CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"/> <title>Oliver Heaviside: Difference between revisions - Engineering and Technology History Wiki</title> <script>document.documentElement.className="client-js";RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy","wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"3fce5eca0e7de18123b94380","wgCSPNonce":false,"wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Oliver_Heaviside","wgTitle":"Oliver Heaviside","wgCurRevisionId":146762,"wgRevisionId":146762,"wgArticleId":3411,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Biographies","Scientists","Fields, waves \u0026 electromagnetics","Electromagnetics","Electromagnetic fields","Computing and electronics","Instrumentation","Electric variables","Telegraphy","Prominent members"],"wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Oliver_Heaviside", "wgRelevantArticleId":3411,"wgIsProbablyEditable":false,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":false,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgPageFormsTargetName":null,"wgPageFormsAutocompleteValues":[],"wgPageFormsAutocompleteOnAllChars":false,"wgPageFormsFieldProperties":[],"wgPageFormsCargoFields":[],"wgPageFormsDependentFields":[],"wgPageFormsCalendarValues":[],"wgPageFormsCalendarParams":[],"wgPageFormsCalendarHTML":null,"wgPageFormsGridValues":[],"wgPageFormsGridParams":[],"wgPageFormsContLangYes":null,"wgPageFormsContLangNo":null,"wgPageFormsContLangMonths":[],"wgPageFormsHeightForMinimizingInstances":800,"wgPageFormsShowOnSelect":[],"wgPageFormsScriptPath":"/w/extensions/PageForms","edgValues":null,"wgPageFormsEDSettings":null,"wgAmericanDates":false,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"VEForAllToolbarNormal":[{"header":"visualeditor-toolbar-paragraph-format","title":"visualeditor-toolbar-format-tooltip","type": "menu","include":{"group":"format"},"promote":["paragraph"],"demote":["preformatted","blockquote"]},{"header":"visualeditor-toolbar-text-style","title":"visualeditor-toolbar-style-tooltip","include":["bold","italic","moreTextStyle"]},{"include":["link"]},{"header":"visualeditor-toolbar-structure","title":"visualeditor-toolbar-structure","type":"list","icon":"listBullet","include":{"group":"structure"},"demote":["outdent","indent"]},{"header":"visualeditor-toolbar-insert","title":"visualeditor-toolbar-insert","type":"list","icon":"add","label":"","include":["insertTable","specialCharacter","warningblock","preformatted","infoblock","ideablock","dontblock","pinblock"]}],"VEForAllToolbarWide":[{"header":"visualeditor-toolbar-paragraph-format","title":"visualeditor-toolbar-format-tooltip","type":"menu","include":{"group":"format"},"promote":["paragraph"],"demote":["preformatted","blockquote"]},{"header":"visualeditor-toolbar-text-style","title":"visualeditor-toolbar-style-tooltip","include" :["bold","italic","moreTextStyle"]},{"include":["link"]},{"header":"visualeditor-toolbar-structure","title":"visualeditor-toolbar-structure","type":"list","icon":"listBullet","include":{"group":"structure"},"demote":["outdent","indent"]},{"header":"visualeditor-toolbar-insert","title":"visualeditor-toolbar-insert","type":"list","icon":"add","label":"","include":["media","insertTable","specialCharacter","warningblock","preformatted","infoblock","ideablock","dontblock","pinblock","media"]},{"name":"reference"}],"sdgDownArrowImage":"/w/extensions/SemanticDrilldown/skins/down-arrow.png","sdgRightArrowImage":"/w/extensions/SemanticDrilldown/skins/right-arrow.png","srfFilteredConfig":null,"egMapsScriptPath":"/w/extensions/Maps/","egMapsDebugJS":false,"egMapsAvailableServices":["leaflet","googlemaps3"],"egMapsLeafletLayersApiKeys":{"MapBox":"","MapQuestOpen":"","Thunderforest":"","GeoportailFrance":""},"wgULSAcceptLanguageList":[],"wgULSCurrentAutonym":"English","wgDiffOldId":45350, "wgDiffNewId":146762,"wgSmjUseCdn":true,"wgSmjUseChem":true,"wgSmjDisplayMath":[],"wgSmjExtraInlineMath":[],"wgSmjScale":1,"wgSmjEnableMenu":true,"wgSmjDisplayAlign":"left","wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":false,"VEForAll":{"VisualEditorEnable":1},"wgULSPosition":"personal","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":true};RLSTATE={"site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","mediawiki.interface.helpers.styles":"ready","mediawiki.diff.styles":"ready","mediawiki.ui.button":"ready","skins.chameleon":"ready","zzz.ext.bootstrap.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.srf.styles":"ready","ext.smw.style":"ready","ext.smw.tooltip.styles":"ready","ext.uls.pt":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.SimpleMathJax","mediawiki.diff","ext.smw.style","ext.smw.tooltips","site","mediawiki.page.ready","ext.ethw","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.veforall.core.desktop","ext.uls.compactlinks", "ext.uls.interface","ext.gadget.HotCat","ext.gadget.Datatable","ext.bootstrap.scripts"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.implement("user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"});});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.smw.style%7Cext.smw.tooltip.styles%7Cext.srf.styles%7Cext.uls.pt%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cmediawiki.diff.styles%7Cmediawiki.interface.helpers.styles%7Cmediawiki.ui.button%7Cskins.chameleon%7Czzz.ext.bootstrap.styles&only=styles&skin=chameleon"/> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=chameleon"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""/> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=chameleon"/> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.39.8"/> <meta name="robots" content="noindex,nofollow"/> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"/> <meta name="twitter:card" content="summary_large_image"/> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1000"/> <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1, shrink-to-fit=no"/> <link rel="alternate" type="application/rdf+xml" title="Oliver Heaviside" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:ExportRDF/Oliver_Heaviside&xmlmime=rdf"/> <link rel="icon" href="/favicon.ico"/> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/opensearch_desc.php" title="ETHW (en)"/> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="https://ethw.