Time to Recognize Persons with Disabilities and the Slave Trade

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Considered one of the world’s leading experts on disability law and policy, Dr. Stein participated in the drafting of the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities; works with disabled peoples’ organizations and non-governmental organizations around the world; actively consults with governments on their disability laws and policies; advises an array of UN bodies and national human rights institutions; and has brought landmark disability rights litigation globally. Professor Stein has received numerous awards in recognition of his transformative work, including the National Order of Merit (Ecuador), the inaugural Morton E. Ruderman Prize for Inclusion; the inaugural Henry Viscardi Achievement Award; and the ABA Paul G. Hearne Award. His authoritative and path-breaking scholarship of 200+ publications and 10 edited volumes have been published worldwide by leading journals and academic presses and has been supported by fellowships and awards from the American Council of Learned Societies, the National Endowment for the Humanities, and the National Institute on Disability Rehabilitation and Research, among others. Dr. Stein teaches at Harvard Law School, Harvard Kennedy School of Government, and Harvard Extension School; holds an Extraordinary Professorship at the University of Pretoria’s Centre for Human Rights; and is a visiting professor at the Free University of Amsterdam’s Athena Institute. He earned a J.D. from Harvard Law School (where he became the first known person with a disability to be a member of the Harvard Law Review), and a Ph.D. from Cambridge University (full tuition plus stipend via a W.M. Tapp Studentship). 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He is also on LinkedIn.","url":"https://www.justsecurity.org/author/greenalex/"},{"@type":"Person","@id":"https://www.justsecurity.org/#/schema/person/fef83b1041295776adcf3b7e28f99a7e","name":"Rosemary Kayess","image":{"@type":"ImageObject","inLanguage":"en-US","@id":"https://www.justsecurity.org/#/schema/person/image/92787890526f214be904c667b4d07340","url":"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/b2f7e91847cf1a60509ee45eade7361a?s=96&d=mm&r=g","contentUrl":"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/b2f7e91847cf1a60509ee45eade7361a?s=96&d=mm&r=g","caption":"Rosemary Kayess"},"description":"Rosemary Kayess is an internationally recognized human rights lawyer in the area of disability. She has served as Chair of the U.N. Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities and Chairperson of the U.N. Treaty Body Chairpersons. 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She is a woman with a disability.","url":"https://www.justsecurity.org/author/kayessrosemary/"}]}</script>  <link rel='dns-prefetch' href='//secure.gravatar.com' /> <link rel='dns-prefetch' href='//stats.wp.com' /> <link rel='dns-prefetch' href='//fonts.googleapis.com' /> <link rel='dns-prefetch' href='//use.fontawesome.com' /> <link rel='dns-prefetch' href='//v0.wordpress.com' /> <link rel='dns-prefetch' href='//i0.wp.com' /> <link rel="alternate" type="application/rss+xml" title="Just Security » Feed" href="https://www.justsecurity.org/feed/" />  <script src="//www.googletagmanager.com/gtag/js?id=G-C8GWL90XNK" data-cfasync="false" data-wpfc-render="false" type="text/javascript" async></script> <script data-cfasync="false" data-wpfc-render="false" type="text/javascript"> var mi_version = '9.2.2'; var mi_track_user = true; var mi_no_track_reason = ''; var MonsterInsightsDefaultLocations = {"page_location":"https:\/\/www.justsecurity.org\/98787\/icc-disability-slave-trade\/"}; if ( typeof MonsterInsightsPrivacyGuardFilter === 'function' ) { var MonsterInsightsLocations = (typeof MonsterInsightsExcludeQuery === 'object') ? 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id="secondary-left" class="secondary"><p class="authors">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/lordjanet/" title="Profile and articles by Janet Lord" class="author url fn" rel="author">Janet Lord</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/schwarzpace/" title="Profile and articles by Pace Schwarz" class="author url fn" rel="author">Pace Schwarz</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/smithmatthew/" title="Profile and articles by Matthew "Hezzy" Smith" class="author url fn" rel="author">Matthew "Hezzy" Smith</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/steinmichael/" title="Profile and articles by Michael Ashley Stein" class="author url fn" rel="author">Michael Ashley Stein</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/greenalex/" title="Profile and articles by Alex Green" class="author url fn" rel="author">Alex Green</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/kayessrosemary/" title="Profile and articles by Rosemary Kayess" class="author url fn" rel="author">Rosemary Kayess</a></p><p class="date">August 21, 2024</p><div class="sharedaddy sd-sharing-enabled"><div class="robots-nocontent sd-block sd-social sd-social-icon sd-sharing"><h3 class="sd-title">Share this:</h3><div class="sd-content"><ul><li class="share-twitter"><a rel="nofollow noopener noreferrer" data-shared="sharing-twitter-98787" class="share-twitter sd-button share-icon no-text" href="https://www.justsecurity.org/98787/icc-disability-slave-trade/?share=twitter" target="_blank" title="Click to share on Twitter" ><span></span><span class="sharing-screen-reader-text">Click to share on Twitter (Opens in new window)</span></a></li><li class="share-facebook"><a rel="nofollow noopener noreferrer" data-shared="sharing-facebook-98787" class="share-facebook sd-button share-icon no-text" href="https://www.justsecurity.org/98787/icc-disability-slave-trade/?share=facebook" target="_blank" title="Click to share on Facebook" ><span></span><span class="sharing-screen-reader-text">Click to share on Facebook (Opens in new window)</span></a></li><li class="share-linkedin"><a rel="nofollow noopener noreferrer" data-shared="sharing-linkedin-98787" class="share-linkedin sd-button share-icon no-text" href="https://www.justsecurity.org/98787/icc-disability-slave-trade/?share=linkedin" target="_blank" title="Click to share on LinkedIn" ><span></span><span class="sharing-screen-reader-text">Click to share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window)</span></a></li><li class="share-reddit"><a rel="nofollow noopener noreferrer" data-shared="" class="share-reddit sd-button share-icon no-text" href="https://www.justsecurity.org/98787/icc-disability-slave-trade/?share=reddit" target="_blank" title="Click to share on Reddit" ><span></span><span class="sharing-screen-reader-text">Click to share on Reddit (Opens in new window)</span></a></li><li class="share-print"><a rel="nofollow noopener noreferrer" data-shared="" class="share-print sd-button share-icon no-text" href="https://www.justsecurity.org/98787/icc-disability-slave-trade/#print" target="_blank" title="Click to print" ><span></span><span class="sharing-screen-reader-text">Click to print (Opens in new window)</span></a></li><li class="share-end"></li></ul></div></div></div><div class="post-tags"><h3>Filed under:</h3><p><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/crimes-against-humanity/" rel="tag">Crimes Against Humanity</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/disability-rights/" rel="tag">Disability Rights</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/gender/" rel="tag">Gender</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/icc-prosecutor/" rel="tag">ICC Prosecutor</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/international-criminal-court/" rel="tag">International Criminal Court (ICC)</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/international-humanitarian-law/" rel="tag">International Humanitarian Law (IHL)</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/international-law/" rel="tag">International Law</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/karim-khan/" rel="tag">Karim Khan</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/slavery/" rel="tag">slavery</a></p></div></div><main id="primary" tabindex="-1" class="content-body clearfix" role="main"><article class="client-ui clearfix"><div class="print-authors"><p class="authors">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/lordjanet/" title="Profile and articles by Janet Lord" class="author url fn" rel="author">Janet Lord</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/schwarzpace/" title="Profile and articles by Pace Schwarz" class="author url fn" rel="author">Pace Schwarz</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/smithmatthew/" title="Profile and articles by Matthew "Hezzy" Smith" class="author url fn" rel="author">Matthew "Hezzy" Smith</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/steinmichael/" title="Profile and articles by Michael Ashley Stein" class="author url fn" rel="author">Michael Ashley Stein</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/greenalex/" title="Profile and articles by Alex Green" class="author url fn" rel="author">Alex Green</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/kayessrosemary/" title="Profile and articles by Rosemary Kayess" class="author url fn" rel="author">Rosemary Kayess</a></p><p class="date">August 21, 2024</p></div><p><em>(Editor’s Note: Readers might be interested in this subsequent <a href="https://www.buzzsprout.com/2074610/episodes/15989776-persons-with-disabilities-the-slave-trade-and-international-law">episode</a> of the </em><a href="https://www.buzzsprout.com/2074610">Just Security Podcast</a> <em>featuring Janet Lord and Michael Ashley Stein.)</em></p> <p style="font-weight: 400;">Although the prohibition of the slave trade is one of the oldest <a href="https://opil.ouplaw.com/display/10.1093/law:epil/9780199231690/law-9780199231690-e1437">peremptory norms</a> of international law, its absence from the <a href="https://www.icc-cpi.int/sites/default/files/2024-05/Rome-Statute-eng.pdf">Rome Statute</a> – the treaty establishing the International Criminal Court (ICC) – created a gap in international law that has yet to be filled. While the ICC’s framework accounts for the crime of enslavement, it neglects the legally distinct, but related, crime of the <a href="https://acrobat.adobe.com/link/review?uri=urn%3Aaaid%3Ascds%3AUS%3A077620f9-8e27-353d-a28e-7a16dc6152f8">slave trade</a> (i.e., criminalizing the intent to initiate or maintain a person’s enslavement). Following advocacy from <a href="https://asp.icc-cpi.int/sites/default/files/asp_docs/ICC-ASP-22-29-ENG.pdf">States</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/90085/time-to-enumerate-the-slave-trade-as-a-distinct-provision-in-the-crimes-against-humanity-treaty/">civil society</a>, and <a href="https://opiniojuris.org/2021/06/11/conflict-related-sexual-violence-conversations-under-the-rome-statute-enslavement-and-slave-trade/">legal commentators</a>, the ICC’s Prosecutor announced the development of a <a href="https://www.icc-cpi.int/news/icc-office-prosecutor-launches-public-consultation-policy-slavery-crimes">new Slavery Crimes Policy</a> and invited public comments to ensure that the resulting process and policy are “survivor-centred, trauma-informed and gender-competent.”