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.mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><caption class="infobox-title fn org">Venus</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Venus_globe.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Venus as seen by the Magellan radar." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Venus_globe.jpg/290px-Venus_globe.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="290" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Venus_globe.jpg/435px-Venus_globe.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Venus_globe.jpg/580px-Venus_globe.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4096" data-file-height="4096" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Global <a href="/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">radar</a> view of the surface from <a href="/wiki/Magellan_probe" class="mw-redirect" title="Magellan probe">Magellan</a> radar imaging between 1990 and 1994</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#E0CCFF"><span class="anchor" id="Infobox_Physical_characteristics"></span>Physical characteristics</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="max-width:11em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Mean_radius_(astronomy)" title="Mean radius (astronomy)">Mean radius</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7006605180000000000♠"></span>6<span style="margin-left:.25em;">051</span>.8<span style="margin-left:0.3em;margin-right:0.15em;">±</span>1.0 km</span><sup id="cite_ref-Seidelmann2007_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Seidelmann2007-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6999949900000000000♠"></span>0.9499 Earths</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="max-width:11em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Spheroid#Surface_area" title="Spheroid">Surface area</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7014459999999999999♠"></span>4.60<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>8</sup> km<sup>2</sup></span></li> <li>0.902 Earths</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="max-width:11em;"><a href="/wiki/Volume" title="Volume">Volume</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7020927999999999999♠"></span>9.28<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>11</sup> km<sup>3</sup></span></li> <li>0.866 Earths</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="max-width:11em;"><a href="/wiki/Mass" title="Mass">Mass</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7024486760000000000♠"></span>4.8676<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>24</sup> kg</span></li> <li>0.815 Earths</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="max-width:11em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Mean <a href="/wiki/Density" title="Density">density</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7003524300000000000♠"></span>5.243 g/cm<sup>3</sup></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="max-width:11em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Surface_gravity" title="Surface gravity">Surface gravity</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7000886999999999999♠"></span>8.87 m/s<sup>2</sup></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">0.904 <i><a href="/wiki/G-force" title="G-force">g</a></i></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><table style="border-spacing: 0px; width:100%; border:none; margin:0; line-height:1.2em; white-space:nowrap"><tbody><tr> <th style="width:33%; padding-right:0.25em; text-align:left">Surface <a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">temp.</a></th> <th style="padding-right:0.25em; text-align:center">min</th> <th style="padding-right:0.25em; text-align:center">mean</th> <th style="padding-right:0.25em; text-align:center">max</th> </tr><tr> <th style="padding-left:1.0em"><a href="/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin">Kelvin</a></th> <td style="text-align:center"></td> <td style="text-align:center">737 K<sup id="cite_ref-nssdc_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nssdc-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td style="text-align:center"></td> </tr><tr> <th style="padding-left:1.0em">Celsius</th> <td style="text-align:center"></td> <td style="text-align:center">462 °C</td> <td style="text-align:center"></td> </tr><tr> <th style="padding-left:1.0em"><a href="/wiki/Fahrenheit" title="Fahrenheit">Fahrenheit</a></th> <td style="text-align:center"></td> <td style="text-align:center">864 °F (462 °C)</td> <td style="text-align:center"></td> </tr> </tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#E0CCFF">Atmosphere</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="max-width:11em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Surface <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_pressure" title="Atmospheric pressure">pressure</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data">92 <a href="/wiki/Bar_(unit)" title="Bar (unit)">bar</a> (9.2 <a href="/wiki/Pascal_(unit)" title="Pascal (unit)">MPa</a>)</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> </div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Planet_Venus_Observed_with_Modern_Telescope_April_10,_2020.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Planet_Venus_Observed_with_Modern_Telescope_April_10%2C_2020.jpg/220px-Planet_Venus_Observed_with_Modern_Telescope_April_10%2C_2020.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Planet_Venus_Observed_with_Modern_Telescope_April_10%2C_2020.jpg/330px-Planet_Venus_Observed_with_Modern_Telescope_April_10%2C_2020.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Planet_Venus_Observed_with_Modern_Telescope_April_10%2C_2020.jpg/440px-Planet_Venus_Observed_with_Modern_Telescope_April_10%2C_2020.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Planet Venus Observed with Modern Telescope on April 10, 2020</figcaption></figure> <p>NASA's <a href="/wiki/Magellan_(spacecraft)" title="Magellan (spacecraft)">Magellan</a> spacecraft mission discovered that <a href="/wiki/Venus" title="Venus">Venus</a> has a geologically young surface with a relatively uniform age of 500±200 Ma (million years).