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structures </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ionic_crystal_structures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biological_molecules" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biological_molecules"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Biological molecules </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biological_molecules-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Molecular_genetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Molecular_genetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Molecular genetics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Molecular_genetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Structure_of_the_atomic_nucleus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Structure_of_the_atomic_nucleus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Structure of the atomic nucleus </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Structure_of_the_atomic_nucleus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Activism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Activism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Activism </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Activism-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Activism subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Activism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Wartime_work" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wartime_work"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Wartime work </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wartime_work-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nuclear_activism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nuclear_activism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Nuclear activism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nuclear_activism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_criticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_criticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Political criticism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_criticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vietnam_war_activism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vietnam_war_activism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Vietnam war activism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vietnam_war_activism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Global_activism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Global_activism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Global activism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Global_activism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eugenics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eugenics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6 Eugenics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eugenics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medical_research_and_vitamin_C_advocacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medical_research_and_vitamin_C_advocacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7 Medical research and vitamin C advocacy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medical_research_and_vitamin_C_advocacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Personal_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personal_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Personal life </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Personal_life-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Personal life subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Personal_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Death_and_legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Death_and_legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Death and legacy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Death_and_legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Commemorations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Commemorations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Commemorations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Commemorations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Honors_and_awards" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Honors_and_awards"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Honors and awards </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Honors_and_awards-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Publications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Publications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Publications </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Publications-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Publications subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Publications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Books" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Books"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Books </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Books-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Journal_articles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Journal_articles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Journal articles </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Journal_articles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-General_and_cited_references" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_and_cited_references"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 General and cited references </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_and_cited_references-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Linus Pauling</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 96 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-96" aria-hidden="true" > 96 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Linus Pauling" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B3_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%88%D9%84%D9%86%D8%BA" title="لينوس باولنغ – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="لينوس باولنغ" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Linus Pauling" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Linus Pauling" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ay mw-list-item"><a href="https://ay.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling – Aymara" lang="ay" hreflang="ay" data-title="Linus Pauling" data-language-autonym="Aymar aru" data-language-local-name="Aymara" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aymar aru</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laynus_Polinq" title="Laynus Polinq – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Laynus Polinq" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B3_%D9%BE%D8%A7%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%82" title="لینوس پاولینق – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="لینوس پاولینق" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%82" title="লিনাস পাউলিং – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="লিনাস পাউলিং" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Linus Pauling" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BD%D1%83%D1%81_%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%B3" title="Лайнус Полінг – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Лайнус Полінг" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BD%D1%83%D1%81_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BB_%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%B3" title="Лайнус Карл Полінг – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Лайнус Карл Полінг" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BD%D1%8A%D1%81_%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3" title="Лайнъс Полинг – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Лайнъс Полинг" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Linus Pauling" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linus_Carl_Pauling" title="Linus Carl Pauling – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Linus Carl Pauling" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Linus Pauling" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Linus Pauling" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Linus Pauling" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Linus Pauling" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Linus Pauling" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9B%CE%AC%CE%B9%CE%BD%CE%BF%CF%85%CF%82_%CE%A0%CF%8C%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%BD%CE%B3%CE%BA" title="Λάινους Πόλινγκ – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Λάινους Πόλινγκ" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Linus Pauling" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Linus Pauling" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Linus Pauling" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B3_%D9%BE%D8%A7%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%86%DA%AF" title="لینوس پاولینگ – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="لینوس پاولینگ" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Linus Pauling" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Linus Pauling" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Linus Pauling" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Linus Pauling" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Linus Pauling" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%9D%BC%EC%9D%B4%EB%84%88%EC%8A%A4_%ED%8F%B4%EB%A7%81" title="라이너스 폴링 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="라이너스 폴링" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BC%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%BD_%D5%93%D5%B8%D5%AC%D5%AB%D5%B6%D5%A3" title="Լայնուս Փոլինգ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Լայնուս Փոլինգ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B8_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97" title="लायनस पॉलिंग – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="लायनस पॉलिंग" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Linus Pauling" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Linus Pauling" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linus_Carl_Pauling" title="Linus Carl Pauling – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Linus Carl Pauling" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Linus Pauling" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Linus Pauling" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Linus Pauling" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%A1_%D7%A4%D7%90%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%92" title="לינוס פאולינג – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="לינוס פאולינג" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B2%E0%B3%88%E0%B2%A8%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D_%E0%B2%AA%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B2%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%97%E0%B3%8D" title="ಲೈನಸ್ ಪಾಲಿಂಗ್ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಲೈನಸ್ ಪಾಲಿಂಗ್" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%9E%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%92%E1%83%98" title="ლაინუს პოლინგი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ლაინუს პოლინგი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BD%D1%83%D1%81_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BB_%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3" title="Лайнус Карл Полинг – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Лайнус Карл Полинг" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Linus Pauling" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Linus Pauling" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Linus Pauling" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lainuss_Polings" title="Lainuss Polings – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Lainuss Polings" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Linus Pauling" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Linus Pauling" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B0%D1%98%D0%BD%D1%83%D1%81_%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3" title="Лајнус Полинг – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Лајнус Полинг" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Linus Pauling" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%88%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%B3%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%82%E0%B4%97%E0%B5%8D" title="ലൈനസ് പോളിംഗ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ലൈനസ് പോളിംഗ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%9E%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%92%E1%83%98" title="ლაინუს პოლინგი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ლაინუს პოლინგი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B3_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%88%D9%84%D9%86%D8%AC" title="لينوس باولنج – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="لينوس باولنج" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B3_%D9%BE%D8%A7%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%86%DA%AF" title="لینوس پاولینگ – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="لینوس پاولینگ" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Linus Pauling" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BD%D1%83%D1%81_%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3" title="Лайнус Полинг – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Лайнус Полинг" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Linus Pauling" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%A9%E3%82%A4%E3%83%8A%E3%82%B9%E3%83%BB%E3%83%9D%E3%83%BC%E3%83%AA%E3%83%B3%E3%82%B0" title="ライナス・ポーリング – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ライナス・ポーリング" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Linus Pauling" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Linus Pauling" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linus_Carl_Pauling" title="Linus Carl Pauling – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Linus Carl Pauling" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target">Novial</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Linus Pauling" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Linus Pauling" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%86%D8%B3_%D9%BE%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%DA%AF" title="لینس پالنگ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="لینس پالنگ" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B3_%D9%BE%D8%A7%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%86%DA%AB" title="لینوس پاولینګ – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="لینوس پاولینګ" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linus_Carl_Pauling" title="Linus Carl Pauling – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Linus Carl Pauling" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Linus Pauling" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Linus Pauling" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Linus Pauling" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Linus Pauling" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3,_%D0%9B%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BD%D1%83%D1%81" title="Полинг, Лайнус – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Полинг, Лайнус" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97" title="लिनस् पॉलिङ्ग – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="लिनस् पॉलिङ्ग" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Linus Pauling" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Linus Pauling" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Linus