open2012-94">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-ConsensusNet-2016-99">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dai-2016-103">[102]</a> In a 2012 interview with Hong Kong's Open Magazine, an unnamed bureaucrat in Beijing claimed that Ye made the statement in a 1982 CCP meeting, while he was the party's <a href="/wiki/Vice_Chairman_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Vice Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party">Vice Chairman</a>.<a href="#cite_note-open2012-94">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dai-2016-103">[102]</a> Several sources have also quoted that Marshal Ye estimated the death toll to be 20 million during a CCP working conference in December 1978.<a href="#cite_note-Ling-2011-84">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pye-1986-85">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-WangS-2012-86">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-open2012-94">[93]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1979 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Agence_France_Presse" class="mw-redirect" title="Agence France Presse">Agence France Presse</a> </td> <td>0.4<a href="#cite_note-AGP-1979-104">[103]</a> </td> <td>This figure was obtained by an AFP correspondent in Beijing, citing an unnamed but "usually reliable" source.<a href="#cite_note-AGP-1979-104">[103]</a> In 1986, <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Meisner" title="Maurice Meisner">Maurice Meisner</a> referred to this number as a "widely accepted nationwide figure", but also said "The toll may well have been higher. It is unlikely that it was less."<a href="#cite_note-105">[104]</a> Jonathan Leightner asserted that the number is "perhaps one of the best estimates".<a href="#cite_note-106">[105]</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Massacres">Massacres</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cultural_Revolution&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Massacres">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Quotations_from_Chairman_Mao_Zedong_in_Wuxuan_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Quotations_from_Chairman_Mao_Zedong_in_Wuxuan_2.jpg/220px-Quotations_from_Chairman_Mao_Zedong_in_Wuxuan_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Quotations_from_Chairman_Mao_Zedong_in_Wuxuan_2.jpg/330px-Quotations_from_Chairman_Mao_Zedong_in_Wuxuan_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Quotations_from_Chairman_Mao_Zedong_in_Wuxuan_2.jpg/440px-Quotations_from_Chairman_Mao_Zedong_in_Wuxuan_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3457" data-file-height="5185" /></a><figcaption>Quotations of Mao Zedong on a street wall of <a href="/wiki/Wuxuan_County" title="Wuxuan County">Wuxuan County</a>, one of the centers of the Guangxi Massacre</figcaption></figure> Massacres took place across China, including in <a href="/wiki/Guangxi_Massacre" title="Guangxi Massacre">Guangxi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Inner_Mongolia_incident" title="Inner Mongolia incident">Inner Mongolia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guangdong_Cultural_Revolution_Massacre" title="Guangdong Cultural Revolution Massacre">Guangdong</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yunnan_Cultural_Revolution_Massacre_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Yunnan Cultural Revolution Massacre (disambiguation)">Yunnan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hunan_Cultural_Revolution_Massacre_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Hunan Cultural Revolution Massacre (disambiguation)">Hunan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ruijin_Massacre" title="Ruijin Massacre">Ruijin</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Red_August" title="Red August">Red August</a> in Beijing.<a href="#cite_note-Song-2011a-1">[1]</a> These massacres were mainly led and organized by local revolutionary committees, Communist Party branches, militia, and the military.<a href="#cite_note-Song-2011a-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Song-2002-107">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-Yang-2006-108">[107]</a> Most victims were members of the <a href="/wiki/Five_Black_Categories" title="Five Black Categories">Five Black Categories</a> as well as their children, or members of "rebel groups". Chinese scholars have estimated that at least 300,000 people died in these massacres.<a href="#cite_note-Song-2002-107">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-Yang-2017-109">[108]</a> Collective killings in <a href="/wiki/Guangxi" title="Guangxi">Guangxi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Guangdong" title="Guangdong">Guangdong</a> were among the most serious. In Guangxi, the official annals of at least 43 counties have records of massacres, with 15 of them reporting a death toll of over 1,000, while in Guangdong at least 28 county annals record massacres, with 6 of them reporting a death toll of over 1,000.<a href="#cite_note-Yang-2006-108">[107]</a> In 1975, the PLA led <a href="/wiki/Shadian_incident" title="Shadian incident">a massacre</a> in <a href="/wiki/Yunnan" title="Yunnan">Yunnan</a> around the town of Shadian, targeting <a href="/wiki/Hui_people" title="Hui people">Hui people</a>, resulting in the deaths of more than 1,600 civilians, including 300 children, and the destruction of 4,400 homes.<a href="#cite_note-Song-2011a-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Zhou-1999-110">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-Liang-2018-111">[110]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Dao_County" title="Dao County">Dao County</a>, Hunan, a total of 7,696 people were killed <a href="/wiki/Daoxian_massacre" title="Daoxian massacre">from 13 August to 17 October 1967</a>, in addition to 1,397 forced to commit suicide, and 2,146 becoming permanently disabled.<a href="#cite_note-112">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[112]</a> During Red August, official sources in 1980 revealed that at least 1,772 people were killed by Red Guards, including teachers and principals of many schools. 33,695 homes were ransacked and 85,196 families were forced to flee.<a href="#cite_note-Wang-2001-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jian-2015-114">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-NPR-2014-115">[114]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Daxing_Massacre" title="Daxing Massacre">Daxing Massacre</a> caused the deaths of 325 people from 27 August to 1 September 1966; those killed ranged from 80 years old to a 38-day old baby, with 22 families being completely wiped out.<a href="#cite_note-Song-2011a-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jian-2015-114">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-Yu-2020-116">[115]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Guangxi_Massacre" title="Guangxi Massacre">Guangxi Massacre</a>, the official record shows an estimated death toll from 100,000 to 150,000<a href="#cite_note-RFA-2016-117">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-Yan-118">[117]</a> between January and April 1968 in Guangxi, in one of the worst violent struggles of the Revolution, before Zhou sent the PLA to intervene.<a href="#cite_note-Chang-119">[118]</a>: 545  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Violent_struggles,_struggle_sessions,_and_purges">Violent struggles, struggle sessions, and purges</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cultural_Revolution&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Violent struggles, struggle sessions, and purges">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Violent_Struggle" title="Violent Struggle">Violent Struggle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Struggle_session" title="Struggle session">Struggle session</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cleansing_the_Class_Ranks" title="Cleansing the Class Ranks">Cleansing the Class Ranks</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E6%96%87%E9%9D%A9%E5%A2%93%E7%BE%A4.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/%E6%96%87%E9%9D%A9%E5%A2%93%E7%BE%A4.jpg/220px-%E6%96%87%E9%9D%A9%E5%A2%93%E7%BE%A4.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/%E6%96%87%E9%9D%A9%E5%A2%93%E7%BE%A4.jpg/330px-%E6%96%87%E9%9D%A9%E5%A2%93%E7%BE%A4.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/%E6%96%87%E9%9D%A9%E5%A2%93%E7%BE%A4.jpg/440px-%E6%96%87%E9%9D%A9%E5%A2%93%E7%BE%A4.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2816" data-file-height="2112" /></a><figcaption>The Cultural Revolution Cemetery in <a href="/wiki/Chongqing" title="Chongqing">Chongqing</a>, where 400–500 people killed in factional clashes are buried, out of a total of at least 1,700 deaths<a href="#cite_note-Buckley-120">[119]</a></figcaption></figure> Violent struggles were factional conflicts (mostly among Red Guards and "rebel groups") that began in Shanghai and then spread to other areas in 1967. They brought the country to a state of civil war.<a href="#cite_note-Song-2011a-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-121">[120]</a> Weapons used included some 18.77 million guns<a href="#cite_note-122">[note 2]</a>, 2.72 million grenades, 14,828 cannons, millions of other ammunition and even armored cars and tanks.<a href="#cite_note-Song-2011a-1">[1]</a> Notable violent struggles include the battles in Chongqing, in <a href="/wiki/Sichuan" title="Sichuan">Sichuan</a>, and in <a href="/wiki/Xuzhou" title="Xuzhou">Xuzhou</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Song-2011a-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Buckley-120">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-123">[121]</a> Researchers claimed that the nationwide death toll in violent struggles ranged from 300,000 to 500,000.<a href="#cite_note-Song-2011b-124">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-Open_Magazine-1999-98">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-Song-2011a-1">[1]</a> The recorded rate of violence rose in 1967, reaching a peak that summer before dropping suddenly.<a href="#cite_note-Walder-20192-92">[91]</a> During 1967, casualties were relatively low as the weapons used were primarily clubs, spears, and rocks until late July.<a href="#cite_note-Walder-20192-92">[91]</a> Although firearms and heavier weapons began to spread during summer, most were neither trained nor committed fighters and therefore casualties remained relatively low.<a href="#cite_note-Walder-20192-92">[91]</a> The peak of collective violence in summer 1967 dropped sharply after August, when Mao became concerned about rebel attacks on local army units and thereafter made clear that his prior calls to "drag out" army commanders was a mistake and he would instead support besieged army commands.<a href="#cite_note-Walder-20192-92">[91]</a>: 150  The greatest number of casualties occurred during the process of restoring order in 1968, although the overall number of violent conflicts was lower. Walder stated that while "rising casualties from a smaller number of insurgent conflicts surely reflected the increasing scale and organizational coherence of rebel factions, and their growing access to military weaponry[,]" another important factor was that "[t]he longer that local factional warfare continued without the prospect of an equitable political settlement, the greater the stakes for the participants and the more intense the collective violence as factions fought to avoid the consequence of losing."<a href="#cite_note-Walder-20192-92">[91]</a>: 154–155  In addition to violent struggles, millions of Chinese were violently persecuted, especially via struggle sessions. Those identified as spies, "<a href="/wiki/Running_dog" title="Running dog">running dogs</a>", "revisionists", or coming from a suspect class (including those related to former landlords or rich peasants) were subject to beating, imprisonment, rape, torture, sustained and systematic harassment and abuse, seizure of property, denial of medical attention, and erasure of social identity. Intellectuals were also targeted. Many survivors and observers suggest that almost anyone with skills over that of the average person was made the target of political "struggle" in some way.<a href="#cite_note-Harding-65">[64]</a> Some people were not able to stand the torture and committed suicide. Researchers claimed that at least 100,000 to 200,000 people committed suicide during the early CR.<a href="#cite_note-Song-2011b-124">[122]</a> One of the most famous cases of apparent attempted suicide involved Deng Xiaoping's son <a href="/wiki/Deng_Pufang" title="Deng Pufang">Pufang</a>, who was paralyzed when he fell out of a four-story building after he was interrogated by Red Guards. It is disputed whether he jumped or was pushed.<a href="#cite_note-125">[123]</a> At the same time, many "unjust, false, and mistaken" cases appeared due to political purges. In addition to those who died in massacres, a large number of people died or became permanently disabled due to <a href="/wiki/Lynching" title="Lynching">lynching</a> or other forms of persecution. From 1968 to 1969, the Cleansing the Class Ranks purge caused the deaths of at least 500,000 people.<a href="#cite_note-Song-2011a-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-126">[124]</a> Purges of similar nature such as the <a href="/wiki/One_Strike-Three_Anti_Campaign" title="One Strike-Three Anti Campaign">One Strike-Three Anti Campaign</a> and the campaign towards the <a href="/wiki/May_Sixteenth_elements" title="May Sixteenth elements">May Sixteenth elements</a> were launched in the 1970s.<a href="#cite_note-Song-2011b-124">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-Open_Magazine-1999-98">[97]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Inner_Mongolia_incident" title="Inner Mongolia incident">Inner Mongolia incident</a>, official sources in 1980 stated that 346,000 people were wrongly arrested, over 16,000 were persecuted to death or executed, and over 81,000 were permanently disabled.<a href="#cite_note-Song-2011a-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bai-127">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ba-128">[126]</a> However, academics instead estimated fatalities as between 20,000 and 100,000.<a href="#cite_note-Song-2011a-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bai-127">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ba-128">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brown-2007-129">[127]</a> In Yunnan's <a href="/wiki/Zhao_Jianmin_Spy_Case" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhao Jianmin Spy Case">Zhao Jianmin Spy Case</a>, more than 1.387 million people were implicated and persecuted, which accounted for 6% of the province's population.<a href="#cite_note-Song-2011a-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-WangH-2008-130">[128]</a> From 1968 to 1969, more than 17,000 people died in massacres and 61,000 people were crippled for life; in <a href="/wiki/Kunming" title="Kunming">Kunming</a> alone, 1,473 people were killed and 9,661 people were permanently disabled.<a href="#cite_note-Song-2011a-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-WangH-2008-130">[128]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Hebei" title="Hebei">Hebei</a>, Li Chuli, the former deputy director of Organization Department, was purged in 1968 and in turn reported around 80,000 people, 2,955 of whom were persecuted to death.<a href="#cite_note-Ding-2016-131">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-132">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-133">[131]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Repression_of_ethnic_minorities">Repression of ethnic minorities</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cultural_Revolution&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Repression of ethnic minorities">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Inner_Mongolia_incident" title="Inner Mongolia incident">Inner Mongolia incident</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shadian_incident" title="Shadian incident">Shadian incident</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Panchen_Lama_during_the_struggle_(thamzing)_session_1964.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Panchen_Lama_during_the_struggle_%28thamzing%29_session_1964.jpg/300px-Panchen_Lama_during_the_struggle_%28thamzing%29_session_1964.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/03/Panchen_Lama_during_the_struggle_%28thamzing%29_session_1964.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="396" data-file-height="258" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Panchen_Lama" title="Panchen Lama">Panchen Lama</a> during a struggle session</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sampho_and_his_wife_during_the_Cultural_Revolution.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Sampho_and_his_wife_during_the_Cultural_Revolution.jpg/220px-Sampho_and_his_wife_during_the_Cultural_Revolution.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Sampho_and_his_wife_during_the_Cultural_Revolution.jpg/330px-Sampho_and_his_wife_during_the_Cultural_Revolution.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Sampho_and_his_wife_during_the_Cultural_Revolution.jpg/440px-Sampho_and_his_wife_during_the_Cultural_Revolution.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1087" data-file-height="1070" /></a><figcaption>Struggle session of <a href="/wiki/Sampho_Tsewang_Rigzin" title="Sampho Tsewang Rigzin">Sampho Tsewang Rigzin</a> and his wife</figcaption></figure> The Cultural Revolution wrought havoc on minority cultures and ethnicities. Languages and customs of <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_minorities_in_China" title="Ethnic minorities in China">ethnic minorities in China</a> were labeled as part of the Four Olds, texts in ethnic languages were burned, and bilingual education was suppressed.<a href="#cite_note-134">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-135">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-136">[134]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Inner_Mongolia" title="Inner Mongolia">Inner Mongolia</a>, some 790,000 people were persecuted during the Inner Mongolia incident. Of these, 22,900 were beaten to death, and 120,000 were maimed,<a href="#cite_note-Mac-6">[6]</a>: 258  during a witch hunt to find members of the alleged separatist New Inner Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party. In <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang" title="Xinjiang">Xinjiang</a>, copies of the <a href="/wiki/Qur%27an" class="mw-redirect" title="Qur'an">Qur'an</a> and other books of the <a href="/wiki/Uyghur_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Uyghur people">Uyghur people</a> were apparently burned. Muslim imams reportedly were paraded around with paint splashed on their bodies.<a href="#cite_note-Yongming_Zhou_1999,_p._162-137">[135]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Koreans_in_China" title="Koreans in China">ethnic Korean</a> areas of northeast China, language schools were destroyed. According to <a href="/wiki/Julia_Lovell" title="Julia Lovell">Julia Lovell</a>, "[e]vents took a horrific turn in the frontier town of <a href="/wiki/Yanbian_Korean_Autonomous_Prefecture" title="Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture">Yanbian</a>, where freight trains trundled from China into the DPRK, draped with the corpses of Koreans killed in the pitched battles of the Cultural Revolution, and daubed with threatening graffiti: 'This will be your fate also, you tiny revisionists!'"<a href="#cite_note-138">[136]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Yunnan" title="Yunnan">Yunnan</a> Province, the palace of the <a href="/wiki/Dai_people" title="Dai people">Dai people</a>'s king was torched, and a massacre of Muslim <a href="/wiki/Hui_people" title="Hui people">Hui people</a> at the hands of the PLA in Yunnan, known as the <a href="/wiki/Shadian_incident" title="Shadian incident">Shadian incident</a>, reportedly claimed over 1,600 lives in 1975.<a href="#cite_note-Yongming_Zhou_1999,_p._162-137">[135]</a> After the Cultural Revolution, the government gave reparations for the Shadian Incident, including the erection of a Martyr's Memorial in Shadian.<a href="#cite_note-139">[137]</a> Concessions to minorities were abolished during the Cultural Revolution as part of the Red Guards' attack on the "Four Olds". <a href="/wiki/People%27s_commune" title="People's commune">People's communes</a>, previously only established in parts of Tibet, were established throughout <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Autonomous_Region" class="mw-redirect" title="Tibetan Autonomous Region">Tibetan Autonomous Region</a> in 1966,<a href="#cite_note-140">[138]</a> removing Tibet's exemption from China's land reform, and reimposed in other minority areas. The effect on Tibet was particularly severe as it came following the repression after the <a href="/wiki/1959_Tibetan_uprising" title="1959 Tibetan uprising">1959 Tibetan uprising</a>.<a href="#cite_note-141">[139]</a><a href="#cite_note-cycle-142">[140]</a> The destruction of nearly all of its over 6,000 monasteries, which began before the Cultural Revolution, were often conducted with the complicity of local ethnic Tibetan Red Guards.<a href="#cite_note-Ardley-143">[141]</a>: 9  Only eight were intact by the end of the 1970s.<a href="#cite_note-144">[142]</a> Many monks and nuns were killed, and the general population was subjected to physical and psychological torture.<a href="#cite_note-Ardley-143">[141]</a>: 9  An estimated 600,000 monks and nuns lived in Tibet in 1950, but by 1979, most were dead, imprisoned or had disappeared.<a href="#cite_note-Ardley-143">[141]</a>: 22  The Tibetan government in exile claimed that many Tibetans died from famines in 1961–1964 and 1968–1973 as a result of forced collectivization,<a href="#cite_note-cycle-142">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-145">[143]</a> however, the number of Tibetan deaths or whether famines, in fact, took place in these periods is disputed.<a href="#cite_note-146">[144]</a><a href="#cite_note-147">[145]</a><a href="#cite_note-148">[146]</a> Despite persecution, some local leaders and minority ethnic practices survived in remote regions.<a href="#cite_note-149">[147]</a> The overall failure of the Red Guards' and radical assimilationists' goals was mostly due to two factors. It was felt that pushing minority groups too hard would compromise China's border defenses. This was especially important as minorities make up a large percentage of the population that live in border regions. In the late 1960s, China experienced a period of strained relations with some of its neighbors, notably with the Soviet Union and India. Many of the Cultural Revolution's goals in minority areas were simply unreasonable. The return to pluralism, and therefore the end of the worst period, coincided with Lin Biao's removal from power.<a href="#cite_note-Dreyer-150">[148]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rape_and_sexual_abuse">Rape and sexual abuse</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cultural_Revolution&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Rape and sexual abuse">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Sent-down_youth#Sexual_violence" title="Sent-down youth">Sent-down youth § Sexual violence</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Pan_Suiming" title="Pan Suiming">Suiming</a>, Honig, and others documented that rape and sexual abuse of sent-down women were common during the CR's height.<a href="#cite_note-151">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-152">[150]</a> Branigan documented that women raped tended to be from educated urban backgrounds while their rapists were poor peasants or local officials.<a href="#cite_note-153">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-154">[152]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cultural_impact_and_influence">Cultural impact and influence</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cultural_Revolution&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Cultural impact and influence">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Red_Guards_riot">Red Guards riot</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cultural_Revolution&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Red Guards riot">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Beijing_1968_I.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Beijing_1968_I.jpg/220px-Beijing_1968_I.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Beijing_1968_I.jpg/330px-Beijing_1968_I.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Beijing_1968_I.jpg/440px-Beijing_1968_I.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2319" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>A 1968 map of Beijing showing streets and landmarks renamed during the Cultural Revolution. Andingmen Inner Street became "Great Leap Forward Road", Taijichang Street became the "Road for Eternal Revolution", Dongjiaominxiang was renamed "Anti-Imperialist Road", Beihai Park was renamed "Worker-Peasant-Soldier Park" and Jingshan Park became "Red Guard Park". Most of the Cultural Revolution-era name changes were later reversed.</figcaption></figure> The revolution aimed to destroy the Four Olds and establish the corresponding Four News, which ranged from changing of names and cutting of hair to ransacking homes, vandalizing cultural treasures, and desecrating temples.<a href="#cite_note-Lu-13">[13]</a>: 61–64  The revolution aimed to eliminate <a href="/wiki/Cow_demons_and_snake_spirits" title="Cow demons and snake spirits">cow demons and snake spirits</a> - the class enemies who promoted bourgeois ideas, as well as those from an exploitative family background or who belonged to one of the Five Black Categories. Large numbers of people perceived to be "monsters and demons" regardless of guilt or innocence were publicly denounced, humiliated, and beaten. In their revolutionary fervor, students, especially the Red Guards, denounced their teachers, and children denounced their parents.<a href="#cite_note-Lu-13">[13]</a>: 59–61  Many died from ill-treatment or committed suicide. In 1968, youths were mobilized to go to the countryside in the <a href="/wiki/Down_to_the_Countryside_Movement" title="Down to the Countryside Movement">Down to the Countryside Movement</a> so they may learn from the peasantry, and the departure of millions from the cities helped end the most violent phase of the Cultural Revolution.<a href="#cite_note-King-155">[153]</a>: 176  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Academics_and_education">Academics and education</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cultural_Revolution&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Academics and education">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yao_Tongbin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Yao_Tongbin.jpg/180px-Yao_Tongbin.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="254" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Yao_Tongbin.jpg/270px-Yao_Tongbin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5f/Yao_Tongbin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="354" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Yao_Tongbin" title="Yao Tongbin">Yao Tongbin</a>, one of China's foremost <a href="/wiki/Missile" title="Missile">missile</a> scientists, was beaten to death by a mob in Beijing during the Cultural Revolution (1968). This caused <a href="/wiki/Zhou_Enlai" title="Zhou Enlai">Zhou Enlai</a> to order special protection for key technical experts.<a href="#cite_note-156">[154]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1968-02_1967%E5%B9%B4_%E5%8C%97%E4%BA%AC%E4%BA%8C%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%AD%E5%A4%8D%E8%AF%BE%E9%97%B9%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/1968-02_1967%E5%B9%B4_%E5%8C%97%E4%BA%AC%E4%BA%8C%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%AD%E5%A4%8D%E8%AF%BE%E9%97%B9%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD2.jpg/220px-1968-02_1967%E5%B9%B4_%E5%8C%97%E4%BA%AC%E4%BA%8C%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%AD%E5%A4%8D%E8%AF%BE%E9%97%B9%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/1968-02_1967%E5%B9%B4_%E5%8C%97%E4%BA%AC%E4%BA%8C%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%AD%E5%A4%8D%E8%AF%BE%E9%97%B9%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD2.jpg/330px-1968-02_1967%E5%B9%B4_%E5%8C%97%E4%BA%AC%E4%BA%8C%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%AD%E5%A4%8D%E8%AF%BE%E9%97%B9%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/1968-02_1967%E5%B9%B4_%E5%8C%97%E4%BA%AC%E4%BA%8C%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%AD%E5%A4%8D%E8%AF%BE%E9%97%B9%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD2.jpg/440px-1968-02_1967%E5%B9%B4_%E5%8C%97%E4%BA%AC%E4%BA%8C%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%AD%E5%A4%8D%E8%AF%BE%E9%97%B9%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1410" data-file-height="949" /></a><figcaption>A classroom at Beijing No. 23 Middle School in 1967. At the time, students were commanded to return to schools and "resume classes while carrying out the revolution".<a href="#cite_note-157">[155]</a> On the blackboard at the back is the text "Conference to Complaint and Criticize the Revisionist Education Line".</figcaption></figure> Academics and <a href="/wiki/Intellectual" title="Intellectual">intellectuals</a> were regarded as the "<a href="/wiki/Stinking_Old_Ninth" title="Stinking Old Ninth">Stinking Old Ninth</a>" and were widely persecuted. Many were sent to rural labor camps such as the <a href="/wiki/May_Seventh_Cadre_School" title="May Seventh Cadre School">May Seventh Cadre School</a>. The prosecution of the Gang of Four revealed that 142,000 cadres and teachers in the education circles were persecuted. Academics, scientists, and educators who died included <a href="/wiki/Xiong_Qinglai" title="Xiong Qinglai">Xiong Qinglai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jian_Bozan" title="Jian Bozan">Jian Bozan</a>, Wu Han, <a href="/wiki/Rao_Yutai" title="Rao Yutai">Rao Yutai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wu_Dingliang" title="Wu Dingliang">Wu Dingliang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yao_Tongbin" title="Yao Tongbin">Yao Tongbin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zhao_Jiuzhang" title="Zhao Jiuzhang">Zhao Jiuzhang</a>.<a href="#cite_note-documents-158">[156]</a> As of 1968, among the 171 senior members who worked at the headquarters of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Chinese Academy of Sciences">Chinese Academy of Sciences</a> in Beijing, 131 were persecuted. Among the members of the academy, 229 died.<a href="#cite_note-159">[157]</a> As of September 1971, more than 4,000 staff members of China's nuclear center in <a href="/wiki/Qinghai" title="Qinghai">Qinghai</a> had been persecuted. More than 310 were disabled, over 40 committed suicide, and 5 were <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Capital punishment">executed</a>.<a href="#cite_note-160">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-161">[159]</a> During the CR, scientists tested the first missile, created China's first <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen bomb">hydrogen bomb</a> and launched China's first satellite in the <a href="/wiki/Two_Bombs,_One_Satellite" title="Two Bombs, One Satellite">Two Bombs, One Satellite</a> program.<a href="#cite_note-162">[160]</a> Significant achievements came in science and technology.<a href="#cite_note-163">[161]</a> In the CR's early months, schools and universities were closed. Secondary school classes of 1966, 1967, and 1968 were unable to graduate on time later and became known as the Old Three cohort.<a href="#cite_note-Xu2022-32">[32]</a>: 362  Primary and middle schools gradually reopened, but colleges and universities were closed until 1970, and most universities did not reopen until 1972.