</p> <p style="font-weight: 400;">This much-needed update to the prosecution of slavery crimes should be coupled with specific recognition and protections for persons with disabilities, who face <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/american-journal-of-international-law/article/abs/disability-human-rights-violations-and-crimes-against-humanity/5C47D5C49E84873D74C05F1AF8B9826A">disproportionate risks</a> of slavery crimes and other atrocities. Such measures are not only needed to protect the inalienable human rights of persons with disabilities, but are required to address the true extent of slavery crimes and their intersection with disability-based discrimination. Enumerating disability rights in this new Slavery Crimes Policy would mark a crucial first step towards remedying the ICC’s <a href="https://international-review.icrc.org/sites/default/files/reviews-pdf/2022-11/addressing-the-accountability-void-war-crimes-against-persons-with-disabilities-922.pdf">larger neglect</a> of disability-informed justice – an issue that must ultimately be addressed by a standalone ICC Policy on Disability that reflects developments brought about by the nearly universally ratified <a href="https://www.un.org/disabilities/documents/convention/convention_accessible_pdf.pdf">Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities</a> (CRPD).</p> <h2 style="font-weight: 400;"><strong>Enslavement and the Slave Trade are Distinct Crimes</strong><strong> </strong></h2> <p style="font-weight: 400;">Advocates pursuing a reappraisal of slavery crimes that is intersectional and survivor centered, point out the legal and practical distinctiveness of the crimes of enslavement and the slave trade. Enslavement, as defined in Article 7(2)(c) of the <a href="https://www.icc-cpi.int/sites/default/files/2024-05/Rome-Statute-eng.pdf">Rome Statute</a>, prohibits the “exercise of … the right of ownership over a person.” This is legally distinct from the <a href="https://acrobat.adobe.com/link/review?uri=urn%3Aaaid%3Ascds%3AUS%3A077620f9-8e27-353d-a28e-7a16dc6152f8">slave trade</a>, which criminalizes the intent of initiating or maintaining a person’s enslavement. The element of <a href="https://www.globaljusticecenter.net/wp-content/uploads/2023/10/Slavery-and-Slave-Trade-Expert-Legal-Brief-CAH-Treaty.pdf">intent</a> is vital for the prosecution of slavery crimes where the right of ownership is not exercised: abductions, transfers, disposals, and other crimes committed in the prelude, process, and aftermath of enslavement (e.g., kidnapping with the intent to enslave or the transportation, imprisonment, and psychological coercion of enslaved persons). These fall under the umbrella of the slave trade, but do not constitute the “right[s] of ownership” prohibited by the Rome Statute, rather, they form the infrastructure of enslavement and must be treated accordingly.</p> <p style="font-weight: 400;">International law has long recognized this distinction but the Rome Statute, adopted in 1998, omitted the slave trade as a distinct crime. As such, it fails to encompass the accessory crimes committed before, during, and after enslavement. Nor does it account for the intent of perpetrators who trade slaves without exercising the specific rights of ownership. The work of legal scholars Patricia Viseur Sellars and Jocelyn Kestenbaum establish (see <a href="https://academic.oup.com/jicj/article-abstract/18/2/517/5864745?redirectedFrom=fulltext&login=false">here</a> and <a href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3516905">here</a>) that the <a href="https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/slavery-convention">1926 Slavery Convention </a>and the <a href="https://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/supplementaryconventionabolitionofslavery.aspx">1956 Supplementary Slavery Convention</a> define the slave trade as the reduction of a person to slavery (i.e. abduction) <em>or </em>of the transporting, transferring, or giving (<em>i.e.</em> distribution) of an enslaved person into another situation of enslavement. Put simply, this means the slave trader need only intend to reduce a person into slavery or transfer an enslaved person from one situation of slavery to another. The distinction has broad implications for cases where individuals, including those with disabilities, are transported by a slave trader into a situation of enslavement but not enslaved by the slave trader/transporting individual. Any number of contemporary instances of slave trading would apply. Take for instance the “agents” who <a href="https://apnews.com/article/b32f26a9836c46c78acc1b916f0e5e90">transported</a> highly at-risk disabled persons from Seoul to farmers who <a href="https://www.santafenewmexican.com/news/a-living-hell-for-slaves-on-remote-south-korean-islands/article_dd72860b-42a0-5e61-92b9-5fad08ce851f.html">enslaved</a> them to toil in salt mines and fish and agricultural farms on a chain of rugged and remote islands off South Korea’s southwest coast.</p> <p style="font-weight: 400;">Following on the Rome Statute’s omission of any mention of the slave trade, the International Law Commission’s <a href="https://legal.un.org/ilc/texts/instruments/english/draft_articles/7_7_2019.pdf">Draft Articles on Prevention and Punishment of Crimes Against Humanity</a> and also the <a href="https://www.un.org/disabilities/documents/convention/convention_accessible_pdf.pdf">Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities</a>, similarly neglect to reference the slave trade<u>. </u>As such, it is imperative to facilitate the prevention, investigation, prosecution, and reparation of slavery crimes by closing this accountability gap before it widens further.</p> <h2 style="font-weight: 400;"><strong>Disability and Slavery Crimes: Recognizing Risk</strong></h2> <p style="font-weight: 400;">The lack of recognition of, and specific protections for, persons with disabilities regarding the slave trade represents yet another gap in international criminal law that hinders the prevention and reparation of slavery-related crimes. Persons with disabilities face disproportionate risks of experiencing such crimes, with substantial evidence showing that many individuals are enslaved or slave traded specifically because of their disability status for <a href="https://ovc.ojp.gov/events/sex-trafficking-and-disability#:~:text=Sex%20traffickers%20deliberately%20target%20individuals,risk%20for%20people%20with%20disabilities.">sexual</a> and/or <a href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=4324119#:~:text=This%20is%20on%20the%20basis,specifically%20forced%20labour%20and%20servitude.">economic</a> exploitation. Identification of specific risks that enhance the likelihood of individuals with disabilities being slave traded or enslaved is central to any policy on such crimes.</p> <p style="font-weight: 400;">Institutionalized persons have long been subjected to forced labor and sexual exploitation, both within <a href="https://urldefense.proofpoint.com/v2/url?u=https-3A__link.springer.com_book_10.1057_9781137540317-23-3A-7E-3Atext-3DAbout-2520this-2520book-2Cpatients-2520in-2520order-2520to-2520operate.&d=DwMFaQ&c=WO-RGvefibhHBZq3fL85hQ&r=xB_JtTsJF4Is-RMkj0vTl8Uzvdi0MNV_xod5NARdC34&m=fKZPZ75HGrujW9PdONa_76tRkzb25HVSRyDnVPKske3p0KDAfPZIlGn36RwaeLi5&s=CEQLTyYV-QPhNc74PfB16cbkRiZYPHG_Hblp-hOYpuE&e=">segregated rehabilitation and medical facilities</a> as well as “<a href="https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/justice-department-issues-guidance-americans-disabilities-act-and-employment-services-people">sheltered workshops</a>” (locations that employ persons with disabilities, but often paying sub-minimum wages or no wages at all). Unpaid labor by patients was a cost-saving measure for large scale institutions. Walter Fernald, the world’s pre-eminent expert on intellectual disabilities in the early 20th century – and superintendent at the Massachusetts School for the Feebleminded (which was later renamed after him) – <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/CUHSLBRD_M115.pdf">explained</a> that the “daily routine work of a large institution” provided patients with “abundant opportunities for doing simple manual labor, which otherwise would have to be done by paid employees.” Some boys assisted in baking, carpentry, shoemaking, tailoring, and painting. Others would “drive teams, build roads, and dig ditches.” Adult females did laundry, made clothing and bedding, and “did a large share of all the other domestic work of these immense households” while also caring for child patients. In 1974, World Health Organization advisor and institutional superintendent Malcolm Farrell reflected that when he arrived at the Fernald School in the late 1930s, inmates “were <a href="https://www.newspapers.com/image/436026197/?match=1">treated like</a> teams of oxen.” Subsequent attempts at <a href="https://www.laphamsquarterly.org/roundtable/enemies-disabilities">reform</a>, ranging from boarding inmates out into the community to constructing sheltered workshops, succeeded only in <a href="https://www.propublica.org/article/what-disability-community-told-us-about-sheltered-workshops">shifting the perception of forced labor</a>, while leaving in place the underlying forms of abuse that bear striking resemblance to the fundamental attributes of enslavement. Such <a href="https://clearinghouse.net/case/454/">conditions</a> were <a href="https://pubintlaw.org/cases-and-projects/pennsylvania-association-for-retarded-citizens-parc-v-commonwealth-of-pennsylvania/">replicated</a> across the United States in institutions.</p> <p style="font-weight: 400;">In contemporary times, more sophisticated syndicates target persons with disabilities for economic exploitation, as in the <a href="https://www.eeoc.gov/newsroom/jury-awards-240-million-long-term-abuse-workers-intellectual-disabilities">case</a> of <em>Equal Employment Opportunity Commission v. Hill Country Farms</em>, where a turkey processing plant in Iowa <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2014/03/09/us/the-boys-in-the-bunkhouse.html">made arrangements</a> with a state institution for people with intellectual disabilities in Texas to transfer several dozen intellectually disabled men to the plant. These individuals spent decades working long hours for <a href="https://casetext.com/case/equal-empt-opportunity-commn-v-hill-country-farms-inc">meager pay</a> (approximately $65 per month) while living in a dilapidated schoolhouse and enduring verbal and physical abuse at the hands of their supervisors.</p> <p style="font-weight: 400;">Forced labor of persons with disabilities has been documented outside<em> </em>of segregated facilities as well. For people with disabilities, legal, voluntary employment can morph into forced labor – such was the case of <a href="https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/appellate-courts/ca4/19-4903/19-4903-2021-04-21.html">Christopher Smith</a>, a Black man with intellectual disabilities who experienced five years of modern slavery at the restaurant where he was “employed” through a combination of isolation, verbal and physical abuse, and threats by his manager. Also, in the United States, <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/1998/05/08/nyregion/2-sentenced-in-mexican-peddling-ring.html">traffickers</a> brought more than 50 Mexican nationals who were deaf or hard of hearing into the country to sell trinkets in the New York City subway system.