<sup id="cite_ref-Phillips1992_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Phillips1992-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The age of Venus was revealed by the observation of over 900 impact craters on the surface of the planet. These <a href="/wiki/Impact_crater" title="Impact crater">impact craters</a> are nearly uniformly distributed over the surface of Venus and less than 10% have been modified by plains of <a href="/wiki/Volcanism" title="Volcanism">volcanism</a> or deformation.<sup id="cite_ref-Schaber1992_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schaber1992-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These observations indicate that a catastrophic resurfacing event took place on Venus around 500 Ma, and was followed by a dramatic decline in resurfacing rate.<sup id="cite_ref-Turcotte1999_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Turcotte1999-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The radar images from the Magellan missions revealed that the terrestrial style of <a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">plate tectonics</a> is not active on Venus and the surface currently appears to be immobile.<sup id="cite_ref-Solomon1992_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Solomon1992-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite these surface observations, there are numerous surface features that indicate an actively <a href="/wiki/Mantle_convection" title="Mantle convection">convecting</a> interior. The Soviet <a href="/wiki/Venera" title="Venera">Venera</a> landings revealed that the surface of Venus is essentially <a href="/wiki/Basalt" title="Basalt">basaltic</a> in composition based on <a href="/wiki/Geochemistry" title="Geochemistry">geochemical</a> measurements and morphology of volcanic flows.<sup id="cite_ref-Basilevsky1985_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Basilevsky1985-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The surface of Venus is dominated by patterns of basaltic volcanism, and by compressional and extensional tectonic deformation, such as the highly deformed <a href="/wiki/Tessera_(Venusian_geography)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tessera (Venusian geography)">tesserae</a> terrain and the pancake like volcano-tectonic features known as <a href="/wiki/Corona_(planetary_geology)" title="Corona (planetary geology)">coronae</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-BasilevskyHead2003_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BasilevskyHead2003-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The planet's surface can be broadly characterized by its low lying plains, which cover about 80% of the surface, 'continental' plateaus and volcanic swells. There is also an abundance of small and large <a href="/wiki/Shield_volcano" title="Shield volcano">shield volcanoes</a> distributed over the planet's surface. Based on its surface features, it appears that Venus is tectonically and convectively alive but has a <a href="/wiki/Lithosphere" title="Lithosphere">lithosphere</a> that is static. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Resurfacing_hypotheses">Resurfacing hypotheses</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geodynamics_of_Venus&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Resurfacing hypotheses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> The global distribution of impact craters that was discovered by the Magellan mission to Venus has led to numerous theories on Venusian resurfacing. Phillips et al. (1992) developed two conceptual end-member resurfacing models that describe the distribution of impact craters. The first end-member model suggests that a spatially random distribution of craters can be maintained by having short-duration resurfacing events of large spatial area that occur in random locations with long intervening time intervals. A special case of this end-member would be global resurfacing events; for this case one would be unable to tell from the current surface whether the last global event was part of a recurring cycle or a singular event in the planet's history. The other end-member is that resurfacing events that wipe out craters are of small spatial area, randomly distributed and frequently occurring. </p><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Venus_Dickinson_Crater.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Venus_Dickinson_Crater.jpg/254px-Venus_Dickinson_Crater.jpg" decoding="async" width="254" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Venus_Dickinson_Crater.jpg/381px-Venus_Dickinson_Crater.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Venus_Dickinson_Crater.jpg/508px-Venus_Dickinson_Crater.jpg 2x" data-file-width="847" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption>The image is approximately 185 kilometers (115 miles) wide at the base and shows Dickinson, an impact crater 69 kilometers (43 miles) in diameter. The crater is complex, characterized by a partial central ring and a floor flooded by radar-dark and radar-bright materials. The lack of ejecta to the west may indicate that the impactor that produced the crater was an oblique impact from the west. Extensive radar-bright flows that emanate from the crater's eastern walls may represent large volumes of impact melt, or they may be the result of volcanic material released from the subsurface during the cratering event.</figcaption></figure> <p>This is effectively a <a href="/wiki/Uniformitarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Uniformitarian">uniformitarian</a> hypothesis as it assumes that geologic activity is occurring everywhere at similar rates. Global events that periodically resurface nearly the entire planet will leave a crater-free surface: craters then occur and aren't subsequently modified until the next global event.<sup id="cite_ref-Herrick_and_Rumpf,_2011_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herrick_and_Rumpf,_2011-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Resurfacing events occurring frequently everywhere will produce a surface with many craters in the process of being resurfaced.