<a href="#cite_note-Joel-164">[162]</a>: 164  <a href="/wiki/National_College_Entrance_Examination" class="mw-redirect" title="National College Entrance Examination">University entrance exams</a> were cancelled after 1966, replaced by a system whereby students were recommended by factories, villages and military units. Entrance exams were not restored until 1977 under Deng. Traditional values were abandoned.<a href="#cite_note-Lu-13">[13]</a>: 195  During the Cultural Revolution, basic education was emphasized and expanded. While schooling years were reduced and education standard fell, the proportion of Chinese children who completed primary education increased from less than half to almost all, and the fraction who completed junior middle school rose from 15% to over two-thirds. Educational opportunities for rural children expanded, while education of the urban elite were restricted by anti-elitist policies.<a href="#cite_note-Joel-164">[162]</a>: 166–167  Industrial Universities were established in factories to supply technical and engineering programs for industrial workers. These study programs were inspired by Mao's July 1968 remarks advocating <a href="/wiki/Vocational_education" title="Vocational education">vocational education</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Xu2022-32">[32]</a>: 362  Mao had given the instruction to emulate the model of the Shanghai Machine Tool Factory university. Factories around the country therefore established their own educational programs for technicians and engineers. By 1976, there were 15,000 such 21 July Universities.<a href="#cite_note-:Minami-165">[163]</a>: 92  In the Down to the Countryside Movement's initial stages, most of the youth who took part volunteered. Later on, the government forced them to move. Between 1968 and 1979, 17 million urban youth left for the countryside. Living in the rural areas deprived them of higher education.<a href="#cite_note-King-155">[153]</a>: 10  This generation is referred to as the 'lost generation'.<a href="#cite_note-Lu-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-166">[164]</a><a href="#cite_note-167">[165]</a> In the post-Mao period, many of those forcibly moved attacked the policy as a violation of their human rights.<a href="#cite_note-Gao-168">[166]</a>: 36  The Cultural Revolution's impact on accessible education varied across regions. Formal literacy measurements did not resume until the 1980s.<a href="#cite_note-Peterson-169">[167]</a> Some counties in <a href="/wiki/Zhanjiang" title="Zhanjiang">Zhanjiang</a> had literacy rates as low as 59% 20 years after the revolution. China's leaders denied illiteracy problems. This was amplified by the elimination of qualified teachers—many districts were forced to rely on students to teach.<a href="#cite_note-Peterson-169">[167]</a> Though the Cultural Revolution was disastrous for millions, positive outcomes advanced some groups, such as those in rural areas. For example, the upheavals and the hostility to the intellectual elite is widely seen to have damaged education, especially at the upper end of the education system. Radical policies provided many in rural communities with middle school education for the first time, which is thought to have facilitated rural economic development.<a href="#cite_note-Joel-164">[162]</a>: 163  Rural infrastructure developed during CR, facilitated by the political changes that empowered ordinary rurals.<a href="#cite_note-Han2008-170">[168]</a>: 177  Many health personnel were deployed to the countryside as <a href="/wiki/Barefoot_doctors" class="mw-redirect" title="Barefoot doctors">barefoot doctors</a>. Some farmers were given informal medical training, and health-care centers were established in rural communities. This process led to a marked improvement in health and life expectancy.<a href="#cite_note-Huang_Foreign_Affairs_2011-171">[169]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Slogans_and_rhetoric">Slogans and rhetoric</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cultural_Revolution&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Slogans and rhetoric">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1967-04_1967%E5%B9%B4%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD%E6%97%A0%E7%BD%AA%E9%80%A0%E5%8F%8D%E6%9C%89%E7%90%86.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/1967-04_1967%E5%B9%B4%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD%E6%97%A0%E7%BD%AA%E9%80%A0%E5%8F%8D%E6%9C%89%E7%90%86.jpg/220px-1967-04_1967%E5%B9%B4%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD%E6%97%A0%E7%BD%AA%E9%80%A0%E5%8F%8D%E6%9C%89%E7%90%86.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="253" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/1967-04_1967%E5%B9%B4%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD%E6%97%A0%E7%BD%AA%E9%80%A0%E5%8F%8D%E6%9C%89%E7%90%86.jpg/330px-1967-04_1967%E5%B9%B4%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD%E6%97%A0%E7%BD%AA%E9%80%A0%E5%8F%8D%E6%9C%89%E7%90%86.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/1967-04_1967%E5%B9%B4%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD%E6%97%A0%E7%BD%AA%E9%80%A0%E5%8F%8D%E6%9C%89%E7%90%86.jpg/440px-1967-04_1967%E5%B9%B4%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD%E6%97%A0%E7%BD%AA%E9%80%A0%E5%8F%8D%E6%9C%89%E7%90%86.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1498" data-file-height="1721" /></a><figcaption>A Red Guard holding up the <a href="/wiki/Selected_Works_of_Mao_Zedong" class="mw-redirect" title="Selected Works of Mao Zedong">Selected Works of Mao Zedong</a>, with "revolution is no crime, to rebel is justified" written on a flag next to him, 1967</figcaption></figure> Huang claimed that the Cultural Revolution had massive effects on Chinese society because of the extensive use of political slogans.<a href="#cite_note-huang-172">[170]</a> He claimed that slogans played a central role in rallying Party leadership and citizens. For example, the slogan "to rebel is justified" (造反有理; zàofǎn yǒulǐ) affected many views.<a href="#cite_note-huang-172">[170]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cultural_revolution_anhui.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Cultural_revolution_anhui.jpg/220px-Cultural_revolution_anhui.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Cultural_revolution_anhui.jpg/330px-Cultural_revolution_anhui.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Cultural_revolution_anhui.jpg/440px-Cultural_revolution_anhui.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption>The remnants of a banner containing slogans from the Cultural Revolution in <a href="/wiki/Anhui" title="Anhui">Anhui</a></figcaption></figure> Huang asserted that slogans were ubiquitous in people's lives, printed onto everyday items such as bus tickets, cigarette packets, and mirror tables.<a href="#cite_note-Gao-168">[166]</a>: 14  Workers were supposed to "grasp revolution and promote productions", while peasants were supposed to raise more pigs because "more pigs means more manure, and more manure means more grain." Even a casual remark by Mao, "Sweet potato tastes good; I like it" became a slogan.<a href="#cite_note-huang-172">[170]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] Political slogans had three sources: Mao, Party media such as People's Daily, and the Red Guards.<a href="#cite_note-huang-172">[170]</a> Mao often offered vague, yet powerful directives that divided the Red Guards.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChangHalliday2005-173">[171]</a> These directives could be interpreted to suit personal interests, in turn aiding factions' goals in claiming loyalty to Mao. Red Guard slogans were violent, advancing themes such as "Strike the enemy down on the floor and step on him with a foot", "Long live the red terror!" and "Those who are against Chairman Mao will have their dog skulls smashed into pieces."<a href="#cite_note-huang-172">[170]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] Dittmer and Ruoxi claim that the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language_in_the_United_States" title="Chinese language in the United States">Chinese language</a> had historically been defined by subtlety, delicacy, moderation, and honesty, as well as the cultivation of a "refined and elegant literary style".<a href="#cite_note-Dittmer-174">[172]</a> This changed during the CR. These slogans were an effective method of "thought reform", mobilizing millions in a concerted attack upon the subjective world, "while at the same time reforming their objective world."<a href="#cite_note-huang-172">[170]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>]<a href="#cite_note-Dittmer-174">[172]</a>: 12  Dittmer and Chen argued that the emphasis on politics made language into effective propaganda, but "also transformed it into a jargon of stereotypes—pompous, repetitive, and boring".<a href="#cite_note-Dittmer-174">[172]</a>: 12  To distance itself from the era, Deng's government cut back on political slogans. During a eulogy for Deng's death, <a href="/wiki/Jiang_Zemin" title="Jiang Zemin">Jiang Zemin</a> called the Cultural Revolution a "grave mistake".<a href="#cite_note-175">[173]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arts_and_literature">Arts and literature</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cultural_Revolution&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Arts and literature">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Revolutionary_opera.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Revolutionary_opera.jpg/300px-Revolutionary_opera.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Revolutionary_opera.jpg/450px-Revolutionary_opera.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Revolutionary_opera.jpg/600px-Revolutionary_opera.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3080" data-file-height="2055" /></a><figcaption>The ballet <a href="/wiki/Red_Detachment_of_Women_(ballet)" title="Red Detachment of Women (ballet)">The Red Detachment of Women</a>, one of the Model Dramas promoted during the Cultural Revolution</figcaption></figure> Drastic changes in art and culture took place.<a href="#cite_note-Ching-2021-176">[174]</a> Before this period, few cultural productions reflected the lives of peasants and workers. The struggles of workers, peasants, and revolutionary soldiers became frequent artistic subjects, often created by peasants and workers themselves.<a href="#cite_note-Ching-2021-176">[174]</a> The spread of peasant paintings in rural China, for example, became one of the "<a href="/wiki/Newborn_socialist_things" title="Newborn socialist things">newborn things</a>" celebrated in a socialist society.<a href="#cite_note-Ching-2021-176">[174]</a> In poor and remote areas, movies and operas were shown for free.<a href="#cite_note-Lin_2006-177">[175]</a> Mobile film units brought cinema to the countryside and were crucial to the standardization and popularization of culture, particularly including <a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_opera" title="Revolutionary opera">revolutionary model operas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Coderre2021-178">[176]</a>: 30  Jiang took control of the stage and introduced revolutionary operas under her direct supervision. Traditional operas were banned as they were considered feudalistic and bourgeois, but revolutionary opera, which modified <a href="/wiki/Peking_opera" title="Peking opera">Peking opera</a> in both content and form, was promoted.<a href="#cite_note-Lu-13">[13]</a>: 115  Six operas and two ballets were produced in the first three years, most notably the opera <a href="/wiki/The_Legend_of_the_Red_Lantern" title="The Legend of the Red Lantern">The Legend of the Red Lantern</a>. These operas were the only approved opera form. Other opera troupes were required to adopt or change their repertoire.<a href="#cite_note-King-155">[153]</a>: 176  The model operas were broadcast on the radio, made into films, blared from public loudspeakers, taught to students in schools and workers in factories, and became ubiquitous as a form of popular entertainment and were the only theatrical entertainment for millions.<a href="#cite_note-Jiaqi-34">[34]</a>: 352–53 <a href="#cite_note-Lu-13">[13]</a>: 115  Most model dramas featured women as their leads and promoted Chinese state feminism.<a href="#cite_note-Karl-2010-179">[177]</a> Their narratives begin with them oppressed by <a href="/wiki/Misogyny" title="Misogyny">misogyny</a>, class position, and imperialism before liberating themselves through the discovery of internal strength and the CCP.<a href="#cite_note-Karl-2010-179">[177]</a> In 1966, Jiang advanced the Theory of the Dictatorship of the Black Line. Those perceived to be bourgeois, anti-socialist or anti-Mao (black line) should be cast aside, and called for the creation of new literature and arts.<a href="#cite_note-Jiaqi-34">[34]</a>: 352–353  Disseminators of the "old culture" would be eradicated. The majority of writers and artists were seen as "black line figures" and "reactionary literati", and were persecuted, and subjected to "criticism and denunciation" where they could be humiliated and ravaged, and be imprisoned or sent to hard labour.<a href="#cite_note-Hong-180">[178]</a>: 213–214  For instance, <a href="/wiki/Mei_Zhi" title="Mei Zhi">Mei Zhi</a> and her husband were sent to a tea farm in <a href="/wiki/Lushan_County,_Sichuan" title="Lushan County, Sichuan">Lushan County, Sichuan</a>. She did not resume writing until the 1980s.<a href="#cite_note-sina-181">[179]</a> Documents released in 1980 regarding the prosecution of the Gang of Four show that more than 2,600 people in the field of arts and literature were persecuted by the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Culture_(China)" title="Ministry of Culture (China)">Ministry of Culture</a>.<a href="#cite_note-documents-158">[156]</a> Many died: the names of 200 writers and artists who were persecuted to death were commemorated in 1979. These include writers such as <a href="/wiki/Lao_She" title="Lao She">Lao She</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fu_Lei" title="Fu Lei">Fu Lei</a>, <a href="/wiki/Deng_Tuo" title="Deng Tuo">Deng Tuo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Baren_(author)" class="mw-redirect" title="Baren (author)">Baren</a>, <a href="/wiki/Li_Guangtian" title="Li Guangtian">Li Guangtian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yang_Shuo_(writer)" title="Yang Shuo (writer)">Yang Shuo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zhao_Shuli" title="Zhao Shuli">Zhao Shuli</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Hong-180">[178]</a>: 213–14  In 1970, the communist party came to view the Ministry of Culture as so disruptive that it decided to dissolve the Ministry and establish a Culture Group within the <a href="/wiki/State_Council_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="State Council of the People's Republic of China">State Council</a> in an effort to rein in cultural politics.<a href="#cite_note-:Minami-165">[163]</a>: 160  The principles for cultural production laid out by Mao in the 1942 "<a href="/wiki/Talks_at_the_Yan%27an_Forum_on_Art_and_Literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Talks at the Yan'an Forum on Art and Literature">Talks at the Yan'an Forum on Art and Literature</a>" became dogmatized.<a href="#cite_note-182">[180]</a> The literary situation eased after 1972, as more were allowed to write, and many provincial literary periodicals resumed publication, but the majority of writers still could not work.<a href="#cite_note-Hong-180">[178]</a>: 219–20  The effect is similar in the film industry. The Four Hundred Films to be Criticized booklet was distributed, and film directors and actors/actresses were criticized with some tortured and imprisoned.<a href="#cite_note-Jiaqi-34">[34]</a>: 401–02  These included many of Jiang's rivals and former friends. Those who died in the period included <a href="/wiki/Cai_Chusheng" title="Cai Chusheng">Cai Chusheng</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zheng_Junli" title="Zheng Junli">Zheng Junli</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shangguan_Yunzhu" title="Shangguan Yunzhu">Shangguan Yunzhu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wang_Ying_(actress)" title="Wang Ying (actress)">Wang Ying</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Xu_Lai_(actress)" title="Xu Lai (actress)">Xu Lai</a>.<a href="#cite_note-183">[181]</a> No feature films were produced in mainland China for seven years apart from a few approved "Model dramas" and highly ideological films.<a href="#cite_note-184">[182]</a> A notable example is <a href="/wiki/Taking_Tiger_Mountain_by_Strategy_(film)" title="Taking Tiger Mountain by Strategy (film)">Taking Tiger Mountain by Strategy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-185">[183]</a><a href="#cite_note-186">[184]</a> <a href="/wiki/Loyalty_dance" title="Loyalty dance">Loyalty dances</a> became common and were performed throughout the country by both professional cultural workers and ordinary people.<a href="#cite_note-Xu2022-32">[32]</a>: 362  During the Cultural Revolution, composers of <a href="/wiki/Yellow_Music" class="mw-redirect" title="Yellow Music">Yellow Music</a>, which had already banned following the communist takeover, were persecuted, including <a href="/wiki/Li_Jinhui" title="Li Jinhui">Li Jinhui</a> who was killed in 1967.<a href="#cite_note-187">[185]</a> Revolution-themed songs instead were promoted, and songs such as "<a href="/wiki/Ode_to_the_Motherland" title="Ode to the Motherland">Ode to the Motherland</a>", "<a href="/wiki/Sailing_the_Seas_Depends_on_the_Helmsman" title="Sailing the Seas Depends on the Helmsman">Sailing the Seas Depends on the Helmsman</a>", "<a href="/wiki/The_East_Is_Red_(song)" title="The East Is Red (song)">The East Is Red</a>" and "<a href="/wiki/Without_the_Communist_Party,_There_Would_Be_No_New_China" title="Without the Communist Party, There Would Be No New China">Without the Communist Party, There Would Be No New China</a>" were either written or became popular during this period. "The East Is Red", especially, became popular; it de facto supplanted "<a href="/wiki/March_of_the_Volunteers" title="March of the Volunteers">March of the Volunteers</a>" as the national anthem of China, though the latter was later restored to its previous place.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Quotation songs, in which Mao's quotations were set to music, were particularly popular during the early years of the Cultural Revolution.<a href="#cite_note-Coderre2021-178">[176]</a>: 34  Records of quotation songs were played over loudspeakers, their primary distribution,<a href="#cite_note-Coderre2021-178">[176]</a>: 35  as the use of transistor radios lagged until 1976.<a href="#cite_note-Coderre2021-178">[176]</a>: 32–33  "<a href="/wiki/Rusticated_youths" class="mw-redirect" title="Rusticated youths">Rusticated youths</a>" with an interest in broadcast technology frequently operated rural radio stations after 1968.<a href="#cite_note-Coderre2021-178">[176]</a>: 42  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Visual_arts">Visual arts</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cultural_Revolution&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Visual arts">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SZ_%E6%B7%B1%E5%9C%B3%E5%8D%9A%E7%89%A9%E9%A4%A8_Shenzhen_Museum_%E6%B7%B1%E5%9C%B3%E6%94%B9%E9%9D%A9%E9%96%8B%E6%94%BE%E5%89%8D%E6%AD%B7%E5%8F%B2%E5%B1%95%E5%BB%B3_Before_Reform_and_Opening-up_History_Exhibition_Hall_%E6%96%87%E9%9D%A9%E6%99%82%E4%BB%A3%E7%B4%85%E8%89%B2%E6%80%9D%E6%83%B3%E5%AE%A3%E5%82%B3%E6%B5%B7%E5%B8%83_political_posters_IX1_03.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/SZ_%E6%B7%B1%E5%9C%B3%E5%8D%9A%E7%89%A9%E9%A4%A8_Shenzhen_Museum_%E6%B7%B1%E5%9C%B3%E6%94%B9%E9%9D%A9%E9%96%8B%E6%94%BE%E5%89%8D%E6%AD%B7%E5%8F%B2%E5%B1%95%E5%BB%B3_Before_Reform_and_Opening-up_History_Exhibition_Hall_%E6%96%87%E9%9D%A9%E6%99%82%E4%BB%A3%E7%B4%85%E8%89%B2%E6%80%9D%E6%83%B3%E5%AE%A3%E5%82%B3%E6%B5%B7%E5%B8%83_political_posters_IX1_03.jpg/220px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/SZ_%E6%B7%B1%E5%9C%B3%E5%8D%9A%E7%89%A9%E9%A4%A8_Shenzhen_Museum_%E6%B7%B1%E5%9C%B3%E6%94%B9%E9%9D%A9%E9%96%8B%E6%94%BE%E5%89%8D%E6%AD%B7%E5%8F%B2%E5%B1%95%E5%BB%B3_Before_Reform_and_Opening-up_History_Exhibition_Hall_%E6%96%87%E9%9D%A9%E6%99%82%E4%BB%A3%E7%B4%85%E8%89%B2%E6%80%9D%E6%83%B3%E5%AE%A3%E5%82%B3%E6%B5%B7%E5%B8%83_political_posters_IX1_03.jpg/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/SZ_%E6%B7%B1%E5%9C%B3%E5%8D%9A%E7%89%A9%E9%A4%A8_Shenzhen_Museum_%E6%B7%B1%E5%9C%B3%E6%94%B9%E9%9D%A9%E9%96%8B%E6%94%BE%E5%89%8D%E6%AD%B7%E5%8F%B2%E5%B1%95%E5%BB%B3_Before_Reform_and_Opening-up_History_Exhibition_Hall_%E6%96%87%E9%9D%A9%E6%99%82%E4%BB%A3%E7%B4%85%E8%89%B2%E6%80%9D%E6%83%B3%E5%AE%A3%E5%82%B3%E6%B5%B7%E5%B8%83_political_posters_IX1_03.jpg/440px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1368" /></a><figcaption>Posters from the Cultural Revolution period</figcaption></figure> Some of the most enduring images come from poster arts. Propaganda in posters was used as a mass communication device and often served as the people's leading source of information. They were produced in large numbers and widely disseminated, and were used by the government and Red Guards to push ideology defined by the Party.<a href="#cite_note-188">[186]</a> The two main posters genres were the big-character poster and commercial propaganda poster.<a href="#cite_note-Cushing-189">[187]</a>: 7–12  The dazibao presented slogans, poems, commentary and graphics often posted on walls in public spaces, factories and communes. Mao wrote his own dazibao at Beijing University on 5 August 1966, calling on the people to "Bombard the Headquarters".<a href="#cite_note-Cushing-189">[187]</a>: 5  <a href="/wiki/Xuanchuan" class="mw-redirect" title="Xuanchuan">Xuanchuanhua</a> were artworks produced by the government and sold cheaply in stores to be displayed in homes or workplaces. The artists for these posters might be amateurs or uncredited professionals, and the posters were largely in a <a href="/wiki/Socialist_Realist" class="mw-redirect" title="Socialist Realist">Socialist Realist</a> visual style with specific conventions—for example, images of Mao were to be depicted as "red, smooth, and luminescent".<a href="#cite_note-Cushing-189">[187]</a>: 7–12 <a href="#cite_note-Andrews-190">[188]</a>: 360  Traditional themes were sidelined and artists such as <a href="/wiki/Feng_Zikai" title="Feng Zikai">Feng Zikai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shi_Lu" title="Shi Lu">Shi Lu</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pan_Tianshou" title="Pan Tianshou">Pan Tianshou</a> were persecuted.<a href="#cite_note-King-155">[153]</a>: 97  Many of the artists were assigned to manual labour, and artists were expected to depict subjects that glorified the Cultural Revolution related to their labour.<a href="#cite_note-Andrews-190">[188]</a>: 351–52  In 1971, in part to alleviate their suffering, several leading artists were recalled from manual labour or freed from captivity under a Zhou initiative to decorate hotels and railway stations defaced by Red Guard slogans. Zhou said that the artworks were meant for foreigners, therefore were "outer" art and not under the obligations and restrictions placed on "inner" art meant for Chinese citizens. He claimed that landscape paintings should not be considered one of the "Four Olds". However, Zhou was weakened by cancer, and in 1974, the Jiang faction seized these and other paintings and mounted exhibitions in Beijing, Shanghai and other cities denouncing the artworks as "<a href="/wiki/Black_Painting_incident" title="Black Painting incident">Black Paintings</a>".<a href="#cite_note-Andrews-190">[188]</a>: 368–376  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Film">Film</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cultural_Revolution&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Film">edit</a>]</div> Mobile film units brought <a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_China" title="Cinema of China">Chinese cinema</a> to the countryside and were crucial to the standardization and popularization of culture during this period, particularly including revolutionary model operas.<a href="#cite_note-Coderre2021-178">[176]</a>: 30  During the Cultural Revolution's early years, mobile film teams traveled to rural areas with news reels of Mao meeting with Red Guards and Tiananmen Square parades, and welcomed ceremoniously in rural communities. These news reels became known as "red treasure films", analogous to how the Little Red Books were dubbed "red treasure books".<a href="#cite_note-191">[189]</a>: 110 The release of the filmed versions of the revolutionary model operas resulted in a re-organization and expansion of China's film exhibition network.<a href="#cite_note-Li2023-18">[18]</a>: 73  From 1965 to 1976, the number of film projection units in China quadrupled, total film audiences nearly tripled, and the national film attendance rate doubled.<a href="#cite_note-Li2023-18">[18]</a>: 133  The Cultural Revolution Group drastically reduced ticket prices which, in its view, would allow film to better serve the needs of workers and of socialism.<a href="#cite_note-Li2023-18">[18]</a>: 133  China rejected Hollywood films and most foreign films.<a href="#cite_note-Li2023-18">[18]</a>: 213  <a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Albania" title="Cinema of Albania">Albanian films</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_North_Korea" title="Cinema of North Korea">North Korean films</a> developed mass audiences in China.<a href="#cite_note-Li2023-18">[18]</a>: 213  In 1972, Chinese officials invited <a href="/wiki/Michelangelo_Antonioni" title="Michelangelo Antonioni">Michelangelo Antonioni</a> to China to film the achievements of the Cultural Revolution. Antonioni made the documentary <a href="/wiki/Chung_Kuo,_Cina" title="Chung Kuo, Cina">Chung Kuo, Cina</a>. When it was released in 1974, CCP leadership in China interpreted the film as <a href="/wiki/Reactionary" title="Reactionary">reactionary</a> and anti-Chinese. Viewing art through the principles of the <a href="/wiki/Yan%27an_Forum" title="Yan'an Forum">Yan'an Talks</a>, particularly the concept that there is no such thing as art-for-art's-sake, party leadership construed Antonioni's aesthetic choices as politically motivated and banned the film. Since its 2004 release in China, the film has been well-regarded by Chinese audiences, especially for its beautiful depictions of a more simple time.<a href="#cite_note-192">[190]</a>: 13–14  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historical_sites">Historical sites</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cultural_Revolution&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Historical sites">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Trip_to_Ningxia_and_Gansu.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Trip_to_Ningxia_and_Gansu.jpg/300px-Trip_to_Ningxia_and_Gansu.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Trip_to_Ningxia_and_Gansu.jpg/450px-Trip_to_Ningxia_and_Gansu.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Trip_to_Ningxia_and_Gansu.jpg/600px-Trip_to_Ningxia_and_Gansu.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Buddhist statues defaced during the Cultural Revolution</figcaption></figure> China's historical sites, artifacts and archives suffered devastating damage, as they were thought to be at the root of "old ways of thinking". Artifacts were seized, museums and private homes ransacked, and any item found that was thought to represent bourgeois or <a href="/wiki/Feudal" class="mw-redirect" title="Feudal">feudal</a> ideas was destroyed. Few records relate how much was destroyed—Western observers suggest that much of China's thousands of years of history was in effect destroyed, or, later, smuggled abroad for sale. Chinese historians compare the suppression to <a href="/wiki/Qin_Shi_Huang" title="Qin Shi Huang">Qin Shi Huang</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Great_Confucian_purge" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Confucian purge">great Confucian purge</a>. <a href="/wiki/Religious_persecution" title="Religious persecution">Religious persecution</a> intensified during this period, as religion was viewed in opposition to Marxist–Leninist and Maoist thinking.<a href="#cite_note-Jiaqi-34">[34]</a>: 73  The destruction of historical relics was never formally sanctioned by the Party, whose official policy was instead to protect such items. On 14 May 1967, the Central Committee issued Several suggestions for the protection of cultural relics and books during the Cultural Revolution.<a href="#cite_note-Gao-168">[166]</a>: 21  Despite this, enormous damage was inflicted on China's cultural heritage. For example, a survey in 1972 in Beijing of 18 cultural heritage sites, including the <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Heaven" title="Temple of Heaven">Temple of Heaven</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ming_Dynasty_Tombs" class="mw-redirect" title="Ming Dynasty Tombs">Ming Tombs</a>, showed extensive damage. Of the 80 cultural heritage sites in Beijing under municipal protection, 30 were destroyed, and of the 6,843 cultural sites under protection by Beijing government decision in 1958, 4,922 were damaged or destroyed.<a href="#cite_note-193">[191]</a> Numerous valuable old books, paintings, and other cultural relics were burnt.<a href="#cite_note-Barnouin-194">[192]</a>: 98  Later <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeological</a> excavation and preservation after the destructive period were protected, and several significant discoveries, such as the <a href="/wiki/Terracotta_Army" title="Terracotta Army">Terracotta Army</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Mawangdui" title="Mawangdui">Mawangdui</a>, occurred after the peak of the Revolution.<a href="#cite_note-Gao-168">[166]</a>: 21  Nevertheless, the most prominent medium of academic research in archaeology, the journal <a href="/wiki/Kaogu_(journal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaogu (journal)">Kaogu</a>, did not publish.<a href="#cite_note-195">[193]</a> After the most violent phase, the attack on traditional culture continued in 1973 with the Anti-Lin Biao, Anti-Confucius Campaign as part of the struggle against moderate Party elements. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Media">Media</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cultural_Revolution&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Media">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Media_history_of_China" title="Media history of China">Media history of China</a></div> During the early period of the Cultural Revolution, <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press_in_China" title="Freedom of the press in China">freedom of the press in China</a> was at its peak.<a href="#cite_note-Russo2020a-196">[194]</a> While the number of newspapers declined in this period, the number of independent publications by mass political organizations grew.<a href="#cite_note-Volland2021-197">[195]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/National_Bureau_of_Statistics_of_China" title="National Bureau of Statistics of China">China's National Bureau of Statistics</a>, the number of newspapers dropped from 343 in 1965, to 49 in 1966, and then to a 20th-century low of 43 in 1967.<a href="#cite_note-Volland2021-197">[195]</a> At the same time, the number of publications by mass organizations such as <a href="/wiki/Red_Guards" title="Red Guards">Red Guards</a> grew to an estimated number as high as 10,000.<a href="#cite_note-Volland2021-197">[195]</a> Independent political groups could publish <a href="/wiki/Broadsheet" title="Broadsheet">broadsheets</a> and handbills, as well as leaders' speeches and meeting transcripts which would normally have been considered highly classified.