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"/> <meta property="og:title" content="Oliver Heaviside"/> <meta property="og:site_name" content="ETHW"/> <meta property="og:url" content="https://ethw.org/Oliver_Heaviside"/> <meta property="og:image" content="https://ethw.org/w/logo.png"/> <meta property="article:modified_time" content="2016-02-11T15:28:50Z"/> <meta property="article:published_time" content="2016-02-11T15:28:50Z"/> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"http:\/\/schema.org","@type":"article","name":"Oliver Heaviside: Difference between revisions - Engineering and Technology History Wiki","headline":"Oliver Heaviside: Difference between revisions - Engineering and Technology History Wiki","mainEntityOfPage":"Oliver Heaviside: Difference between revisions","identifier":"https:\/\/ethw.org\/Oliver_Heaviside","url":"https:\/\/ethw.org\/Oliver_Heaviside","dateModified":"2016-02-11T15:28:50Z","datePublished":"2016-02-11T15:28:50Z","image":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/ethw.org\/w\/logo.png"},"author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"ETHW","url":"https:\/\/ethw.org","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/ethw.org\/w\/logo.png","caption":"ETHW"}},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"ETHW","url":"https:\/\/ethw.org","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/ethw.org\/w\/logo.png","caption":"ETHW"}},"potentialAction":{"@type":"SearchAction","target":"https:\/\/ethw.org\/w\/index.php?title=Special:Search&search={search_term}","query-input":"required name=search_term"}}</script> </head> <body class="mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Oliver_Heaviside rootpage-Oliver_Heaviside layout-navhead_ethw skin-chameleon action-view">  <nav class="p-navbar collapsible" role="navigation" id="mw-navigation">  <div id="p-logo" class="navbar-brand p-logo" role="banner"> <a href="/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page"><img src="/w/logo.png" alt="ETHW"/></a> </div> <button type="button" class="navbar-toggler" data-toggle="collapse" data-target="#hw1k3kvz3u"></button> <div class="collapse navbar-collapse hw1k3kvz3u" id="hw1k3kvz3u"> <div class="navbar-nav">  <div class="nav-item dropdown p-Explore-dropdown"> <a href="#" class="nav-link dropdown-toggle p-Explore-toggle" data-toggle="dropdown" data-boundary="viewport">Explore</a> <div class="dropdown-menu p-Explore" id="p-Explore"> <div id="n-Browse-by-Subject" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/ETHW:Subject_browse" class="nav-link n-Browse-by-Subject">Browse by Subject</a></div> <div id="n-Encyclopedia" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/Encyclopedia" class="nav-link n-Encyclopedia">Encyclopedia</a></div> <div id="n-Oral-Histories" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/Oral-History:List_of_all_Oral_Histories" class="nav-link n-Oral-Histories">Oral Histories</a></div> <div id="n-First-Hand-Histories" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/First-Hand:List_of_First_Hand_Histories" class="nav-link n-First-Hand-Histories">First Hand Histories</a></div> <div id="n-Landmarks/Milestones" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/Landmarks" class="nav-link n-Landmarks/Milestones">Landmarks/Milestones</a></div> <div id="n-Archives" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/Archives:Archival_Collections" class="nav-link n-Archives">Archives</a></div> <div id="n-Personal-Narratives" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/Personal-Narrative:List_of_all_Personal_Narratives" class="nav-link n-Personal-Narratives">Personal Narratives</a></div> <div id="n-Museums" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/ETHW:Museums" class="nav-link n-Museums">Museums</a></div> <div id="n-Random-page" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/Special:Random" class="nav-link n-Random-page">Random page</a></div> <div id="n-Special-pages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/Special:SpecialPages" class="nav-link n-Special-pages">Special pages</a></div> <div id="n-Recent-changes" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/Special:RecentChanges" class="nav-link n-Recent-changes">Recent changes</a></div> <div id="n-New-pages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/Special:NewPages" class="nav-link n-New-pages">New pages</a></div> </div> </div>  <div class="nav-item dropdown p-Help-dropdown"> <a href="#" class="nav-link dropdown-toggle p-Help-toggle" data-toggle="dropdown" data-boundary="viewport">Help</a> <div class="dropdown-menu p-Help" id="p-Help"> <div id="n-Contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/Help:Contents" class="nav-link n-Contents">Contents</a></div> <div id="n-Contact-us" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/Special:Contact" class="nav-link n-Contact-us">Contact us</a></div> </div> </div>  <div class="nav-item p-tb-dropdown"> <a href="#" class="nav-link dropdown-toggle p-tb-toggle" data-toggle="dropdown" data-boundary="viewport">Tools</a> <div class="dropdown-menu"> <div id="t-whatlinkshere" class="nav-item mw-list-item"><a href="/Special:WhatLinksHere/Oliver_Heaviside" title="A list of all wiki pages that link here [j]" accesskey="j" class="nav-link t-whatlinkshere">What links here</a></div> <div id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="nav-item mw-list-item"><a href="/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Oliver_Heaviside" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k" class="nav-link t-recentchangeslinked">Related changes</a></div> <div id="t-specialpages" class="nav-item mw-list-item"><a href="/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q" class="nav-link t-specialpages">Special pages</a></div> <div id="t-print" class="nav-item mw-list-item"><a href="javascript:print();" rel="alternate" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p" class="nav-link t-print">Printable version</a></div> <div id="t-permalink" class="nav-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oliver_Heaviside&oldid=146762" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page" class="nav-link t-permalink">Permanent link</a></div> <div id="t-info" class="nav-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oliver_Heaviside&action=info" title="More information about this page" class="nav-link t-info">Page information</a></div> <div id="t-smwbrowselink" class="nav-item mw-list-item"><a href="/Special:Browse/:Oliver-5FHeaviside" rel="search" class="nav-link t-smwbrowselink">Browse properties</a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="navbar-nav right">  <div class="navbar-tools navbar-nav flex-row"> <div id="ca-formedit" class="navbar-tool mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oliver_Heaviside&action=formedit" title="Edit this page with a form [&]" accesskey="&" class="navbar-tool-link ca-formedit"></a></div> <div class="navbar-tool dropdown"> <a data-toggle="dropdown" data-boundary="viewport" class="navbar-more-tools" href="#" title="Page tools"></a>  <div class="flex-row navbar-pagetools dropdown-menu p-contentnavigation" id="p-contentnavigation">  <div id="ca-talk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/Talk:Oliver_Heaviside" rel="discussion" title="Discussion about the content page [t]" accesskey="t" class="ca-talk">Talk</a></div>  <div id="ca-viewsource" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oliver_Heaviside&action=edit" title="This page is protected.