</p> <p style="font-weight: 400;">Emerging research documents how children with disabilities are often forced to engage in begging throughout the world – for instance, in the <a href="https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/appellate-courts/ca4/19-4903/19-4903-2021-04-21.html">United States</a>, <a href="https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/2019-Trafficking-in-Persons-Report.pdf">Bulgaria, Burundi, Iraq</a>, <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/095624789801000108">Egypt</a>, <a href="https://www.firah.org/upload/notices3/2014/disabled-beggars-addis_ababa.pdf">Ethiopia</a>, and <a href="https://anitp.mai.gov.ro/ro/docs/Proiecte/PIP/Studiu_cersetorie_PIP_engleza_B5_17.12.2013.pdf">Romania</a> – sometimes by their own families. Such cases are made more likely when local <a href="https://www.acf.hhs.gov/otip/blog/2022/12/centering-accessibility-human-trafficking-prevention-and-response">educational systems</a> and societies do not expect children with disabilities to attend school, and thus may be less likely to question why a disabled child is begging. Relatedly, young people with disabilities are regarded as undesirable and may even be subjected to trafficking by their own families. Children with less visible disabilities, such as cognitive or behavioral disabilities, are similarly at risk, as they also may be <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2015/aug/18/disabled-children-poorer-countries-out-of-primary-education-south-africa-human-rights-watch-report">stigmatized</a> by their families and communities and may not be in school due to bias or lack of understanding of how to provide inclusive education.</p> <p style="font-weight: 400;">Persons with disabilities are sometimes imprisoned or enslaved in order to <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10839064/">exploit government-provided financial benefits</a>, including by caregivers or <a href="https://casetext.com/case/us-v-kaufman-17">perpetrators posing as caregivers</a>.</p> <p style="font-weight: 400;">They also face enhanced risk of slavery crimes due to enduring stigma and deeply entrenched structural inequality. <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/disability-justice/#:~:text=The%20minority%20group%20model%20regards,Hahn%201987%2C%20Oliver%201990).">Discriminatory cultural and societal conceptions</a> of disability frequently lead to the <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/disabilityandhealth/disability-barriers.html">absence of social support</a> networks, underemployment, limited education, and the inaccessibility of government services. These, in turn, increase the number of persons with disabilities in other marginalized groups (such as impoverished or institutionalized individuals and migrants). This risk is <a href="https://international-review.icrc.org/authors/janet-e-lord">further heightened</a> in times of crisis, where the deteriorating conditions increase human rights risks for already vulnerable groups.</p> <h2 style="font-weight: 400;"><strong>Unique Harms that Warrant Further Attention and Analysis </strong></h2> <p style="font-weight: 400;">Beyond an outsized risk of victimization, persons with disabilities also suffer unique harms from slavery crimes. Enslavement and slave trading can <a href="https://www.who.int/teams/noncommunicable-diseases/sensory-functions-disability-and-rehabilitation/world-report-on-disability">aggravate pre-existing disabilities</a>, <a href="https://blogs.icrc.org/law-and-policy/2023/07/13/persons-with-disabilities-in-armed-conflict/">incur secondary disabilities</a>, or <a href="https://www.acf.hhs.gov/blog/2021/10/mental-health-resources-human-trafficking-survivors-and-allies#:~:text=They%20may%20develop%20post%2Dtraumatic,in%20intergenerational%20cycles%20of%20victimization.">contribute to new impairments</a> altogether. Factors including <a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/pittsburgh/news/ohio-child-sex-trafficking/">age</a>, gender, communication barriers, socioeconomic status, social isolation, and the type or availability of support place <a href="https://www.snowdropproject.co.uk/_media/docs/HTF%2BPost%2BEvent%2BSummary%2BReport%2Bv2%20(1).pdf">certain groups</a> at <a href="https://nap.nationalacademies.org/read/10042/chapter/4#26">increased risk</a> even among other persons with disabilities and, in turn, lead to specific kinds of harms. Thus, exploring and understanding both differential risk and the impact of harms may help to reduce risk.</p> <p style="font-weight: 400;">Persons with disabilities subjected to enslavement may also experience <a href="https://ovc.ojp.gov/sites/g/files/xyckuh226/files/ncvrw2018/info_flyers/fact_sheets/2018NCVRW_VictimsWithDisabilities_508_QC.pdf">unique forms of these crimes</a>, for instance, caregiver abuse for economic exploitation of disability benefits, destruction or withholding of assistive devices required for independence to enhance control by the enslaver, and the outright denial of care. Institutionalization and the isolation it brings may expose persons with disabilities to long-term sexual exploitation amounting to sexual slavery or forced labor. For instance, a young woman with intellectual disabilities was <a href="https://www.freep.com/story/news/local/michigan/macomb/2019/05/17/macomb-township-shed-sex-welch-george/3703999002/">kept in a shed</a> and repeatedly sold by her captors for sex. Further, persons with disabilities may also be subjected to longer term abuse as a result of <a href="https://www.biicl.org/documents/1771_access_to_justice_persons_with_disabilities_report_october_2017.pdf">heighted barriers</a> they experience in accessing justice relative to other victims.</p> <p style="font-weight: 400;">Central to ensuring disability inclusion in fact-finding is the avoidance of “aggregate” categories attempting to capture and account for all “vulnerable groups” in a passing nod to especially at-risk persons. <a href="https://academic.oup.com/book/41548/chapter-abstract/353011501?redirectedFrom=fulltext">Generic approaches</a> purporting to address the needs of all marginalized groups are particularly insensitive to the diverse needs and accommodations of the disability community.</p> <p style="font-weight: 400;">Any approach to disability inclusion must ensure that specific substantive human rights guarantees and protections are applied in the analysis to persons with disabilities. Moreover, it is important to avoid any approach that serves to reinforce the historical tendency to make concern for disability rights derivative of <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/258188879_Disability_Oppression_and_Violence_Towards_a_Sociological_Explanation">passive and paternalistic roles</a> (e.g., representations of passive victimhood and “helplessness” in reporting on persons with disabilities), rather than recognizing their status as independent rights holders and agents of change. Notably, the unique and specific experiences of harms must be explained by fact-finders – but this requires that they are seen and understood in the first instance. The practice of consulting with persons with disabilities and their representative organizations is thus central to thorough and meaningful analysis of international crimes and to understanding slavery crimes and their particular manifestation in relation to disabled persons.</p> <h2 style="font-weight: 400;"><strong>Disability in International Criminal Law</strong></h2> <p style="font-weight: 400;">Protecting persons with disabilities requires a legal framework that is specifically tailored to their experience of risk, enables their participation in prosecutions or reparations, and encourages the further development of intersectional and disability-inclusive justice.</p> <p style="font-weight: 400;">International criminal law initially recognized the disproportionate risk faced by persons with disabilities in <a href="https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/ll/llmlp/NT_Indictments/NT_Indictments.pdf">Case No. 1</a> of the 1946 Nuremberg trials, with Nazi leaders convicted of crimes against humanity for their “systematic and secret execution of the aged, insane, incurably ill, of deformed children, and other persons.” Unfortunately, most subsequent developments in international criminal law have neglected this legacy, requiring the 2006 CRPD to reaffirm their rights through international human rights law instead.</p> <p style="font-weight: 400;"><a href="https://social.desa.un.org/issues/disability/crpd/article-11-situations-of-risk-and-humanitarian-emergencies">Article 11</a> of the CRPD stipulates that <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/86724/the-u-n-process-for-a-crimes-against-humanity-treaty-has-finally-started-will-it-account-for-persons-with-disabilities/">its specific protections</a> apply to existing bodies of international humanitarian, criminal, labor, refugee, and human rights law (among others) and that States Parties should interpret and construct future legislation with disability rights in mind, particularly in <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-review-of-the-red-cross/article/abs/accounting-for-disability-in-international-humanitarian-law/E22F1DF5F412C136C03B01F7A1C1B8DB">situations of risk</a>, including armed conflicts, humanitarian emergencies, and natural disasters. Other provisions on work and employment (<a href="https://social.desa.un.org/issues/disability/crpd/article-27-work-and-employment">Article 27</a>), freedom from violence, exploitation, and abuse (<a href="https://social.desa.un.org/issues/disability/crpd/article-16-freedom-from-exploitation-violence-and-abuse">Article 16</a>), and personal integrity (<a href="https://social.desa.un.org/issues/disability/crpd/article-17-protecting-the-integrity-of-the-person">Article 17</a>) all demand that the outsized risk of slavery crimes faced by persons with disabilities must be addressed in the progressive development of international law. Even though a few of the ICC’s members are not party to the CRPD, the majority have a <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/american-journal-of-international-law/article/abs/disability-human-rights-violations-and-crimes-against-humanity/5C47D5C49E84873D74C05F1AF8B9826A">legal responsibility</a> given the CRPD’s <a href="https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=IV-15&chapter=4&clang=_en">near universal ratification</a> to enshrine disability rights within international legal frameworks, including those addressing criminal proceedings.