Pauling" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linus_Carl_Pauling" title="Linus Carl Pauling – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Linus Carl Pauling" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linus_Carl_Pauling" title="Linus Carl Pauling – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Linus Carl Pauling" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%86%D8%B3_%D9%BE%DB%86%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%86%DA%AF" title="لاینس پۆلینگ – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="لاینس پۆلینگ" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B0%D1%98%D0%BD%D1%83%D1%81_%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3" title="Лајнус Полинг – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Лајнус Полинг" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Linus Pauling" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Linus Pauling" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Linus Pauling" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Linus Pauling" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a 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id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">American scientist and activist (1901–1994)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Linus Pauling</div><div class="honorific-suffix" style="font-size: 77%; font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Foreign_Member_of_the_Royal_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="Foreign Member of the Royal Society">ForMemRS</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Linus_Pauling_in_the_1940s.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Linus_Pauling_in_the_1940s.jpg/220px-Linus_Pauling_in_the_1940s.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="315" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Linus_Pauling_in_the_1940s.jpg/330px-Linus_Pauling_in_the_1940s.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Linus_Pauling_in_the_1940s.jpg/440px-Linus_Pauling_in_the_1940s.jpg 2x" data-file-width="624" data-file-height="894" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">Pauling in the 1940s</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display:inline" class="nickname">Linus Carl Pauling</div> (1901-02-28)February 28, 1901 <div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Portland,_Oregon" title="Portland, Oregon">Portland, Oregon</a>, U.S.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">August 19, 1994(1994-08-19) (aged 93) <div style="display:inline" class="deathplace"><a href="/wiki/Big_Sur" title="Big Sur">Big Sur</a>, California, U.S.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Education</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oregon_State_University" title="Oregon State University">Oregon State University</a> (<a href="/wiki/B._S." class="mw-redirect" title="B. S.">BS</a>)</li><li><a href="/wiki/California_Institute_of_Technology" title="California Institute of Technology">California Institute of Technology</a> (<a href="/wiki/PhD" class="mw-redirect" title="PhD">PhD</a>)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Known for</th><td class="infobox-data"><div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style>See list</div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Alpha_sheet" title="Alpha sheet">Alpha sheet</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Ancestral_sequence_reconstruction" title="Ancestral sequence reconstruction">Ancestral sequence reconstruction</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Pi_backbonding" title="Pi backbonding">Backbonding</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Beta_sheet" title="Beta sheet">Beta sheet</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Bond_order" title="Bond order">Bond order</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Breath_gas_analysis" title="Breath gas analysis">Breath gas analysis</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Coiled_coil" title="Coiled coil">Coiled coil</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Corey-Pauling_rules" class="mw-redirect" title="Corey-Pauling rules">Corey-Pauling rules</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/CPK_coloring" title="CPK coloring">CPK coloring</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Crystal_structure_prediction" title="Crystal structure prediction">Crystal structure prediction</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Electronegativity" title="Electronegativity">Electronegativity</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;">Elucidating <a href="/wiki/Chemical_bond" title="Chemical bond">chemical bonds</a> and <a href="/wiki/Molecular_structure" class="mw-redirect" title="Molecular structure">molecular structures</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Geometrical_frustration" title="Geometrical frustration">Geometrical frustration</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Orbital_hybridisation" title="Orbital hybridisation">Hybridisation theory</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_bond" title="Hydrogen bond">Hydrogen bonding</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Ice-type_model" title="Ice-type model">Ice-type model</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Linear_combination_of_atomic_orbitals" title="Linear combination of atomic orbitals">Linear combination of atomic orbitals</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Molecular_clock" title="Molecular clock">Molecular clock</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Molecular_medicine" title="Molecular medicine">Molecular medicine</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Non-carbon_nanotube" title="Non-carbon nanotube">Non-carbon nanotube</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Orbital_overlap" title="Orbital overlap">Orbital overlap</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Cooperative_binding#Pauling_equation" title="Cooperative binding">Pauling equation</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Pauling%27s_rules" title="Pauling's rules">Pauling's rules</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Pauling%E2%80%93Corey%E2%80%93Branson_alpha_helix" class="mw-redirect" title="Pauling–Corey–Branson alpha helix">Pauling–Corey–Branson alpha helix</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Pauling%27s_principle_of_electroneutrality" title="Pauling's principle of electroneutrality">Pauling's principle of electroneutrality</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Quantum_chemistry" title="Quantum chemistry">Quantum chemistry</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Quantum_graph" title="Quantum graph">Quantum graph</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Residual_entropy" title="Residual entropy">Residual entropy</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Resonance_(chemistry)" title="Resonance (chemistry)">Resonance (chemistry)</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Slater%E2%80%93Pauling_rule" title="Slater–Pauling rule">Slater–Pauling rule</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Space-filling_model" title="Space-filling model">Space-filling model</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Valence_bond_theory" title="Valence bond theory">Valence bond theory</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Vitamin_C_megadosage" title="Vitamin C megadosage">Vitamin C megadosage</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Xenic_acid" title="Xenic acid">Xenic acid</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;">Advocating <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_disarmament" title="Nuclear disarmament">nuclear disarmament</a></li></ul></div></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Spouse</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1151524712">.