You can view its source [e]" accesskey="e" class="ca-viewsource">View source</a></div> <div id="ca-history" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oliver_Heaviside&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h" class="ca-history">View history</a></div> </div> </div> </div>  <div id="p-search" class="p-search order-first order-cmln-0 navbar-form" role="search" > <form id="searchform" class="mw-search" action="/w/index.php" > <input type="hidden" name="title" value=" Special:Search" /> <div class="input-group"> <input type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search ETHW" aria-label="Search ETHW" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search ETHW [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" class="form-control"/> <div class="input-group-append"> <button value="Go" id="searchGoButton" name="go" type="submit" class="search-btn searchGoButton" aria-label="Go to page" title="Go to a page with this exact name if it exists"></button> </div> </div> </form> </div>  <div class="navbar-tools navbar-nav" > <div class="navbar-tool dropdown"> <a class="navbar-usernotloggedin" href="#" data-toggle="dropdown" data-boundary="viewport" title="You are not logged in."> </a> <div class="p-personal-tools dropdown-menu"> <div id="pt-uls" class="mw-list-item active"><a class="uls-trigger pt-uls" href="#">English</a></div> <div id="pt-login" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Oliver+Heaviside&returntoquery=diff%3Dcur%26oldid%3D45350" title="You are encouraged to log in; however, it is not mandatory [o]" accesskey="o" class="pt-login">Log in</a></div> <div id="pt-createaccount" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/Special:RequestAccount" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class="pt-createaccount">Request account</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div class="flex-fill container"> <div class="row"> <div class="col"> </div> </div> <div class="row"> <div class="col">  <div id="content" class="mw-body content"><a id="top" class="top"></a> <div id="mw-indicators" class="mw-indicators"></div> <div class="contentHeader">  <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading">Oliver Heaviside: Difference between revisions</h1>  <div id="siteSub" class="siteSub">From ETHW</div><div id="jump-to-nav" class="mw-jump jump-to-nav">Jump to:<a href="#mw-navigation">navigation</a>, <a href="#p-search">search</a></div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="bodyContent">  <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content mw-content-ltr" lang="en" dir="ltr"><table class="diff diff-contentalign-left diff-editfont-monospace" data-mw="interface"> <col class="diff-marker" /> <col class="diff-content" /> <col class="diff-marker" /> <col class="diff-content" /> <tr class="diff-title" lang="en"> <td colspan="2" class="diff-otitle diff-side-deleted"><div id="mw-diff-otitle1"><strong><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oliver_Heaviside&oldid=45350" title="Oliver Heaviside">Revision as of 21:37, 18 February 2010</a> <span class="mw-diff-edit">(<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oliver_Heaviside&action=edit&oldid=45350" title="Oliver Heaviside">view source</a>)</span></strong></div><div id="mw-diff-otitle2"><a href="/User:Nbrewer" class="mw-userlink" title="User:Nbrewer"><bdi>Nbrewer</bdi></a> <span class="mw-usertoollinks">(<a href="/User_talk:Nbrewer" class="mw-usertoollinks-talk" title="User talk:Nbrewer">talk</a> | <a href="/Special:Contributions/Nbrewer" class="mw-usertoollinks-contribs" title="Special:Contributions/Nbrewer">contribs</a>)</span></div><div id="mw-diff-otitle3"><span class="comment mw-comment-none">No edit summary</span></div><div id="mw-diff-otitle5"></div><div id="mw-diff-otitle4"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oliver_Heaviside&diff=prev&oldid=45350" title="Oliver Heaviside" id="differences-prevlink">← Older edit</a></div></td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-ntitle diff-side-added"><div id="mw-diff-ntitle1"><strong><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oliver_Heaviside&oldid=146762" title="Oliver Heaviside">Latest revision as of 15:28, 11 February 2016</a> <span class="mw-diff-edit">(<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oliver_Heaviside&action=edit" title="Oliver Heaviside">view source</a>)</span> </strong></div><div id="mw-diff-ntitle2"><a href="/User:Administrator1" class="mw-userlink" title="User:Administrator1"><bdi>Administrator1</bdi></a> <span class="mw-usertoollinks">(<a href="/User_talk:Administrator1" class="mw-usertoollinks-talk" title="User talk:Administrator1">talk</a> | <a href="/Special:Contributions/Administrator1" class="mw-usertoollinks-contribs" title="Special:Contributions/Administrator1">contribs</a>)</span> </div><div id="mw-diff-ntitle3"><span class="comment mw-comment-none">No edit summary</span></div><div id="mw-diff-ntitle5"></div><div id="mw-diff-ntitle4"> </div></td> </tr><tr><td colspan="4" class="diff-multi" lang="en">(14 intermediate revisions by 5 users not shown)</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno" id="mw-diff-left-l1">Line 1:</td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 1:</td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>== <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Oliver Heaviside: Biography<br> </del>==</div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div><ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">{{Biography</ins></div></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div><ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">|Image=Heaviside.jpg</ins></div></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div><ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">|Birthdate</ins>=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">1850/05/18</ins></div></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div><ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">|Birthplace</ins>=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Camden Town, London, UK</ins></div></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div><ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">|Death date</ins>=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">1925/01/03</ins></div></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div><ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">|Fields of study</ins>=<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Electromagnetics; Telegraphy</ins></div></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div><ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">}}</ins></div></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div><ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[Image:Portrait of Heaviside 0295.jpg|thumb|right]] </ins></div></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br/></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div><del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Born: 18 May 1850<br>Died: 03 February 1925 </del></div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div><ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">'''Honorary Member 1918'''</ins></div></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div> </div></td><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-added"></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div><del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[Image:Heaviside.jpg|thumb]] </del></div></td><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-added"></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br/></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>Oliver Heaviside was born in 1850 in Camden Town, a notoriously crime-ridden, lower class area