<a href="#cite_note-Walder2019b-198">[196]</a>: 24  From 1966 to 1969, at least 5,000 new broadsheets by independent political groups were published.<a href="#cite_note-Thornton2019-4">[4]</a>: 60  Several Red Guard organizations also operated independent printing presses to publish newspapers, articles, speeches, and <a href="/wiki/Big-character_poster" title="Big-character poster">big-character posters</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Russo2020a-196">[194]</a> For example, the largest student organization in Shanghai, the Red Revolutionaries, established a newspaper that had a print run of 800,000 copies by the end of 1966.<a href="#cite_note-Walder2019b-198">[196]</a>: 58–59  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Foreign_relations">Foreign relations</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cultural_Revolution&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Foreign relations">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1967-09_1967%E5%B9%B4_%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E9%A9%BB%E5%8D%B0%E4%BD%BF%E9%A6%86%E8%A2%AB%E7%83%A7%E6%AF%81%E5%90%8E.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/1967-09_1967%E5%B9%B4_%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E9%A9%BB%E5%8D%B0%E4%BD%BF%E9%A6%86%E8%A2%AB%E7%83%A7%E6%AF%81%E5%90%8E.jpg/220px-1967-09_1967%E5%B9%B4_%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E9%A9%BB%E5%8D%B0%E4%BD%BF%E9%A6%86%E8%A2%AB%E7%83%A7%E6%AF%81%E5%90%8E.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="105" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/1967-09_1967%E5%B9%B4_%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E9%A9%BB%E5%8D%B0%E4%BD%BF%E9%A6%86%E8%A2%AB%E7%83%A7%E6%AF%81%E5%90%8E.jpg/330px-1967-09_1967%E5%B9%B4_%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E9%A9%BB%E5%8D%B0%E4%BD%BF%E9%A6%86%E8%A2%AB%E7%83%A7%E6%AF%81%E5%90%8E.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/1967-09_1967%E5%B9%B4_%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E9%A9%BB%E5%8D%B0%E4%BD%BF%E9%A6%86%E8%A2%AB%E7%83%A7%E6%AF%81%E5%90%8E.jpg/440px-1967-09_1967%E5%B9%B4_%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E9%A9%BB%E5%8D%B0%E4%BD%BF%E9%A6%86%E8%A2%AB%E7%83%A7%E6%AF%81%E5%90%8E.jpg 2x" data-file-width="738" data-file-height="353" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Embassy_of_China,_Jakarta" title="Embassy of China, Jakarta">Embassy of China, Jakarta</a> after being burned</figcaption></figure> The functions of China's embassies abroad were disrupted during the early part of the Cultural Revolution. In a March 22, 1969 meeting on the <a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_border_conflict" title="Sino-Soviet border conflict">Sino-Soviet border clashes</a>, Mao stated that in <a href="/wiki/History_of_foreign_relations_of_China" title="History of foreign relations of China">foreign relations</a>, China was "now isolated" and "we need to relax a little".<a href="#cite_note-:Li-199">[197]</a>: 287  Later that year, China began to restore its embassies to normal functioning.<a href="#cite_note-:Li-199">[197]</a>: 287  China <a href="/wiki/Exporting_the_revolution" title="Exporting the revolution">exported communist revolutions</a> as well as communist ideologies to multiple countries in <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a>, supporting parties in <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Indonesia" title="Communist Party of Indonesia">Indonesia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malaysian_Communist_Party" title="Malaysian Communist Party">Malaysia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Vietnam" title="Communist Party of Vietnam">Vietnam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lao_People%27s_Revolutionary_Party" title="Lao People's Revolutionary Party">Laos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Burma" title="Communist Party of Burma">Myanmar</a> and in particular, the <a href="/wiki/Khmer_Rouge" title="Khmer Rouge">Khmer Rouge in Cambodia</a> (responsible for the <a href="/wiki/Cambodian_genocide" title="Cambodian genocide">Cambodian genocide</a>).<a href="#cite_note-200">[198]</a> It is estimated that at least 90% of the Khmer Rouge's foreign aid came from China. In 1975 alone at least US$1 billion in interest-free economic and military aid and US$20 million came from China.<a href="#cite_note-201">[199]</a> China's economic malaise impacted China's ability to assist <a href="/wiki/North_Vietnam" title="North Vietnam">North Vietnam</a> in its <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">war</a> against <a href="/wiki/South_Vietnam" title="South Vietnam">South Vietnam</a> by the 1970s, which cooled relations between the once allied nations.<a href="#cite_note-202">[200]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Opinions_and_views">Opinions and views</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cultural_Revolution&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Opinions and views">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Boluan_Fanzheng" title="Boluan Fanzheng">Boluan Fanzheng</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Communist_Party_opinions">Communist Party opinions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cultural_Revolution&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Communist Party opinions">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ideology_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Ideology of the Chinese Communist Party">Ideology of the Chinese Communist Party</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Propaganda_slogan_removed_-_Wuhan_University.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Propaganda_slogan_removed_-_Wuhan_University.JPG/200px-Propaganda_slogan_removed_-_Wuhan_University.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="269" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Propaganda_slogan_removed_-_Wuhan_University.JPG/300px-Propaganda_slogan_removed_-_Wuhan_University.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Propaganda_slogan_removed_-_Wuhan_University.JPG/400px-Propaganda_slogan_removed_-_Wuhan_University.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1712" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption>The central section of this wall shows the faint remnant marks of a propaganda slogan that was added during the Cultural Revolution, but has since been removed. The slogan read "Boundless faith that in Chairman Mao."</figcaption></figure> To make sense of the chaos caused by Mao's leadership without undermining the CCP's authority and legitimacy, Mao's successors needed to provide a "proper" historical judgment. On 27 June 1981, the Central Committee adopted the <a href="/wiki/Resolution_on_Certain_Questions_in_the_History_of_Our_Party_since_the_Founding_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Resolution on Certain Questions in the History of Our Party since the Founding of the People's Republic of China">Resolution on Certain Questions in the History of Our Party Since the Founding of the People's Republic of China</a>, an official assessment of major historical events since 1949.<a href="#cite_note-marxists.org-203">[201]</a> This document became the key official interpretation of the Cultural Revolution.<a href="#cite_note-Wu-2014-204">[202]</a> The Resolution frankly noted Mao's leadership role in the movement, stating that "chief responsibility for the grave 'Left' error of the 'Cultural Revolution,' an error comprehensive in magnitude and protracted in duration, does indeed lie with Comrade Mao Zedong". It diluted blame by asserting that the movement was "manipulated by the counterrevolutionary groups of Lin Biao and Jiang Qing", who caused its worst excesses. The Resolution affirmed that the Cultural Revolution "brought serious disaster and turmoil to the Communist Party and the Chinese people."<a href="#cite_note-marxists.org-203">[201]</a> These themes of "turmoil" and "disaster" underlie historical and popular understanding of the Cultural Revolution.<a href="#cite_note-Wu-2014-204">[202]</a> The 1981 Resolution was followed by a three-year campaign to "totally negate" the Cultural Revolution.<a href="#cite_note-Thornton2019-4">[4]</a>: 55  The communist party called on individuals and cooperatives to study the Resolution and engage in <a href="/wiki/Criticism_and_self-criticism_(Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism)" title="Criticism and self-criticism (Marxism–Leninism)">criticism and self-criticism</a>. People were urged to root out followers of Lin Biao and the Gang of Four, those seriously impacted by factional ideas, and the "smashers and grabbers" of the Cultural Revolution.<a href="#cite_note-Thornton2019-4">[4]</a>: 55  The official view in the Resolution and elsewhere aimed to separate Mao's actions during the Cultural Revolution from his "heroic" revolutionary activities during the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Second Sino-Japanese War</a>. It also separated Mao's personal mistakes from the correctness of the theory that he created, going as far as to rationalize that the Cultural Revolution contravened the spirit of Mao Zedong Thought, which remains the official guiding ideology. Deng famously summed this up with the phrase "Mao was 70% good, 30% bad."<a href="#cite_note-ms-205">[203]</a> CCP <a href="/wiki/Chinese_historiography" title="Chinese historiography">historiography</a> characterizes the Cultural Revolution as an aberration and a period of chaos.<a href="#cite_note-206">[204]</a> The official view is the dominant framework for historiography of the period; alternative are discouraged. A new genre of literature known as <a href="/wiki/Scar_literature" title="Scar literature">scar literature</a> emerged, encouraged by the post-Mao government. Written mainly by educated youth such as Liu Xinhua, <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Xianliang" title="Zhang Xianliang">Zhang Xianliang</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Liu_Xinwu" title="Liu Xinwu">Liu Xinwu</a>, scar literature depicted the Revolution negatively, based on their own perspectives and experiences.<a href="#cite_note-Gao-168">[166]</a>: 32  Movies criticizing Cultural Revolution hardliners were prevalent from the late 1970s to the early 1980s, although they were later banned as <a href="/wiki/Historical_nihilism" title="Historical nihilism">historical nihilism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Marquis2022-207">[205]</a>: 248  After the <a href="/wiki/1989_Tiananmen_Square_protests_and_massacre" title="1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre">1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre</a>, both liberals and conservatives within the CCP accused each other of excesses that they claimed were reminiscent of the Cultural Revolution. <a href="/wiki/Li_Peng" title="Li Peng">Li Peng</a>, who promoted the use of military force, claimed that the student movement had taken inspiration from the populism of the Cultural Revolution and that if left unchecked, would eventually lead to mass chaos.<a href="#cite_note-208">[206]</a> Zhao Ziyang, who was sympathetic to the protestors, later accused his political opponents of illegally removing him from office by using "Cultural Revolution-style" tactics, including "reversing black and white, exaggerating personal offenses, taking quotes out of context, issuing slander and lies ... inundating the newspapers with critical articles making me out to be an enemy, and casual disregard for my personal freedoms."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhaoBaoChiangIgnatius200943–44-209">[207]</a> Speaking during his <a href="/wiki/Deng_Xiaoping%27s_southern_tour" title="Deng Xiaoping's southern tour">1992 Southern Tour</a>, Deng Xiaoping characterized the Cultural Revolution as civil war and contrasting it with the contemporary situation: "Why was it that our country could remain stable after the 4 June Incident? It was precisely because we had carried out the <a href="/wiki/Reform_and_opening_up" class="mw-redirect" title="Reform and opening up">reform and the open policy</a>, which have promoted economic growth and raised living standards."<a href="#cite_note-210">[208]</a>: 49  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alternative_opinions">Alternative opinions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cultural_Revolution&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Alternative opinions">edit</a>]</div> Although the Chinese Communist Party officially condemns the Cultural Revolution, many Chinese people hold more positive views, particularly amongst the working class, who benefited most from its policies.<a href="#cite_note-Gao-168">[166]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] People in rural areas tend to view the Cultural Revolution more positively given the expansion of rural infrastructure and agricultural development that occurred.<a href="#cite_note-Han2008-170">[168]</a>: ix  During Deng's ascendancy, the government arrested and imprisoned figures who took a strongly pro-Cultural Revolution stance. For instance, in 1985, a young shoe-factory worker put up a poster at a factory in <a href="/wiki/Xianyang" title="Xianyang">Xianyang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shaanxi" title="Shaanxi">Shaanxi</a>, which declared that "The Cultural Revolution was Good" and led to achievements such as "the building of the <a href="/wiki/Nanjing_Yangtze_River_Bridge" title="Nanjing Yangtze River Bridge">Nanjing Yangtze River Bridge</a>, the creation of hybrid rice crops and the rise of people's consciousness." The worker was eventually sentenced to ten years in prison, where he died soon after "without any apparent cause".<a href="#cite_note-Gao-168">[166]</a>: 46–47  Since the late 1980s, China has experienced "at first a fitful and then a nationwide revival in Mao Zedong", including aspects of the Cultural Revolution.<a href="#cite_note-Wu-2014-204">[202]</a>: 6–7  One of the student leaders of the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests, <a href="/wiki/Shen_Tong" title="Shen Tong">Shen Tong</a>, author of <a href="/wiki/Almost_a_Revolution" title="Almost a Revolution">Almost a Revolution</a>, has a positive view of some aspects of the CR. According to Shen, the trigger for the Tiananmen hunger-strikes was a big-character poster, a form of public political discussion that gained prominence during the Cultural Revolution. Shen remarked that the travel of students from across the country to Beijing on trains and the hospitality they received from residents was reminiscent of the experiences of Red Guards.<a href="#cite_note-Tang-12">[12]</a> Since the advent of the Internet, people inside and outside China have argued online that the Cultural Revolution had many benefits. Some hold that the Cultural Revolution "cleansed" China from superstitions, religious dogma, and outdated traditions in a 'modernist transformation' that later made Deng's economic reforms possible. The popular revival of Mao in the late 1990s coincided with the government's increasing privatization and its dismantling of its <a href="/wiki/Iron_rice_bowl" title="Iron rice bowl">iron rice bowl</a> employment and welfare policies.<a href="#cite_note-Wu-2014-204">[202]</a>: 5  These sentiments also increased following the <a href="/wiki/U.S._bombing_of_the_Chinese_embassy_in_Belgrade" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. bombing of the Chinese embassy in Belgrade">US bombing of the Chinese embassy in Belgrade</a> in 1999 when a segment of the population began to associate anti-Mao viewpoints with the US.<a href="#cite_note-Gao-168">[166]</a>: 117  <a href="/wiki/Chinese_New_Left" title="Chinese New Left">Contemporary Maoists</a> became more organized in the internet era, partially as a response to academic criticisms of Mao. One Maoist website collected thousands of signatures demanding punishment for those who publicly criticize Mao.<a href="#cite_note-211">[209]</a> Along with the call for legal action, this movement demanded the establishment of agencies similar to Cultural Revolution-era "neighborhood committees", in which "citizens" would report anti-Maoists to local public security bureaus. Maoist rhetoric and mass mobilization methods were resurgent in Chongqing during the 2000s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEwing2011-212">[210]</a> In 2012, Chinese web portal and social media platform Tencent conducted an online survey focused on combatting "the unhealthy trend of Cultural Revolution nostalgia."<a href="#cite_note-Wu-2014-204">[202]</a> Seventy-eight percent of survey participants expressed Cultural Revolution nostalgia.<a href="#cite_note-Wu-2014-204">[202]</a> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_New_Left" title="Chinese New Left">Chinese New Left</a> internet forum <a href="/wiki/Utopia_(internet_forum)" title="Utopia (internet forum)">Utopia</a> was suspended for one month in response to its advocacy of a new Cultural Revolution.<a href="#cite_note-Marquis2022-207">[205]</a>: 47  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Contemporary_China">Contemporary China</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cultural_Revolution&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Contemporary China">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Shantou_Cultural_Revolution_Museum" title="Shantou Cultural Revolution Museum">Shantou Cultural Revolution Museum</a></div> Public discussion is still limited. The Chinese government continues to prohibit news organizations from mentioning details, and online discussions and books about the topic are subject to official scrutiny. Textbooks abide by the "official view" of the events. Many government documents from the 1960s onward remain classified.<a href="#cite_note-Fong-213">[211]</a> Despite inroads by prominent sinologists, independent scholarly research is discouraged.<a href="#cite_note-Fong-213">[211]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mao_Zedong's_legacy">Mao Zedong's legacy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cultural_Revolution&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: Mao Zedong's legacy">edit</a>]</div> Mao Zedong's legacy remains in some dispute. During the anniversary of his birth, many people viewed Mao as a godlike figure and referred to him as "the people's great savior". Contemporary discussions in newspapers such as the Global Times continue to glorify Mao. Rather than focus on consequences, newspapers claim that revolutions typically have a brutal side and are unable to be viewed from the "humanitarian perspective".<a href="#cite_note-214">[212]</a> Critics of Mao Zedong look at the actions that occurred under his leadership from the point of view that "he was better at conquering power than at ruling the country and developing a socialist economy". Mao went to extreme measures on his path to power, costing millions of lives then and during his rule.<a href="#cite_note-215">[213]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Outside_mainland_China">Outside mainland China</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cultural_Revolution&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: Outside mainland China">edit</a>]</div> In the world at large, Mao Zedong emerged as a symbol of anti-establishment, grassroots populism, and self-determination. His revolutionary philosophies found adherents in the <a href="/wiki/Shining_Path" title="Shining Path">Shining Path</a> of Peru, the <a href="/wiki/Naxalite" class="mw-redirect" title="Naxalite">Naxalite</a> insurgency in India, various <a href="/wiki/Communism_in_Nepal" title="Communism in Nepal">political movements in Nepal</a>, the United States–based <a href="/wiki/Black_Panther_Party" title="Black Panther Party">Black Panther Party</a>,<a href="#cite_note-216">[214]</a> In Hong Kong, a <a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_1967_riots" class="mw-redirect" title="Hong Kong 1967 riots">pro-Communist, anti-colonial strike</a> inspired by the Cultural Revolution was launched in 1967. Its excesses damaged the credibility of these activists in the eyes of Hong Kong residents.<a href="#cite_note-217">[215]</a> In Taiwan, <a href="/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek" title="Chiang Kai-shek">Chiang Kai-shek</a> initiated the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Cultural_Renaissance" title="Chinese Cultural Renaissance">Chinese Cultural Renaissance</a> to counter what he regarded as the destruction of traditional Chinese values by mainland Communists. In <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Socialist_Republic_of_Albania" title="People's Socialist Republic of Albania">Albania</a>, Communist leader and Chinese ally <a href="/wiki/Enver_Hoxha" title="Enver Hoxha">Enver Hoxha</a> began a "<a href="/wiki/Cultural_and_Ideological_Revolution" title="Cultural and Ideological Revolution">Cultural and Ideological Revolution</a>" organized along the same lines as the Cultural Revolution.<a href="#cite_note-218">[216]</a> Hoxha delivered a speech to a plenum of the CC of the Party of Labour titled Some Preliminary Ideas about the Cultural Revolution, criticizing it. He said that "the cult of Mao was raised to the skies in a sickening and artificial manner" and added that, in reading its purported objectives, "you have the impression that everything old in Chinese and world culture should be rejected without discrimination and a new culture, the culture they call proletarian, should be created." He further stated that, "It is difficult for us to call this revolution, as the 'Red Guards' are carrying it out, a Proletarian Cultural Revolution... the enemies could and should be captured by the organs of the dictatorship on the basis of the law, and if the enemies have wormed their way into the party committees, let them be purged through party channels. Or in the final analysis, arm the working class and attack the committees, but not with children."<a href="#cite_note-219">[217]</a> In October 1966, <a href="/wiki/Chiang_Kai-Shek" class="mw-redirect" title="Chiang Kai-Shek">Chiang Kai-Shek</a> criticized the Cultural Revolution as a synonym for Mao Zedong's method in the name of proletarian revolution after failures of Proletarian Revolution General Route, Great Leap Forward, People's commune and the Three Red Flags. He claimed that Maoism lost its origins in Marxism–Leninism. And Mao himself dropped his Marxist–Leninist mask, revealing its roots in <a href="/wiki/Huang_Chao" title="Huang Chao">Huang Chao</a>, <a href="/wiki/Li_Zicheng" title="Li Zicheng">Li Zicheng</a>, roving gang, and the <a href="/wiki/Boxer_Rebellion" title="Boxer Rebellion">Boxer Rebellion</a>, destroying Chinese Culture, purging intellectuals, destroying modern civilization, and used his "people's war" to attempt to rule Asia and the world following <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a>'s actions.<a href="#cite_note-220">[218]</a> In the 1970s, <a href="/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev" title="Nikita Khrushchev">Nikita Khrushchev</a> criticized the Cultural Revolution in his memoir. He saw Chinese people repeatedly recite Mao's quotations and felt sick after he saw human dignity trampled. He argued that Mao is not supernatural, but upended his country, and that the Cultural Revolution was actually counter-revolutionary.<a href="#cite_note-221">[219]</a> In 2007 <a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_Chief_Executive" class="mw-redirect" title="Hong Kong Chief Executive">Hong Kong Chief Executive</a> <a href="/wiki/Donald_Tsang" title="Donald Tsang">Donald Tsang</a> remarked that the Cultural Revolution represented the 'dangers of democracy', remarking "People can go to the extreme like what we saw during the Cultural Revolution [...], when people take everything into their own hands, then you cannot govern the place."<a href="#cite_note-hk-222">[220]</a> The remarks caused controversy in Hong Kong and were later retracted.<a href="#cite_note-hk-222">[220]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Academic_debate">Academic debate</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cultural_Revolution&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: Academic debate">edit</a>]</div> Scholars and academics debate the origin, the events, Mao's role, and its legacy. These debates evolved as researchers explored new sources.<a href="#cite_note-Karl2010-223">[221]</a>: 195  In the 1960s, while many scholars dismissed Mao's initiatives as ideological and destructive, others sympathized with his goals. They saw Maoism as a populist insistence on mass participation, mass criticism and the right to rebel, and a determination to wipe out a new ruling class. By the 1980s, however, Harvard University sociologist <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Walder" class="mw-redirect" title="Andrew Walder">Andrew Walder</a> wrote that the "public opinion in the field had changed markedly". Most in the field now "seem convinced that the Cultural Revolution was a human disaster, even a historical crime, something on the order of Hitler's holocaust and Stalin's great terror."<a href="#cite_note-Walder-224">[222]</a> Walder argued that the failures of the Cultural Revolution did not come from poor implementation, bureaucratic sabotage, disloyalty, or lingering class antagonisms. If things turned out differently than Mao expected, Walder concluded, this was "probably due to the fact that Mao did not know what he wanted, or that he did know what he was doing, or both ... the outcomes are what one should have expected, given the Maoist doctrine and aims."<a href="#cite_note-Walder-224">[222]</a> The debate continues because the movement contains many contradictions: led by an all-powerful omnipresent leader, it was mainly driven by a series of grassroots popular uprisings. Many English-language books published since the 1980s paint a negative picture of the movement. Historian Anne F. Thurston wrote that it "led to loss of culture, and of spiritual values; loss of hope and ideals; loss of time, truth and of life".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThurston1988605–606-225">[223]</a> Barnouin and Yu summarized the Cultural Revolution as "a political movement that produced unprecedented social divisions, mass mobilization, hysteria, upheavals, arbitrary cruelty, torture, killings, and even civil war", calling Mao "one of the most tyrannical despots of the twentieth century".<a href="#cite_note-Barnouin-194">[192]</a>: 217  According to historian Chun Lin, despite these human tragedies, individual freedoms and political self-organization expanded rapidly.<a href="#cite_note-Lin_2006-177">[175]</a> Some scholars challenge the mainstream portrayals and conceive it in a more positive light. <a href="/wiki/Gao_Mobo" title="Gao Mobo">Gao Mobo</a>, writing in The Battle for China's Past: Mao and the Cultural Revolution, argues that the movement benefited millions of Chinese citizens, particularly agricultural and industrial workers,<a href="#cite_note-Gao-168">[166]</a>: 1  and sees it as egalitarian and genuinely populist, citing continued Maoist nostalgia today as remnants of its positive legacy.<a href="#cite_note-Gao-168">[166]</a>: 3  Some draw a distinction between intention and performance.<a href="#cite_note-Walder-224">[222]</a>: 159  While Mao's leadership was pivotal at the beginning of the movement, Jin Qiu contends that as events progressed, it deviated significantly from Mao's utopian vision.<a href="#cite_note-Jin-53">[53]</a>: 2–3  In this sense, the Cultural Revolution was actually a decentralized and varied movement that gradually lost cohesion, spawning many 'local revolutions' that differed in their nature and goals.<a href="#cite_note-Jin-53">[53]</a>: 2–3  Academic interest focused on the movement's relationship with Mao's personality. Mao envisioned himself as a wartime guerrilla leader, which made him wary of the bureaucratic nature of peacetime governance. With the Cultural Revolution Mao was simply "returning to form", once again acting as a guerrilla leader fighting an institutionalized bureaucracy. <a href="/wiki/Roderick_MacFarquhar" title="Roderick MacFarquhar">Roderick MacFarquhar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Michael_Schoenhals" title="Michael Schoenhals">Michael Schoenhals</a>, paint the movement as neither a bona fide war over ideological purity nor a mere power struggle to remove Mao's political rivals.<a href="#cite_note-Mac-6">[6]</a>: 2–3  While Mao's personal motivations were undoubtedly pivotal, they reasoned that other factors contributed to the way events unfolded. These include China's relationship with the global Communist movement, geopolitical concerns, the <a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_Split" class="mw-redirect" title="Sino-Soviet Split">ideological rift between China and the Soviet Union</a>, Khrushchev's ouster, and Great Leap Forward catastrophe.<a href="#cite_note-Mac-6">[6]</a>: 2–3  They conclude that the movement was, at least in part, a legacy project to cement Mao's place in history, aimed to boost his prestige while he was alive and preserve his ideas after his death.<a href="#cite_note-Mac-6">[6]</a>: 2–3  Varying academic focuses on power conflicts or clashes of personalities as underlying Mao's motivations, or alternatively on ideological reasons for launching the Cultural Revolution, are not necessarily conflicting. Mao's suspicions of those in power around him reflected his longstanding concerns with the decline of revolutionary spirit and the potential rise of a new class-stratified society arising as the popular revolutionary movement transformed into a socialist bureaucracy.<a href="#cite_note-Wu-2014-204">[202]</a>: 20  Historian Rebecca Karl writes that for Mao, the pursuit of power was never an end in itself, but rather the seizure of state power was to be used in making the revolution.<a href="#cite_note-Karl2010-223">[221]</a>: 117  Professor Yiching Wu argues that the typical historiography of the Cultural Revolution as an "era of madness" is simpleminded but writes that such narratives have a "remarkably tenacious ideological power:"<a href="#cite_note-Wu-2014-204">[202]</a>: 3  <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Since the early 1980s, there have been concerted efforts to reduce the extraordinary complexity of the Cultural Revolution to the simplicity almost exclusively of barbarism, violence, and human suffering. Flattening historical memory of the Cultural Revolution through moralistic condemnation and exhortation, these narratives not only deprive an immensely important and complex episode of Chinese history of its multilayered historicity, but also provide the discursive ground for delegitimizing China's revolutionary history of the twentieth century.</blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cultural_Revolution&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="History of the Chinese Communist Party">History of the Chinese Communist Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="History of the People's Republic of China">History of the People's Republic of China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_campaigns_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="List of campaigns of the Chinese Communist Party">List of campaigns of the Chinese Communist Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maoism" title="Maoism">Maoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism%E2%80%93Maoism" title="Marxism–Leninism–Maoism">Marxism–Leninism–Maoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_cultural_analysis" title="Marxist cultural analysis">Marxist cultural analysis</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cultural_Revolution&action=edit&section=57" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> This position, effectively China's de jure <a href="/wiki/Head_of_state" title="Head of state">head of state</a>, was renamed "President" in 1982. </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> Some claim 1.877 million.