<sup id="cite_ref-Herrick_and_Rumpf,_2011_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herrick_and_Rumpf,_2011-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, the end-members can be distinguished by observing the extent to which the craters have experienced some degree of tectonic deformation or volcanic flooding. </p><p>Initial surveys of the crater population suggested that only a few percent of the craters were heavily deformed or embayed by subsequent volcanism, thus favoring the "catastrophic resurfacing" end member.<sup id="cite_ref-Schaber1992_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schaber1992-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Herrick_and_Phillips_1994_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herrick_and_Phillips_1994-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A number of geophysical models were proposed to generate a global catastrophe, including </p> <ul><li>episodic plate tectonics proposed by Turcotte (1993)<sup id="cite_ref-Turcotte1993_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Turcotte1993-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>a transition from mobile lid to stagnant lid convection proposed by Solomatov and Moresi (1996)<sup id="cite_ref-Solomatov_and_Moresi_1996_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Solomatov_and_Moresi_1996-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>and a rapid transition from a thin to thick lithosphere proposed by Reese et al. (2007)<sup id="cite_ref-Reese_et_al._2007_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reese_et_al._2007-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>The portion of the planet with large rift zones and superposed volcanoes was found to correlate with a low crater density and an unusual number of heavily deformed and obviously embayed craters.<sup id="cite_ref-Herrick_and_Phillips_1994_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herrick_and_Phillips_1994-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The tessera regions of the planet seem to have a slightly higher than normal percentage of craters, but a few of these craters appear to be heavily deformed.<sup id="cite_ref-Ivanov_and_Basilevsky_1993_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ivanov_and_Basilevsky_1993-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These observations, combined with global geologic mapping activities, lead to scenarios of geologic surface evolution that paralleled the catastrophic geophysical models.<sup id="cite_ref-Herrick_and_Rumpf,_2011_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herrick_and_Rumpf,_2011-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The general vision is that the tessera regions are old and date to a past time of more intense surface deformation; in rapid succession the tessera ceased deforming and volcanism flooded the low-lying areas; currently geologic activity is concentrated along the planet's rift zones.<sup id="cite_ref-Basilevsky_and_Head_1995_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Basilevsky_and_Head_1995-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Herrick_1994_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herrick_1994-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Episodic_plate_tectonics">Episodic plate tectonics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geodynamics_of_Venus&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Episodic plate tectonics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Turcotte (1993) suggested that Venus has episodic tectonics, whereby short periods of rapid tectonics are separated by periods of surface inactivity lasting on the order of 500 Ma. During periods of inactivity, the lithosphere cools conductively and thickens to over 300 km. The active mode of plate tectonics occurs when the thick lithosphere detaches and founders into the interior of the planet. Large scale lithosphere recycling is thus invoked to explain resurfacing events. Episodic large scale overturns can occur due to a compositionally stratified mantle where there is competition between the compositional and thermal buoyancy of the upper mantle.<sup id="cite_ref-Herrick_and_Parmentier_1994_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herrick_and_Parmentier_1994-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This sort of mantle layering is further supported by the 'basalt barrier' mechanism, which states that subducted basaltic crust is positively buoyant between the mantle depths of 660–750 km, and negatively buoyant at other depths, and can accumulate at the bottom of the transition zone and cause mantle layering.<sup id="cite_ref-Papuc_and_Davies_2012_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Papuc_and_Davies_2012-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The breakdown of mantle layering and consequent mantle overturns would lead to dramatic episodes of volcanism, formation of large amounts of crust, and tectonic activity on the planet's surface, as has been inferred to have happened on Venus around 500 Ma from the surface morphology and cratering.<sup id="cite_ref-Papuc_and_Davies_2012_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Papuc_and_Davies_2012-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Catastrophic resurfacing and widespread volcanism can be caused periodically by an increase in mantle temperature due to a change in surface boundary conditions from mobile to stagnant lid.<sup id="cite_ref-Herrick_1994_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herrick_1994-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stagnant_lid_convection">Stagnant lid convection</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geodynamics_of_Venus&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Stagnant lid convection"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Despite their categorical separation, all of the models display some sort of conceptual overlap that applies to the others. Solomatov and Moresi (1996) suggested that a reduction in convective stresses caused the surface lid to change from mobile to stagnant.