</p> <p style="font-weight: 400;">Beyond the responsibilities conveyed by the CRPD, disability rights must be a part of the ICC’s Policy on Slavery if it is to meet its <a href="https://www.icc-cpi.int/news/icc-office-prosecutor-launches-public-consultation-policy-slavery-crimes">stated goal</a> of a “survivor-centered, trauma-informed and gender-competent approach to slavery crimes.” Achieving this objective requires a holistic understanding of the multiple intersecting forms of discrimination inherent in these types of crimes. For example, the continued enslavement of many Black Americans well into the 20th century was facilitated in part by their confinement in <a href="https://www.aclu-md.org/sites/default/files/field_documents/crownsville_8_2_13_finalwsigs_1.pdf">segregated psychiatric hospitals</a>, where they were subjected to forced labor, medical experimentation, and inhuman and degrading treatment. Further, because of the linkage between slavery crimes and aggravated, secondary, or new impairments, proper reparation for such crimes can only be accomplished with a thoughtful understanding of disability rights.</p> <h2 style="font-weight: 400;"><strong>Towards a Disability-Informed ICC</strong></h2> <p style="font-weight: 400;">As shown by the progressive development under international law of the rights of women, children, racial minorities, refugees, victims of torture, and other at-risk populations, it is not adequate to simply assume an encompassing and intersectional reading of international criminal law, even when it seems clear to do so. Specific human rights protections for diverse at-risk groups have spurred domestic law and policy reforms and prompted much needed attention on regional and international agendas. The adoption of the CRPD has led to <a href="https://digitalcommons.law.uw.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4609&context=wlr">significant changes</a> both through both domestic reforms and through reforms within international institutions, including through the United Nation’s <a href="https://www.un.org/en/content/disabilitystrategy/assets/documentation/UN_Disability_Inclusion_Strategy_english.pdf">Disability Inclusion Strategy</a> and the World Bank’s <a href="https://documents.worldbank.org/en/publication/documents-reports/documentdetail/437451528442789278/disability-inclusion-and-accountability-framework">Disability Inclusion and Accountability Framework</a>. These policies explicitly address the need to ensure that internal procedures and all programming must reach persons with disabilities as beneficiaries and participants in the work of the institutions. Thus, specific recognition of, and protections for, persons with disabilities are necessary to mitigate their disproportionate risk of facing slavery and other atrocities.</p> <p style="font-weight: 400;">As such, the ICC’s understanding, prosecution, and reparation of slavery crimes will be incomplete without a specific acknowledgement of these risks, a proactive strategy to mitigate them, and mechanisms enabling persons with disabilities to fully engage in justice processes and contribute to the development of these legal frameworks. The jurisprudential legacy of Nuremberg, the CRPD, and <a href="https://opiniojuris.org/2021/06/11/conflict-related-sexual-violence-conversations-under-the-rome-statute-enslavement-and-slave-trade/">substantial academic testimony</a> all create a robust framework for the explicit inclusion of disability rights in the ICC’s forthcoming Policy on Slavery. Yet, they expose the broader gap in the ICC policy framework, one that can and should be filled with a standalone ICC Policy on Disability. Indeed, the ICC Policy on Children is <a href="https://international-review.icrc.org/sites/default/files/pdf/1590391258/irc101_2/S181638312000003Xa.pdf">recognized</a> for advancing the ICC’s treatment of children’s experiences in practice, beyond the limited issue of their recruitment or use in armed groups. Likewise, the ICC Office of the Prosecutor’s Policy Paper on Sexual and Gender-Based Violence is prompting a <a href="https://scholarship.law.wm.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1476&context=wmjowl">more complex and complete</a> approach to sexual and gender-based crimes, including by clarifying how the term “gender” should be understand and applied under the Rome Statute.</p> <p style="font-weight: 400;">In addition to better accounting for persons with disabilities in the context of a new policy on slavery crimes, a standalone ICC Policy on Disability could aid the investigation, charging, and prosecution of international crimes perpetrated against persons with disabilities. These policy instruments can, in turn, assist States to align their domestic legislation with disability-informed approaches to international crimes. As two of us have argued (see <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/american-journal-of-international-law/article/abs/disability-human-rights-violations-and-crimes-against-humanity/5C47D5C49E84873D74C05F1AF8B9826A">here</a> and <a href="https://international-review.icrc.org/sites/default/files/reviews-pdf/2022-11/addressing-the-accountability-void-war-crimes-against-persons-with-disabilities-922.pdf">here</a>), the advancement of any policy by the ICC Prosecutor addressing persons with disabilities would need to be closely informed by the obligations and general principles set out in the CRPD. The overarching goal would be to promote respect for the rights of persons with disabilities and strengthen accountability for, and the prevention of, crimes against or affecting persons with disabilities.</p> <p style="font-weight: 400;">In operational terms, an ICC Policy on Disability should address barriers to disability awareness along the various activities the ICC undertakes, among them preliminary examinations, investigations, charging and prosecutions, cooperation and external relations, institutional development and, finally, effective implementation of the policy. Substantively, it could likewise bring greater recognition to the ways in which all crimes under the Rome Statute affect persons with disabilities, including how persons with disabilities or particular sub-groups of disabled people can be specifically targeted. The impact on persons with disabilities of crimes is not uniform and may differ based not only on disability but on other statuses or identities, including sex, gender, and age, and these nuances, among others, merit specific attention.</p> <p style="font-weight: 400;">Finally, an ICC Policy on Disability can: (1) clarify the commitment of the Office of the Prosecutor to pay particular attention to crimes against or affecting persons with disabilities; (2) give direction to staff in the interpretation and application of the Rome Statute and the ICC <a href="https://www.icc-cpi.int/sites/default/files/Publications/Rules-of-Procedure-and-Evidence.pdf">Rules of Procedure and Evidence</a>, at all stages of the Office’s work, to address crimes against or affecting persons with disabilities; and (3) ensure that core disability rights principles, including reasonable accommodation and accessibility, form part of all staff interactions with persons with disabilities who may require accommodations and do so with due respect for their dignity and rights under international law and consistent with <a href="https://www.un.org/development/desa/disabilities/wp-content/uploads/sites/15/2020/10/Access-to-Justice-EN.pdf">best practices for accessing justice</a>. All of these ideas are illustrative only: they would need to be developed consistent with the CRPD’s core participatory principle requiring <a href="https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/convention-rights-persons-disabilities">meaningful consultation</a> with a diversity of individuals with disabilities in the formulation of a standalone disability policy.</p> <h6><em>IMAGE: A disabled persons sign and a gavel. (Photo via Getty Images) </em></h6> <div class="icon-end-post"></div><div class="mobile-post-tags"><div class="post-tags"><h3>Filed under:</h3><p><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/crimes-against-humanity/" rel="tag">Crimes Against Humanity</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/disability-rights/" rel="tag">Disability Rights</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/gender/" rel="tag">Gender</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/icc-prosecutor/" rel="tag">ICC Prosecutor</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/international-criminal-court/" rel="tag">International Criminal Court (ICC)</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/international-humanitarian-law/" rel="tag">International Humanitarian Law (IHL)</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/international-law/" rel="tag">International Law</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/karim-khan/" rel="tag">Karim Khan</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/slavery/" rel="tag">slavery</a></p></div></div></article></main><div id="secondary-right" class="secondary" role="complementary"><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/early-edition-signup/" class="button has-icon icon-pm">Signups for A.M. & P.M. 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Ball" class="author url fn" rel="author">Dean W. Ball</a></p> <p class="date">Nov 7th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/104622/journalist-in-exile-laments-kyrgyzstan-crackdown-now-extending-to-his-12-year-old-son/">Journalist in Exile Laments Kyrgyzstan Crackdown, Now Extending to His 12-Year-Old Son</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/temirovbolot/" title="Profile and articles by Bolot Temirov" class="author url fn" rel="author">Bolot Temirov</a></p> <p class="date">Nov 6th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/104655/real-time-litigation-tracker-election/">Election 2024 Real-Time Litigation Tracker</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/eisennorman/" title="Profile and articles by Norman L. Eisen" class="author url fn" rel="author">Norman L. Eisen</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/vancejoyce/" title="Profile and articles by Joyce Vance" class="author url fn" rel="author">Joyce Vance</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/angelsamara/" title="Profile and articles by Samara Angel" class="author url fn" rel="author">Samara Angel</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/booneclare/" title="Profile and articles by Clare Boone" class="author url fn" rel="author">Clare Boone</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/geemadison/" title="Profile and articles by Madison Gee" class="author url fn" rel="author">Madison Gee</a></p> <p class="date">Nov 5th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/104564/election-top-10-nov-4/">Top 10 Election Litigation Cases in 2024 Implicating the Rule of Law</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/eisennorman/" title="Profile and articles by Norman L. Eisen" class="author url fn" rel="author">Norman L. Eisen</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/angelsamara/" title="Profile and articles by Samara Angel" class="author url fn" rel="author">Samara Angel</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/booneclare/" title="Profile and articles by Clare Boone" class="author url fn" rel="author">Clare Boone</a></p> <p class="date">Nov 4th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/104448/older-people-human-rights-africa/">A Historic Day for Older People and Human Rights Across Africa</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/mugabowishemaelie/" title="Profile and articles by Elie Mugabowishema" class="author url fn" rel="author">Elie Mugabowishema</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/buchananjane/" title="Profile and articles by Jane Buchanan" class="author url fn" rel="author">Jane Buchanan</a></p> <p class="date">Nov 4th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/104398/new-interpol-chief-abuses-reforms/">As Interpol Gets New Secretary General, What are the Risks of Abuses Over Reforms?