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">why?</a>] </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cultural_Revolution&action=edit&section=58" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cultural_Revolution&action=edit&section=59" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Song-2011a-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Song-2011a_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Song-2011a_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Song-2011a_1-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Song-2011a_1-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Song-2011a_1-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Song-2011a_1-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Song-2011a_1-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Song-2011a_1-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Song-2011a_1-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Song-2011a_1-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Song-2011a_1-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Song-2011a_1-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Song-2011a_1-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Song-2011a_1-13">n</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Song-2011a_1-14">o</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Song-2011a_1-15">p</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFSong2011" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Song_Yongyi" title="Song Yongyi">Song, Yongyi</a> (25 August 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/en/document/chronology-mass-killings-during-chinese-cultural-revolution-1966-1976.html">"Chronology of Mass Killings during the Chinese Cultural Revolution (1966–1976)"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Sciences_Po" title="Sciences Po">Sciences Po</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240114034126/https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/en/document/chronology-mass-killings-during-chinese-cultural-revolution-1966-1976.html">Archived</a> from the original on 14 January 2024. Retrieved 27 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Sciences+Po&rft.atitle=Chronology+of+Mass+Killings+during+the+Chinese+Cultural+Revolution+%281966%E2%80%931976%29&rft.date=2011-08-25&rft.aulast=Song&rft.aufirst=Yongyi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencespo.fr%2Fmass-violence-war-massacre-resistance%2Fen%2Fdocument%2Fchronology-mass-killings-during-chinese-cultural-revolution-1966-1976.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://culturalrevolution.pitt.edu/media/cr10-glossary.pdf">"Translation Glossary for the CR/10 Project"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pittsburgh" title="University of Pittsburgh">University of Pittsburgh</a>. Retrieved 28 November 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=University+of+Pittsburgh&rft.atitle=Translation+Glossary+for+the+CR%2F10+Project&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fculturalrevolution.pitt.edu%2Fmedia%2Fcr10-glossary.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLu2004" class="citation book cs1">Lu, Xing (2004). Rhetoric of the Chinese Cultural Revolution: The Impact on Chinese Thought. p. 2. <q>Known to the Chinese as the ten years of chaos [...]</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rhetoric+of+the+Chinese+Cultural+Revolution%3A+The+Impact+on+Chinese+Thought&rft.pages=2&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Lu&rft.aufirst=Xing&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Thornton2019-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Thornton2019_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Thornton2019_4-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Thornton2019_4-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Thornton2019_4-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Thornton2019_4-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThornton2019" class="citation book cs1">Thornton, Patricia M. (2019). "Cultural Revolution". In Sorace, Christian; Franceschini, Ivan; Loubere, Nicholas (eds.). Afterlives of Chinese Communism: Political Concepts from Mao to Xi. Acton, Australia: <a href="/wiki/Australian_National_University_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian National University Press">Australian National University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781760462499" title="Special:BookSources/9781760462499"><bdi>9781760462499</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Cultural+Revolution&rft.btitle=Afterlives+of+Chinese+Communism%3A+Political+Concepts+from+Mao+to+Xi&rft.place=Acton%2C+Australia&rft.pub=Australian+National+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=9781760462499&rft.aulast=Thornton&rft.aufirst=Patricia+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELieberthal2003[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_June_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(June_2024)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELieberthal2003[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_June_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(June_2024)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELieberthal2003[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_June_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(June_2024)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_5-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFLieberthal2003">Lieberthal (2003)</a>, p. [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>]. </li> <li id="cite_note-Mac-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mac_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mac_6-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mac_6-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mac_6-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mac_6-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mac_6-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mac_6-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mac_6-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mac_6-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mac_6-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mac_6-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mac_6-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mac_6-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mac_6-13">n</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mac_6-14">o</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mac_6-15">p</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mac_6-16">q</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mac_6-17">r</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mac_6-18">s</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mac_6-19">t</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mac_6-20">u</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mac_6-21">v</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mac_6-22">w</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mac_6-23">x</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mac_6-24">y</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mac_6-25">z</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mac_6-26">aa</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mac_6-27">ab</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mac_6-28">ac</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mac_6-29">ad</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mac_6-30">ae</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mac_6-31">af</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mac_6-32">ag</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mac_6-33">ah</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mac_6-34">ai</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mac_6-35">aj</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mac_6-36">ak</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mac_6-37">al</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mac_6-38">am</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mac_6-39">an</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mac_6-40">ao</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mac_6-41">ap</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mac_6-42">aq</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mac_6-43">ar</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mac_6-44">as</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mac_6-45">at</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mac_6-46">au</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mac_6-47">av</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mac_6-48">aw</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mac_6-49">ax</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mac_6-50">ay</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mac_6-51">az</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mac_6-52">ba</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mac_6-53">bb</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mac_6-54">bc</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mac_6-55">bd</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mac_6-56">be</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mac_6-57">bf</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mac_6-58">bg</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mac_6-59">bh</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mac_6-60">bi</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mac_6-61">bj</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mac_6-62">bk</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mac_6-63">bl</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mac_6-64">bm</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mac_6-65">bn</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mac_6-66">bo</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mac_6-67">bp</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacFarquharSchoenhals2006" class="citation book cs1">MacFarquhar, Roderick; Schoenhals, Michael (2006). Mao's Last Revolution. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-02332-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-02332-1"><bdi>978-0-674-02332-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mao%27s+Last+Revolution&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-674-02332-1&rft.aulast=MacFarquhar&rft.aufirst=Roderick&rft.au=Schoenhals%2C+Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Meyskens2020-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Meyskens2020_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Meyskens2020_7-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Meyskens2020_7-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Meyskens2020_7-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeyskens2020" class="citation book cs1">Meyskens, Covell F. (2020). Mao's Third Front: The Militarization of Cold War China. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2F9781108784788">10.1017/9781108784788</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-78478-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-78478-8"><bdi>978-1-108-78478-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:218936313">218936313</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mao%27s+Third+Front%3A+The+Militarization+of+Cold+War+China&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A218936313%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2F9781108784788&rft.isbn=978-1-108-78478-8&rft.aulast=Meyskens&rft.aufirst=Covell+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Baum-1969-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Baum-1969_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Baum-1969_8-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaum1969" class="citation journal cs1">Baum, Richard (1969). "Revolution and Reaction in the Chinese Countryside: The Socialist Education Movement in Cultural Revolutionary Perspective". <a href="/wiki/The_China_Quarterly" title="The China Quarterly">The China Quarterly</a>. 38 (38): 92–119. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0305741000049158">10.1017/S0305741000049158</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0305-7410">0305-7410</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/652308">652308</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154449798">154449798</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+China+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Revolution+and+Reaction+in+the+Chinese+Countryside%3A+The+Socialist+Education+Movement+in+Cultural+Revolutionary+Perspective&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=38&rft.pages=92-119&rft.date=1969&rft.issn=0305-7410&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154449798%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F652308%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0305741000049158&rft.aulast=Baum&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Russo-2020a-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Russo-2020a_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Russo-2020a_9-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRusso2020" class="citation book cs1">Russo, Alessandro (2020). 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"Challenging the Revolutionary Orthodoxy: 'New Enlightenment' Historiography in the 1980s". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/hawaii-scholarship-online/book/15223/chapter-abstract/169722777?redirectedFrom=fulltext">Reinventing Modern China: Imagination and Authenticity in Chinese Historical Writing</a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Hawai%CA%BBi_Press" title="University of Hawaiʻi Press">University of Hawaiʻi Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780824836085" title="Special:BookSources/9780824836085"><bdi>9780824836085</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Challenging+the+Revolutionary+Orthodoxy%3A+%27New+Enlightenment%27+Historiography+in+the+1980s&rft.btitle=Reinventing+Modern+China%3A+Imagination+and+Authenticity+in+Chinese+Historical+Writing&rft.pub=University+of+Hawai%CA%BBi+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9780824836085&rft.aulast=Li&rft.aufirst=Huaiyin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fhawaii-scholarship-online%2Fbook%2F15223%2Fchapter-abstract%2F169722777%3FredirectedFrom%3Dfulltext&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLegvoldAndrewMitrokhin2006" class="citation journal cs1">Legvold, Robert; Andrew, Christopher; Mitrokhin, Vasili (2006). 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Foreign Affairs. 85 (1): 158. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0015-7120">0015-7120</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20031879">20031879</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Foreign+Affairs&rft.atitle=The+World+Was+Going+Our+Way%3A+The+KGB+and+the+Battle+for+the+Third+World&rft.volume=85&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=158&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20031879%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0015-7120&rft.aulast=Legvold&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft.au=Andrew%2C+Christopher&rft.au=Mitrokhin%2C+Vasili&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210103094052/http://www.hybsl.cn/zonghe/xinwen/2008-01-23/7141.html"><bdi lang="zh">胡耀邦同志领导平反"六十一人案"追记</bdi></a>. www.hybsl.cn (in Chinese). <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Daily" title="People's Daily">People's Daily</a>. 1 June 1989. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hybsl.cn/zonghe/xinwen/2008-01-23/7141.html">the original</a> on 3 January 2021. Retrieved 17 February 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.hybsl.cn&rft.atitle=%E8%83%A1%E8%80%80%E9%82%A6%E5%90%8C%E5%BF%97%E9%A2%86%E5%AF%BC%E5%B9%B3%E5%8F%8D%22%E5%85%AD%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%80%E4%BA%BA%E6%A1%88%22%E8%BF%BD%E8%AE%B0&rft.date=1989-06-01&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hybsl.cn%2Fzonghe%2Fxinwen%2F2008-01-23%2F7141.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> Sterba, James P. The New York Times, January 25, 1981 </li> <li id="cite_note-PRC-2020-76"><a href="#cite_ref-PRC-2020_76-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gov.cn/test/2008-06/23/content_1024934_2.htm"><bdi lang="zh">关于建国以来党的若干历史问题的决议</bdi></a>. The Central People's Government of the People's Republic of China (in Chinese). Retrieved 23 April 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Central+People%27s+Government+of+the+People%27s+Republic+of+China&rft.atitle=%E5%85%B3%E4%BA%8E%E5%BB%BA%E5%9B%BD%E4%BB%A5%E6%9D%A5%E5%85%9A%E7%9A%84%E8%8B%A5%E5%B9%B2%E5%8E%86%E5%8F%B2%E9%97%AE%E9%A2%98%E7%9A%84%E5%86%B3%E8%AE%AE&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gov.cn%2Ftest%2F2008-06%2F23%2Fcontent_1024934_2.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wilson_Center-1981-77"><a href="#cite_ref-Wilson_Center-1981_77-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/121344.pdf?v=d461ad5001da989b8f96cc1dfb3c8ce7">"Resolution on Certain Questions in the History of Our Party since the Founding of the People's Republic of China"</a> (PDF). Wilson Center. 27 June 1981.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Wilson+Center&rft.atitle=Resolution+on+Certain+Questions+in+the+History+of+Our+Party+since+the+Founding+of+the+People%27s+Republic+of+China&rft.date=1981-06-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdigitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org%2Fdocument%2F121344.pdf%3Fv%3Dd461ad5001da989b8f96cc1dfb3c8ce7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-CCCCP-11-78"><a href="#cite_ref-CCCCP-11_78-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">"6th Plenary Session of the <a href="/wiki/11th_Central_Committee_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="11th Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party">11th Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party</a> "Resolution on Certain Questions in the History of Our Party Since the Founding of the People's Republic of China."". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marxists.org/subject/china/documents/cpc/history/index.htm">Resolution on CPC History</a>. 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Retrieved 20 May 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Radio+Free+Asia&rft.atitle=Beijing+Revises+%27Correct%27+Version+of+Party+History+Ahead+of+Centenary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rfa.org%2Fenglish%2Fnews%2Fchina%2Fhistory-04152021091451.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCole2021" class="citation web cs1">Cole, J. Michael (22 April 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ipolitics.ca/2021/04/22/the-chinese-communist-party-is-playing-dangerous-games-with-history/">"The Chinese Communist Party is playing dangerous games with history"</a>. iPolitics. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210422235008/https://ipolitics.ca/2021/04/22/the-chinese-communist-party-is-playing-dangerous-games-with-history/">Archived</a> from the original on 22 April 2021. Retrieved 20 May 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=iPolitics&rft.atitle=The+Chinese+Communist+Party+is+playing+dangerous+games+with+history&rft.date=2021-04-22&rft.aulast=Cole&rft.aufirst=J.+Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fipolitics.ca%2F2021%2F04%2F22%2Fthe-chinese-communist-party-is-playing-dangerous-games-with-history%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://asia.nikkei.com/Editor-s-Picks/China-up-close/With-whiffs-of-Cultural-Revolution-Xi-calls-for-struggle-50-times">"With whiffs of Cultural Revolution, Xi calls for struggle 50 times"</a>. Nikkei. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://history.people.com.cn/GB/205396/13852546.html">the original</a> on 22 June 2020. <bdi lang="zh">粉碎"四人帮"之后，叶剑英在一次讲话中沉痛地说："文化大革命"死了2000万人，整了1亿人，浪费了8000亿人民币。</bdi></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=People%27s+Daily&rft.atitle=%22%E5%9B%9B%E4%BA%BA%E5%B8%AE%22%E8%A2%AB%E7%B2%89%E7%A2%8E%E5%90%8E%E7%9A%84%E6%80%AA%E4%BA%8B%EF%BC%9A%22%E6%96%87%E9%9D%A9%22%E4%B9%8B%E9%A3%8E%E4%BB%8D%E5%9C%A8%E7%BB%A7%E7%BB%AD%E5%90%B9&rft.date=2011-01-30&rft.aulast=Ling&rft.aufirst=Zhijun&rft.au=Ma%2C+Licheng&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhistory.people.com.cn%2FGB%2F205396%2F13852546.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pye-1986-85">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pye-1986_85-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pye-1986_85-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pye-1986_85-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPye1986" class="citation journal cs1">Pye, Lucian W. 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The China Quarterly. 108 (108): 597–612. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0305741000037085">10.1017/S0305741000037085</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0305-7410">0305-7410</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/653530">653530</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:153730706">153730706</a>. <q>See, for example, Huo-cheng, Li, "Chinese Communists reveal for the first time the number 20 million deaths for the Cultural Revolution," <a href="/wiki/Ming_Bao" class="mw-redirect" title="Ming Bao">Ming Bao</a> (Daily News), 26 10 1981, p. 3</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+China+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Reassessing+the+Cultural+Revolution&rft.volume=108&rft.issue=108&rft.pages=597-612&rft.date=1986&rft.issn=0305-7410&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A153730706%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F653530%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0305741000037085&rft.aulast=Pye&rft.aufirst=Lucian+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-WangS-2012-86">^ <a href="#cite_ref-WangS-2012_86-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-WangS-2012_86-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scmp.com/news/china/article/1017272/remembering-dark-days-chinas-cultural-revolution">"Remembering the dark days of China's Cultural Revolution"</a>. <a href="/wiki/South_China_Morning_Post" title="South China Morning Post">South China Morning Post</a>. 18 August 2012. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180609084717/http://www.scmp.com/news/china/article/1017272/remembering-dark-days-chinas-cultural-revolution">Archived</a> from the original on 9 June 2018. Retrieved 29 November 2019. <q>According to a working conference of the Communist Party's Central Committee in 1978, 20 million Chinese died in the revolution, 100 million were persecuted and 800 billion yuan was wasted.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=South+China+Morning+Post&rft.atitle=Remembering+the+dark+days+of+China%27s+Cultural+Revolution&rft.date=2012-08-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scmp.com%2Fnews%2Fchina%2Farticle%2F1017272%2Fremembering-dark-days-chinas-cultural-revolution&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Strauss-1994-87"><a href="#cite_ref-Strauss-1994_87-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStraussSoutherl1994" class="citation news cs1">Strauss, Valerie; Southerl, Daniel (17 July 1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1994/07/17/how-many-died-new-evidence-suggests-far-higher-numbers-for-the-victims-of-mao-zedongs-era/01044df5-03dd-49f4-a453-a033c5287bce/">"How Many Died? 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Retrieved 9 May 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=How+Many+Died%3F+New+Evidence+Suggests+Far+Higher+Numbers+For+the+Victims+of+Mao+Zedong%27s+Era&rft.date=1994-07-17&rft.issn=0190-8286&rft.aulast=Strauss&rft.aufirst=Valerie&rft.au=Southerl%2C+Daniel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Farchive%2Fpolitics%2F1994%2F07%2F17%2Fhow-many-died-new-evidence-suggests-far-higher-numbers-for-the-victims-of-mao-zedongs-era%2F01044df5-03dd-49f4-a453-a033c5287bce%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWang2007" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Wang, Youqin (15 December 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.openedition.org/chinaperspectives/2593">"Finding a Place for the Victims: The Problem in Writing the History of the Cultural Revolution"</a>. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://phtv.ifeng.com/program/shnjd/detail_2012_09/03/17307554_2.shtml">the original</a> on 23 March 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Phoenix+Television&rft.atitle=75%C2%B78%E6%9D%BF%E6%A1%A5%E6%B0%B4%E5%BA%93%E6%BA%83%E5%9D%9D+20%E4%B8%96%E7%BA%AA%E6%9C%80%E5%A4%A7%E4%BA%BA%E7%B1%BB%E6%8A%80%E6%9C%AF%E7%81%BE%E9%9A%BE&rft.date=2012-09-03&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fphtv.ifeng.com%2Fprogram%2Fshnjd%2Fdetail_2012_09%2F03%2F17307554_2.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Walder2019a-91">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Walder2019a_91-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Walder2019a_91-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalder2019" class="citation book cs1">Walder, Andrew G. (2019). 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China News Digest. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220622192624/http://www.cnd.org/cr/ZK17/cr905.gb.html">Archived</a> from the original on 22 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=China+News+Digest&rft.atitle=%E5%B9%BF%E8%A5%BF%E6%96%87%E9%9D%A9%E7%BB%9D%E5%AF%86%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E4%B8%AD%E7%9A%84%E5%A4%A7%E5%B1%A0%E6%9D%80%E5%92%8C%E6%80%A7%E6%9A%B4%E5%8A%9B&rft.date=2017-04-03&rft.aulast=Song&rft.aufirst=Yongyi&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnd.org%2Fcr%2FZK17%2Fcr905.gb.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalderSu2003" class="citation journal cs1">Walder, Andrew G.; Su, Yang (2003). "The Cultural Revolution in the Countryside: Scope, Timing and Human Impact". The China Quarterly. 173 (173): 74–99. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0009443903000068">10.1017/S0009443903000068</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0305-7410">0305-7410</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20058959">20058959</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:43671719">43671719</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+China+Quarterly&rft.atitle=The+Cultural+Revolution+in+the+Countryside%3A+Scope%2C+Timing+and+Human+Impact&rft.volume=173&rft.issue=173&rft.pages=74-99&rft.date=2003&rft.issn=0305-7410&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A43671719%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20058959%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0009443903000068&rft.aulast=Walder&rft.aufirst=Andrew+G.&rft.au=Su%2C+Yang&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Open_Magazine-1999-98">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Open_Magazine-1999_98-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Open_Magazine-1999_98-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Open_Magazine-1999_98-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Open_Magazine-1999_98-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"> <bdi lang="zh">兩百萬人含恨而終─文革死亡人數統計</bdi>. Open Magazine (in Chinese). Hong Kong. August 1999.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Open+Magazine&rft.atitle=%E5%85%A9%E7%99%BE%E8%90%AC%E4%BA%BA%E5%90%AB%E6%81%A8%E8%80%8C%E7%B5%82%E2%94%80%E6%96%87%E9%9D%A9%E6%AD%BB%E4%BA%A1%E4%BA%BA%E6%95%B8%E7%B5%B1%E8%A8%88&rft.date=1999-08&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li><li>A different version appears in:<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDing2004" class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Ding, Shu (15 March 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cnd.org/CR/ZK04/cr209.hz8.html"><bdi lang="zh">文革死亡人数的一家之言</bdi></a> [Home report on the Cultural Revolution's death toll]. China News Digest (in Chinese).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=China+News+Digest&rft.atitle=%E6%96%87%E9%9D%A9%E6%AD%BB%E4%BA%A1%E4%BA%BA%E6%95%B0%E7%9A%84%E4%B8%80%E5%AE%B6%E4%B9%8B%E8%A8%80&rft.date=2004-03-15&rft.aulast=Ding&rft.aufirst=Shu&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnd.org%2FCR%2FZK04%2Fcr209.hz8.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-ConsensusNet-2016-99">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ConsensusNet-2016_99-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ConsensusNet-2016_99-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ConsensusNet-2016_99-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-script"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200625142850/http://www.hybsl.cn/beijingcankao/beijingfenxi/2016-01-08/56368.html"><bdi lang="zh">文革五十周年：必须再来一次反文革</bdi></a> [Fiftieth anniversary of the Cultural Revolution: It must be opposed once again]. 胡耀邦史料信息网. <a href="/wiki/Consensus_(website)" title="Consensus (website)">Consensus Net</a>. 2016. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hybsl.cn/beijingcankao/beijingfenxi/2016-01-08/56368.html">the original</a> on 25 June 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=%E8%83%A1%E8%80%80%E9%82%A6%E5%8F%B2%E6%96%99%E4%BF%A1%E6%81%AF%E7%BD%91&rft.atitle=%E6%96%87%E9%9D%A9%E4%BA%94%E5%8D%81%E5%91%A8%E5%B9%B4%EF%BC%9A%E5%BF%85%E9%A1%BB%E5%86%8D%E6%9D%A5%E4%B8%80%E6%AC%A1%E5%8F%8D%E6%96%87%E9%9D%A9&rft.date=2016&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hybsl.cn%2Fbeijingcankao%2Fbeijingfenxi%2F2016-01-08%2F56368.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-script">"Title unknown". Zhengming Magazine. Hong Kong. October 1996. <bdi lang="zh">中共一九七八年和一九八四年的内部调查 ...「两千一百四十四万余人受到审查、冲击；一亿两千五百余万人受到牵连、影响」...「四百二十余万人曾被关押、隔离审查；一百三十余万人曾被公安机关拘留、逮捕；一百七十二万八千余人非正常死亡 ...「十三万五千余人被以现行反革命罪判为死刑；在武斗中有二十三万七千余人死亡，七十三万余人伤残」</bdi></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zhengming+Magazine&rft.atitle=Title+unknown&rft.date=1996-10&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chen_1998-101"><a href="#cite_ref-Chen_1998_101-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChen1998" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Chen_Yung-fa" title="Chen Yung-fa">Chen, Yung-fa</a> (1998). <bdi lang="zh">中國共產革命七十年 (下)</bdi> (in Chinese). <a href="/wiki/Taipei" title="Taipei">Taipei</a>: Linking. p. 817. <bdi lang="zh">文化大革命的非正常死亡人數只有大躍進的十分之一不到, 從農民觀點來看, 其錯誤之嚴重, 遠遠不如大躍進 ... 二千六百萬人慘死</bdi></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E5%85%B1%E7%94%A2%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD%E4%B8%83%E5%8D%81%E5%B9%B4+%28%E4%B8%8B%29&rft.place=Taipei&rft.pages=817&rft.pub=Linking&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Chen&rft.aufirst=Yung-fa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rummel-1991-102">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rummel-1991_102-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rummel-1991_102-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRummel1991" class="citation book cs1">Rummel, R. J. (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iIEPoEL4lG0C&pg=PA263">China's Bloody Century: Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1900</a>. Transaction. p. 263. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1412814003" title="Special:BookSources/978-1412814003"><bdi>978-1412814003</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%27s+Bloody+Century%3A+Genocide+and+Mass+Murder+Since+1900&rft.pages=263&rft.pub=Transaction&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-1412814003&rft.aulast=Rummel&rft.aufirst=R.