of London. Young Oliver had a challenging and troubled youth. Life in the slums was difficult enough, but a childhood bout with scarlet fever, which left him nearly deaf, added to his troubles. Heaviside’s mother ran a school for girls, which he attended rather than attending the neighborhood school. This offered some protection from the influence of the local ruffians. However, Heaviside’s hearing impairment made making friends difficult. Despite being bright and a good student, by age 16 the socially awkward Heaviside had had enough of formal education and left school. </div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>Oliver Heaviside was born in 1850 in Camden Town, a notoriously crime-ridden, lower class area of London. Young Oliver had a challenging and troubled youth. Life in the slums was difficult enough, but a childhood bout with scarlet fever, which left him nearly deaf, added to his troubles. Heaviside’s mother ran a school for girls, which he attended rather than attending the neighborhood school. This offered some protection from the influence of the local ruffians. However, Heaviside’s hearing impairment made making friends difficult. Despite being bright and a good student, by age 16 the socially awkward Heaviside had had enough of formal education and left school. </div></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno" id="mw-diff-left-l15">Line 15:</td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 20:</td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>“I browsed through it and I was astonished! I read the preface and the last chapter, and several bits here and there; I saw that it was great, greater and greatest...I was determined to master the book and set to work.” </div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>“I browsed through it and I was astonished! I read the preface and the last chapter, and several bits here and there; I saw that it was great, greater and greatest...I was determined to master the book and set to work.” </div></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br/></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div><del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Maxwell’s </del>theory provided Heaviside with his life’s work<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">. </del></div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div><ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Maxwell's </ins>theory provided Heaviside with his life’s work. </div></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div> </div></td><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-added"></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div><del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Maxwell’s theory predicts “electromagnetic waves” that travel with the speed of light. Heaviside reasoned that electromagnetic waves could travel on a telegraph cable too. At the time, it was believed that the electric telegraphic pulses diffused, or “soaked” in the telegraph cable. Although the mathematical cables that arose from diffusion theory worked for short cables, they failed for longer cables. Heaviside’s equations, based on Maxwell’s electromagnetic waves, worked for cables of all lengths</del>. </div></td><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-added"></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br/></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div><del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[Image:Portrait </del>of Heaviside <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">0295</del>.<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">jpg|thumb|left]] </del></div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div><ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Maxwell's theory predicts “electromagnetic waves” that travel with the speed </ins>of <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">light. </ins>Heaviside <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">reasoned that electromagnetic waves could travel on a telegraph cable too. At the time, it was believed that the electric telegraphic pulses diffused, or “soaked” in the telegraph cable. Although the mathematical cables that arose from diffusion theory worked for short cables, they failed for longer cables. Heaviside’s equations, based on Maxwell's electromagnetic waves, worked for cables of all lengths</ins>. </div></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br/></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>This finding had practical applications for telegraph communications. For example, Heaviside actually solved one of the biggest problems affecting long distance telegraph and telephone communication in 1887 —distortion. It was known that different frequencies travel with different speeds on a long cable. For example, the low bass frequencies in a voice signal travel faster than the high treble frequencies. When the cable is long enough, the frequencies smear, and both voice and telegraph signals become garbled noise. Heaviside used his equations to show that if inductances (i.e., a small coil of wire) were added along the length of the cable, the distortion could be reduced. </div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>This finding had practical applications for telegraph communications. For example, Heaviside actually solved one of the biggest problems affecting long distance telegraph and telephone communication in 1887 —distortion. It was known that different frequencies travel with different speeds on a long cable. For example, the low bass frequencies in a voice signal travel faster than the high treble frequencies. When the cable is long enough, the frequencies smear, and both voice and telegraph signals become garbled noise. Heaviside used his equations to show that if inductances (i.e., a small coil of wire) were added along the length of the cable, the distortion could be reduced. </div></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno" id="mw-diff-left-l25">Line 25:</td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 28:</td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>Heaviside and his theory ran into problems. His papers were difficult to read and most people did not understand him. Heaviside was not one to suffer fools. His sharp remarks and lack of diplomacy created enemies in the scientific community who suppressed and ridiculed his work. As a result it took 20 years and a rediscovery of the inductance idea by [[Archives:Papers of Silvanus P. Thompson|Silvanus Thompson]] before long distance telephone calls could become a reality. </div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>Heaviside and his theory ran into problems. His papers were difficult to read and most people did not understand him. Heaviside was not one to suffer fools. His sharp remarks and lack of diplomacy created enemies in the scientific community who suppressed and ridiculed his work. As a result it took 20 years and a rediscovery of the inductance idea by [[Archives:Papers of Silvanus P. Thompson|Silvanus Thompson]] before long distance telephone calls could become a