</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/bromundted/" title="Profile and articles by Ted R. Bromund" class="author url fn" rel="author">Ted R. Bromund</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/grossmansandra/" title="Profile and articles by Sandra Grossman" class="author url fn" rel="author">Sandra Grossman</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/greenbergilan/" title="Profile and articles by Ilan Greenberg" class="author url fn" rel="author">Ilan Greenberg</a></p> <p class="date">Nov 1st, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/104416/congress-protect-americans-transnational-repression/">Congress Should Protect Americans from Transnational Repression</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/ahmedrasheed/" title="Profile and articles by Rasheed Ahmed" class="author url fn" rel="author">Rasheed Ahmed</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 31st, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/104451/pentagon-plan-protect-civilians-promises/">Is The Pentagon’s Plan to Protect Civilians Living up to its Promises?</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/hunkemadison/" title="Profile and articles by Madison Hunke" class="author url fn" rel="author">Madison Hunke</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 31st, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/104393/election-top-10-oct-29/">Top 10 Election Litigation Cases in 2024 Implicating the Rule of Law</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/eisennorman/" title="Profile and articles by Norman L. 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Alschuler" class="author url fn" rel="author">Albert W. 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Eisen" class="author url fn" rel="author">Norman L. Eisen</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/angelsamara/" title="Profile and articles by Samara Angel" class="author url fn" rel="author">Samara Angel</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/booneclare/" title="Profile and articles by Clare Boone" class="author url fn" rel="author">Clare Boone</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 23rd, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/104130/rule-of-law-index-2024/">Rule of Law Index Shows Some Rays of Hope Amidst Continuing Global Recession</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/andersenelizabeth/" title="Profile and articles by Elizabeth Andersen" class="author url fn" rel="author">Elizabeth Andersen</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/evangelidesalicia/" title="Profile and articles by Alicia Evangelides" class="author url fn" rel="author">Alicia Evangelides</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 23rd, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/104036/heat-map-january-6th-defendants-2/">Heat Map of January 6th Defendants Across the United States</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/goodmanryan/" title="Profile and articles by Ryan Goodman" class="author url fn" rel="author">Ryan Goodman</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 17th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/103956/proud-boys-threat-assessment/">Proud Boys Threat Assessment: From the Planning of January 6th to Future Scenarios</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/joscelyntom/" title="Profile and articles by Tom Joscelyn" class="author url fn" rel="author">Tom Joscelyn</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 17th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/103773/top-10-election-litigation/">Top 10 Election Litigation Cases in 2024 Implicating the Rule of Law</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/eisennorman/" title="Profile and articles by Norman L. 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Rudesill" class="author url fn" rel="author">Dakota S. Rudesill</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 10th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/103777/maintaining-the-rule-of-law-in-the-age-of-ai/">Maintaining the Rule of Law in the Age of AI</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/szilagyikatie/" title="Profile and articles by Katie Szilagyi" class="author url fn" rel="author">Katie Szilagyi</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 9th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/103478/2024-election-litigation-top-10/">Top 10 Election Litigation Cases in 2024 Implicating the Rule of Law</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/eisennorman/" title="Profile and articles by Norman L. Eisen" class="author url fn" rel="author">Norman L. 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Eisen" class="author url fn" rel="author">Norman L. 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Michael Kirby" class="author url fn" rel="author">The Hon. Michael Kirby</a></p> <p class="date">Aug 29th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/98855/good-moral-character-trump-immigrants/">‘Good Moral Character?’ Holding Trump to the Same Standards as the Immigrants He Vilifies</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/chenedgar/" title="Profile and articles by Edgar Chen" class="author url fn" rel="author">Edgar Chen</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/rossdan/" title="Profile and articles by Dan Ross" class="author url fn" rel="author">Dan Ross</a></p> <p class="date">Aug 28th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/99069/artificial-intelligence-democracy-effects/">Don’t Downplay Risks of AI for Democracy</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/nosselsuzanne/" title="Profile and articles by Suzanne Nossel" class="author url fn" rel="author">Suzanne Nossel</a></p> <p class="date">Aug 28th, 2024</p> </li><li> 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Buchwald</a></p> <p class="date">Aug 22nd, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/98787/icc-disability-slave-trade/">Time for the International Criminal Court to Recognize Persons with Disabilities and the Slave Trade</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/lordjanet/" title="Profile and articles by Janet Lord" class="author url fn" rel="author">Janet Lord</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/schwarzpace/" title="Profile and articles by Pace Schwarz" class="author url fn" rel="author">Pace Schwarz</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/smithmatthew/" title="Profile and articles by Matthew "Hezzy" Smith" class="author url fn" rel="author">Matthew "Hezzy" Smith</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/steinmichael/" title="Profile and articles by Michael Ashley Stein" class="author url fn" rel="author">Michael Ashley Stein</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/greenalex/" title="Profile and articles by Alex Green" class="author url fn" rel="author">Alex Green</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/kayessrosemary/" title="Profile and articles by Rosemary Kayess" class="author url fn" rel="author">Rosemary Kayess</a></p> <p class="date">Aug 21st, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/98801/podcast-international-law-israel-palestine/">The Just Security Podcast: Assessing the Recent Response of International Law and Institutions in Palestine and Israel</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/imseisardi/" title="Profile and articles by Ardi Imseis" class="author url fn" rel="author">Ardi Imseis</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/hammourishahd/" title="Profile and articles by Shahd Hammouri" class="author url fn" rel="author">Shahd Hammouri</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/kattanvictor/" title="Profile and articles by Victor Kattan" class="author url fn" rel="author">Victor Kattan</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/sirleafmatiangai/" title="Profile and articles by Matiangai Sirleaf" class="author url fn" rel="author">Matiangai Sirleaf</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/shahparas/" title="Profile and articles by Paras Shah" class="author url fn" rel="author">Paras Shah</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/aptclara/" title="Profile and articles by Clara Apt" class="author url fn" rel="author">Clara Apt</a></p> <p class="date">Aug 21st, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/98754/biden-end-iraq-war/">A Presidential Proclamation to End the Iraq War: Unilateral Executive Action to Defang a Zombie AUMF</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/finucanebrian/" title="Profile and articles by Brian Finucane" class="author url fn" rel="author">Brian Finucane</a></p> <p class="date">Aug 20th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a 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class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/nirmaya/" title="Profile and articles by Maya Nir" class="author url fn" rel="author">Maya Nir</a></p> <p class="date">Aug 15th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/98592/sudan-talks-deadlock/">Breaking the Deadlock: New Talks Needed to Help End Sudan’s Violence and Offer a Glimmer of Hope</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/abdulshafiquscondy/" title="Profile and articles by Quscondy Abdulshafi" class="author url fn" rel="author">Quscondy Abdulshafi</a></p> <p class="date">Aug 13th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/98543/fara-sue-mi-terry/">The Perils of Expertise: How the DOJ Indictment of Sue Mi Terry Can Chill the Think Tank World</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/craiggregory/" title="Profile and articles by Gregory B. Craig" class="author url fn" rel="author">Gregory B. Craig</a></p> <p class="date">Aug 12th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/98501/israel-trans-border-torture/">Justice for Trans-border Torture Requires Rethinking the International Criminal Court’s Jurisdiction in the Israel-Palestine Conflict</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/ben-natansmadar/" title="Profile and articles by Smadar Ben-Natan" class="author url fn" rel="author">Smadar Ben-Natan</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/mannitamar/" title="Profile and articles by Itamar Mann" class="author url fn" rel="author">Itamar Mann</a></p> <p class="date">Aug 7th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/98445/our-lives-depend-on-cloud/">Our Lives Depend on the Cloud. Now What?