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiIEPoEL4lG0C%26pg%3DPA263&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dai-2016-103">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dai-2016_103-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dai-2016_103-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDai2016" class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Dai, Kaiyuan (18 April 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cnd.org/cr/ZK16/cr859.gb.html"><bdi lang="zh">文革的本质：– 场大清洗</bdi></a> [The nature of the Cultural Revolution: a great purge]. China News Digest (in Chinese). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220408122445/http://www.cnd.org/cr/ZK16/cr859.gb.html">Archived</a> from the original on 8 April 2022. <q>Note 12</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=China+News+Digest&rft.atitle=%E6%96%87%E9%9D%A9%E7%9A%84%E6%9C%AC%E8%B4%A8%EF%BC%9A%E2%80%93+%E5%9C%BA%E5%A4%A7%E6%B8%85%E6%B4%97&rft.date=2016-04-18&rft.aulast=Dai&rft.aufirst=Kaiyuan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnd.org%2Fcr%2FZK16%2Fcr859.gb.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-AGP-1979-104">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AGP-1979_104-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-AGP-1979_104-1">b</a> Agence France Presse, Beijing, February 3, 1979; compiled into <a href="/wiki/Foreign_Broadcast_Information_Service" title="Foreign Broadcast Information Service">FBIS</a>-Chi 79.25 (February 5, 1979), p. E2.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">title missing</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeisner1986" class="citation book cs1">Meisner, Maurice (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/maoschinaaftera00meis/page/371/">Mao's China and After: A History of the People's Republic</a> (2nd ed.). Free Press. pp. 371–372, 394. <q>Li's estimate for Guangdong is roughly consistent with a widely accepted nationwide figure of 400,000 Cultural Revolution deaths, a number first reported in 1979 by the Agence France Presse correspondent in Peking based on estimates of unofficial but "usually reliable" Chinese sources. The toll may well have been higher. It is unlikely that it was less.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mao%27s+China+and+After%3A+A+History+of+the+People%27s+Republic&rft.pages=371-372%2C+394&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Free+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.aulast=Meisner&rft.aufirst=Maurice&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmaoschinaaftera00meis%2Fpage%2F371%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeightner2017" class="citation book cs1">Leightner, Jonathan (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RzUlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA27">Ethics, Efficiency and Macroeconomics in China: From Mao to Xi</a>. <a href="/wiki/Taylor_%26_Francis" title="Taylor & Francis">Taylor & Francis</a>. p. 27. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-351-80583-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-351-80583-4"><bdi>978-1-351-80583-4</bdi></a>. <q>There is no agreement on how many people died during the Cultural Revolution. Perhaps one of the best estimates is 400,000, made by a Beijing correspondent for Agence France-Presse (Meisner 1999: 354).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ethics%2C+Efficiency+and+Macroeconomics+in+China%3A+From+Mao+to+Xi&rft.pages=27&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-351-80583-4&rft.aulast=Leightner&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRzUlDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA27&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Song-2002-107">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Song-2002_107-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Song-2002_107-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSong2002" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script"><a href="/wiki/Song_Yongyi" title="Song Yongyi">Song, Yongyi</a> (2002). <bdi lang="zh">文革大屠杀</bdi> [Cultural Revolution Massacres]. Hong Kong: 开放杂志出版社. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9627934097" title="Special:BookSources/978-9627934097"><bdi>978-9627934097</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E6%96%87%E9%9D%A9%E5%A4%A7%E5%B1%A0%E6%9D%80&rft.place=Hong+Kong&rft.pub=%E5%BC%80%E6%94%BE%E6%9D%82%E5%BF%97%E5%87%BA%E7%89%88%E7%A4%BE&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-9627934097&rft.aulast=Song&rft.aufirst=Yongyi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Yang-2006-108">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Yang-2006_108-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Yang-2006_108-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYang2006" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Yang, Su (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.modernchinastudies.org/cn/issues/past-issues/93-mcs-2006-issue-3/974-2012-01-05-15-35-10.html"><bdi lang="zh">'文革' 中的集体屠杀：三省研究</bdi></a> [Collective killings in the Cultural Revolution: a study of three provinces]. Modern China Studies (in Chinese). 3.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Modern+China+Studies&rft.atitle=%27%E6%96%87%E9%9D%A9%27+%E4%B8%AD%E7%9A%84%E9%9B%86%E4%BD%93%E5%B1%A0%E6%9D%80%EF%BC%9A%E4%B8%89%E7%9C%81%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6&rft.volume=3&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Yang&rft.aufirst=Su&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.modernchinastudies.org%2Fcn%2Fissues%2Fpast-issues%2F93-mcs-2006-issue-3%2F974-2012-01-05-15-35-10.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Yang-2017-109"><a href="#cite_ref-Yang-2017_109-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYang2017" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Yang_Jisheng_(journalist)" title="Yang Jisheng (journalist)">Yang, Jisheng</a> (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4d4qDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA524"><bdi lang="zh">天地翻覆—中国文化大革命史</bdi></a> (in Chinese). Hong Kong: Cosmos Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E5%A4%A9%E5%9C%B0%E7%BF%BB%E8%A6%86%E2%80%94%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E6%96%87%E5%8C%96%E5%A4%A7%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD%E5%8F%B2&rft.place=Hong+Kong&rft.pub=Cosmos+Books&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Yang&rft.aufirst=Jisheng&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4d4qDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA524&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Zhou-1999-110"><a href="#cite_ref-Zhou-1999_110-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhou1999" class="citation book cs1">Zhou, Yongming (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8Rv-MsA4UGIC&pg=PA162">Anti-drug Crusades in Twentieth-century China: Nationalism, History, and State Building</a>. 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Southern Mongolian Human Rights Information Center.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%E6%8C%96%E8%82%83%E7%81%BE%E9%9A%BE%E5%AE%9E%E5%BD%95&rft.pub=Southern+Mongolian+Human+Rights+Information+Center&rft.aulast=Ba&rft.aufirst=Yantai&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.smhric.org%2FIMPRP.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brown-2007-129"><a href="#cite_ref-Brown-2007_129-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown2007" class="citation journal cs1">Brown, Kerry (1 July 2007). "The Cultural Revolution in Inner Mongolia 1967–1969: The Purge of the "Heirs of Genghis Khan"". 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Hu Yaobang Historical Information Net (in Chinese). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hybsl.cn/xuezhewenji/wanghaiguang/2008-12-01/10962.html">the original</a> on 22 June 2020. 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The China Quarterly. 145 (145): 87–111. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0305741000044143">10.1017/S0305741000044143</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/655646">655646</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154681969">154681969</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+China+Quarterly&rft.atitle=The+Central+Case+Examination+Group%2C+1966%E2%80%9379&rft.volume=145&rft.issue=145&rft.pages=87-111&rft.date=1996-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154681969%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F655646%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0305741000044143&rft.aulast=Schoenhals&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFQingxiaYan2001" class="citation journal cs1">Qingxia, Dai; Yan, Dong (March 2001). 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Chinese Education & Society. 34 (2): 7–53. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2753%2FCED1061-193234027">10.2753/CED1061-193234027</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1061-1932">1061-1932</a>. <q>Ethnic languages were repudiated as one of the "four olds" and large numbers of books and documents pertaining to ethnic languages were burned.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chinese+Education+%26+Society&rft.atitle=The+Historical+Evolution+of+Bilingual+Education+for+China%27s+Ethnic+Minorities&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=7-53&rft.date=2001-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2753%2FCED1061-193234027&rft.issn=1061-1932&rft.aulast=Qingxia&rft.aufirst=Dai&rft.au=Yan%2C+Dong&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWu2014" class="citation journal cs1">Wu, Jiaping (May 2014). 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Grove. p. 35. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0810868052" title="Special:BookSources/978-0810868052"><bdi>978-0810868052</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Dictionary+of+Tibet&rft.pages=35&rft.pub=Grove&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0810868052&rft.aulast=Powers&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Templeman%2C+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dpage-PR35&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdam_Jones2006" class="citation book cs1">Adam Jones (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TkPqxCBbF7UC&pg=PA97">Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction</a>. 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Schwartz (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=s_7WkbZAaWEC&pg=PA12">Circle Of Protest</a>. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 12–13. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8120813700" title="Special:BookSources/978-8120813700"><bdi>978-8120813700</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Circle+Of+Protest&rft.pages=12-13&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-8120813700&rft.au=Ronald+D.+Schwartz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Ds_7WkbZAaWEC%26pg%3DPA12&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ardley-143">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ardley_143-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ardley_143-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ardley_143-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArdley2002" class="citation book cs1">Ardley, Jane (2002). Tibetan Independence Movement: Political, Religious and Gandhian Perspectives. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0700715725" title="Special:BookSources/978-0700715725"><bdi>978-0700715725</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tibetan+Independence+Movement%3A+Political%2C+Religious+and+Gandhian+Perspectives&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0700715725&rft.aulast=Ardley&rft.aufirst=Jane&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas_Laird2007" class="citation book cs1">Thomas Laird (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=As_4aQjGaUEC&pg=PA345">The Story of Tibet: Conversations with the Dalai Lama</a>. Open Road. p. 345. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1555846725" title="Special:BookSources/978-1555846725"><bdi>978-1555846725</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Story+of+Tibet%3A+Conversations+with+the+Dalai+Lama&rft.pages=345&rft.pub=Open+Road&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1555846725&rft.au=Thomas+Laird&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAs_4aQjGaUEC%26pg%3DPA345&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFManningWemheuer2011" class="citation book cs1">Manning, Kimberley Ens; Wemheuer, Felix (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aHPTn2Rq9IUC&pg=PA23">Eating Bitterness: New Perspectives on China's Great Leap Forward and Famine</a>. University of British Columbia Press. p. 23. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0774859554" title="Special:BookSources/978-0774859554"><bdi>978-0774859554</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eating+Bitterness%3A+New+Perspectives+on+China%27s+Great+Leap+Forward+and+Famine&rft.pages=23&rft.pub=University+of+British+Columbia+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0774859554&rft.aulast=Manning&rft.aufirst=Kimberley+Ens&rft.au=Wemheuer%2C+Felix&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DaHPTn2Rq9IUC%26pg%3DPA23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2009" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Warren W. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WYiVlfLzlRUC&pg=PA6">Tibet's Last Stand?: The Tibetan Uprising of 2008 and China's Response</a>. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 6. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0742566859" title="Special:BookSources/978-0742566859"><bdi>978-0742566859</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tibet%27s+Last+Stand%3F%3A+The+Tibetan+Uprising+of+2008+and+China%27s+Response&rft.pages=6&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0742566859&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Warren+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWYiVlfLzlRUC%26pg%3DPA6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_Powers2004" class="citation book cs1">John Powers (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=D96ifo76RZEC&pg=PA142">History As Propaganda: Tibetan Exiles versus the People's Republic of China</a>. Oxford University Press. p. 142. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0198038849" title="Special:BookSources/978-0198038849"><bdi>978-0198038849</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+As+Propaganda%3A+Tibetan+Exiles+versus+the+People%27s+Republic+of+China&rft.pages=142&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0198038849&rft.au=John+Powers&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DD96ifo76RZEC%26pg%3DPA142&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSautmanDreyer2006" class="citation book cs1">Sautman, Barry; Dreyer, June Teufel (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Z4hsGZ-idEwC&pg=PA240">Contemporary Tibet: Politics, Development, and Society in a Disputed Region</a>. M. E. Sharp. pp. 238–247. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0765631497" title="Special:BookSources/978-0765631497"><bdi>978-0765631497</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Contemporary+Tibet%3A+Politics%2C+Development%2C+and+Society+in+a+Disputed+Region&rft.pages=238-247&rft.pub=M.+E.+Sharp&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0765631497&rft.aulast=Sautman&rft.aufirst=Barry&rft.au=Dreyer%2C+June+Teufel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZ4hsGZ-idEwC%26pg%3DPA240&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchwartz" class="citation web cs1">Schwartz, Ronald. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tibet.ca/_media/PDF/Religious-Persecution-in-Tibet.pdf">"Religious Persecution in Tibet"</a> (PDF). www.tibet.ca. Memorial University of Newfoundland. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130923042104/http://www.tibet.ca/_media/PDF/Religious-Persecution-in-Tibet.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 23 September 2013. Retrieved 5 December 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.tibet.ca&rft.atitle=Religious+Persecution+in+Tibet&rft.aulast=Schwartz&rft.aufirst=Ronald&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tibet.ca%2F_media%2FPDF%2FReligious-Persecution-in-Tibet.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dreyer-150"><a href="#cite_ref-Dreyer_150-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDreyer2000" class="citation book cs1">Dreyer, June Teufel (2000). China's Political System: Modernization and Tradition (3rd ed.). London: Macmillan. pp. 289–291. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-333-91287-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-333-91287-X"><bdi>0-333-91287-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%27s+Political+System%3A+Modernization+and+Tradition&rft.place=London&rft.pages=289-291&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-333-91287-X&rft.aulast=Dreyer&rft.aufirst=June+Teufel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLarson1999" class="citation journal cs1">Larson, Wendy (October 1999). "Never This Wild: Sexing the Cultural Revolution". <a href="/wiki/Modern_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern China">Modern China</a>. 25 (4): 423–450. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F009770049902500402">10.1177/009770049902500402</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0097-7004">0097-7004</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144491731">144491731</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Modern+China&rft.atitle=Never+This+Wild%3A+Sexing+the+Cultural+Revolution&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=423-450&rft.date=1999-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144491731%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0097-7004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F009770049902500402&rft.aulast=Larson&rft.aufirst=Wendy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHonig2003" class="citation journal cs1">Honig, Emily (2003). "Socialist Sex: The Cultural Revolution Revisited". <a href="/wiki/Modern_China_(journal)" title="Modern China (journal)">Modern China</a>. 29 (2): 143–175. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0097700402250735">10.1177/0097700402250735</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0097-7004">0097-7004</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3181306">3181306</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143436282">143436282</a>. <q>A 1973 report on sent-down youth estimated that since 1969, there had been some 16,000 cases of rape.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Modern+China&rft.atitle=Socialist+Sex%3A+The+Cultural+Revolution+Revisited&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=143-175&rft.date=2003&rft.issn=0097-7004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143436282%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3181306%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0097700402250735&rft.aulast=Honig&rft.aufirst=Emily&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBranigan2023" class="citation news cs1">Branigan, Tania (19 January 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/jan/19/tragedy-pushed-to-the-shadows-truth-about-china-cultural-revolution">"A tragedy pushed to the shadows: the truth about China's Cultural Revolution"</a>. The Guardian. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0261-3077">0261-3077</a>. Retrieved 18 October 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=A+tragedy+pushed+to+the+shadows%3A+the+truth+about+China%27s+Cultural+Revolution&rft.date=2023-01-19&rft.issn=0261-3077&rft.aulast=Branigan&rft.aufirst=Tania&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2023%2Fjan%2F19%2Ftragedy-pushed-to-the-shadows-truth-about-china-cultural-revolution&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBranigan2023" class="citation book cs1">Branigan, Tania (2023). Red Memory: The Afterlives of China's Cultural Revolution. W. W. Norton. p. 166. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-324-05195-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-324-05195-4"><bdi>978-1-324-05195-4</bdi></a>. <q>But the city girls, naive and far from their families, were easy prey for peasants and especially cadres. Though fright and shame deterred many from reporting abuses, thousands of cases were recorded in a single year. The problem was pronounced enough that the centre kept threatening punishment for rapes. Often the victims took the blame, since they had worse class backgrounds than officials.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Red+Memory%3A+The+Afterlives+of+China%27s+Cultural+Revolution&rft.pages=166&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-1-324-05195-4&rft.aulast=Branigan&rft.aufirst=Tania&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-King-155">^ <a href="#cite_ref-King_155-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-King_155-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-King_155-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-King_155-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKing2010" class="citation book cs1">King, Richard (2010). Art in Turmoil: The Chinese Cultural Revolution, 1966–76. 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Information Age Publishing. p. 55. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1593110765" title="Special:BookSources/978-1593110765"><bdi>978-1593110765</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160505174046/https://books.google.com/books?id=YFkx41kszGUC&pg=PA55">Archived</a> from the original on 5 May 2016. 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CNN. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141129030828/http://edition.cnn.com/2012/10/24/world/asia/china-lost-generation/">Archived</a> from the original on 29 November 2014. 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The Unknown Cultural Revolution: Life and Change in a Chinese Village. New York: Monthly Review Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58367-180-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58367-180-1"><bdi>978-1-58367-180-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Unknown+Cultural+Revolution%3A+Life+and+Change+in+a+Chinese+Village&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Monthly+Review+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-58367-180-1&rft.aulast=Han&rft.aufirst=Dongping&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Huang_Foreign_Affairs_2011-171"><a href="#cite_ref-Huang_Foreign_Affairs_2011_171-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuang2011" class="citation journal cs1">Huang, Yanzhong (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/136507/yanzhong-huang/the-sick-man-of-asia">"The Sick Man of Asia. China's Health Crisis"</a>. Foreign Affairs. 90 (6): 119–36. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141113012140/http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/136507/yanzhong-huang/the-sick-man-of-asia">Archived</a> from the original on 13 November 2014. Retrieved 12 November 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Foreign+Affairs&rft.atitle=The+Sick+Man+of+Asia.+China%27s+Health+Crisis&rft.volume=90&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=119-36&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Huang&rft.aufirst=Yanzhong&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.foreignaffairs.com%2Farticles%2F136507%2Fyanzhong-huang%2Fthe-sick-man-of-asia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-huang-172">^ <a href="#cite_ref-huang_172-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-huang_172-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-huang_172-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-huang_172-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-huang_172-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-huang_172-5">f</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChenMa" class="citation book cs1">Chen, G.; Ma, R. (eds.). The power of words: political slogans as leverage in conflict and conflict management during China's cultural revolution movement. Greenwood.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+power+of+words%3A+political+slogans+as+leverage+in+conflict+and+conflict+management+during+China%27s+cultural+revolution+movement&rft.pub=Greenwood&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChangHalliday2005-173"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChangHalliday2005_173-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChangHalliday2005">Chang & Halliday 2005</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Dittmer-174">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dittmer_174-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dittmer_174-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dittmer_174-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDittmerChen1981" class="citation book cs1">Dittmer, Lowell; Chen, Ruoxi (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7NkhMkuCs7QC">Ethics and Rhetoric of the Chinese Cultural Revolution</a>. Center for Chinese Studies, Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-912966-47-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-912966-47-2"><bdi>978-0-912966-47-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ethics+and+Rhetoric+of+the+Chinese+Cultural+Revolution&rft.pub=Center+for+Chinese+Studies%2C+Institute+of+East+Asian+Studies%2C+University+of+California&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-0-912966-47-2&rft.aulast=Dittmer&rft.aufirst=Lowell&rft.au=Chen%2C+Ruoxi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7NkhMkuCs7QC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaulson2015" class="citation book cs1">Paulson, Henry M. (2015). Dealing with China: an insider unmasks the new economic superpower. New York: Grand Central Publishing. p. 4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1455504213" title="Special:BookSources/978-1455504213"><bdi>978-1455504213</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dealing+with+China%3A+an+insider+unmasks+the+new+economic+superpower&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=4&rft.pub=Grand+Central+Publishing&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1455504213&rft.aulast=Paulson&rft.aufirst=Henry+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ching-2021-176">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ching-2021_176-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ching-2021_176-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ching-2021_176-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChing2021" class="citation book cs1">Ching, Pao-Yu (2021). Revolution and counterrevolution: China's continuing class struggle since liberation (2nd ed.). Paris: Foreign Languages Press. p. 137. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-491182-89-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-491182-89-2"><bdi>978-2-491182-89-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Revolution+and+counterrevolution%3A+China%27s+continuing+class+struggle+since+liberation&rft.place=Paris&rft.pages=137&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Foreign+Languages+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-2-491182-89-2&rft.aulast=Ching&rft.aufirst=Pao-Yu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lin_2006-177">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lin_2006_177-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lin_2006_177-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLin2006" class="citation book cs1">Lin, Chun (2006). The transformation of Chinese socialism. Durham, NC: <a href="/wiki/Duke_University_Press" title="Duke University Press">Duke University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-3785-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-3785-0"><bdi>978-0-8223-3785-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+transformation+of+Chinese+socialism&rft.place=Durham%2C+NC&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-8223-3785-0&rft.aulast=Lin&rft.aufirst=Chun&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Coderre2021-178">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Coderre2021_178-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Coderre2021_178-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Coderre2021_178-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Coderre2021_178-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Coderre2021_178-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Coderre2021_178-5">f</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoderre2021" class="citation book cs1">Coderre, Laurence (2021). Newborn Socialist Things: Materiality in Maoist China. Durham, NC: <a href="/wiki/Duke_University_Press" title="Duke University Press">Duke University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2Fj.ctv1r4xd0g">10.2307/j.ctv1r4xd0g</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4780-2161-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4780-2161-2"><bdi>978-1-4780-2161-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv1r4xd0g">j.ctv1r4xd0g</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Newborn+Socialist+Things%3A+Materiality+in+Maoist+China&rft.place=Durham%2C+NC&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fj.ctv1r4xd0g%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2Fj.ctv1r4xd0g&rft.isbn=978-1-4780-2161-2&rft.aulast=Coderre&rft.aufirst=Laurence&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Karl-2010-179">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Karl-2010_179-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Karl-2010_179-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKarl2010" class="citation book cs1">Karl, Rebecca E. (2010). Mao Zedong and China in the twentieth-century world: a concise history. Durham, NC: <a href="/wiki/Duke_University_Press" title="Duke University Press">Duke University Press</a>. p. 148. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-4780-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-4780-4"><bdi>978-0-8223-4780-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mao+Zedong+and+China+in+the+twentieth-century+world%3A+a+concise+history&rft.place=Durham%2C+NC&rft.pages=148&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-8223-4780-4&rft.aulast=Karl&rft.aufirst=Rebecca+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hong-180">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hong_180-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hong_180-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hong_180-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHong2009" class="citation book cs1">Hong, Zicheng (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=S7C9xtFKGWEC&pg=PA213">A History of Contemporary Chinese Literature</a>. Translated by Day, Michael M. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004173668" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004173668"><bdi>978-9004173668</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Contemporary+Chinese+Literature&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-9004173668&rft.aulast=Hong&rft.aufirst=Zicheng&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DS7C9xtFKGWEC%26pg%3DPA213&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-sina-181"><a href="#cite_ref-sina_181-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhang2008" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Zhang Xiaofeng (张晓风) (12 March 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.sina.com.cn/s/2008-03-12/113615131996.shtml"><bdi lang="zh">张晓风：我的父亲母亲</bdi></a> [Zhang Xiaofeng: My father and mother]. Sina (in Chinese). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171019152135/http://news.sina.com.cn/s/2008-03-12/113615131996.shtml">Archived</a> from the original on 19 October 2017. Retrieved 3 May 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Sina&rft.atitle=%E5%BC%A0%E6%99%93%E9%A3%8E%EF%BC%9A%E6%88%91%E7%9A%84%E7%88%B6%E4%BA%B2%E6%AF%8D%E4%BA%B2&rft.date=2008-03-12&rft.aulast=Zhang&rft.aufirst=Xiaofeng&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.sina.com.cn%2Fs%2F2008-03-12%2F113615131996.