<sup id="cite_ref-Solomatov_and_Moresi_1996_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Solomatov_and_Moresi_1996-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This argument proposed that the present surface of Venus records a permanent end to lithospheric recycling. The decrease in planetary heat flow, as convective vigor decreased, changed the mode of mantle convection from mobile to stagnant.<sup id="cite_ref-Arkani-Hamed_1994_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Arkani-Hamed_1994-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite their previous publication, Moresi and Solomatov (1998) used numerical models of mantle convection with temperature-dependent viscosity to propose that at intermediate levels of yield stress for the lithosphere, a change from a mobile to an episodic convective regime for Venus could occur.<sup id="cite_ref-Moresi_and_Solomatov_1998_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moresi_and_Solomatov_1998-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They focused on an episodic regime for a current explanation of Venus, whereby brittle mobilization of the Venusian lithosphere may be episodic and catastrophic. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transition_from_thin_to_thick_lithosphere">Transition from thin to thick lithosphere</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geodynamics_of_Venus&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Transition from thin to thick lithosphere"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Reese et al. (2007) proposed a model of planet resurfacing, whereby lithosphere thinning and widespread melting follows a shift from mobile lid to stagnant lid convection.<sup id="cite_ref-Reese_et_al._2007_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reese_et_al._2007-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These parameterized convection models suggest that a cessation of magmatic resurfacing can occur in several ways: (1) the mantle temperature drops sufficiently such that mantle rising adiabatically does not cross the solidus, (2) the molten layer migrates below the solid/melt density inversion at 250–500 km so that no melt can escape, and (3) sublithospheric, small-scale convection stops and conductive thickening of the lid suppresses melting. In each case, the inability of magma to penetrate the thickened Venusian lithosphere plays a role. However, it has been suggested that Venus's surface has experienced a continuous but geologically rapid decline in tectonic activity due to the secular cooling of the planet, and no catastrophic resurfacing event is required to explain its heat loss.<sup id="cite_ref-Solomon_1993_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Solomon_1993-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Directional_history_hypothesis">Directional history hypothesis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geodynamics_of_Venus&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Directional history hypothesis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In a series of subsequent papers, Basilevsky and colleagues extensively developed a model that Guest and Stofan (1999)<sup id="cite_ref-Gueat_and_Stofan_1999_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gueat_and_Stofan_1999-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> termed the "directional history" for Venus evolution.<sup id="cite_ref-Basilevsky_et_al._1999_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Basilevsky_et_al._1999-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Basilevsky_and_Head_1998_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Basilevsky_and_Head_1998-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Basilevsky_and_Head_2006_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Basilevsky_and_Head_2006-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The general idea is that there is a global stratigraphy that progresses from heavily deformed tessera, to heavily deformed, then moderately deformed plains, and then to undeformed plains.<sup id="cite_ref-Herrick_and_Rumpf,_2011_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herrick_and_Rumpf,_2011-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most recent activity is focused near major rift zones that tend to intersect with large shield volcanoes. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ishtar_Terra.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Ishtar_Terra.jpg/522px-Ishtar_Terra.jpg" decoding="async" width="522" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/25/Ishtar_Terra.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="562" data-file-height="323" /></a><figcaption>The interpretation of tessera as older continental-style cratons is supported by geological analysis of Ashtar Terra and its surroundings. Compression forces, coupled with the inability of the thin basaltic crust to subduct, resulted in fold mountains around the edges of Ishtar. Further compression led to underthrusting of material that subsequently was able to partially melt and feed volcanism in the central plateau.<sup id="cite_ref-Ivanov_and_Head_2008_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ivanov_and_Head_2008-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>If the directional evolution model is valid then the evolution must have been slow and the timing of events would have overlapped considerably. A valid end member interpretation is that the crater population still represents a population emplaced on a mostly inactive planet, but the final throes of a global emplacement of volcanic plains has filled most of the craters with a few hundred meters of volcanic flows. If this is true, then post-tessera plains emplacement must have dragged on for most of the visible surface history of the planet and the cessation of tessera deformation must have overlapped considerably with emplacement of plains. Thus, while a tessera/plains/rifts evolution is a valid hypothesis, that evolution could not have occurred as a "catastrophe". The highly varying levels of post-impact volcanism and deformation that the craters have experienced are consistent with a steady state model of Venus resurfacing. The craters are in a variety of stages of removal but display the same processes that have operated throughout the visible surface history. It remains a powerful constraint that the distribution of geologic features on the planet (plains, volcanoes, rifts, etc.) is decidedly more nonuniform than the crater population. This means that while the nature of resurfacing on Venus may vary regionally in the uniformitarian hypothesis, the rates must be similar.