</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/pendletonjohn/" title="Profile and articles by John Pendleton" class="author url fn" rel="author">John Pendleton</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/leviteariel/" title="Profile and articles by Ariel Levite" class="author url fn" rel="author">Ariel Levite</a></p> <p class="date">Aug 6th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/98429/security-council-report-isis-qaeda/">Wake Up Call: UN Security Council’s Report on ISIS and al-Qaeda</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/joscelyntom/" title="Profile and articles by Tom Joscelyn" class="author url fn" rel="author">Tom Joscelyn</a></p> <p class="date">Aug 5th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/98378/podcast-assessing-laws-of-war/">The Just Security Podcast: Assessing the Laws of War</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/droegecordula/" title="Profile and articles by Cordula Droege" class="author url fn" rel="author">Cordula Droege</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/bridgemantess/" title="Profile and articles by Tess Bridgeman" class="author url fn" rel="author">Tess Bridgeman</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/shahparas/" title="Profile and articles by Paras Shah" class="author url fn" rel="author">Paras Shah</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/blankharrison/" title="Profile and articles by Harrison Blank" class="author url fn" rel="author">Harrison Blank</a></p> <p class="date">Aug 2nd, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/98313/podcast-hostage-policy/">The Just Security Podcast: The Evolution of U.S. Hostage Policy</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/foleydiane/" title="Profile and articles by Diane Foley" class="author url fn" rel="author">Diane Foley</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/hartigluke/" title="Profile and articles by Luke Hartig" class="author url fn" rel="author">Luke Hartig</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/violagienger/" title="Profile and articles by Viola Gienger" class="author url fn" rel="author">Viola Gienger</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/shahparas/" title="Profile and articles by Paras Shah" class="author url fn" rel="author">Paras Shah</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/blankharrison/" title="Profile and articles by Harrison Blank" class="author url fn" rel="author">Harrison Blank</a></p> <p class="date">Aug 1st, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/98273/the-aftermath-of-the-haniyeh-killing-how-to-avoid-a-new-middle-east-war/">The Aftermath of the Haniyeh Killing: How to Avoid a New Middle East War</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/rosenbrianna/" title="Profile and articles by Brianna Rosen" class="author url fn" rel="author">Brianna Rosen</a></p> <p class="date">Jul 31st, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/98261/disability-think-differently-trump/">Donald Trump’s Dangerous Views on Disability and the Power to Think Differently</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/shahparas/" title="Profile and articles by Paras Shah" class="author url fn" rel="author">Paras Shah</a></p> <p class="date">Jul 31st, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/97738/just-security-analysis-supreme-court/">Collecting Just Security’s Analysis of the Supreme Court’s Term</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/blankharrison/" title="Profile and articles by Harrison Blank" class="author url fn" rel="author">Harrison Blank</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/bridgemantess/" title="Profile and articles by Tess Bridgeman" class="author url fn" rel="author">Tess Bridgeman</a></p> <p class="date">Jul 29th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/98205/prudential-trump-v-united-states/">A Prudential Way Forward in <i>Trump v. United States</i></a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/bobbittphilip/" title="Profile and articles by Philip Bobbitt" class="author url fn" rel="author">Philip Bobbitt</a></p> <p class="date">Jul 29th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/98091/negotiations-with-iran-now/">Space May be Opening for Negotiations with Iran</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/brewgregory/" title="Profile and articles by Gregory Brew" class="author url fn" rel="author">Gregory Brew</a></p> <p class="date">Jul 29th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/98128/united-nations-pact-for-future/">What the Draft UN “Pact for the Future” Tells Us About International Insecurity</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/gowanrichard/" title="Profile and articles by Richard Gowan" class="author url fn" rel="author">Richard Gowan</a></p> <p class="date">Jul 26th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/98082/international-court-of-justices-call-on-all-states-to-end-israels-occupation-and-find-a-path-to-peace/">International Court of Justice’s Call on All States to End Israel’s Occupation and Find a Path to Peace</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/nowrojeebinaifer/" title="Profile and articles by Binaifer Nowrojee" class="author url fn" rel="author">Binaifer Nowrojee</a></p> <p class="date">Jul 25th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/98037/doj-special-counsel/"><i> United States v. Nixon </i> at Fifty: Why Judge Cannon Is Wrong About the Attorney General’s Authority to Select a Special Counsel</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/ledermanmarty/" title="Profile and articles by Marty Lederman" class="author url fn" rel="author">Marty Lederman</a></p> <p class="date">Jul 24th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/97937/azerbaijan-arbitrary-detentions-host-cop29/">Azerbaijan’s Aliyev Extends Arbitrary Detentions Even as He Prepares to Host Global Climate Conference COP29</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/bayramovazhala/" title="Profile and articles by Zhala Bayramova" class="author url fn" rel="author">Zhala Bayramova</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/bayramovibad/" title="Profile and articles by Ibad Bayramov" class="author url fn" rel="author">Ibad Bayramov</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/bayramliemin/" title="Profile and articles by Emin Bayramli" class="author url fn" rel="author">Emin Bayramli</a></p> <p class="date">Jul 23rd, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/92714/american-autocracy-threat-tracker/">American Autocracy Threat Tracker</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/eisennorman/" title="Profile and articles by Norman L. Eisen" class="author url fn" rel="author">Norman L. Eisen</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/ben-ghiatruth/" title="Profile and articles by Ruth Ben-Ghiat" class="author url fn" rel="author">Ruth Ben-Ghiat</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/wattsiven/" title="Profile and articles by Siven Watt" class="author url fn" rel="author">Siven Watt</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/kolbjoshua/" title="Profile and articles by Joshua Kolb" class="author url fn" rel="author">Joshua Kolb</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/warrenandrew/" title="Profile and articles by Andrew Warren" class="author url fn" rel="author">Andrew Warren</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/kovacs-goodmanjacob/" title="Profile and articles by Jacob Kovacs-Goodman" class="author url fn" rel="author">Jacob Kovacs-Goodman</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/barrilleauxfrancois/" title="Profile and articles by Francois Barrilleaux" class="author url fn" rel="author">Francois Barrilleaux</a></p> <p class="date">Jul 22nd, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/97922/non-state-civilian-political-institutions/">Assessing the Civilian and Political Institutions of Armed Non-State Actors under International Law</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/fortinkatharine/" title="Profile and articles by Katharine Fortin" class="author url fn" rel="author">Katharine Fortin</a></p> <p class="date">Jul 22nd, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/97826/state-departments-civilian-harm-incident-response/">The State Department’s Civilian Harm Incident Response Guidance: How to Make a Good Thing Better</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/blahacharles/" title="Profile and articles by Charles O. (Cob) Blaha" class="author url fn" rel="author">Charles O. (Cob) Blaha</a></p> <p class="date">Jul 18th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/97781/three-flaws-supreme-court-immunity/">Three Flaws in the Supreme Court’s Decision on Presidential Criminal Immunity</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/weissmannandrew/" title="Profile and articles by Andrew Weissmann" class="author url fn" rel="author">Andrew Weissmann</a></p> <p class="date">Jul 17th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/97760/economic-security-presidential-power/">How ‘Economic Security’ is Re-shaping Presidential Power</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/claussenkathleen/" title="Profile and articles by Kathleen Claussen" class="author url fn" rel="author">Kathleen Claussen</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/meyertimothy/" title="Profile and articles by Timothy Meyer" class="author url fn" rel="author">Timothy Meyer</a></p> <p class="date">Jul 16th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/97747/trump-docs-case-dismissed/">Judge Cannon Finds Special Counsel Unconstitutional in Trump Classified Documents Case: What’s Next for Jack Smith?</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/klasfeldadam/" title="Profile and articles by Adam Klasfeld" class="author url fn" rel="author">Adam Klasfeld</a></p> <p class="date">Jul 15th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/97718/nato-summit-ukraine-russia-china/">After the NATO Summit, Allies Need to Step Up Their Game on Ukraine, Russia, and China</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/kramerdavidj/" title="Profile and articles by David J. Kramer" class="author url fn" rel="author">David J. Kramer</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/kellyian/" title="Profile and articles by Ambassador (ret) Ian Kelly" class="author url fn" rel="author">Ambassador (ret) Ian Kelly</a></p> <p class="date">Jul 15th, 2024</p> </li></ul></div></aside><div class="capitol-breaker"><h3 class="widget-title">Resources</h3></div><aside id="js-scrolling-content-4" class="widget js-scrolling-content clearfix"><h3 class="flexible-content-title">Trackers</h3><div class="flexible-content posts clearfix" style="height:auto;"><ul class="posts-list-min"><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/81789/russias-eliminationist-rhetoric-against-ukraine-a-collection/">Russia’s Eliminationist Rhetoric Against Ukraine: A Collection</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/aptclara/" title="Profile and articles by Clara Apt" class="author url fn" rel="author">Clara Apt</a></p> <p class="date">Aug 26th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/100235/unga-79-expert-analysis-resources/">UNGA 79: Expert Analysis & Resources</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/aptclara/" title="Profile and articles by Clara Apt" class="author url fn" rel="author">Clara Apt</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/nirmaya/" title="Profile and articles by Maya Nir" class="author url fn" rel="author">Maya Nir</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/violagienger/" title="Profile