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCai蔡翔2016" class="citation book cs1">Cai, Xiang; 蔡翔 (2016). Revolution and its narratives : China's socialist literary and cultural imaginaries (1949–1966). Rebecca E. 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Durham, NC: <a href="/wiki/Duke_University_Press" title="Duke University Press">Duke University Press</a>. pp. xix. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-7461-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-7461-9"><bdi>978-0-8223-7461-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Revolution+and+its+narratives+%3A+China%27s+socialist+literary+and+cultural+imaginaries+%281949%E2%80%931966%29&rft.place=Durham%2C+NC&rft.pages=xix&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-8223-7461-9&rft.aulast=Cai&rft.aufirst=Xiang&rft.au=%E8%94%A1%E7%BF%94&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaul_G._Pickowicz2013" class="citation book cs1">Paul G. Pickowicz (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3XNyF4a7xHsC&pg=PA128">China on Film: A Century of Exploration, Confrontation, and Controversy</a>. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 128–29. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1442211797" title="Special:BookSources/978-1442211797"><bdi>978-1442211797</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China+on+Film%3A+A+Century+of+Exploration%2C+Confrontation%2C+and+Controversy&rft.pages=128-29&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1442211797&rft.au=Paul+G.+Pickowicz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3XNyF4a7xHsC%26pg%3DPA128&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDingbo_WuPatrick_D._Murphy1994" class="citation book cs1">Dingbo Wu; Patrick D. Murphy, eds. (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=V0R-3zFSJbkC&pg=PA207">Handbook of Chinese Popular Culture</a>. Greenwood. p. 207. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0313278082" title="Special:BookSources/978-0313278082"><bdi>978-0313278082</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160429072451/https://books.google.com/books?id=V0R-3zFSJbkC&pg=PA207">Archived</a> from the original on 29 April 2016. 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Asia Society. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111022060805/http://asiasociety.org/blog/asia/does-new-biography-tell-whole-story-deng-xiaoping">Archived</a> from the original on 22 October 2011. 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The China Quarterly. 246: 355. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0305741021000424">10.1017/S0305741021000424</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0305-7410">0305-7410</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:235452119">235452119</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+China+Quarterly&rft.atitle=%22Liberating+the+Small+Devils%22%3A+Red+Guard+Newspapers+and+Radical+Publics%2C+1966%E2%80%931968&rft.volume=246&rft.pages=355&rft.date=2021&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A235452119%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0305-7410&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0305741021000424&rft.aulast=Volland&rft.aufirst=Nicolai&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1017%252FS0305741021000424&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Marquis2022-207">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Marquis2022_207-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Marquis2022_207-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarquisQiao2022" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Marquis" title="Christopher Marquis">Marquis, Christopher</a>; Qiao, Kunyuan (2022). 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University of Arkansas Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61075-444-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61075-444-6"><bdi>978-1-61075-444-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Up+Against+the+Wall%3A+Violence+in+the+Making+and+Unmaking+of+the+Black+Panther+Party&rft.pub=University+of+Arkansas+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-61075-444-6&rft.aulast=Austin&rft.aufirst=Curtis+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiRACjD1JdMkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-217"><a href="#cite_ref-217">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBellis2019" class="citation book cs1">Bellis, David (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XSDkDwAAQBAJ">Old Hong Kong Photos and The Tales They Tell, Volume 3</a>. Gwulo. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-988-78276-2-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-988-78276-2-7"><bdi>978-988-78276-2-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Old+Hong+Kong+Photos+and+The+Tales+They+Tell%2C+Volume+3&rft.pub=Gwulo&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-988-78276-2-7&rft.aulast=Bellis&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXSDkDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-218"><a href="#cite_ref-218">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlumi1999" class="citation journal cs1">Blumi, Isa (1999). "Hoxha's Class War: The Cultural Revolution and State Reformation, 1961–1971". East European Quarterly. 33 (3): 303–326 – via ProQuest.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=East+European+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Hoxha%27s+Class+War%3A+The+Cultural+Revolution+and+State+Reformation%2C+1961%E2%80%931971&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=303-326&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Blumi&rft.aufirst=Isa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-219"><a href="#cite_ref-219">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoxha1982" class="citation book cs1">Hoxha, Enver (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.enverhoxha.ru/Archive_of_books/English/enver_hoxha_selected_works_volume_IV_eng.pdf">Selected Works</a> (PDF). Vol. 4. Tirana: 8 Nëntori.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Selected+Works&rft.place=Tirana&rft.pub=8+N%C3%ABntori&rft.date=1982&rft.aulast=Hoxha&rft.aufirst=Enver&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.enverhoxha.ru%2FArchive_of_books%2FEnglish%2Fenver_hoxha_selected_works_volume_IV_eng.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-220"><a href="#cite_ref-220">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChiang,_Kai-Shek1966" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Chiang, Kai-Shek (9 October 1966). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ccfd.org.tw/ccef001/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=795:0003-94&catid=246&Itemid=256"><bdi lang="zh">中華民國五十五年國慶日前夕告中共黨人書</bdi></a> [Manifesto to the CPC Members on the Eve of the National Day of the 55th Years of the Republic of China]. 總統蔣公思想言論總集 (in Chinese). Chungcheng Cultural and Educational Foundation. Retrieved 6 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=%E7%B8%BD%E7%B5%B1%E8%94%A3%E5%85%AC%E6%80%9D%E6%83%B3%E8%A8%80%E8%AB%96%E7%B8%BD%E9%9B%86&rft.atitle=%E4%B8%AD%E8%8F%AF%E6%B0%91%E5%9C%8B%E4%BA%94%E5%8D%81%E4%BA%94%E5%B9%B4%E5%9C%8B%E6%85%B6%E6%97%A5%E5%89%8D%E5%A4%95%E5%91%8A%E4%B8%AD%E5%85%B1%E9%BB%A8%E4%BA%BA%E6%9B%B8&rft.date=1966-10-09&rft.au=Chiang%2C+Kai-Shek&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ccfd.org.tw%2Fccef001%2Findex.php%3Foption%3Dcom_content%26view%3Darticle%26id%3D795%3A0003-94%26catid%3D246%26Itemid%3D256&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-221"><a href="#cite_ref-221">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKhrushchev1974" class="citation book cs1">Khrushchev, Nikita (1974). "Chapter 11". Khrushchev Remembers: The Last Testament. Little, Brown and Company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+11&rft.btitle=Khrushchev+Remembers%3A+The+Last+Testament&rft.pub=Little%2C+Brown+and+Company&rft.date=1974&rft.aulast=Khrushchev&rft.aufirst=Nikita&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-hk-222">^ <a href="#cite_ref-hk_222-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-hk_222-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBBC2007" class="citation news cs1">BBC (13 October 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7042941.stm">"HK's Tsang apologises for gaffe"</a>. BBC News. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110728181344/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7042941.stm">Archived</a> from the original on 28 July 2011. Retrieved 1 April 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=HK%27s+Tsang+apologises+for+gaffe&rft.date=2007-10-13&rft.au=BBC&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fhi%2Fasia-pacific%2F7042941.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Karl2010-223">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Karl2010_223-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Karl2010_223-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKarl2010" class="citation book cs1">Karl, Rebecca E. (2010). Mao Zedong and China in the twentieth-century world: a concise history. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-4780-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-4780-4"><bdi>978-0-8223-4780-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mao+Zedong+and+China+in+the+twentieth-century+world%3A+a+concise+history&rft.place=Durham%2C+NC&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-8223-4780-4&rft.aulast=Karl&rft.aufirst=Rebecca+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Walder-224">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Walder_224-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Walder_224-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Walder_224-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalder1987" class="citation journal cs1">Walder, Andrew (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ho9CAAAAYAAJ&q=%22seem+convinced+that++the+Cultural+Revolution+was+a+human+disaster%22">"Actually Existing Maoism"</a>. Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs. 18 (18): 155–266. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2158588">10.2307/2158588</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2158588">2158588</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:156609951">156609951</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Australian+Journal+of+Chinese+Affairs&rft.atitle=Actually+Existing+Maoism&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=18&rft.pages=155-266&rft.date=1987&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A156609951%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2158588%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2158588&rft.aulast=Walder&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dho9CAAAAYAAJ%26q%3D%2522seem%2Bconvinced%2Bthat%2B%2Bthe%2BCultural%2BRevolution%2Bwas%2Ba%2Bhuman%2Bdisaster%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThurston1988605–606-225"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThurston1988605–606_225-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFThurston1988">Thurston 1988</a>, pp. 605–606. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cultural_Revolution&action=edit&section=60" title="Edit section: Sources">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.asianews.it/news-en/Li-Peng,-the-%25E2%2580%259Cbutcher-of-Tiananmen,%25E2%2580%259D-was-%25E2%2580%259Cready-to-die%25E2%2580%259D-to-stop-the-student-turmoil-18592.html">"Li Peng, the 'butcher of Tiananmen,' was 'ready to die' to stop the student turmoil"</a>. <a href="/wiki/AsiaNews" title="AsiaNews">AsiaNews</a>. 2003. Retrieved 21 August 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=AsiaNews&rft.atitle=Li+Peng%2C+the+%27butcher+of+Tiananmen%2C%27+was+%27ready+to+die%27+to+stop+the+student+turmoil&rft.date=2003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.asianews.it%2Fnews-en%2FLi-Peng%2C-the-%2525E2%252580%25259Cbutcher-of-Tiananmen%2C%2525E2%252580%25259D-was-%2525E2%252580%25259Cready-to-die%2525E2%252580%25259D-to-stop-the-student-turmoil-18592.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarnouinYu2006" class="citation book cs1">Barnouin, Barbara; Yu, Changgeng (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NztlWQeXf2IC">Zhou Enlai: a political life</a>. Hong Kong: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_University_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese University Press">Chinese University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-962-996-280-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-962-996-280-7"><bdi>978-962-996-280-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Zhou+Enlai%3A+a+political+life&rft.place=Hong+Kong&rft.pub=Chinese+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-962-996-280-7&rft.aulast=Barnouin&rft.aufirst=Barbara&rft.au=Yu%2C+Changgeng&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNztlWQeXf2IC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEwing2011" class="citation news cs1">Ewing, Kent (5 June 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110605024417/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China/MF04Ad01.html">"Mao's Army on the Attack"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Asia_Times" title="Asia Times">Asia Times Online</a>. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China/HE19Ad01.html">the original</a> on 16 June 2006. Retrieved 15 June 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Asia+Times+Online&rft.atitle=Cultural+Revolution%3F+What+Revolution%3F&rft.date=2006-05-19&rft.aulast=Tak-ho&rft.aufirst=Fong&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.atimes.com%2Fatimes%2FChina%2FHE19Ad01.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGao2008" class="citation book cs1">Gao, Mobo (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121103094507/http://www.strongwindpress.com/pdfs/EBook/The_Battle_for_Chinas_Past.pdf">The battle for China's past: Mao and the Cultural Revolution</a> (PDF). London: <a href="/wiki/Pluto_Press" title="Pluto Press">Pluto Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7453-2780-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7453-2780-8"><bdi>978-0-7453-2780-8</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.strongwindpress.com/pdfs/EBook/The_Battle_for_Chinas_Past.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 3 November 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+battle+for+China%27s+past%3A+Mao+and+the+Cultural+Revolution&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Pluto+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-7453-2780-8&rft.aulast=Gao&rft.aufirst=Mobo&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.strongwindpress.com%2Fpdfs%2FEBook%2FThe_Battle_for_Chinas_Past.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKing2010" class="citation book cs1">King, Richard, ed. (2010). Art in Turmoil: the chinese cultural revolution, 1966-76. Contemporary chinese studies series. Vancouver: <a href="/wiki/University_of_British_Columbia_Press" title="University of British Columbia Press">University of British Columbia Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7748-1543-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7748-1543-7"><bdi>978-0-7748-1543-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Art+in+Turmoil%3A+the+chinese+cultural+revolution%2C+1966-76&rft.place=Vancouver&rft.series=Contemporary+chinese+studies+series&rft.pub=University+of+British+Columbia+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-7748-1543-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLieberthal2003" class="citation book cs1">Lieberthal, Kenneth G. (2003). Governing China: from revolution through reform (2nd ed.). New York, NY: <a href="/wiki/W._W._Norton_%26_Company" title="W. W. Norton & Company">W. W. Norton & Company</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-92492-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-92492-3"><bdi>978-0-393-92492-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Governing+China%3A+from+revolution+through+reform&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-393-92492-3&rft.aulast=Lieberthal&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacFarquharSchoenhals2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Roderick_MacFarquhar" title="Roderick MacFarquhar">MacFarquhar, Roderick</a>; <a href="/wiki/Michael_Schoenhals" title="Michael Schoenhals">Schoenhals, Michael</a> (2006). Mao's last revolution. Cambridge, Mass: <a href="/wiki/Belknap_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Belknap Press">Belknap Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-02332-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-02332-1"><bdi>978-0-674-02332-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/64427572">64427572</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mao%27s+last+revolution&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Mass&rft.pub=Belknap+Press&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2Focm64427572&rft.isbn=978-0-674-02332-1&rft.aulast=MacFarquhar&rft.aufirst=Roderick&rft.au=Schoenhals%2C+Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpence1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Spence" class="mw-redirect" title="Jonathan Spence">Spence, Jonathan D.</a> (1999). The search for modern China (2nd ed.). New York: <a href="/wiki/W._W._Norton_%26_Company" title="W. W. Norton & Company">W. W. Norton & Company</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-97351-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-97351-8"><bdi>978-0-393-97351-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+search+for+modern+China&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-393-97351-8&rft.aulast=Spence&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTeiwesSun2004" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Teiwes" title="Frederick Teiwes">Teiwes, Frederick C.</a>; Sun, Warren (Summer 2004). "The First Tiananmen Incident Revisited: Elite Politics and Crisis Management at the End of the Maoist Era". <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Affairs" title="Pacific Affairs">Pacific Affairs</a>. 77 (2): 211–235. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40022499">40022499</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Pacific+Affairs&rft.atitle=The+First+Tiananmen+Incident+Revisited%3A+Elite+Politics+and+Crisis+Management+at+the+End+of+the+Maoist+Era&rft.ssn=summer&rft.volume=77&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=211-235&rft.date=2004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40022499%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Teiwes&rft.aufirst=Frederick+C.&rft.au=Sun%2C+Warren&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThurston1988" class="citation book cs1">Thurston, Anne F. (1988). Enemies of the people: The ordeal of the intellectuals in China's great Cultural Revolution (Repr ed.). Cambridge, Mass.: <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-25375-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-25375-9"><bdi>978-0-674-25375-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Enemies+of+the+people%3A+The+ordeal+of+the+intellectuals+in+China%27s+great+Cultural+Revolution&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Mass.&rft.edition=Repr&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-674-25375-9&rft.aulast=Thurston&rft.aufirst=Anne+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhaoBaoChiangIgnatius2009" class="citation book cs1">Zhao, Ziyang; Bao, Pu; Chiang, Renee; <a href="/wiki/Adi_Ignatius" title="Adi Ignatius">Ignatius, Adi</a>; MacFarquhar, Roderick (2009). <a href="/wiki/Prisoner_of_the_State" title="Prisoner of the State">Prisoner of the state: the secret journal of Zhao Ziyang</a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Simon_%26_Schuster" title="Simon & Schuster">Simon & Schuster</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4391-4938-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4391-4938-6"><bdi>978-1-4391-4938-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/301887109">301887109</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Prisoner+of+the+state%3A+the+secret+journal+of+Zhao+Ziyang&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F301887109&rft.isbn=978-1-4391-4938-6&rft.aulast=Zhao&rft.aufirst=Ziyang&rft.au=Bao%2C+Pu&rft.au=Chiang%2C+Renee&rft.au=Ignatius%2C+Adi&rft.au=MacFarquhar%2C+Roderick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cultural_Revolution&action=edit&section=61" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="General">General</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cultural_Revolution&action=edit&section=62" title="Edit section: General">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about Cultural Revolution <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Cultural+Revolution">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Cultural+Revolution&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li>Jack Chen, <a href="/wiki/A_Year_In_Upper_Felicity" class="mw-redirect" title="A Year In Upper Felicity">A Year In Upper Felicity: Life in a Chinese Village During the Cultural Revolution</a> (New York: Macmillan, 1973). Book chronicling a year in a rural Chinese village during the Cultural Revolution</li> <li>Yuan Gao, with Judith Polumbaum, <a href="/wiki/Born_Red:_A_Chronicle_of_the_Cultural_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Born Red: A Chronicle of the Cultural Revolution">Born Red: A Chronicle of the Cultural Revolution</a> (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1987). An autobiography that includes experiences during the Cultural Revolution</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ji-li_Jiang" title="Ji-li Jiang">Ji-li Jiang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Red_Scarf_Girl" title="Red Scarf Girl">Red Scarf Girl: A Memoir of the Cultural Revolution</a> (New York: HarperCollins, 1997).</li> <li>Richard Curt Kraus, The Cultural Revolution: A Very Short Introduction (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199740550" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199740550">978-0199740550</a></li> <li>Morning Sun, "Bibliography," <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.morningsun.org/library">Morningsun.org</a> Books and articles of General Readings and Selected Personal Narratives on the Cultural Revolution</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRamzy2016" class="citation web cs1">Ramzy, Austin (14 May 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160514190548/https://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/15/world/asia/china-cultural-revolution-explainer.html">"China's Cultural Revolution, Explained"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/15/world/asia/china-cultural-revolution-explainer.html">the original</a> on 14 May 2016. Retrieved 28 November 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=China%27s+Cultural+Revolution%2C+Explained&rft.date=2016-05-14&rft.aulast=Ramzy&rft.aufirst=Austin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2016%2F05%2F15%2Fworld%2Fasia%2Fchina-cultural-revolution-explainer.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACultural+Revolution" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Specific_topics">Specific topics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cultural_Revolution&action=edit&section=63" title="Edit section: Specific topics">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fox_Butterfield" title="Fox Butterfield">Fox Butterfield</a>. China: Alive in the Bitter Sea (New York: Crown, 1990). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0812918657" title="Special:BookSources/0812918657">0812918657</a> An oral history of some Chinese people's experience during the Cultural Revolution</li> <li>Anit Chan, Children of Mao: Personality Development and Political Activism in the Red Guard Generation. (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1985).</li> <li>Lingchei Letty Chen, The Great Leap Backward: Forgetting and Representing the Mao Years (New York: Cambria Press, 2020). Scholarly studies on memory writings and documentaries of the Mao years, victimhood narratives, perpetrator studies, ethics of bearing witness to atrocities</li> <li>Jie Li and Enhua Zhang, eds., Red Legacies in China: Cultural Afterlives of the Communist Revolution (Cambridge: Harvard University Asia Center, 2016). Scholarly studies on cultural legacies and continuities from the Maoist era in art, architecture, literature, performance, film, etc.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ross_Terrill" title="Ross Terrill">Ross Terrill</a>, The White-Boned Demon: A Biography of Madame Mao Zedong (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1984). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0804729220" title="Special:BookSources/0804729220">0804729220</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xinran" title="Xinran">Xinran</a>, The Good Women of China: Hidden Voices, translated by <a href="/wiki/Esther_Tyldesley" title="Esther Tyldesley">Esther Tyldesley</a>. (London: Chatto & Windus, 2002). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0701173459" title="Special:BookSources/0701173459">0701173459</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Commentaries">Commentaries</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cultural_Revolution&action=edit&section=64" title="Edit section: Commentaries">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Guokai Liu, A Brief Analysis of the Cultural Revolution edited by Anita Chan. (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1982).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Ryckmans_(writer)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pierre Ryckmans (writer)">Pierre Ryckmans</a>, The Chairman's New Clothes: Mao and the Cultural Revolution (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1977). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0850312086" title="Special:BookSources/0850312086">0850312086</a></li> <li>—— <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Shadows_(Ombres_Chinoises)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese Shadows (Ombres Chinoises)">Chinese Shadows</a> (New York: Viking Press, 1977). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0670219185" title="Special:BookSources/0670219185">0670219185</a></li> <li>—— Broken Images: Essays on Chinese Culture and Politics (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1980). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0805280693" title="Special:BookSources/0805280693">0805280693</a></li> <li>—— The Burning Forest: Essays on Chinese Culture and Politics (New York: Holt, 1985). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0030050634" title="Special:BookSources/0030050634">0030050634</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fictional_treatments">Fictional treatments</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cultural_Revolution&action=edit&section=65" title="Edit section: Fictional treatments">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ying_Chang_Compestine" title="Ying Chang Compestine">Ying Chang Compestine</a>, Revolution Is Not a Dinner Party (New York: Holt, 2007). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0805082077" title="Special:BookSources/0805082077">0805082077</a>. Young adult novel</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dai_Sijie" title="Dai Sijie">Dai Sijie</a>, <a href="/wiki/Balzac_and_the_Little_Chinese_Seamstress" title="Balzac and the Little Chinese Seamstress">Balzac and the Little Chinese Seamstress</a>, translated by <a href="/wiki/Ina_Rilke" title="Ina Rilke">Ina Rilke</a> (New York: Knopf / Random House, 2001). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/037541309X" title="Special:BookSources/037541309X">037541309X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gao_Xingjian" title="Gao Xingjian">Gao Xingjian</a>, <a href="/wiki/One_Man%27s_Bible" title="One Man's Bible">One Man's Bible</a>, translated by <a href="/wiki/Mabel_Lee" title="Mabel Lee">Mabel Lee</a> (New York: HarperCollins, 2002).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gu_Hua" title="Gu Hua">Gu Hua</a>, A Small Town Called Hibiscus, translated by <a href="/wiki/Gladys_Yang" title="Gladys Yang">Gladys Yang</a> (Beijing: Chinese Literature / China Publications Centre, 1983).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liu_Cixin" title="Liu Cixin">Liu Cixin</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Three-Body_Problem_(novel)" title="The Three-Body Problem (novel)">The Three-Body Problem</a>, translated by <a href="/wiki/Ken_Liu" title="Ken Liu">Ken Liu</a> (New York: Tor Books, 2014). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0765377063" title="Special:BookSources/0765377063">0765377063</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yu_Hua" title="Yu Hua">Yu Hua</a>, <a href="/wiki/To_Live_(novel)" title="To Live (novel)">To Live</a>, translated by Michael Berry (New York: Anchor Books, 2003).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Memoirs_by_Chinese_participants">Memoirs by Chinese participants</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cultural_Revolution&action=edit&section=66" title="Edit section: Memoirs by Chinese participants">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Guanlong Cao, The Attic: Memoir of a Chinese Landlord's Son (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jung_Chang" title="Jung Chang">Jung Chang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wild_Swans:_Three_Daughters_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Wild Swans: Three Daughters of China">Wild Swans: Three Daughters of China</a> (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1991).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nien_Cheng" title="Nien Cheng">Nien Cheng</a>, <a href="/wiki/Life_and_Death_in_Shanghai" title="Life and Death in Shanghai">Life and Death in Shanghai</a> (New York: Grove, 1987). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0394555481" title="Special:BookSources/0394555481">0394555481</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liang_Heng" title="Liang Heng">Liang Heng</a> and <a href="/wiki/Judith_Shapiro" title="Judith Shapiro">Judith Shapiro</a>, Son of the Revolution (New York: Knopf, 1983).</li> <li>Wenguang Huang, The Little Red Guard: A Family Memoir (New York: Riverhead Books, 2012).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ji_Xianlin" title="Ji Xianlin">Ji Xianlin</a>, The Cowshed: Memories of the Chinese Cultural Revolution, translated by Chenxin Jiang (New York: New York Review Books, 2016).</li> <li>Kang Zhengguo, Confessions: An Innocent Life in Communist China, translated by Susan Wilf (New York: W. W. Norton, 2007).</li> <li>Ken Ling, <a href="/wiki/The_Revenge_of_Heaven" title="The Revenge of Heaven">The Revenge of Heaven</a>: Journal of a Young Chinese, English text prepared by Miriam London and Ta-Ling Lee. (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1972).</li> <li>Liu Ping, My Chinese Dream: From Red Guard to CEO (San Francisco: China Books, 2012). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0835100403" title="Special:BookSources/978-0835100403">978-0835100403</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma_Bo" title="Ma Bo">Ma Bo</a>, Blood Red Sunset: A Memoir of the Chinese Cultural Revolution, translated by Howard Goldblatt. (New York: Viking, 1995).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anchee_Min" title="Anchee Min">Anchee Min</a>, <a href="/wiki/Red_Azalea" title="Red Azalea">Red Azalea</a> (New York: Pantheon Books, 1994). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1400096987" title="Special:BookSources/1400096987">1400096987</a></li> <li>Nanchu, Red Sorrow (New York: Arcade Publishing, 2012).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emily_Wu" title="Emily Wu">Emily Wu</a>, Feather in the Storm (New York: Pantheon, 2006). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0375424281" title="Special:BookSources/978-0375424281">978-0375424281</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yang_Jiang" title="Yang Jiang">Yang Jiang</a>, Six Chapters from My Life "Downunder", translated by Howard Goldblatt. (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1988).</li> <li>Rae Yang, Spider Eaters (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ting-Xing_Ye" title="Ting-Xing Ye">Ting-Xing Ye</a>, <a href="/wiki/A_Leaf_in_the_Bitter_Wind" title="A Leaf in the Bitter Wind">A Leaf in the Bitter Wind</a> (Toronto: Doubleday Canada, 1997).</li> <li>Weili Ye and Xiaodong Ma, Growing up in the People's Republic: Conversations between Two Daughters of China's Revolution (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005).</li> <li>Lijia Zhang, Socialism Is Great!: A Worker's Memoir of the New China (New York: Atlas & Co, 2007).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Cultural_Revolution&action=edit&section=67" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/27px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/41px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/54px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/Cultural_Revolution" class="extiw" title="wikt:Special:Search/Cultural Revolution">Definitions</a> from Wiktionary</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Cultural_Revolution" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Cultural Revolution">Media</a> from Commons</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/27px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/41px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/54px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/VCE_History_Revolutions/Chinese_Revolution" class="extiw" title="b:VCE History Revolutions/Chinese Revolution">Textbooks</a> from Wikibooks</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/27px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/41px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/54px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Modern_China:_China_since_1945_and_the_Modern_World" class="extiw" title="v:Modern China: China since 1945 and the Modern World">Resources</a> from Wikiversity</li></ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9028164/Cultural-Revolution">Encyclopædia Britannica. The Cultural Revolution</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070429003300/http://library.thinkquest.org/26469/cultural-revolution/history.html">History of The Cultural Revolution</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sinohits.net/posters/index.htm">Chinese propaganda posters gallery (Cultural Revolution, Mao, and others)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cpc.people.com.cn/GB/64162/64168/64563/65449/4526439.html">Hua Guofeng's speech to the 11th Party Congress, 1977</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140517221258/http://morningsun.org/">Morning Sun – A Film and Website about Cultural Revolution</a> and the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170518113244/http://morningsun.org/images/index.html">photographs</a> of the subject available from the film's site.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chinese-memorial.org/">Memorial for Victims of the Chinese Cultural Revolution</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.monthlyreview.org/0305pugh.htm">"William Hinton on the Cultural Revolution"</a> by Dave Pugh</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cnd.org/CR/english/articles/violence.htm">"Student Attacks Against Teachers: The Revolution of 1966"</a> by Youqin Wang</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output 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.navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Cultural_Revolution" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Cultural_Revolution" title="Template:Cultural Revolution"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Cultural_Revolution" title="Template talk:Cultural Revolution"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Cultural_Revolution" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Cultural Revolution"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Cultural_Revolution" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Cultural Revolution</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Prelude</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Rightist_Campaign" title="Anti-Rightist Campaign">Anti-Rightist Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Chinese_Famine" title="Great Chinese Famine">Great Chinese Famine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Leap_Forward" title="Great Leap Forward">Great Leap Forward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lushan_Conference" title="Lushan Conference">Lushan Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Thousand_Cadres_Conference" title="Seven Thousand Cadres Conference">Seven Thousand Cadres Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Education_Movement" title="Socialist Education Movement">Socialist Education Movement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taoyuan_Experience" title="Taoyuan Experience">Taoyuan Experience</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Down_to_the_Countryside_Movement" title="Down to the Countryside Movement">Down to the Countryside Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleansing_the_Class_Ranks" title="Cleansing the Class Ranks">Cleansing the Class Ranks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/12-3_incident" title="12-3 incident">12-3 incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/January_Storm" title="January Storm">January Storm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/February_Countercurrent" title="February Countercurrent">February Countercurrent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wuhan_incident" title="Wuhan incident">Wuhan incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/9th_National_Congress_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="9th National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party">9th Party Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One_Strike-Three_Anti_Campaign" title="One Strike-Three Anti Campaign">One Strike-Three Anti Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_571" title="Project 571">Project 571</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lin_Biao_incident" title="Lin Biao incident">Lin Biao incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/10th_National_Congress_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="10th National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party">10th Party Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Painting_incident" title="Black Painting incident">Black Painting incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticize_Lin,_Criticize_Confucius" title="Criticize Lin, Criticize Confucius">Criticize Lin, Criticize Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snail_Incident" title="Snail Incident">Snail Incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hangzhou_incident" title="Hangzhou incident">Hangzhou incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1975_Banqiao_Dam_failure" title="1975 Banqiao Dam failure">1975 Banqiao Dam failure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterattack_the_Right-Deviationist_Reversal-of-Verdicts_Trend" title="Counterattack the Right-Deviationist Reversal-of-Verdicts Trend">Counterattack the Right-Deviationist Reversal-of-Verdicts Trend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanjing_Incident_(1976)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanjing Incident (1976)">1976 Nanjing incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1976_Tiananmen_Incident" class="mw-redirect" title="1976 Tiananmen Incident">1976 Tiananmen Incident</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Massacres</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Red_August" title="Red August">Red August</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Daxing_Massacre" title="Daxing Massacre">Daxing Massacre</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guangxi_Massacre" title="Guangxi Massacre">Guangxi Massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inner_Mongolia_incident" title="Inner Mongolia incident">Inner Mongolia incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guangdong_Cultural_Revolution_Massacre" title="Guangdong Cultural Revolution Massacre">Guangdong Massacre</a></li> <li>Hunan Massacres <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Daoxian_massacre" title="Daoxian massacre">Daoxian massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaoyang_County_Massacre" title="Shaoyang County Massacre">Shaoyang County Massacre</a></li></ul></li> <li>Yunnan Massacres <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zhao_Jianmin_spy_case" title="Zhao Jianmin spy case">Zhao Jianmin spy case</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shadian_incident" title="Shadian incident">Shadian incident</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruijin_Massacre" title="Ruijin Massacre">Ruijin Massacre</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Key figures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liu_Shaoqi" title="Liu Shaoqi">Liu Shaoqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhou_Enlai" title="Zhou Enlai">Zhou Enlai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lin_Biao" title="Lin Biao">Lin Biao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deng_Xiaoping" title="Deng Xiaoping">Deng Xiaoping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gang_of_Four" title="Gang of Four">Gang of Four</a> (<a href="/wiki/Jiang_Qing" title="Jiang Qing">Jiang Qing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Chunqiao" title="Zhang Chunqiao">Zhang Chunqiao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yao_Wenyuan" title="Yao Wenyuan">Yao Wenyuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Hongwen" title="Wang Hongwen">Wang Hongwen</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peng_Dehuai" title="Peng Dehuai">Peng Dehuai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wu_Han_(historian)" title="Wu Han (historian)">Wu Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peng_Zhen" title="Peng Zhen">Peng Zhen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tao_Zhu" title="Tao Zhu">Tao Zhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chen_Boda" title="Chen Boda">Chen Boda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Dongxing" title="Wang Dongxing">Wang Dongxing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xie_Fuzhi" title="Xie Fuzhi">Xie Fuzhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ji_Dengkui" title="Ji Dengkui">Ji Dengkui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Li_(politician)" title="Wang Li (politician)">Wang Li</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qi_Benyu" title="Qi Benyu">Qi Benyu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wu_Faxian" title="Wu Faxian">Wu Faxian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qiu_Huizuo" title="Qiu Huizuo">Qiu Huizuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yang_Chengwu" title="Yang Chengwu">Yang Chengwu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chen_Zaidao" title="Chen Zaidao">Chen Zaidao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kang_Sheng" title="Kang Sheng">Kang Sheng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mao_Yuanxin" title="Mao Yuanxin">Mao Yuanxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hua_Guofeng" title="Hua Guofeng">Hua Guofeng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ye_Jianying" title="Ye Jianying">Ye Jianying</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Documents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/A_List_of_Cadres_to_Be_Protected" title="A List of Cadres to Be Protected">A List of Cadres to Be Protected</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombard_the_Headquarters" title="Bombard the Headquarters">Bombard the Headquarters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quotations_from_Chairman_Mao_Tse-tung" title="Quotations from Chairman Mao Tse-tung">Quotations from Chairman Mao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hai_Rui_Dismissed_from_Office" title="Hai Rui Dismissed from Office">Hai Rui Dismissed from Office</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/May_16_Notification" class="mw-redirect" title="May 16 Notification">May 16 Notification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Six_Articles_of_Public_Security" title="Six Articles of Public Security">Six Articles of Public Security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sweep_Away_All_Cow_Demons_and_Snake_Spirits" title="Sweep Away All Cow Demons and Snake Spirits">Sweep Away All Cow Demons and Snake Spirits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Class_Origins" title="On Class Origins">On Class Origins</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/With_you_in_charge,_I%27m_at_ease" title="With you in charge, I'm at ease">With you in charge, I'm at ease</a>"</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Olds" title="Four Olds">Four Olds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newborn_socialist_things" title="Newborn socialist things">Newborn socialist things</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Struggle_session" title="Struggle session">Struggle session</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudal_fascism" title="Feudal fascism">Feudal fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big-character_poster" title="Big-character poster">Big-character poster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cow_demons_and_snake_spirits" title="Cow demons and snake spirits">Cow demons and snake spirits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bloodline_theory" title="Bloodline theory">Bloodline theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuous_Revolution_Theory" title="Continuous Revolution Theory">Continuous Revolution Theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seizure_of_power_(Cultural_Revolution)" title="Seizure of power (Cultural Revolution)">Seizure of power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violent_struggle" class="mw-redirect" title="Violent struggle">Violent Struggle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One_Divides_into_Two" title="One Divides into Two">One Divides into Two</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_Wall" title="Democracy Wall">Democracy Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_opera" title="Revolutionary opera">Eight model plays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyalty_dance" title="Loyalty dance">Loyalty dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalist_roader" title="Capitalist roader">Capitalist roader</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiku_sitian" title="Yiku sitian">Yiku sitian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Learn_from_Daqing_in_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Learn from Daqing in industry">Learn from Daqing in industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Learn_from_Dazhai_in_agriculture" title="Learn from Dazhai in agriculture">Learn from Dazhai in agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stinking_Old_Ninth" title="Stinking Old Ninth">Stinking Old Ninth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Black_Categories" title="Five Black Categories">Five Black Categories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Red_Categories" title="Five Red Categories">Five Red Categories</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Red_Guards" title="Red Guards">Red Guards</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Faction_(Cultural_Revolution)" title="Conservative Faction (Cultural Revolution)">Conservative Faction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Red_Guards" title="Little Red Guards">Little Red Guards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebel_Faction_(Cultural_Revolution)" title="Rebel Faction (Cultural Revolution)">Rebel Faction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scarlet_Guards" title="Scarlet Guards">Scarlet Guards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Left_communism_in_China" title="Left communism in China">Ultra-Left Faction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiaoyao_Faction" title="Xiaoyao Faction">Xiaoyao Faction</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/May_Sixteenth_elements" title="May Sixteenth elements">May Sixteenth elements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Man_Group" title="Five Man Group">Five Man Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution_Group" title="Cultural Revolution Group">Cultural Revolution Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Case_Examination_Group" title="Central Case Examination Group">Central Case Examination Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Organization_and_Propaganda_Leading_Group" title="Central Organization and Propaganda Leading Group">Central Organization and Propaganda Leading Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shengwulian" title="Shengwulian">Hunan Provincial Proletarian Revolutionary Great Alliance Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_committee_(China)" title="Revolutionary committee (China)">Revolutionary committee</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heilongjiang_Revolutionary_Committee" title="Heilongjiang Revolutionary Committee">in Heilongjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shanghai_Revolutionary_Committee" title="Shanghai Revolutionary Committee">in Shanghai</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/61889_Regiment" class="mw-redirect" title="61889 Regiment">8341 Special Regiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sent-down_youth" title="Sent-down youth">Sent-down youth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/61_Renegades" title="61 Renegades">61 Renegades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barefoot_doctor" title="Barefoot doctor">Barefoot doctor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worker-Peasant-Soldier_student" title="Worker-Peasant-Soldier student">Worker-Peasant-Soldier student</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/May_Seventh_Cadre_School" title="May Seventh Cadre School">May Seventh Cadre School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiang_River_Storm_and_Thunder" title="Xiang River Storm and Thunder">Xiang River Storm and Thunder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maoism" title="Maoism">Maoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong%27s_cult_of_personality" title="Mao Zedong's cult of personality">Mao Zedong's cult of personality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mango_cult" title="Mango cult">Mango cult</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_campaigns_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="List of campaigns of the Chinese Communist Party">List of campaigns of the Chinese Communist Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_conflict" title="Class conflict">Class struggle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_split" title="Sino-Soviet split">Sino-Soviet split</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two_Whatevers" title="Two Whatevers">Two Whatevers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morning_Sun_(film)" title="Morning Sun (film)">Morning Sun (film)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/3rd_plenary_session_of_the_11th_Central_Committee_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="3rd plenary session of the 11th Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party">3rd Plenum of the 11th Central Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boluan_Fanzheng" title="Boluan Fanzheng">Boluan Fanzheng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Enlightenment_(China)" title="New Enlightenment (China)">New Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scar_literature" title="Scar literature">Scar literature</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Cultural_Revolution" title="Category:Cultural Revolution">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Maoism" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Maoism" title="Template:Maoism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Maoism" class="mw-redirect" title="Template talk:Maoism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Maoism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Maoism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Maoism" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Maoism" title="Maoism">Maoism</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agrarian_socialism" title="Agrarian socialism">Agrarian socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antagonistic_contradiction" class="mw-redirect" title="Antagonistic contradiction">Antagonistic contradiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-imperialism" title="Anti-imperialism">Anti-imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-revisionism_(Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism)" title="Anti-revisionism (Marxism–Leninism)">Anti-revisionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalist_roader" title="Capitalist roader">Capitalist roader</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comprador" title="Comprador">Comprador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuous_Revolution_Theory" title="Continuous Revolution Theory">Continuous Revolution Theory</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Cultural Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Olds" title="Four Olds">Four Olds</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism" title="Marxism–Leninism">Marxism–Leninism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_line" title="Mass line">Mass line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newborn_socialist_things" title="Newborn socialist things">Newborn socialist things</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Democracy" title="New Democracy">New Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One_Divides_into_Two" title="One Divides into Two">One Divides into Two</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_war" title="People's war">People's war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Probable_defeat" title="Probable defeat">Probable defeat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proletarian_nation#Use_in_Maoism" title="Proletarian nation">Proletarian nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_base_area" title="Revolutionary base area">Revolutionary base area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seek_truth_from_facts" title="Seek truth from facts">Seek truth from facts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_and_self-criticism_(Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism)" title="Criticism and self-criticism (Marxism–Leninism)">Self-criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_imperialism" title="Social imperialism">Social imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Worlds_Theory" title="Three Worlds Theory">Three Worlds Theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Variants</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maoism%E2%80%93Third_Worldism" title="Maoism–Third Worldism">Maoism–Third Worldism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mao-spontex" title="Mao-spontex">Mao-spontex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism%E2%80%93Maoism" title="Marxism–Leninism–Maoism">Marxism–Leninism–Maoism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gonzalo_Thought" title="Gonzalo Thought">Gonzalo Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism%E2%80%93Maoism%E2%80%93Prachanda_Path" title="Marxism–Leninism–Maoism–Prachanda Path">Prachanda Path</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faiz_Ahmad" title="Faiz Ahmad">Faiz Ahmad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Althusser" title="Louis Althusser">Louis Althusser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samir_Amin" title="Samir Amin">Samir Amin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Avakian" title="Bob Avakian">Bob Avakian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Alain Badiou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohan_Baidya" title="Mohan Baidya">Mohan Baidya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afzal_Bangash" title="Afzal Bangash">Afzal Bangash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Bettelheim" title="Charles Bettelheim">Charles Bettelheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biplav" title="Biplav">Biplav</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bo_Xilai" title="Bo Xilai">Bo Xilai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chen_Boda" title="Chen Boda">Chen Boda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chin_Peng" title="Chin Peng">Chin Peng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pushpa_Kamal_Dahal" title="Pushpa Kamal Dahal">Pushpa Kamal Dahal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saroj_Dutta" title="Saroj Dutta">Saroj Dutta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norm_Gallagher" title="Norm Gallagher">Norm Gallagher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abimael_Guzm%C3%A1n" title="Abimael Guzmán">Abimael Guzmán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Haywood" title="Harry Haywood">Harry Haywood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ted_Hill_(Australian_communist)" title="Ted Hill (Australian communist)">Ted Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%B0brahim_Kaypakkaya" title="İbrahim Kaypakkaya">İbrahim Kaypakkaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiang_Qing" title="Jiang Qing">Jiang Qing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kang_Sheng" title="Kang Sheng">Kang Sheng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_Minqi" title="Li Minqi">Li Minqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lin_Biao" title="Lin Biao">Lin Biao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charu_Majumdar" title="Charu Majumdar">Charu Majumdar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Mulele" title="Pierre Mulele">Pierre Mulele</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huey_P._Newton" title="Huey P. Newton">Huey P. Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nie_Yuanzi" title="Nie Yuanzi">Nie Yuanzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qi_Benyu" title="Qi Benyu">Qi Benyu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganapathy_(Maoist)" title="Ganapathy (Maoist)">Muppala Lakshmana Rao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narayan_Sanyal_(politician)" title="Narayan Sanyal (politician)">Narayan Sanyal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siraj_Sikder" title="Siraj Sikder">Siraj Sikder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jose_Maria_Sison" title="Jose Maria Sison">Jose Maria Sison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Hongwen" title="Wang Hongwen">Wang Hongwen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yao_Wenyuan" title="Yao Wenyuan">Yao Wenyuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akram_Yari" title="Akram Yari">Akram Yari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Chunqiao" title="Zhang Chunqiao">Zhang Chunqiao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salim_Rubaya_Ali" title="Salim Rubaya Ali">Salmin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theoretical works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-style:italic;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Report_on_an_Investigation_of_the_Peasant_Movement_in_Hunan" title="Report on an Investigation of the Peasant Movement in Hunan">Report on an Investigation of the Peasant Movement in Hunan</a> (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Contradiction" title="On Contradiction">On Contradiction</a> (1937)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Practice" title="On Practice">On Practice</a> (1937)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Guerrilla_Warfare_(Mao_Zedong_book)" title="On Guerrilla Warfare (Mao Zedong book)">On Guerrilla Warfare</a> (1937)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Protracted_War" title="On Protracted War">On Protracted War</a> (1938)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ten_Major_Relationships" title="Ten Major Relationships">On the Ten Major Relationships</a> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Correct_Handling_of_Contradictions_Among_the_People" title="On the Correct Handling of Contradictions Among the People">On the Correct Handling of Contradictions Among the People</a> (1957)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Critique_of_Soviet_Economics" title="A Critique of Soviet Economics">A Critique of Soviet Economics</a> (1960)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quotations_from_Chairman_Mao_Tse-tung" title="Quotations from Chairman Mao Tse-tung">Quotations from Chairman Mao Tse-tung</a> (1964)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historic_Eight_Documents" title="Historic Eight Documents">Historic Eight Documents</a> (1965—1966)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombard_the_Headquarters" title="Bombard the Headquarters">Bombard the Headquarters</a> (1966)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Settlers:_The_Mythology_of_the_White_Proletariat" title="Settlers: The Mythology of the White Proletariat">Settlers: The Mythology of the White Proletariat</a> (1983)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Soviet_Republic" title="Chinese Soviet Republic">Chinese Soviet Republic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jiangxi_Soviet" title="Jiangxi Soviet">Jiangxi Soviet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_March" title="Long March">Long March</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Revolution" title="Chinese Communist Revolution">Chinese Communist Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="History of the People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_(1949%E2%80%931976)" title="History of the People's Republic of China (1949–1976)">1949–1976</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_(1976%E2%80%931989)" title="History of the People's Republic of China (1976–1989)">1976–1989</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_(1989%E2%80%932002)" title="History of the People's Republic of China (1989–2002)">1989–2002</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_(2002%E2%80%93present)" title="History of the People's Republic of China (2002–present)">2002–present</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_to_Suppress_Counterrevolutionaries" title="Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries">Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_split" title="Sino-Soviet split">Sino-Soviet split</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Leap_Forward" title="Great Leap Forward">Great Leap Forward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_power_movement" title="Black power movement">Black power movement</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Cultural Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/16_May_Notification" title="16 May Notification">16 May Notification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_August" title="Red August">Red August</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/January_Storm" title="January Storm">January