<sup id="cite_ref-Herrick_and_Rumpf,_2011_9-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herrick_and_Rumpf,_2011-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geodynamics_of_Venus&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Venus" title="Outline of Venus">Outline of Venus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transit_of_Venus" title="Transit of Venus">Transit of Venus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venus_zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Venus zone">Venus zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_gravitationally_rounded_objects_of_the_Solar_System#Planets" title="List of gravitationally rounded objects of the Solar System">Stats of planets in the Solar System</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geodynamics_of_Venus&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Seidelmann2007-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Seidelmann2007_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFSeidelmann_Archinal_A'hearn_et_al.2007" class="citation journal cs1">Seidelmann, P. 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Head III (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2F2005JE002473">"Impact craters on regional plains on Venus: Age relations with wrinkle ridges and implications for the geological evolution of Venus"</a>. <i>Journal of Geophysical Research</i>. <b>111</b> (E3): 3006. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006JGRE..111.3006B">2006JGRE..111.3006B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2F2005JE002473">10.1029/2005JE002473</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Geophysical+Research&rft.atitle=Impact+craters+on+regional+plains+on+Venus%3A+Age+relations+with+wrinkle+ridges+and+implications+for+the+geological+evolution+of+Venus&rft.volume=111&rft.issue=E3&rft.pages=3006&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1029%2F2005JE002473&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006JGRE..111.3006B&rft.aulast=Basilevsky&rft.aufirst=A.+T.&rft.au=J.+W.+Head+III&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1029%252F2005JE002473&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeodynamics+of+Venus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ivanov_and_Head_2008-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ivanov_and_Head_2008_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIvanovJ._W._Head_III2008" class="citation journal cs1">Ivanov, M. 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style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arachnoid_(astrogeology)" title="Arachnoid (astrogeology)">Arachnoid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Venus" title="Atmosphere of Venus">Atmosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extraterrestrial_dune_fields" title="List of extraterrestrial dune fields">Dune fields</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_geological_features_on_Venus" title="List of geological features on Venus">Features</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mapping_of_Venus" title="Mapping of Venus">Mapping of Venus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regio</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alpha_Regio" title="Alpha Regio">Alpha Regio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asteria_Regio" title="Asteria Regio">Asteria Regio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beta_Regio" title="Beta Regio">Beta Regio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovda_Regio" title="Ovda Regio">Ovda Regio</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_terrae_on_Venus" title="List of terrae on Venus">Terrae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aphrodite_Terra" title="Aphrodite Terra">Aphrodite Terra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ishtar_Terra" title="Ishtar Terra">Ishtar Terra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lada_Terra" title="Lada Terra">Lada Terra</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_montes_on_Venus" title="List of montes on Venus">Mountains</a><br />and<br /><a href="/wiki/Volcanism_on_Venus" title="Volcanism on Venus">volcanoes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abeona_Mons" title="Abeona Mons">Abeona Mons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akna_Montes" title="Akna Montes">Akna Montes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anala_Mons" title="Anala Mons">Anala Mons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artemis_Corona" title="Artemis Corona">Artemis Corona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ba%CA%BDhet_Corona" title="Baʽhet Corona">Baʽhet Corona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boala_Corona" class="mw-redirect" title="Boala Corona">Boala Corona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ciuacoatl_Mons" title="Ciuacoatl Mons">Ciuacoatl Mons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fand_Mons" class="mw-redirect" title="Fand Mons">Fand Mons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fotla_Corona" class="mw-redirect" title="Fotla Corona">Fotla Corona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gula_Mons" title="Gula Mons">Gula Mons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heng-o_Corona" title="Heng-o Corona">Heng-o Corona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iaso_Tholus" title="Iaso Tholus">Iaso Tholus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idunn_Mons" title="Idunn Mons">Idunn Mons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irnini_Mons" title="Irnini Mons">Irnini Mons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaszai_Patera" title="Jaszai Patera">Jaszai Patera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maat_Mons" title="Maat