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<span>Neurology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neurology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sociology_and_psychology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sociology_and_psychology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Sociology and psychology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Sociology_and_psychology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Sociology and psychology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Sociology_and_psychology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Self-blame" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Self-blame"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Self-blame</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Self-blame-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Victim_blaming" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Victim_blaming"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Victim blaming</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Victim_blaming-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Individual_blame_versus_system_blame" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Individual_blame_versus_system_blame"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Individual blame versus system blame</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Individual_blame_versus_system_blame-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Blame_shifting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Blame_shifting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Blame shifting</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Blame_shifting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-As_a_propaganda_technique" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#As_a_propaganda_technique"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>As a propaganda technique</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-As_a_propaganda_technique-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_organizations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_organizations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>In organizations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_organizations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span 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German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Tadel" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%B2%D9%86%D8%B4" title="سرزنش – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="سرزنش" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B9%84%EB%82%9C" title="비난 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="비난" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%A5%D5%B2%D5%A1%D5%A4%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%B6%D6%84_(%D5%B0%D5%B8%D5%A3%D5%A5%D5%A2%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6)" title="Մեղադրանք (հոգեբանություն) – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Մեղադրանք (հոգեբանություն)" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blame" title="Blame – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Blame" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verwijten" title="Verwijten – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Verwijten" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" 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class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Act of censuring, holding responsible, or making negative statements about an individual or group</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Blame_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Blame (disambiguation)">Blame (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Blaming" redirects here. For the novel, see <a href="/wiki/Blaming_(novel)" title="Blaming (novel)"><i>Blaming</i> (novel)</a>.</div> <p><b>Blame</b> is the act of <a href="/wiki/Censuring" class="mw-redirect" title="Censuring">censuring</a>, holding responsible, or making negative statements about an individual or group that their actions or inaction are socially or morally irresponsible, the opposite of <a href="/wiki/Praise" title="Praise">praise</a>. When someone is <a href="/wiki/Morally_responsible" class="mw-redirect" title="Morally responsible">morally responsible</a> for doing something wrong, their action is blameworthy. By contrast, when someone is morally responsible for doing something right, it may be said that their action is <a href="/wiki/Praise" title="Praise">praiseworthy</a>. There are other senses of praise and blame that are not ethically relevant. One may praise someone's good dress sense, and blame their own sense of style for their own dress sense. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Philosophy">Philosophy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Blame&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Philosophers discuss the concept of blame as one of the reactive attitudes, a term coined by <a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">P. F. Strawson</a>, which includes attitudes like blame, praise, gratitude, resentment, and <a href="/wiki/Forgiveness" title="Forgiveness">forgiveness</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contrast to physical or intellectual concepts, reactive attitudes are formed from the point of view of an active participant regarding objects. This is to be distinguished from the objective standpoint. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Neurology">Neurology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Blame&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Neurology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Blaming appears to relate to include brain activity in the <a href="/wiki/Temporoparietal_junction" title="Temporoparietal junction">temporoparietal junction</a> (TPJ).<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Amygdala" title="Amygdala">amygdala</a> has been found<sup id="cite_ref-Ngo_amygdala_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ngo_amygdala-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to contribute when we blame others, but not when we respond to their positive actions.<sup id="cite_ref-Ngo_blaming_study_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ngo_blaming_study-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sociology_and_psychology">Sociology and psychology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Blame&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Sociology and psychology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Humans—consciously and unconsciously—constantly make <a href="/wiki/Judgments" class="mw-redirect" title="Judgments">judgments</a> about other people. The psychological criteria for judging others may be partly ingrained,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> negative, and rigid, indicating some degree of <a href="/wiki/Grandiosity" title="Grandiosity">grandiosity</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Blaming provides a way of devaluing others, with the result that the blamer feels superior, seeing others as less worthwhile and/or making the blamer "perfect". Off-loading blame means putting the other person down by emphasizing their flaws.