and articles by Viola Gienger" class="author url fn" rel="author">Viola Gienger</a></p> <p class="date">Sep 19th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/77022/january-6-clearinghouse/">January 6 Clearinghouse</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/goodmanryan/" title="Profile and articles by Ryan Goodman" class="author url fn" rel="author">Ryan Goodman</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/hendrixjustin/" title="Profile and articles by Justin Hendrix" class="author url fn" rel="author">Justin Hendrix</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/eisennorman/" title="Profile and articles by Norman L. Eisen" class="author url fn" rel="author">Norman L. Eisen</a></p> <p class="date">Mar 14th, 2024</p> </li></ul></div></aside><aside id="js-scrolling-content-6" class="widget js-scrolling-content clearfix"><h3 class="flexible-content-title">Series</h3><div class="flexible-content posts custom-scroll clearfix" style="height:350px;"><ul class="posts-list-min"><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/96975/icc-prosecutor-policy-complementarity-cooperation/">Symposium: ICC Prosecutor Launches Policy on Complementarity and Cooperation</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/uruenarene/" title="Profile and articles by René Urueña" class="author url fn" rel="author">René Urueña</a></p> <p class="date">Jun 20th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/96881/symposium-on-ai-and-human-rights/">Introducing the Symposium on AI and Human Rights</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/peakejessica/" title="Profile and articles by Jessica Peake" class="author url fn" rel="author">Jessica Peake</a></p> <p class="date">Jun 17th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/94368/symposium-view-from-lviv/">Symposium: International Law in Ukraine – The View from Lviv</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/just-security-admin/" title="Profile and articles by Just Security" class="author url fn" rel="author">Just Security</a></p> <p class="date">Apr 5th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/95879/symposium-international-criminal-court-gaza/">A Symposium on the International Criminal Court and the Israel-Hamas War</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/just-security-admin/" title="Profile and articles by Just Security" class="author url fn" rel="author">Just Security</a></p> <p class="date">Nov 22nd, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/90411/2024-and-beyond-just-securitys-us-election-protection-coverage/">2024 and Beyond: Just Security’s US Election Protection Coverage</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/mollenkampallison2/" title="Profile and articles by Allison Mollenkamp" class="author url fn" rel="author">Allison Mollenkamp</a></p> <p class="date">Dec 4th, 2023</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/92429/introducing-just-securitys-series-on-reparations-in-russias-war-against-ukraine/">Introducing Just Security’s Series on Reparations in Russia’s War Against Ukraine</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/corrarinomegan/" title="Profile and articles by Megan Corrarino" class="author url fn" rel="author">Megan Corrarino</a></p> <p class="date">Feb 20th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/92446/establish-syria-victims-fund/">It’s Time to Establish a Syria Victims Fund</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/seifjoumana/" title="Profile and articles by Joumana Seif" class="author url fn" rel="author">Joumana Seif</a></p> <p class="date">Feb 19th, 2024</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/89838/the-future-of-atrocity-prevention-a-joint-symposium/">The Future of Atrocity Prevention: A Joint Symposium</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/whiddengwendolyn/" title="Profile and articles by Gwendolyn Whidden" class="author url fn" rel="author">Gwendolyn Whidden</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 31st, 2023</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/89583/introduction-to-symposium-governing-artificial-intelligence-power-justice-and-the-limits-of-the-law/">Introducing the Symposium on AI Governance: Power, Justice, and the Limits of the Law</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/rosenbrianna/" title="Profile and articles by Brianna Rosen" class="author url fn" rel="author">Brianna Rosen</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 18th, 2023</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/88143/introduction-to-symposium-ending-perpetual-war/">Introduction to Symposium: Ending Perpetual War</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/rosenbrianna/" title="Profile and articles by Brianna Rosen" class="author url fn" rel="author">Brianna Rosen</a></p> <p class="date">Sep 11th, 2023</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/87280/joint-symposium-on-u-s-cooperation-with-the-international-criminal-courts-ukraine-investigation/">Joint Symposium on U.S. Cooperation with the International Criminal Court’s Ukraine Investigation</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/just-security-admin/" title="Profile and articles by Just Security" class="author url fn" rel="author">Just Security</a></p> <p class="date">Jul 17th, 2023</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/86748/u-n-general-assembly-and-international-criminal-tribunal-for-the-crime-of-aggression-against-ukraine/">U.N. General Assembly and International Criminal Tribunal for the Crime of Aggression Against Ukraine</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/just-security-admin/" title="Profile and articles by Just Security" class="author url fn" rel="author">Just Security</a></p> <p class="date">May 9th, 2023</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/85110/introducing-the-symposium-on-u-s-support-for-the-iccs-trust-fund-for-victims/">Introducing the Symposium on U.S. Support for the ICC’s Trust Fund for Victims</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/williamspaul/" title="Profile and articles by Paul R. Williams" class="author url fn" rel="author">Paul R. Williams</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/steriomilena/" title="Profile and articles by Milena Sterio" class="author url fn" rel="author">Milena Sterio</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/duttonyvonne/" title="Profile and articles by Yvonne Dutton" class="author url fn" rel="author">Yvonne Dutton</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/kochalexandra/" title="Profile and articles by Alexandra Koch" class="author url fn" rel="author">Alexandra Koch</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/waldocklilian/" title="Profile and articles by Lilian Waldock" class="author url fn" rel="author">Lilian Waldock</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/lavaudfloriane/" title="Profile and articles by Floriane Lavaud" class="author url fn" rel="author">Floriane Lavaud</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/singhashika/" title="Profile and articles by Ashika Singh" class="author url fn" rel="author">Ashika Singh</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/glimcherisabelle/" title="Profile and articles by Isabelle Glimcher" class="author url fn" rel="author">Isabelle Glimcher</a></p> <p class="date">Feb 13th, 2023</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/84901/antisemitism-and-threats-to-american-democracy/">Antisemitism and Threats to American Democracy</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/hershenoveileen/" title="Profile and articles by Eileen B. Hershenov" class="author url fn" rel="author">Eileen B. Hershenov</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/greerryan/" title="Profile and articles by Ryan B. Greer" class="author url fn" rel="author">Ryan B. Greer</a></p> <p class="date">Jan 26th, 2023</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/84636/toward-a-values-based-foreign-policy-developing-an-ethical-checklist/">Toward a Values-Based Foreign Policy: Developing an Ethical Checklist</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/mulreanpeter/" title="Profile and articles by Ambassador Peter Mulrean (ret.)" class="author url fn" rel="author">Ambassador Peter Mulrean (ret.)</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/hawkwilliamj/" title="Profile and articles by William J. Hawk" class="author url fn" rel="author">William J. Hawk</a></p> <p class="date">Jan 4th, 2023</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/83994/tracking-cop27-notable-moments-and-key-themes/">Tracking COP27: Notable Moments and Key Themes</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/aptclara/" title="Profile and articles by Clara Apt" class="author url fn" rel="author">Clara Apt</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/fangkatherine/" title="Profile and articles by Katherine Fang" class="author url fn" rel="author">Katherine Fang</a></p> <p class="date">Nov 18th, 2022</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/83460/on-indigenous-peoples-day-reflections-on-tribal-sovereignty-in-haaland-v-brackeen/">On Indigenous Peoples’ Day, Reflections on Tribal Sovereignty in Haaland v. Brackeen</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/whiteeagleamanda/" title="Profile and articles by Amanda L. White Eagle" class="author url fn" rel="author">Amanda L. White Eagle</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 10th, 2022</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/83749/ending-perpetual-war/">Ending Perpetual War</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/rosenbrianna/" title="Profile and articles by Brianna Rosen" class="author url fn" rel="author">Brianna Rosen</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 25th, 2022</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/83117/the-case-for-creating-an-international-tribunal-to-prosecute-the-crime-of-aggression-against-ukraine/">The Case for Creating an International Tribunal to Prosecute the Crime of Aggression Against Ukraine (Part I)</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/hathawayoona/" title="Profile and articles by Oona A. Hathaway" class="author url fn" rel="author">Oona A. Hathaway</a></p> <p class="date">Sep 20th, 2022</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/80800/introduction-to-symposium-still-at-war-where-and-why-the-united-states-is-fighting-the-war-on-terror/">Introduction to Symposium: Still at War – Where and Why the United States is Fighting the “War on Terror”</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/bridgemantess/" title="Profile and articles by Tess Bridgeman" class="author url fn" rel="author">Tess Bridgeman</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/rosenbrianna/" title="Profile and articles by Brianna Rosen" class="author url fn" rel="author">Brianna Rosen</a></p> <p class="date">Mar 24th, 2022</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/82665/after-a-year-of-privation-with-the-talibans-return-the-people-of-afghanistan-deserve-better-from-the-us-and-the-world/">After a Year of Privation With the Taliban’s Return, the People of Afghanistan Deserve Better from the US and the