Mons">Maat Mons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maxwell_Montes" title="Maxwell Montes">Maxwell Montes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nightingale_Corona" title="Nightingale Corona">Nightingale Corona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onatah_Corona" title="Onatah Corona">Onatah Corona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozza_Mons" title="Ozza Mons">Ozza Mons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pavlova_Corona" title="Pavlova Corona">Pavlova Corona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quetzalpetlatl_Corona" title="Quetzalpetlatl Corona">Quetzalpetlatl Corona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pancake_dome" title="Pancake dome">Pancake dome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renpet_Mons" title="Renpet Mons">Renpet Mons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacajawea_Patera" title="Sacajawea Patera">Sacajawea Patera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sachs_Patera" title="Sachs Patera">Sachs Patera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sapas_Mons" title="Sapas Mons">Sapas Mons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scalloped_margin_dome" title="Scalloped margin dome">Scalloped margin dome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siddons_Patera" class="mw-redirect" title="Siddons Patera">Siddons Patera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sif_Mons" title="Sif Mons">Sif Mons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skadi_Mons" title="Skadi Mons">Skadi Mons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theia_Mons" title="Theia Mons">Theia Mons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ushas_Mons" title="Ushas Mons">Ushas Mons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zisa_Corona" title="Zisa Corona">Zisa Corona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_coronae_on_Venus" title="List of coronae on Venus">List of coronae on Venus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_geological_features_on_Venus" title="List of geological features on Venus">Plains</a> and<br /> <a href="/wiki/List_of_geological_features_on_Venus" title="List of geological features on Venus">plateaus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Guinevere_Planitia" title="Guinevere Planitia">Guinevere Planitia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lakshmi_Planum" title="Lakshmi Planum">Lakshmi Planum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sedna_Planitia" title="Sedna Planitia">Sedna Planitia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_geological_features_on_Venus" title="List of geological features on Venus">Canyons</a> and<br /> <a href="/wiki/List_of_geological_features_on_Venus" title="List of geological features on Venus">valleys</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aikhulu_Chasma" class="mw-redirect" title="Aikhulu Chasma">Aikhulu Chasma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artemis_Chasma" title="Artemis Chasma">Artemis Chasma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltis_Vallis" title="Baltis Vallis">Baltis Vallis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dali_Chasma" title="Dali Chasma">Dali Chasma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devana_Chasma" title="Devana Chasma">Devana Chasma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diana_Chasma" class="mw-redirect" title="Diana Chasma">Diana Chasma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganis_Chasma" title="Ganis Chasma">Ganis Chasma</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_craters_on_Venus" title="List of craters on Venus">Craters</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Addams_(crater)" title="Addams (crater)">Addams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adivar_(crater)" title="Adivar (crater)">Adivar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agnesi_(crater)" title="Agnesi (crater)">Agnesi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcott_(crater)" title="Alcott (crater)">Alcott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ariadne_(crater)" title="Ariadne (crater)">Ariadne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurelia_(crater)" title="Aurelia (crater)">Aurelia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balch_(crater)" title="Balch (crater)">Balch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barton_(crater)" title="Barton (crater)">Barton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buck_(crater)" title="Buck (crater)">Buck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_(crater)" title="Cleopatra (crater)">Cleopatra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cunitz_(crater)" title="Cunitz (crater)">Cunitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danilova_(crater)" title="Danilova (crater)">Danilova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_Lalande_(crater)" title="De Lalande (crater)">De Lalande</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dickinson_(crater)" title="Dickinson (crater)">Dickinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goeppert-Mayer_(crater)" title="Goeppert-Mayer (crater)">Goeppert-Mayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golubkina_(crater)" title="Golubkina (crater)">Golubkina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grimke_(crater)" title="Grimke (crater)">Grimke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregory_(Venusian_crater)" title="Gregory (Venusian crater)">Gregory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guilbert_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Guilbert (crater)">Guilbert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isabella_(crater)" title="Isabella (crater)">Isabella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeanne_(crater)" title="Jeanne (crater)">Jeanne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Celeste_(crater)" title="Maria Celeste (crater)">Maria Celeste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mariko_(crater)" title="Mariko (crater)">Mariko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mead_(crater)" title="Mead (crater)">Mead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meitner_(Venusian_crater)" title="Meitner (Venusian crater)">Meitner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merit_Ptah_(crater)" title="Merit Ptah (crater)">Merit Ptah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mona_Lisa_(crater)" title="Mona Lisa (crater)">Mona Lisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanichi" title="Nanichi">Nanichi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riley_(crater)" title="Riley (crater)">Riley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruth_(Venusian_crater)" title="Ruth (Venusian crater)">Ruth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stefania_(crater)" title="Stefania (crater)">Stefania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wanda_(crater)" title="Wanda (crater)">Wanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wheatley_(crater)" title="Wheatley (crater)">Wheatley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yablochkina_(crater)" title="Yablochkina (crater)">Yablochkina</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Geodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Venus" title="Geology of Venus">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_features_of_Venus" title="Surface features of Venus">Surface features</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venus_snow" title="Venus snow">Venus snow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venusquake" class="mw-redirect" title="Venusquake">Venusquake</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Astronomy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aspects_of_Venus" title="Aspects of Venus">Aspects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbit_of_Venus" title="Orbit of Venus">Orbit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phases_of_Venus" title="Phases of Venus">Phases</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Transit_of_Venus" title="Transit of Venus">Transits</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1639_transit_of_Venus" title="1639 transit of Venus">1639</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1761_transit_of_Venus" class="mw-redirect" title="1761 transit of Venus">1761</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1769_transit_of_Venus_observed_from_Tahiti" title="1769 transit of Venus observed from Tahiti">1769</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1874_transit_of_Venus" title="1874 transit of Venus">1874</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1882_transit_of_Venus" title="1882 transit of Venus">1882</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2004_transit_of_Venus" title="2004 transit of Venus">2004</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2012_transit_of_Venus" title="2012 transit of Venus">2012</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Asteroid" title="Asteroid">Asteroids</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Venus-crossing_minor_planets" title="List of Venus-crossing minor planets">Venus-crosser asteroids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venus_trojan" title="Venus trojan">Venus trojans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/524522_Zoozve" title="524522 Zoozve">Zoozve</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Observations_and_explorations_of_Venus" title="Observations and explorations of Venus">Exploration</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Past</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sputnik_programme" class="mw-redirect" title="Sputnik programme">Sputnik programme</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tyazhely_Sputnik" title="Tyazhely Sputnik">Sputnik 7</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venera" title="Venera">Venera</a> program <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Venera_1" title="Venera 1">Venera 1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venera_2MV-1_No.1" title="Venera 2MV-1 No.1">Sputnik 19</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venera_2MV-1_No.2" title="Venera 2MV-1 No.2">Sputnik 20</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venera_2MV-2_No.1" title="Venera 2MV-2 No.1">Sputnik 21</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kosmos_21" title="Kosmos 21">Kosmos 21</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zond_3MV-1_No.2" title="Zond 3MV-1 No.2">Venera 1964A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kosmos_27" title="Kosmos 27">Kosmos 27</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venera_2" title="Venera 2">Venera 2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venera_3" title="Venera 3">Venera 3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kosmos_96" title="Kosmos 96">Kosmos 96</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venera_4" title="Venera 4">Venera 4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kosmos_167" title="Kosmos 167">Kosmos 167</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venera_5" title="Venera 5">Venera 5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venera_6" title="Venera 6">Venera 6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venera_7" title="Venera 7">Venera 7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venera_8" title="Venera 8">Venera 8</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kosmos_482" title="Kosmos 482">Kosmos 482</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venera_9" title="Venera 9">Venera 9</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venera_10" title="Venera 10">Venera 10</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venera_11" title="Venera 11">Venera 11</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venera_12" title="Venera 12">Venera 12</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venera_13" title="Venera 13">Venera 13</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venera_14" title="Venera 14">Venera 14</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venera_15" title="Venera 15">Venera 15</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venera_16" title="Venera 16">Venera 