reality. </div></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br/></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>Heaviside’s most important work involving <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Maxwell’s </del>theories was what he did with [[Maxwell's Equations|Maxwell’s equations]]. Maxwell’s equations are the laws that electric and magnetic fields must follow. However, Maxwell never wrote the four simple-looking equations we use today. Rather, in 1873 Maxwell published a set of 20 equations in 20 different variables. These were difficult to understand, which made <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Maxwell’s </del>theory slow to be accepted. By 1884, however, Heaviside was not only able to understand them, but to simplify them as well. For example, using “vector notation,” he combined sets of three equations into one. Heaviside also recognized that Maxwell’s equations did not require the use of “potentials.” These potentials that Maxwell used extensively could just be treated as mathematical quantities derived from the electric and magnetic fields. Today, we call them “Maxwell’s equations,” but Maxwell himself never saw them in this form. </div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>Heaviside’s most important work involving <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Maxwell's </ins>theories was what he did with [[Maxwell's Equations|Maxwell’s equations]]. Maxwell’s equations are the laws that electric and magnetic fields must follow. However, Maxwell never wrote the four simple-looking equations we use today. Rather, in 1873 Maxwell published a set of 20 equations in 20 different variables. These were difficult to understand, which made <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Maxwell's </ins>theory slow to be accepted. By 1884, however, Heaviside was not only able to understand them, but to simplify them as well. For example, using “vector notation,” he combined sets of three equations into one. Heaviside also recognized that Maxwell’s equations did not require the use of “potentials.” These potentials that Maxwell used extensively could just be treated as mathematical quantities derived from the electric and magnetic fields. Today, we call them “Maxwell’s equations,” but Maxwell himself never saw them in this form. </div></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br/></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>Heaviside continued working with Maxwell’s equations for the remainder of his life. Among other things, he developed the concept of “operators,” which reduced complicated differential equations to simple algebraic equations, a technique every electrical engineer today knows as “Laplace Transform Theory.” He also introduced the concept of reactance, i.e., the “resistance” of an [[Inductor|inductor]] or capacitor. In spite of all of Heaviside’s discoveries, his name lives on today only as one of the first (along with [[Arthur E. Kennelly|Arthur E. Kennelly]]) to propose the existence of the ionosphere. Heaviside predicted a conducting layer in the atmosphere in 1902. The E layer of the ionosphere is sometimes known as the [[Kennelly-Heaviside Layer|Heaviside-Kennelly Layer]]. </div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>Heaviside continued working with Maxwell’s equations for the remainder of his life. Among other things, he developed the concept of “operators,” which reduced complicated differential equations to simple algebraic equations, a technique every electrical engineer today knows as “Laplace Transform Theory.” He also introduced the concept of reactance, i.e., the “resistance” of an [[Inductor|inductor]] or capacitor. In spite of all of Heaviside’s discoveries, his name lives on today only as one of the first (along with [[Arthur E. Kennelly|Arthur E. Kennelly]]) to propose the existence of the ionosphere. Heaviside predicted a conducting layer in the atmosphere in 1902. The E layer of the ionosphere is sometimes known as the [[Kennelly-Heaviside Layer|Heaviside-Kennelly Layer]]. </div></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno" id="mw-diff-left-l33">Line 33:</td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 36:</td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>[[The IEE|The IEE (UK)]] established a Heaviside Prize for contributions to Maxwell, electroistatics etc. </div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>[[The IEE|The IEE (UK)]] established a Heaviside Prize for contributions to Maxwell, electroistatics etc. </div></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br/></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div><del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">See also</del>: [[Papers of Oliver Heaviside|Papers of Oliver Heaviside]] </div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div><ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">== Additional Information and Professional Honors ==</ins></div></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div> </div></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div><ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Heaviside, who has been recognized as one of the most eminent exponents of electrical science, particularly for his development of the electromagnetic theory, was elected to honorary membership in the Institute on February 14, 1918. Mr. Heaviside was born in England in 1848, and lived there until his death in 1925. His retiring character and desire to avoid society, partly due to almost complete deafness since childhood, has resulted in his name being unknown to the general public, but those who have come in contact with his work regard him as an illustrious successor to Wheatstone, Maxwell, and Kelvin. He lived alone in a cottage at Lower Warberry, Torquay, England, in poverty, a pension of £200 a year having practically been forced upon him. While he wrote papers of great value for the Philosophical Magazine of the Royal Society of London and for the London Electrician, for which he received but scant remuneration, these papers were difficult to read and little known. Few of his admirers ever met him. His writings, however, had considerable practical value, particularly his mathematical theory of the value of distributed self-induction in long distance telephony, a theory which was later used for practical application and to telephony, establishing a new epoch in this field. The Royal Society, of England, had elected him to fellowship. </ins></div></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div> </div></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div><ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">== Further Reading ==</ins></div></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div> </div></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div><ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[http</ins>:<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">//www.aim25.ac.uk/cgi-bin/vcdf/detail?coll_id=11412&inst_id=110&nv1=search&nv2= Heaviside, Oliver, Collection of] </ins></div></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div> </div></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>[[<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Archives:</ins>Papers of Oliver Heaviside|<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Heaviside, Oliver, IEEE </ins>Papers of<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]] </ins></div></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div> </div></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div><ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[Archives:Papers of Oliver Heaviside|Papers of Oliver Heaviside]] </ins></div></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div> </div></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div><ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[http://archive.org/search.php?query=creator%3A%22Heaviside%2C+Oliver%2C+1850-1925%22 Heaviside, Oliver, Internet Archive Publications of] </ins></div></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div> </div></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div><ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Mahon, Basil.