Storm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Down_to_the_Countryside_Movement" title="Down to the Countryside Movement">Down to the Countryside Movement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Communist_movement" title="New Communist movement">New Communist movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian_Civil_War" title="Cambodian Civil War">Cambodian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naxalite%E2%80%93Maoist_insurgency" title="Naxalite–Maoist insurgency">Naxalite–Maoist insurgency</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Naxalbari_uprising" title="Naxalbari uprising">Naxalbari uprising</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_People%27s_Army_rebellion" title="New People's Army rebellion">New People's Army rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Albanian_split" title="Sino-Albanian split">Sino-Albanian split</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maoist_insurgency_in_Turkey" title="Maoist insurgency in Turkey">Maoist insurgency in Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_and_state_funeral_of_Mao_Zedong" title="Death and state funeral of Mao Zedong">Death and funeral of Mao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian%E2%80%93Vietnamese_War" title="Cambodian–Vietnamese War">Cambodian–Vietnamese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two_Whatevers" title="Two Whatevers">Two Whatevers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peruvian_Civil_War_of_1980%E2%80%932000" title="Peruvian Civil War of 1980–2000">Peruvian Civil War of 1980–2000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepalese_Civil_War" title="Nepalese Civil War">Nepalese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chongqing_model" title="Chongqing model">Chongqing model</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Chinese Communist Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shining_Path" title="Shining Path">Communist Party of Peru – Shining Path</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Democratic_Front_of_the_Philippines" title="National Democratic Front of the Philippines">National Democratic Front of the Philippines</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Philippines" title="Communist Party of the Philippines">Communist Party of the Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_People%27s_Army" title="New People's Army">New People's Army</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Turkey/Marxist%E2%80%93Leninist" title="Communist Party of Turkey/Marxist–Leninist">Communist Party of Turkey/Marxist–Leninist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Nepal_(Maoist_Centre)" title="Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist Centre)">Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist Centre)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_India_(Maoist)" title="Communist Party of India (Maoist)">Communist Party of India (Maoist)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proletarian_Party_of_East_Bengal" title="Proletarian Party of East Bengal">Proletarian Party of East Bengal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Burma" title="Communist Party of Burma">Communist Party of Burma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Ecuador_%E2%80%93_Red_Sun" title="Communist Party of Ecuador – Red Sun">Communist Party of Ecuador – Red Sun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serve_the_People_(Norway)" title="Serve the People (Norway)">Serve the People – Communist League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Panther_Party" title="Black Panther Party">Black Panther Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Internationalist_Movement" title="Revolutionary Internationalist Movement">Revolutionary Internationalist Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_(Maoist)_Party_of_Afghanistan" title="Communist (Maoist) Party of Afghanistan">Communist (Maoist) Party of Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Conference_of_Marxist%E2%80%93Leninist_Parties_and_Organizations_(International_Newsletter)" title="International Conference of Marxist–Leninist Parties and Organizations (International Newsletter)">International Conference of Marxist–Leninist Parties and Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Communist_League_(Maoist)" title="International Communist League (Maoist)">International Communist League</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_China" title="Anarchism in China">Anarchism in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big-character_poster" title="Big-character poster">Big-character poster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudal_fascism" title="Feudal fascism">Feudal fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoxhaism" title="Hoxhaism">Hoxhaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guevarism" title="Guevarism">Guevarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juche" title="Juche">Juche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Left_communism_in_China" title="Left communism in China">Left communism in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong%27s_cult_of_personality" title="Mao Zedong's cult of personality">Mao's cult of personality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanjie" title="Nanjie">Nanjie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_communism" title="National communism">National communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Democracy_(Philippines)" title="National Democracy (Philippines)">National Democracy Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naxalism" title="Naxalism">Naxalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi-Maoism" title="Nazi-Maoism">Nazi-Maoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Left" title="New Left">New Left</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_New_Left" title="Chinese New Left">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Left_in_Japan" title="New Left in Japan">Japanese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Guards" title="Red Guards">Red Guards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Star_Over_China" title="Red Star Over China">Red Star Over China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_ideology_of_the_Kuomintang" title="Socialist ideology of the Kuomintang">Socialist ideology of the Kuomintang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thought_reform_in_China" title="Thought reform in China">Thought reform in China</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/16px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/24px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:China" title="Portal:China">China portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Symbol-hammer-and-sickle.svg/16px-Symbol-hammer-and-sickle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Symbol-hammer-and-sickle.svg/24px-Symbol-hammer-and-sickle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Symbol-hammer-and-sickle.svg/32px-Symbol-hammer-and-sickle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Communism" title="Portal:Communism">Communism portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Red_flag_II.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Red_flag_II.svg/16px-Red_flag_II.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Red_flag_II.svg/24px-Red_flag_II.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Red_flag_II.svg/32px-Red_flag_II.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="466" data-file-height="411" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Socialism" title="Portal:Socialism">Socialism portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/16px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/24px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/32px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Religious_persecution_and_discrimination" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Religious_persecution" title="Template:Religious persecution"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Religious_persecution" title="Template talk:Religious persecution"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Religious_persecution" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Religious persecution"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Religious_persecution_and_discrimination" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Religious_persecution" title="Religious persecution">Religious persecution</a> and <a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination" title="Religious discrimination">discrimination</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By group</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_atheists" title="Discrimination against atheists">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusivism#Religious_exclusivism" title="Exclusivism">Exclusivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%ADs" title="Persecution of Baháʼís">Baháʼí Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Buddhists" title="Persecution of Buddhists">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Christian_sentiment" title="Anti-Christian sentiment">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians" title="Persecution of Christians">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Catholicism" title="Anti-Catholicism">Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Eastern_Orthodox_Christians" title="Persecution of Eastern Orthodox Christians">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mormonism" title="Anti-Mormonism">LDS or Mormon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Orthodox_Tewahedo_Christianity" title="Persecution of Orthodox Tewahedo Christianity">Tewahedo Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_post%E2%80%93Cold_War_era" title="Persecution of Christians in the post–Cold War era">post–Cold War era</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Falun_Gong" title="Persecution of Falun Gong">Falun Gong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Hindu_sentiment" title="Anti-Hindu sentiment">Hinduism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Hindus" title="Persecution of Hindus">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Untouchability" title="Untouchability">Untouchability</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamophobia" title="Islamophobia">Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Muslims" title="Persecution of Muslims">Persecution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Ahmadis" title="Persecution of Ahmadis">Ahmadiyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Shi%27ism" title="Anti-Shi'ism">Shi'ism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Sufis" title="Persecution of Sufis">Sufism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Sunnism" title="Anti-Sunnism">Sunnism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_minority_Muslim_groups" title="Persecution of minority Muslim groups">minority Muslim</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_antisemitism" title="Religious antisemitism">Judaism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jews" title="Persecution of Jews">Persecution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination_against_modern_pagans" title="Religious discrimination against modern pagans">Neopaganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Protestantism" title="Anti-Protestantism">Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Rastafari" title="Persecution of Rastafari">Rastafari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Sikh_sentiment" title="Anti-Sikh sentiment">Sikhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Yazidis" title="Persecution of Yazidis">Yazidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Zoroastrians" title="Persecution of Zoroastrians">Zoroastrianism</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_censorship" title="Religious censorship">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_libel" title="Blood libel">Blood libel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communal_violence" title="Communal violence">Communal violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_genocide" title="Cultural genocide">Cultural genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deprogramming" title="Deprogramming">Deprogramming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desecration" title="Desecration">Desecration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domicide" title="Domicide">Domicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination" title="Religious discrimination">Discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">Ethnic cleansing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_conflict" title="Ethnic conflict">Ethnic conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_violence" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic violence">Ethnic violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extrajudicial_killing" title="Extrajudicial killing">Extrajudicial killing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extrajudicial_punishment" title="Extrajudicial punishment">Extrajudicial punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_exclusivism" title="Religious exclusivism">Exclusivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_conversion" title="Forced conversion">Forced conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_displacement" title="Forced displacement">Forced displacement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_crime" title="Hate crime">Hate crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iconoclasm" title="Iconoclasm">Iconoclasm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_intolerance" title="Religious intolerance">Intolerance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pogrom" title="Pogrom">Pogrom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_violence" title="Political violence">Political violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_cleansing" title="Population cleansing">Population cleansing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_transfer" title="Population transfer">Population transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sectarian_violence" title="Sectarian violence">Sectarian violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_cleansing" title="Social cleansing">Social cleansing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_segregation" title="Religious segregation">Segregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_atheism" title="State atheism">State atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">State religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_terrorism" title="Religious terrorism">Terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_violence" title="Religious violence">Violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_war" title="Religious war">War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_Canaanite_Pagans&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Persecution of Canaanite Pagans (page does not exist)">Persecution of Canaanite Pagans</a> (1210 BC-1200 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_Roman_Empire" title="Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire">Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire</a> (64–313)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_pagans_in_the_late_Roman_Empire" title="Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire">Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire</a> (c. 324–c. 491)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_Buddhism_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent">Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent</a> (c.550–c. 1200)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_Turban_Rebellion" title="Yellow Turban Rebellion">Yellow Turban Rebellion</a> (c.184–c. 205)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tours" title="Battle of Tours">Battle of Tours</a> (732)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhineland_massacres" title="Rhineland massacres">Rhineland massacres</a> (1096)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Jerusalem_(1099)" title="Siege of Jerusalem (1099)">Jerusalem massacre</a> (1099)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquests_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent">Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent</a> (643–1526)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquisition" title="Inquisition">Inquisition</a> (1184–1908)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massacre_at_Ayyadieh" title="Massacre at Ayyadieh">Massacre at Ayyadieh</a> (1191)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Crusades" title="Northern Crusades">Northern Crusades</a> (12th–16th cent.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Crusades_to_Europe_and_the_Holy_Land#Crusades_against_heretics_and_schismatics" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Crusades to Europe and the Holy Land">Crusades against schismatics</a> (13th–15th cent.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_conversions_of_Muslims_in_Spain" title="Forced conversions of Muslims in Spain">Forced conversions of Muslims in Spain</a> (1500–1526)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_wars_of_religion" title="European wars of religion">European wars of religion</a> (1522–1712)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Habsburg_wars" title="Ottoman–Habsburg wars">Ottoman–Habsburg wars</a> (1526–1791)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goa_Inquisition" title="Goa Inquisition">Goa Inquisition</a> (1561–1812)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Wars_of_Religion" title="French Wars of Religion">French Wars of Religion</a> (1562–1598)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expulsion_of_the_Moriscos" title="Expulsion of the Moriscos">Expulsion of the Moriscos</a> (1609–1614)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Test_Acts" title="Test Acts">Test Acts</a> (1673–1829)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Muslims_during_the_Ottoman_contraction" title="Persecution of Muslims during the Ottoman contraction">Persecution of Muslims during the Ottoman contraction</a> (1683–1922)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_the_S%C3%A1mi_people" title="Christianization of the Sámi people">Christianization of the Sámi people</a> (1700s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dechristianization_of_France_during_the_French_Revolution" title="Dechristianization of France during the French Revolution">French Revolutionary dechristianisation</a> (1789–1801)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utah_War" title="Utah War">Utah War</a> (1857–1858)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1860_civil_conflict_in_Mount_Lebanon_and_Damascus" title="1860 civil conflict in Mount Lebanon and Damascus">1860 Mount Lebanon civil war</a> (1860)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circassian_genocide" title="Circassian genocide">Circassian genocide</a> (1864)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dungan_Revolt_(1862%E2%80%931877)" title="Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)">Dungan Revolt</a> (1862–1877)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adana_massacre" title="Adana massacre">Adana massacre</a> (1909)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massacres_of_Albanians_in_the_Balkan_Wars" title="Massacres of Albanians in the Balkan Wars">Massacres of Albanians in the Balkan Wars</a> (1912–1913)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_genocide" title="Greek genocide">Greek genocide</a> (1913–1922) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pontic_Greek_genocide" title="Pontic Greek genocide">Pontic Greek genocide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayfo" title="Sayfo">Assyrian genocide</a> (1914–1924)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_genocide" title="Armenian genocide">Armenian genocide</a> (1915–1923)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_Eastern_Bloc" title="Persecution of Christians in the Eastern Bloc">Persecution of Christians in the Eastern Bloc</a> (1917–1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Religion in the Soviet Union">Soviet persecution</a> (1922–1991) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-religious_campaign_during_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Anti-religious campaign during the Russian Civil War">1917–1921</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USSR_anti-religious_campaign_(1921%E2%80%931928)" title="USSR anti-religious campaign (1921–1928)">1921–1928</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USSR_anti-religious_campaign_(1928%E2%80%931941)" title="USSR anti-religious campaign (1928–1941)">1928–1941</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USSR_anti-religious_campaign_(1958%E2%80%931964)" title="USSR anti-religious campaign (1958–1964)">1958–1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USSR_anti-religious_campaign_(1970s%E2%80%931987)" title="USSR anti-religious campaign (1970s–1987)">1970–1987</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_anti-religious_legislation" title="Soviet anti-religious legislation">legislation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%A0ahovi%C4%87i_massacre" title="Šahovići massacre">Šahovići massacre</a> (1924)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Terror_(Spain)" title="White Terror (Spain)">White Terror (Spain)</a> (1936–1975)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_boycott_of_Jewish_businesses" title="Nazi boycott of Jewish businesses">Nazi boycott of Jewish businesses</a> (1933)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">The Holocaust</a> (1939–1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_of_Serbs_in_the_Independent_State_of_Croatia" title="Genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia">Genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia</a> (1941–1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_anti-religious_campaign" title="Polish anti-religious campaign">Communist Polish persecution</a> (1945–1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-religious_campaign_of_Communist_Romania" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-religious campaign of Communist Romania">Communist Romanian persecution</a> (1945–1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noakhali_riots" title="Noakhali riots">Noakhali riots</a> (1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_Action_Day" title="Direct Action Day">Direct Action Day</a> (1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1946_Bihar_riots" title="1946 Bihar riots">1946 Bihar riots</a> (1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1947_Rawalpindi_massacres" title="1947 Rawalpindi massacres">Rawalpindi massacres</a> (1947)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_in_Pakistan#Decline_and_persecution" title="Hinduism in Pakistan">Persecution of Hindus in Pakistan</a> (1947–ongoing)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_Muslims_in_independent_India" title="Violence against Muslims in independent India">Violence against Muslims in India</a> (1947–ongoing)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Hindus#India" title="Persecution of Hindus">Violence against Hindus in independent India</a> (1947–ongoing)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Palestinian_expulsion_and_flight" title="1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight">1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight</a> (1948)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_exodus_from_the_Muslim_world" title="Jewish exodus from the Muslim world">Jewish exodus from the Muslim world</a> (1948–1980)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antireligious_campaigns_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="Antireligious campaigns of the Chinese Communist Party">Antireligious campaigns of the Chinese Communist Party</a> (1949–ongoing)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protests_and_uprisings_in_Tibet_since_1950" title="Protests and uprisings in Tibet since 1950">Persecution of Tibetans</a> (1950–ongoing)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exodus_of_Turks_from_Bulgaria_(1950-1951)" class="mw-redirect" title="Exodus of Turks from Bulgaria (1950-1951)">Exodus of Turks from Bulgaria</a> (1950)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_violence_in_Nigeria" title="Religious violence in Nigeria">Religious violence in Nigeria</a> (1953–ongoing)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Istanbul_pogrom" title="Istanbul pogrom">Istanbul pogrom</a> (1955)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_crisis" title="Buddhist crisis">Buddhist crisis</a> (1963) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hu%E1%BA%BF_Ph%E1%BA%ADt_%C4%90%E1%BA%A3n_shootings" title="Huế Phật Đản shootings">Huế Phật Đản shootings</a> (1963)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%ADch_Qu%E1%BA%A3ng_%C4%90%E1%BB%A9c" title="Thích Quảng Đức">Thích Quảng Đức</a> (1963)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/X%C3%A1_L%E1%BB%A3i_Pagoda_raids" title="Xá Lợi Pagoda raids">Xá Lợi Pagoda raids</a> (1963)</li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Cultural Revolution</a> (1966–1976) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Olds" title="Four Olds">Four Olds</a> (1966)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Famen_Temple#People's_Republic_of_China" title="Famen Temple">Famen Temple</a> (1966)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangladesh_genocide" title="Bangladesh genocide">Bangladesh genocide</a> (1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Hindus#Bangladesh" title="Persecution of Hindus">Persecution of Hindus in Bangladesh</a> (1971–ongoing)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Civil_War" title="Lebanese Civil War">Lebanese Civil War</a> (1975–1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian_genocide" title="Cambodian genocide">Cambodian genocide</a> (1975–1979)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1984_anti-Sikh_riots" title="1984 anti-Sikh riots">1984 anti-Sikh riots</a> (1984)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revival_Process" title="Revival Process">Revival Process</a> (1984–1989) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Big_Excursion" title="Big Excursion">Big Excursion</a> (1989)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exodus_of_Kashmiri_Hindus" title="Exodus of Kashmiri Hindus">Exodus of Kashmiri Hindus</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_Wars" title="Yugoslav Wars">Yugoslav Wars</a> (1991–2001) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing_in_the_Bosnian_War" title="Ethnic cleansing in the Bosnian War">Ethnic cleansing in the Bosnian War</a> (1992–1996)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosnian_genocide" title="Bosnian genocide">Bosnian genocide</a> (1995)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_the_Kosovo_War" title="War crimes in the Kosovo War">War crimes in the Kosovo War</a> (1999)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walisongo_school_massacre" title="Walisongo school massacre">Walisongo school massacre</a> (2000)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kosheh_massacres" title="Kosheh massacres">Kosheh massacres</a> (2000)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/September_11_attacks" title="September 11 attacks">September 11 attacks</a> (2001)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2002_Gujarat_riots" title="2002 Gujarat riots">2002 Gujarat riots</a> (2002)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Thailand_insurgency" title="South Thailand insurgency">South Thailand insurgency</a> (2004–ongoing)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boko_Haram_insurgency" title="Boko Haram insurgency">Boko Haram insurgency</a> (2009–ongoing)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maspero_demonstrations" title="Maspero demonstrations">Maspero demonstrations</a> (2011)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attacks_by_Islamic_extremists_in_Bangladesh" title="Attacks by Islamic extremists in Bangladesh">Attacks by Islamic extremists in Bangladesh</a> (2013–2016)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yazidi_genocide" title="Yazidi genocide">Yazidi genocide</a> (2014–2017)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_by_the_Islamic_State" title="Persecution of Christians by the Islamic State">Genocide of Christians by ISIL</a> (2014–ongoing)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Turkmen_genocide" title="Iraqi Turkmen genocide">Iraqi Turkmen genocide</a> (2014–2017)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Uyghurs_in_China" title="Persecution of Uyghurs in China">Persecution of Uyghurs in China</a> (2014–ongoing)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rohingya_genocide" title="Rohingya genocide">Rohingya genocide</a> (2016–ongoing)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christchurch_mosque_shootings" title="Christchurch mosque shootings">Christchurch mosque shootings</a> (2019)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019_Sri_Lanka_Easter_bombings" title="2019 Sri Lanka Easter bombings">2019 Sri Lanka Easter bombings</a> (2019)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_Delhi_riots" title="2020 Delhi riots">2020 Delhi riots</a> (2020)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023_Hamas-led_attack_on_Israel" class="mw-redirect" title="2023 Hamas-led attack on Israel">2023 Hamas-led attack on Israel</a> (2023)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2024_Istanbul_church_shooting" title="2024 Istanbul church shooting">2024 Istanbul church shooting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crocus_City_Hall_attack" title="Crocus City Hall attack">Crocus City Hall attack</a> (2024)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/File:P_religion_world.svg" 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110,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 37,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 22,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 55,\n [\"Cultural Revolution\"] = 1,\n [\"DEFAULTSORT:Cultural Revolution\"] = 1,\n [\"Excerpt\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 2,\n [\"Google books\"] = 39,\n [\"History of the People's Republic of China\"] = 1,\n [\"IPAc-cmn\"] = 2,\n [\"IPAc-yue\"] = 2,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 15,\n [\"Infobox Chinese\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox event\"] = 1,\n [\"Interlanguage link\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 1,\n [\"Library resources box\"] = 1,\n [\"Linktext\"] = 1,\n [\"Location map+\"] = 1,\n [\"Location map~\"] = 7,\n [\"Main\"] = 14,\n [\"Maoism\"] = 1,\n [\"Multiple image\"] = 3,\n [\"NoteFoot\"] = 1,\n [\"Notetag\"] = 2,\n [\"Nowrap\"] = 1,\n [\"Page needed\"] = 2,\n [\"Page number\"] = 2,\n [\"Pp-move\"] = 1,\n [\"Quote box\"] = 1,\n [\"R\"] = 6,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Religious persecution\"] = 1,\n [\"Revolution sidebar\"] = 1,\n [\"Rp\"] = 192,\n [\"Section link\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 10,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 4,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Sister project links\"] = 1,\n [\"Snd\"] = 1,\n [\"Start and end dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Title missing\"] = 1,\n [\"Tone superscript\"] = 3,\n [\"Ubl\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Very long\"] = 1,\n [\"Wg-apos\"] = 1,\n [\"Why\"] = 1,\n [\"Wikiquote\"] = 1,\n [\"Zhi\"] = 4,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"short\"] = \"yes\",\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","640","24.1"],["recursiveClone 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