16</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mariner_program" title="Mariner program">Mariner program</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Mariner_1" title="Mariner 1">Mariner 1</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mariner_2" title="Mariner 2">Mariner 2</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mariner_5" title="Mariner 5">Mariner 5</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mariner_10" title="Mariner 10">Mariner 10</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zond_program" title="Zond program">Zond program</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zond_1" title="Zond 1">Zond 1</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pioneer_Venus_project" title="Pioneer Venus project">Pioneer Venus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pioneer_Venus_Orbiter" title="Pioneer Venus Orbiter">Pioneer Venus Orbiter</a> / Pioneer 12</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pioneer_Venus_Multiprobe" title="Pioneer Venus Multiprobe">Pioneer Venus Multiprobe</a> / Pioneer 13</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vega_program" title="Vega program">Vega program</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vega_1" title="Vega 1">Vega 1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vega_2" title="Vega 2">Vega 2</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Magellan_(spacecraft)" title="Magellan (spacecraft)">Magellan</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IKAROS" title="IKAROS">IKAROS</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shin%27en_(spacecraft)" title="Shin'en (spacecraft)">Shin'en</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venus_Express" title="Venus Express">Venus Express</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Akatsuki_(spacecraft)" title="Akatsuki (spacecraft)">Akatsuki</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Gravity Assists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Galileo_(spacecraft)" title="Galileo (spacecraft)">Galileo</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cassini%E2%80%93Huygens" title="Cassini–Huygens">Cassini–Huygens</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/MESSENGER" title="MESSENGER">MESSENGER</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/BepiColombo" title="BepiColombo">BepiColombo</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jupiter_Icy_Moons_Explorer" title="Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer">Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer</a></i> (planned)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/MBR_Explorer" title="MBR Explorer">MBR Explorer</a></i> (planned)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Planned</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/DAVINCI" title="DAVINCI">DAVINCI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EnVision" title="EnVision">EnVision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VERITAS_(spacecraft)" title="VERITAS (spacecraft)">VERITAS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venus_Orbiter_Mission" title="Venus Orbiter Mission">Venus Orbiter Mission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venus_Life_Finder" title="Venus Life Finder">Venus Life Finder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Proposed</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_Venus_Explorer" title="European Venus Explorer">European Venus Explorer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venera-D" title="Venera-D">Venera-D</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venus_Atmospheric_Maneuverable_Platform" title="Venus Atmospheric Maneuverable Platform">VAMP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venus_In_Situ_Explorer" title="Venus In Situ Explorer">VISE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venus_In_Situ_Atmospheric_and_Geochemical_Explorer" title="Venus In Situ Atmospheric and Geochemical Explorer">VISAGE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venus_In_situ_Composition_Investigations" title="Venus In situ Composition Investigations">VICI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venus_Origins_Explorer" title="Venus Origins Explorer">VOX</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Proposed<br />(crewed)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colonization_of_Venus" title="Colonization of Venus">Colonization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inspiration_Mars_Foundation" title="Inspiration Mars Foundation">Inspiration Mars</a> (flyby)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terraforming_of_Venus" title="Terraforming of Venus">Terraforming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geological_mapping_of_Venus" class="mw-redirect" title="Geological mapping of Venus">Geological mapping of Venus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_artificial_objects_on_Venus" title="List of artificial objects on Venus">Artificial objects on Venus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cytherean" title="Cytherean">Cytherean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venus_in_culture" title="Venus in culture">In culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venus_in_fiction" title="Venus in fiction">In fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hesperus" title="Hesperus">Hesperus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_on_Venus" title="Life on Venus">Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venus_(mythology)" title="Venus (mythology)">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neith_(hypothetical_moon)" title="Neith (hypothetical moon)">Neith (hypothetical moon)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phosphorus_(morning_star)" title="Phosphorus (morning star)">Phosphorus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Venus" title="Category:Venus">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Solar_System" title="Portal:Solar System">Portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style 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.portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer 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