&nbsp;''Oliver Heaviside: Maverick Mastermind of Electricity''. London: Institution of Engineering and Technology, 2009. </ins></div></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div> </div></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div><ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Nahin, Paul J. ''</ins>Oliver Heaviside<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">: The Life, Work, and Times of an Electrical Genius of the Victorian Age''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002.<br> </ins></div></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div> </div></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div> </div></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div><ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[Category:Scientists]] </ins></div></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div><ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[Category:Fields,_waves_&_electromagnetics]] </ins></div></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div><ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[Category:Electromagnetics]</ins>] </div></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div><ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[Category:Electromagnetic_fields</ins>]<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">] </ins></div></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div><ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[Category:Computing and electronics]] </ins></div></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div><ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[Category:Instrumentation]] </ins></div></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div><ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[Category:Electric_variables]] </ins></div></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div><ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[Category:Telegraphy]] </ins></div></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div> </div></td></tr> <tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div><ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">{{DEFAULTSORT:Heaviside}}</ins></div></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br/></td></tr> <tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>[[Category:<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">People_and_organizations]] [[Category:Scientists]] [[Category:Fields,_waves_&_electromagnetics|Category:Fields,_waves_&amp;_electromagnetics]] [[Category:Electromagnetics]] [[Category:Electromagnetic_fields]] [[Category:Components,_circuits,_devices_&_systems|Category:Components,_circuits,_devices_&amp;_systems]] [[Category:Instrumentation]] [[Category:Electric_variables]] [[Category:Communications]] [[Category:Telegraphy]] [[Category:News</del>]]</div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>[[Category:<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Prominent_members</ins>]]</div></td></tr> </table><hr class='diff-hr' id='mw-oldid' /> <h2 class='diff-currentversion-title'>Latest revision as of 15:28, 11 February 2016</h2> <div class="mw-parser-output"><div id="biography-box" class="infobox well" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; max-width: 342px;"> <div id="biography-name" class="h2">Oliver Heaviside</div> <div id="biography-image" style="text-align: center"><div class="thumb tnone"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:197px;"><a href="/File:Heaviside.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/w/images/6/65/Heaviside.jpg" decoding="async" width="195" height="252" class="thumbimage" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/File:Heaviside.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Oliver Heaviside</div></div></div></div> <div id="biography-list"> <dl><dt>Birthdate</dt> <dd>1850/05/18</dd> <dt>Birthplace</dt> <dd>Camden Town, London, UK</dd> <dt>Death date</dt> <dd>1925/01/03</dd> <dt>Fields of study</dt> <dd>Electromagnetics, Telegraphy</dd></dl> </div> </div> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Biography">Biography</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:302px;"><a href="/File:Portrait_of_Heaviside_0295.jpg" class="image"><img alt="Portrait of Heaviside 0295.jpg" src="/w/images/thumb/e/ee/Portrait_of_Heaviside_0295.jpg/300px-Portrait_of_Heaviside_0295.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="421" class="thumbimage" srcset="/w/images/thumb/e/ee/Portrait_of_Heaviside_0295.jpg/450px-Portrait_of_Heaviside_0295.jpg 1.5x, /w/images/e/ee/Portrait_of_Heaviside_0295.jpg 2x" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/File:Portrait_of_Heaviside_0295.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div></div></div></div> <p><b>Honorary Member 1918</b> </p><p>Oliver Heaviside was born in 1850 in Camden Town, a notoriously crime-ridden, lower class area of London. Young Oliver had a challenging and troubled youth. Life in the slums was difficult enough, but a childhood bout with scarlet fever, which left him nearly deaf, added to his troubles. Heaviside’s mother ran a school for girls, which he attended rather than attending the neighborhood school. This offered some protection from the influence of the local ruffians. However, Heaviside’s hearing impairment made making friends difficult. Despite being bright and a good student, by age 16 the socially awkward Heaviside had had enough of formal education and left school. </p><p>Leaving school, however, did not mean abandoning learning. With the guidance of his uncle, <a href="/Charles_Wheatstone" title="Charles Wheatstone">Sir Charles Wheatstone</a>, an inventor of an early telegraph and a well-known musical instrument maker, Heaviside studied languages (German and Danish), music, and learned <a href="/Telegraph" title="Telegraph">telegraphy</a>. </p><p>With his knowledge of telegraphy and Danish, and probably with some help from his famous uncle, Heaviside got a job as a telegraph operator in Denmark. While working there, Heaviside noticed that signals from England to Denmark