World</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/andishanasir/" title="Profile and articles by Ambassador Nasir A. Andisha" class="author url fn" rel="author">Ambassador Nasir A. Andisha</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/marastonimarzia/" title="Profile and articles by Marzia Marastoni" class="author url fn" rel="author">Marzia Marastoni</a></p> <p class="date">Aug 15th, 2022</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/80290/introduction-to-just-securitys-series-on-executive-order-9066-80-years-after-signing/">Introduction to Just Security’s Series on Executive Order 9066, 80 Years After Signing</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/corrarinomegan/" title="Profile and articles by Megan Corrarino" class="author url fn" rel="author">Megan Corrarino</a></p> <p class="date">Feb 18th, 2022</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/79951/congress-can-and-should-address-the-threat-from-unauthorized-paramilitary-activity/">Congress Can and Should Address the Threat from Unauthorized Paramilitary Activity</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/mccordmary/" title="Profile and articles by Mary B. McCord" class="author url fn" rel="author">Mary B. McCord</a></p> <p class="date">Jan 24th, 2022</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/79900/the-good-governance-papers-a-january-2022-report-card-update/">The Good Governance Papers: A January 2022 “Report Card” Update</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/bermanemily/" title="Profile and articles by Emily Berman" class="author url fn" rel="author">Emily Berman</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/bridgemantess/" title="Profile and articles by Tess Bridgeman" class="author url fn" rel="author">Tess Bridgeman</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/corrarinomegan/" title="Profile and articles by Megan Corrarino" class="author url fn" rel="author">Megan Corrarino</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/goodmanryan/" title="Profile and articles by Ryan Goodman" class="author url fn" rel="author">Ryan Goodman</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/rudesilldakota/" title="Profile and articles by Dakota S. Rudesill" class="author url fn" rel="author">Dakota S. Rudesill</a></p> <p class="date">Jan 20th, 2022</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/78797/symposium-recap-security-privacy-and-innovation-reshaping-law-for-the-ai-era/">Symposium Recap: Security, Privacy and Innovation – Reshaping Law for the AI Era</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/brawleylaura/" title="Profile and articles by Laura Brawley" class="author url fn" rel="author">Laura Brawley</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/joardarantara/" title="Profile and articles by Antara Joardar" class="author url fn" rel="author">Antara Joardar</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/narasimhanmadhu/" title="Profile and articles by Madhu Narasimhan" class="author url fn" rel="author">Madhu Narasimhan</a></p> <p class="date">Oct 29th, 2021</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/78063/towards-a-new-treaty-on-crimes-against-humanity-next-steps/">Towards a New Treaty on Crimes Against Humanity: Next Steps</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/sadatleila/" title="Profile and articles by Leila Nadya Sadat" class="author url fn" rel="author">Leila Nadya Sadat</a></p> <p class="date">Sep 13th, 2021</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/78118/introduction-to-a-symposium-how-perpetual-war-has-changed-us-reflections-on-the-anniversary-of-9-11/">Introduction to Symposium: How Perpetual War Has Changed Us — Reflections on the Anniversary of 9/11</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/bridgemantess/" title="Profile and articles by Tess Bridgeman" class="author url fn" rel="author">Tess Bridgeman</a>, <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/goldbrennerrachel/" title="Profile and articles by Rachel Goldbrenner" class="author url fn" rel="author">Rachel Goldbrenner</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/goodmanryan/" title="Profile and articles by Ryan Goodman" class="author url fn" rel="author">Ryan Goodman</a></p> <p class="date">Sep 7th, 2021</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/77536/new-just-security-series-beyond-the-myanmar-coup/">New Just Security Series: Beyond the Myanmar Coup</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/just-security-admin/" title="Profile and articles by Just Security" class="author url fn" rel="author">Just Security</a></p> <p class="date">Jul 19th, 2021</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/77262/new-just-security-series-reflections-on-afghanistan-on-the-eve-of-withdrawal/">New Just Security Series: Reflections on Afghanistan on the Eve of Withdrawal</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/brannenkate/" title="Profile and articles by Kate Brannen" class="author url fn" rel="author">Kate Brannen</a></p> <p class="date">Jun 30th, 2021</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/76906/introducing-a-symposium-on-the-un-global-counterterrorism-strategy/">Introducing a Symposium on the UN Global Counterterrorism Strategy</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/niaolainfionnuala/" title="Profile and articles by Fionnuala Ní Aoláin" class="author url fn" rel="author">Fionnuala Ní Aoláin</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/brannenkate/" title="Profile and articles by Kate Brannen" class="author url fn" rel="author">Kate Brannen</a></p> <p class="date">Jun 14th, 2021</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/76709/the-mendez-principles-leadership-to-transform-interrogation-via-science-law-and-ethics/">The Méndez Principles: Leadership to Transform Interrogation via Science, Law, and Ethics</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/barelasteven/" title="Profile and articles by Steven J. Barela" class="author url fn" rel="author">Steven J. Barela</a> and <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/fallonmark/" title="Profile and articles by Mark Fallon" class="author url fn" rel="author">Mark Fallon</a></p> <p class="date">Jun 1st, 2021</p> </li><li> <h4><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/76692/introduction-to-just-securitys-series-on-tulsa-race-massacre-of-1921/">Introduction to Just Security’s Series on Tulsa Race Massacre of 1921</a></h4> <p class="author">by <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/bergerchristine/" title="Profile and articles by Christine Berger" class="author url fn" rel="author">Christine Berger</a></p> <p class="date">May 29th, 2021</p> </li></ul></div></aside><div class="capitol-breaker"><h3 class="widget-title">Key Topics</h3><div class="sub-title">Scroll within to view all topics.</div></div><aside id="js-scrolling-content-2" class="widget js-scrolling-content clearfix"><div class="flexible-content links custom-scroll clearfix" style="height:255px;"><ul class="link-list"><li><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/artificial-intelligence/">Artificial Intelligence (AI)</a></li><li><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/84303/just-securitys-climate-archive/">Climate Change</a></li><li><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/congressional-oversight/">Congressional Oversight</a></li><li><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/counterterrorism/">Counterterrorism</a></li><li><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/cybersecurity/">Cybersecurity</a></li><li><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/democracy/">Democracy</a></li><li><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/diplomacy/">Diplomacy</a></li><li><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/disinformation/">Disinformation</a></li><li><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/human-rights/">Human Rights</a></li><li><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/immigration/">Immigration</a></li><li><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/intelligence/">Intelligence activities</a></li><li><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/international-criminal-law/">International Criminal Law</a></li><li><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/category/israel-hamas-war/">Israel-Hamas War</a></li><li><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/january-6th-attack-on-us-capitol/">January 6th Attack on US Capitol</a></li><li><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/law-of-armed-conflict/">Law of Armed Conflict</a></li><li><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/local-voices/">Local Voices</a></li><li><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/racial-justice/">Racial Justice</a></li><li><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/social-media-platforms/">Social Media Platforms</a></li><li><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/united-nations/">United Nations</a></li><li><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/use-of-force/">Use of Force</a></li></ul></div></aside></div></div><div id="post-meta-after" class="pagewidth pw1400 clearfix"><div class="post-bottom-row about-authors clearfix"><div class="secondary-left"><h3>About the Author(s)</h3></div><div class="primary"><div class="post-author-bio"><h4 title="Read bio and view posts by this author"><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/lordjanet/">Janet <span>Lord</span></a></h4><p>Janet E. Lord is an international public lawyer by training and currently serves as Executive Director of the University of Baltimore School of Law’s Center for International and Comparative Law.</p> </div><div class="post-author-bio"><h4 title="Read bio and view posts by this author"><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/schwarzpace/">Pace <span>Schwarz</span></a></h4><p>Pace Schwarz is a Program Assistant and Rapporteur for the International Disability, Peace, and Security Network (IDPSN) based in Washington, D.C. where he undertakes policy advocacy, program administration and research.</p> </div><div class="post-author-bio"><h4 title="Read bio and view posts by this author"><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/smithmatthew/">Matthew "Hezzy" <span>Smith</span></a></h4><p>Matthew "Hezzy" Smith (<a href="https://twitter.com/hmssmith">@hmssmith</a>), an international human rights lawyer, directs advocacy initiatives at the Harvard Law School Project on Disability. </p> </div><div class="post-author-bio"><h4 title="Read bio and view posts by this author"><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/steinmichael/">Michael Ashley <span>Stein</span></a></h4><p>Professor Michael Ashley Stein is the co-founder and Executive Director of the Harvard Law School Project on Disability, and a Visiting Professor at Harvard Law School since 2005.</p> </div><div class="post-author-bio"><h4 title="Read bio and view posts by this author"><a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/author/greenalex/">Alex <span>Green</span></a></h4><p>Alex Green teaches at Harvard Kennedy School. 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Time to Recognize Persons with Disabilities and the Slave Trade