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Victims of <a href="/wiki/Psychological_manipulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychological manipulation">manipulation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Abuse" title="Abuse">abuse</a> frequently feel responsible for causing negative feelings in the manipulator/abuser towards them and the resultant <a href="/wiki/Anxiety" title="Anxiety">anxiety</a> in themselves. This self-blame often becomes a major feature of <a href="/wiki/Victim_mentality" title="Victim mentality">victim status</a>. </p><p>The victim gets trapped into a <a href="/wiki/Self-image" title="Self-image">self-image</a> of <a href="/wiki/Victimization" class="mw-redirect" title="Victimization">victimization</a>. The psychological profile of victimization includes a pervasive sense of helplessness, passivity, loss of control, pessimism, negative thinking, strong feelings of <a href="/wiki/Guilt_(emotion)" title="Guilt (emotion)">guilt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shame" title="Shame">shame</a>, <a href="/wiki/Remorse" title="Remorse">remorse</a>, self-blame, and <a href="/wiki/Depression_(mood)" title="Depression (mood)">depression</a>. This way of thinking can lead to hopelessness and <a href="/wiki/Despair" class="mw-redirect" title="Despair">despair</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-braiker_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-braiker-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Self-blame">Self-blame</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Blame&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Self-blame"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Two main types of <a href="/wiki/Self-blame_(psychology)" title="Self-blame (psychology)">self-blame</a> exist: </p> <ol><li><b>behavioral self-blame</b> – undeserved blame based on actions. Victims who experience behavioral self-blame feel that they should have done something differently, and therefore feel at fault.</li> <li><b>characterological self-blame</b> – undeserved blame based on character. Victims who experience characterological self-blame feel there is something inherently wrong with them which has caused them to deserve to be victimized.</li></ol> <p>Behavioral self-blame is associated with feelings of <a href="/wiki/Guilt_(emotion)" title="Guilt (emotion)">guilt</a> within the victim. While the belief that one had control during the abuse (past control) is associated with greater psychological distress, the belief that one has more control during the recovery process (present control) is associated with less distress, less withdrawal, and more cognitive reprocessing.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Counseling responses found helpful in reducing self-blame include:<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>supportive responses</li> <li>psychoeducational responses (for example, learning about <a href="/wiki/Rape_trauma_syndrome" title="Rape trauma syndrome">rape trauma syndrome</a>)</li> <li>responses addressing the issue of blame.</li></ul> <p>A helpful type of therapy for self-blame is <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_restructuring" title="Cognitive restructuring">cognitive restructuring</a> or <a href="/wiki/Cognitive%E2%80%93behavioral_therapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive–behavioral therapy">cognitive–behavioral therapy</a>. Cognitive reprocessing is the process of taking the facts and forming a <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logical</a> conclusion from them that is less influenced by shame or guilt.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Victim_blaming">Victim blaming</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Blame&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Victim blaming"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Victim_blaming" title="Victim blaming">Victim blaming</a></div> <p>Victim blaming is holding the victims of a <a href="/wiki/Crime" title="Crime">crime</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Accident" title="Accident">accident</a>, or any type of <a href="/wiki/Abusive" class="mw-redirect" title="Abusive">abusive</a> maltreatment to be entirely or partially <a href="/wiki/Moral_responsibility" title="Moral responsibility">responsible</a> for the incident that has occurred. The <a href="/wiki/Fundamental_attribution_error" title="Fundamental attribution error">fundamental attribution error</a> concept explains how people tend to blame negative behavior more on the victims traits than the situation at the time of the event.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Individual_blame_versus_system_blame">Individual blame versus system blame</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Blame&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Individual blame versus system blame"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In sociology, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Individual_blame&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Individual blame (page does not exist)">individual blame</a> is the tendency of a group or society to hold the individual responsible for their situation, whereas <a href="/w/index.php?title=System_blame&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="System blame (page does not exist)">system blame</a> is the tendency to focus on social factors that contribute to one's fate. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Blame_shifting">Blame shifting</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Blame&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Blame shifting"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Buck_passing" title="Buck passing">Buck passing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Psychological_projection" title="Psychological projection">Psychological projection</a></div> <p>Blaming others can lead to a "<a href="/wiki/Kick_the_dog" class="mw-redirect" title="Kick the dog">kick the dog</a>" effect where individuals in a <a href="/wiki/Hierarchy" title="Hierarchy">hierarchy</a> blame their immediate subordinate, and this propagates down a hierarchy until the lowest rung (the "dog"). A 2009 experimental study has shown that blaming can be contagious even for uninvolved onlookers.