could be sent faster than those sent from Denmark to England. Those in the telegraph industry thought this was due to some strange and unknown property of the 347-nautical mile undersea cable carrying the messages. Heaviside wasn’t so sure and was able to show mathematically that if everything is identical on both ends of the cable, the maximum rate must be the same in both directions. He then showed, again mathematically, that any difference must be due to different resistance at each end. Simply put, the equipment in England had lower electrical resistance and could push more current faster into the capacitance of the cable, and thus could send at a higher rate. </p><p>During this time, Heaviside began an independent study of advanced topics such as calculus and <a href="/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell">James Clerk Maxwell’s</a> new theory of electromagnetics. Heaviside found the latter especially compelling: </p><p>“I browsed through it and I was astonished! I read the preface and the last chapter, and several bits here and there; I saw that it was great, greater and greatest...I was determined to master the book and set to work.” </p><p>Maxwell's theory provided Heaviside with his life’s work. </p><p>Maxwell's theory predicts “electromagnetic waves” that travel with the speed of light. Heaviside reasoned that electromagnetic waves could travel on a telegraph cable too. At the time, it was believed that the electric telegraphic pulses diffused, or “soaked” in the telegraph cable. Although the mathematical cables that arose from diffusion theory worked for short cables, they failed for longer cables. Heaviside’s equations, based on Maxwell's electromagnetic waves, worked for cables of all lengths. </p><p>This finding had practical applications for telegraph communications. For example, Heaviside actually solved one of the biggest problems affecting long distance telegraph and telephone communication in 1887 —distortion. It was known that different frequencies travel with different speeds on a long cable. For example, the low bass frequencies in a voice signal travel faster than the high treble frequencies. When the cable is long enough, the frequencies smear, and both voice and telegraph signals become garbled noise. Heaviside used his equations to show that if inductances (i.e., a small coil of wire) were added along the length of the cable, the distortion could be reduced. </p><p>Heaviside and his theory ran into problems. His papers were difficult to read and most people did not understand him. Heaviside was not one to suffer fools. His sharp remarks and lack of diplomacy created enemies in the scientific community who suppressed and ridiculed his work. As a result it took 20 years and a rediscovery of the inductance idea by <a href="/Archives:Papers_of_Silvanus_P._Thompson" title="Archives:Papers of Silvanus P. Thompson">Silvanus Thompson</a> before long distance telephone calls could become a reality. </p><p>Heaviside’s most important work involving Maxwell's theories was what he did with <a href="/Maxwell%27s_Equations" title="Maxwell's Equations">Maxwell’s equations</a>. Maxwell’s equations are the laws that electric and magnetic fields must follow. However, Maxwell never wrote the four simple-looking equations we use today. Rather, in 1873 Maxwell published a set of 20 equations in 20 different variables. These were difficult to understand, which made Maxwell's theory slow to be accepted. By 1884, however, Heaviside was not only able to understand them, but to simplify them as well. For example, using “vector notation,” he combined sets of three equations into one. Heaviside also recognized that Maxwell’s equations did not require the use of “potentials.” These potentials that Maxwell used extensively could just be treated as mathematical quantities derived from the electric and magnetic fields. Today, we call them “Maxwell’s equations,” but Maxwell himself never saw them in this form. </p><p>Heaviside continued working with Maxwell’s equations for the remainder of his life. Among other things, he developed the concept of “operators,” which reduced complicated differential equations to simple algebraic equations, a technique every electrical engineer today knows as “Laplace Transform Theory.” He also introduced the concept of reactance, i.e., the “resistance” of an <a href="/Inductor" title="Inductor">inductor</a> or capacitor. In spite of all of Heaviside’s discoveries, his name lives on today only as one of the first (along with <a href="/Arthur_E._Kennelly" title="Arthur E. Kennelly">Arthur E. Kennelly</a>) to propose the existence of the ionosphere. Heaviside predicted a conducting layer in the atmosphere in 1902. The E layer of the ionosphere is sometimes known as the <a href="/Kennelly-Heaviside_Layer" title="Kennelly-Heaviside Layer">Heaviside-Kennelly Layer</a>. </p><p>As on old man, Heaviside spent his final years comfortably, although his mental powers diminished. “I have become as stupid as an owl,” he once bluntly stated. Heaviside died at the age of 74. </p><p><a href="/The_IEE" class="mw-redirect" title="The IEE">The IEE (UK)</a> established a Heaviside Prize for contributions to Maxwell, electroistatics etc. </p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Additional_Information_and_Professional_Honors">Additional Information and Professional Honors</span></h2> <p>Heaviside, who has been recognized as one of the most eminent exponents of electrical science, particularly for his development of the electromagnetic theory, was elected to honorary membership in the Institute on February 14, 1918. Mr. Heaviside was born in England in 1848, and lived there until his death in 1925. His retiring character and desire to avoid society, partly due to almost complete deafness since childhood, has resulted in his name being unknown to the general public, but those who have come in contact with his work regard him as an illustrious successor to Wheatstone, Maxwell, and Kelvin. He lived alone in a cottage at Lower Warberry, Torquay, England, in poverty, a pension of £200 a year having practically been forced upon him. While he wrote papers of great value for the Philosophical Magazine of the Royal Society of London and for the London Electrician, for which he received but scant remuneration, these papers were difficult to read and little known. Few of his admirers ever met him. His writings, however, had considerable practical value, particularly his mathematical theory of the value of distributed self-induction in long distance telephony, a theory which was later used for practical application and to telephony, establishing a new epoch in this field. The Royal Society, of England, had elected him to fellowship. </p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Further_Reading">Further Reading</span></h2> <p><a target="_blank" rel="nofollow noreferrer noopener" class="external text" href="http://www.aim25.ac.uk/cgi-bin/vcdf/detail?coll_id=11412&inst_id=110&nv1=search&nv2=">Heaviside, Oliver, Collection of</a> </p><p><a href="/Archives:Papers_of_Oliver_Heaviside" title="Archives:Papers of Oliver Heaviside">Heaviside, Oliver, IEEE Papers of</a> </p><p><a href="/Archives:Papers_of_Oliver_Heaviside" title="Archives:Papers of Oliver Heaviside">Papers of Oliver Heaviside</a> </p><p><a target="_blank" rel="nofollow noreferrer noopener" class="external text" href="http://archive.org/search.php?query=creator%3A%22Heaviside%2C+Oliver%2C+1850-1925%22">Heaviside, Oliver, Internet Archive Publications of</a> </p><p>Mahon, Basil. <i>Oliver Heaviside: Maverick Mastermind of Electricity</i>. London: Institution of Engineering and Technology, 2009. </p><p>Nahin, Paul J. <i>Oliver Heaviside: The Life, Work, and Times of an Electrical Genius of the Victorian Age</i>. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002.<br /> </p></div></div><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://ethw.org/w/index.php?title=Oliver_Heaviside&oldid=146762">https://ethw.org/w/index.php?title=Oliver_Heaviside&oldid=146762</a>"</div>   <div id='mw-data-after-content'> <p><div id="banner-slideshow"><a href="https://www.aiaa.org/SciTech" target="_blank" rel="nofollow" class="banner-slideshow--ad banner-slideshow--ad-1" style="display: none;"></a><a href="https://www.smeannualconference.com/" target="_blank" rel="nofollow" class="banner-slideshow--ad banner-slideshow--ad-2" style="display: none;"></a><a href="https://bit.ly/3GTH9SQ" target="_blank" rel="nofollow" class="banner-slideshow--ad banner-slideshow--ad-3" style="display: none;"></a><a href="https://bit.ly/45a0SIe" target="_blank" rel="nofollow" class="banner-slideshow--ad banner-slideshow--ad-4" style="display: none;"></a><a href="https://bit.ly/3Whz2Wf" target="_blank" rel="nofollow" class="banner-slideshow--ad banner-slideshow--ad-5" style="display: none;"></a> <a href="https://bit.ly/3DCinEw" target="_blank" rel="nofollow" class="banner-slideshow--ad banner-slideshow--ad-6" style="display: none;"></a> <a href="https://2024.otcnet.org/register" target="_blank" rel="nofollow" class="banner-slideshow--ad banner-slideshow--ad-7" style="display: none;"></a> </div><script> var slideshow = document.querySelector('#banner-slideshow'); var ads = slideshow.querySelectorAll('.banner-slideshow--ad'); var selectedAd = ads[Math.floor(Math.random()*ads.length)]; selectedAd.classList.add('banner-slideshow--ad--visible'); </script><style> #banner-slideshow { margin: 25px auto; } #banner-slideshow .banner-slideshow--ad-1 { background: url(https://ethw.org/w/images/9/9e/Aiaa_banner.jpg) 0 0 no-repeat; width: 856px; height: 104px; } #banner-slideshow .banner-slideshow--ad-2 { background: url(https://ethw.org/w/images/6/63/MX23_Reach_Local_728x90.png) 0 0 no-repeat; width: 728px; height: 90px; } #banner-slideshow .banner-slideshow--ad-3 { background: url(https://ethw.org/w/images/b/be/ASME_ETHWbanner_728x90_1c.png) 0 0 no-repeat; width: 728px; height: 90px; } #banner-slideshow .banner-slideshow--ad-4 { background: url(https://ethw.org/w/images/0/0b/ASME_ETHW_ad_720x90_May_1_V1.jpg) 0 0 no-repeat; width: 720px; height: 90px; } #banner-slideshow .banner-slideshow--ad-5 { background: url(https://ethw.org/w/images/d/d1/ASME_ETHW_ad_720x90_May_2_V1.jpg) 0 0 no-repeat; width: 720px; height: 90px; } #banner-slideshow .banner-slideshow--ad-6 { background: url(https://ethw.org/w/images/9/90/ASME_ETHW_Climate_Ad_01.png) 0 0 no-repeat; width: 720px; height: 90px; } #banner-slideshow .banner-slideshow--ad-7 { background: url(https://ethw.org/w/images/1/18/8._2947_-_JPT_Digital_Adverts_-_970x90_-_150dpi.jpg) 0 0 no-repeat; width: 968px; height: 90px; } #banner-slideshow .banner-slideshow--ad { display: block; margin: 0 auto; } #banner-slideshow .banner-slideshow--ad--visible { display: block !important; } </style> </p> </div> </div>  <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/Special:Categories" title="Special:Categories">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/Category:Biographies" title="Category:Biographies">Biographies</a></li><li><a href="/Category:Scientists" title="Category:Scientists">Scientists</a></li><li><a href="/Category:Fields,_waves_%26_electromagnetics" title="Category:Fields, waves & electromagnetics">Fields, waves & electromagnetics</a></li><li><a href="/Category:Electromagnetics" title="Category:Electromagnetics">Electromagnetics</a></li><li><a href="/Category:Electromagnetic_fields" title="Category:Electromagnetic fields">Electromagnetic fields</a></li><li><a href="/Category:Computing_and_electronics" title="Category:Computing and electronics">Computing and electronics</a></li><li><a href="/Category:Instrumentation" title="Category:Instrumentation">Instrumentation</a></li><li><a href="/Category:Electric_variables" title="Category:Electric variables">Electric variables</a></li><li><a href="/Category:Telegraphy" title="Category:Telegraphy">Telegraphy</a></li><li><a href="/Category:Prominent_members" title="Category:Prominent members">Prominent members</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="mb-2 mt-4 container-fluid"> <div class="row"> <div class="col">  <nav class="p-navbar not-collapsible small mb-2" role="navigation" id="mw-navigation-hw1k3kvzg6"> <div class="navbar-nav"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="row"> <div class="col">  <div id="footer-info" class="footer-info">  <div> This page was last edited on 11 February 2016, at 15:28.</div> </div>  <div id="footer-places" class="footer-places"> <div><a href="/ETHW:About">About ETHW</a></div> <div><a href="/ETHW:Policies">Policies and disclaimers</a></div> </div> </div> <div class="col">  <div id="footer-icons" class="justify-content-end footer-icons">  <div><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" target="_blank"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki_88x31.png" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" srcset="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"/></a></div> <div><a href="https://www.semantic-mediawiki.org/wiki/Semantic_MediaWiki" target="_blank"><img src="data:image/png;base64,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" alt="Powered by Semantic MediaWiki" class="smw-footer" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"/></a></div> </div> </div> </div> </div><script src="https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtag/js?id=G-9873239KM5" async=""></script><script> window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; function gtag(){dataLayer.push(arguments);} gtag('js', new Date()); gtag('config', 'G-9873239KM5', {}); </script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgPageParseReport":{"smw":{"limitreport-intext-parsertime":0.004},"limitreport":{"cputime":"0.021","walltime":"0.024","ppvisitednodes":{"value":80,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":1055,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":181,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":5,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":0,"limit":100},"unstrip-depth":{"value":0,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":0,"limit":5000000},"timingprofile":["100.00% 3.660 1 Template:Biography","100.00% 3.660 1 -total"]},"cachereport":{"timestamp":"20241127001627","ttl":86400,"transientcontent":false}}});mw.config.set({"wgBackendResponseTime":125});});</script> </body> </html>