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In complex international organizations, such as enforcers of national and supranational policies and regulations, the blame is usually attributed to the last echelon, the implementing actors.<sup id="cite_ref-Rittberger2017_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rittberger2017-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="As_a_propaganda_technique">As a propaganda technique</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Blame&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: As a propaganda technique"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Scapegoating" title="Scapegoating">Scapegoating</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Labeling_theory" title="Labeling theory">Labeling theory</a> accounts for blame by postulating that when intentional actors act out to continuously blame an individual for nonexistent psychological traits and for nonexistent variables, those actors aim to induce irrational <a href="/wiki/Guilt_(emotion)" title="Guilt (emotion)">guilt</a> at an unconscious level. Blame in this case becomes a <a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">propaganda</a> tactic, using repetitive blaming behaviors, <a href="/wiki/Innuendos" class="mw-redirect" title="Innuendos">innuendos</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hyperbole" title="Hyperbole">hyperbole</a> in order to assign negative status to normative humans. When innocent people are blamed fraudulently for nonexistent psychological states and nonexistent behaviors, and there is no qualifying deviance for the blaming behaviors, the intention is to create a negative valuation of innocent humans to induce fear, by using <a href="/wiki/Fear_mongering" class="mw-redirect" title="Fear mongering">fear mongering</a>. For centuries, governments have used blaming in the form of <a href="/wiki/Demonization" title="Demonization">demonization</a> to influence public perceptions of various other governments, as well as to induce feelings of <a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">nationalism</a> in the public. Blame can <a href="/wiki/Objectify" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectify">objectify</a> people, groups, and nations, typically negatively influencing the intended subjects of propaganda, compromising their objectivity.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="Cannot determine the source of objectification in a propaganda context (July 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Blame is utilized as a <a href="/wiki/Social_control" title="Social control">social-control</a> technique.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="Blame is not mentioned in the linked article, cannot determine source (July 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_organizations">In organizations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Blame&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: In organizations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Blame_in_organizations" title="Blame in organizations">Blame in organizations</a></div> <p>The flow of blame in an <a href="/wiki/Organization" title="Organization">organization</a> may be a primary indicator of that organization's robustness and <a href="/wiki/Integrity" title="Integrity">integrity</a>. Blame flowing downwards, from management to staff, or laterally between professionals or partner organizations, indicates organizational failure. In a blame culture, problem-solving is replaced by blame-avoidance. Blame coming from the top generates "fear, malaise, errors, accidents, and <a href="/wiki/Passive-aggressive" class="mw-redirect" title="Passive-aggressive">passive-aggressive</a> responses from the bottom", with those at the bottom feeling powerless and lacking <a href="/wiki/Emotional_safety" title="Emotional safety">emotional safety</a>. Employees have expressed that organizational blame culture made them fear prosecution for errors and/or accidents and thus unemployment, which may make them more reluctant to report accidents, since <a href="/wiki/Trust_(social_science)" title="Trust (social science)">trust</a> is crucial to encourage accident reporting. This makes it less likely that weak and/or long-term indicators of safety threats get picked up, thus preventing the organization from taking adequate measures to prevent minor problems from escalating into uncontrollable situations. Several issues identified in organizations with a blame culture contradict the <a href="/wiki/Best_practices" class="mw-redirect" title="Best practices">best practices</a> adopted by <a href="/wiki/High_reliability_organization" title="High reliability organization">high reliability organizations</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Weinberg_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weinberg-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Milch_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Milch-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Organisational chaos, such as confused roles and responsibilities, is strongly associated with blame culture and <a href="/wiki/Workplace_bullying" title="Workplace bullying">workplace bullying</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Milch_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Milch-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rudge2016_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rudge2016-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Blame culture promotes a <a href="/wiki/Risk_aversion" title="Risk aversion">risk aversive</a> approach, which prevent organizations and their agents from adequately assessing risks.<sup id="cite_ref-Milch_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Milch-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rudge2016_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rudge2016-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hollnagel2019_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hollnagel2019-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/Mary_Douglas" title="Mary Douglas">Mary Douglas</a>, blame is systematically used in the micro-politics of institutions, with three latent functions: explaining disasters, justifying allegiances, and stabilizing existing institutional regimes. Within a politically stable regime, blame tends to be asserted on the weak or unlucky one, but in a less stable regime, blame shifting may involve a battle between rival factions. Douglas was interested in how blame stabilizes existing power structures within institutions or social groups. She devised a two-dimensional typology of institutions, the first attribute being named "group", which is the strength of boundaries and social cohesion, the second "grid", the degree and strength of the hierarchy. According to Douglas, blame will fall on different entities depending on the institutional type. For markets, blame is used in power struggles between potential leaders. In <a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">bureaucracies</a>, blame tends to flow downwards and is attributed to a failure to follow rules. In a <a href="/wiki/Clan" title="Clan">clan</a>, blame is asserted on outsiders or involves allegations of <a href="/wiki/Betrayal" title="Betrayal">treachery</a>, to suppress dissidence and strengthen the group's ties. In the 4th type, isolation, the individuals are facing the competitive pressures of the marketplace alone; in other words, there is a condition of fragmentation with a loss of <a href="/wiki/Social_cohesion" class="mw-redirect" title="Social cohesion">social cohesion</a>, potentially leading to feelings of powerlessness and <a href="/wiki/Fatalism" title="Fatalism">fatalism</a>, and this type was renamed by various other authors into "donkey jobs". It is suggested that the progressive changes in managerial practices in healthcare is leading to an increase in donkey jobs.<sup id="cite_ref-Rudge2016_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rudge2016-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The requirement of accountability and transparency, assumed to be key for good governance, worsen the behaviors of blame avoidance, both at the individual and institutional levels,<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as is observed in various domains such as politics<sup id="cite_ref-Hood2007_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hood2007-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and healthcare.<sup id="cite_ref-McGivern2010_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McGivern2010-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Indeed, institutions tend to be risk-averse and blame-averse, and where the management of societal risks (the threats to society) and institutional risks (threats to the organizations managing the societal risks)<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> are not aligned, there may be organizational pressures to prioritize the management of institutional risks at the expense of societal risks.<sup id="cite_ref-Rothstein2006_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rothstein2006-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Risk_Regulation_Under_Pressure_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Risk_Regulation_Under_Pressure-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, "blame-avoidance behaviour at the expense of delivering core business is a well-documented organizational rationality".<sup id="cite_ref-Rothstein2006_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rothstein2006-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The willingness of maintaining one's reputation may be a key factor explaining the relationship between accountability and blame avoidance.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This may produce a "risk colonization", where institutional risks are transferred to societal risks, as a strategy of <a href="/wiki/Risk_management" title="Risk management">risk management</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Rothstein2006_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rothstein2006-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some researchers argue that there is "no risk-free lunch" and "no blame-free risk", an analogy to the "<a href="/wiki/No_free_lunch" class="mw-redirect" title="No free lunch">no free lunch</a>" adage.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Blame&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attribution_(psychology)" title="Attribution (psychology)">Attribution (psychology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attribution_bias" title="Attribution bias">Attribution bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">Causality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culpability" title="Culpability">Culpability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denial" title="Denial">Denial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_guy" title="Fall guy">Fall guy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamental_attribution_error" title="Fundamental attribution error">Fundamental attribution error</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_responsibility" title="Moral responsibility">Moral responsibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praise" title="Praise">Praise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presumption_of_guilt" title="Presumption of guilt">Presumption of guilt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_projection" title="Psychological projection">Psychological projection</a></li> <li>"Result(s)-oriented work environment" or "result(s)-only work environment" (<a href="/wiki/ROWE" title="ROWE">ROWE</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scapegoating" title="Scapegoating">Scapegoating</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Blame&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Strawson, P. F. (1962). "Freedom and Resentment" Proceedings of the British Academy 48:187-211.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHoffman2014" class="citation book cs1">Hoffman, Morris B. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IhgmAwAAQBAJ"><i>The Punisher's Brain: The Evolution of Judge and Jury</i></a>. Cambridge Studies in Economics, Choice, and Society. Cambridge University Press. p. 68. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781107038066" title="Special:BookSources/9781107038066"><bdi>9781107038066</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2014-05-22</span></span>. <q>Our adult brains [...] have dedicated circuits devoted to the assessment of intentionality and harm, and to the calculation of blame based on those two assessments, using intent as the main driver and harm only as a tiebreaker. Part of those blaming circuits lie in a region called the temporoparietal junction, or TPJ. It is an area of the cortex roughly even with the top of the ears.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Punisher%27s+Brain%3A+The+Evolution+of+Judge+and+Jury&rft.series=Cambridge+Studies+in+Economics%2C+Choice%2C+and+Society&rft.pages=68&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9781107038066&rft.aulast=Hoffman&rft.aufirst=Morris+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIhgmAwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlame" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ngo_amygdala-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ngo_amygdala_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://fortune.com/2015/12/04/brain-wired-praise-blame/?xid=yahoo_fortune">amygdala has been found</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ngo_blaming_study-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ngo_blaming_study_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNgoKellyCoutleeCarter2015" class="citation journal cs1">Ngo, Lawrence; Kelly, Meagan; Coutlee, Christopher G; Carter, R McKell; Sinnott-Armstrong, Walter; Huettel, Scott A (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4669441">"Two Distinct Moral Mechanisms for Ascribing and Denying Intentionality"</a>. <i>Scientific Reports</i>. <b>5</b>: 17390. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015NatSR...517390N">2015NatSR...517390N</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fsrep17390">10.1038/srep17390</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4669441">4669441</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26634909">26634909</a>. <q>Based on converging behavioral and neural evidence, we demonstrate that there is no single underlying mechanism. Instead, two distinct mechanisms together generate the asymmetry. <a href="/wiki/Emotion" title="Emotion">Emotion</a> drives ascriptions of intentionality for negative consequences, while the consideration of statistical norms leads to the denial of intentionality for positive consequences.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+Reports&rft.atitle=Two+Distinct+Moral+Mechanisms+for+Ascribing+and+Denying+Intentionality.&rft.volume=5&rft.pages=17390&rft.date=2015&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4669441%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26634909&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fsrep17390&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2015NatSR...517390N&rft.aulast=Ngo&rft.aufirst=Lawrence&rft.au=Kelly%2C+Meagan&rft.au=Coutlee%2C+Christopher+G&rft.au=Carter%2C+R+McKell&rft.au=Sinnott-Armstrong%2C+Walter&rft.au=Huettel%2C+Scott+A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4669441&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlame" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brown, N.W., <i>Coping With Infuriating, Mean, Critical People – The Destructive Narcissistic Pattern</i> (2006)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-braiker-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-braiker_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Braiker, H.B., <i>Who's Pulling Your Strings? 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Government+and+Opposition&rft.atitle=The+Risk+Game+and+the+Blame+Game&rft.volume=37&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E15-%3C%2Fspan%3E37&rft.date=2014-03-28&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2F1477-7053.00085&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143397032%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Hood&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlame" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Blame&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Douglas, Tom. <i>Scapegoats: Transferring Blame</i>, London-New York, Routledge, 1995.</li> <li>Wilcox, Clifton W. <i>Scapegoat: Targeted for Blame</i>, Denver, Outskirts Press, 2009.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Blame&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output 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.navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Aspects_of_organizations" title="Template:Aspects of organizations"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Aspects_of_organizations" title="Template talk:Aspects of organizations"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Aspects_of_organizations" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Aspects of organizations"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Aspects_of_organizations374" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Aspects of <a href="/wiki/Organization" title="Organization">organizations</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_architecture" title="Organizational architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_behavior" title="Organizational behavior">Behavior</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#In_organizations">Blame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_capital" title="Organizational capital">Capital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_organizational_structure" title="Cellular organizational structure">Cells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_chart" title="Organizational chart">Chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_citizenship_behavior" title="Organizational citizenship behavior">Citizenship behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organisation_climate" title="Organisation climate">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_commitment" title="Organizational commitment">Commitment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_communication" title="Organizational communication">Communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complexity_theory_and_organizations" title="Complexity theory and organizations">Complexity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_conflict" title="Organizational conflict">Conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_culture" title="Organizational culture">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_architecture" title="Organizational architecture">Design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_development" title="Organization development">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_diagnostics" title="Organizational diagnostics">Diagnostics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_dissent" title="Organizational dissent">Dissent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_ecology" title="Organizational ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_effectiveness" title="Organizational effectiveness">Effectiveness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_engineering" title="Organizational engineering">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_ethics" title="Organizational ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_field" title="Organizational field">Field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchical_organization" title="Hierarchical organization">Hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_identification" title="Organizational identification">Identification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_intelligence" title="Organizational intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_justice" title="Organizational justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_learning" title="Organizational learning">Learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_life_cycle" title="Organizational life cycle">Life cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machiavellianism_in_the_workplace" title="Machiavellianism in the workplace">Machiavellianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narcissism_in_the_workplace" title="Narcissism in the workplace">Narcissism</a></li> <li><a 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