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-ws{display:inline;white-space:nowrap}</style> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;margin-top:1px;white-space:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ava_Helen_Pauling" title="Ava Helen Pauling">Ava Helen Miller</a></div> <div class="marriage-line-margin2px"></div> <div style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:1px;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style>1923; died <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">1981)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Children</th><td class="infobox-data">4</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Awards</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/ACS_Award_in_Pure_Chemistry" title="ACS Award in Pure Chemistry">ACS Award in Pure Chemistry</a> (1931)</li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Irving_Langmuir_Award" title="Irving Langmuir Award">Irving Langmuir Award</a> (1931)</li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Davy_Medal" title="Davy Medal">Davy Medal</a> (1947)</li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Nobel Prize in Chemistry</a> (1954)</li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="Nobel Peace Prize">Nobel Peace Prize</a> (1962)</li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Roebling_Medal" title="Roebling Medal">Roebling Medal</a> (1967)</li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Lenin_Peace_Prize" title="Lenin Peace Prize">Lenin Peace Prize</a> (1968–1969)</li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/National_Medal_of_Science" title="National Medal of Science">National Medal of Science</a> (1974)</li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Lomonosov_Gold_Medal" title="Lomonosov Gold Medal">Lomonosov Gold Medal</a> (1977)</li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/NAS_Award_in_Chemical_Sciences" title="NAS Award in Chemical Sciences">NAS Award in Chemical Sciences</a> (1979)</li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Priestley_Medal" title="Priestley Medal">Priestley Medal</a> (1984)</li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Vannevar_Bush_Award" title="Vannevar Bush Award">Vannevar Bush Award</a> (1989)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546">Scientific career</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Fields</th><td class="infobox-data category"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_chemistry" title="Quantum chemistry">Quantum chemistry</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Institutions</th><td class="infobox-data"><div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488">As faculty member</div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/California_Institute_of_Technology" title="California Institute of Technology">Caltech</a> (1927–1963) </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_San_Diego" title="University of California, San Diego">UC San Diego</a> (1967–1969) </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Stanford_University" title="Stanford University">Stanford</a> (1969–1975) </li></ul> </div> <div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488">As fellow</div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Cornell_University" title="Cornell University">Cornell University</a> (1937–1938) </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/University_of_Oxford" title="University of Oxford">University of Oxford</a> (1948) </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Center_for_the_Study_of_Democratic_Institutions" title="Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions">Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions</a> (1963–1967) </li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Thesis" title="Thesis">Thesis</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://thesis.library.caltech.edu/1791">The Determination with X-Rays of the Structures of Crystals</a> (1925<a href="#cite_note-paulingphd-3">[3]</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Doctoral_advisor" title="Doctoral advisor">Doctoral advisor</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roscoe_G._Dickinson" title="Roscoe G. Dickinson">Roscoe Dickinson</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Richard_C._Tolman" title="Richard C. Tolman">Richard Tolman</a><a href="#cite_note-mathgene-1">[1]</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Other academic advisors</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arnold_Sommerfeld" title="Arnold Sommerfeld">Arnold Sommerfeld</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a><a href="#cite_note-Guggenheim-2">[2]</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Doctoral students</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jerry_Donohue" title="Jerry Donohue">Jerry Donohue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Itano" title="Harvey Itano">Harvey Itano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barclay_Kamb" title="Barclay Kamb">Barclay Kamb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Karplus" title="Martin Karplus">Martin Karplus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Lerman" title="Leonard Lerman">Leonard Lerman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lipscomb" title="William Lipscomb">William Lipscomb</a><a href="#cite_note-mathgene-1">[1]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Meselson" title="Matthew Meselson">Matthew Meselson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurt_Mislow" title="Kurt Mislow">Kurt Mislow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Pardee" title="Arthur Pardee">Arthur Pardee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Rundle" title="Robert E. Rundle">Robert E. Rundle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edgar_Bright_Wilson" title="Edgar Bright Wilson">Edgar Bright Wilson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Other notable students</th><td class="infobox-data">Undergrads: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_McMillan" title="Edwin McMillan">Edwin McMillan</a></li></ul> </div> Post-docs: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_D._Coryell" title="Charles D. Coryell">Charles D. Coryell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_D._Dunitz" title="Jack D. Dunitz">Jack D. Dunitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidney_W._Fox" title="Sidney W. Fox">Sidney W. Fox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Gordy" title="Walter Gordy">Walter Gordy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edgar_Heilbronner" title="Edgar Heilbronner">Edgar Heilbronner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Ketelaar" title="Jan Ketelaar">Jan Ketelaar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Kuhn_(chemist)" title="Hans Kuhn (chemist)">Hans Kuhn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leslie_Orgel" title="Leslie Orgel">Leslie Orgel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Rich" title="Alexander Rich">Alexander Rich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seymour_Jonathan_Singer" title="Seymour Jonathan Singer">Seymour Jonathan Singer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Signature</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/File:Linus_Pauling_signature.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Linus_Pauling_signature.svg/150px-Linus_Pauling_signature.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="76" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Linus_Pauling_signature.svg/225px-Linus_Pauling_signature.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Linus_Pauling_signature.svg/300px-Linus_Pauling_signature.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="585" data-file-height="295" /></a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Notes</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><div style="text-align: left;">The only person to win two unshared Nobel Prizes.</div></td></tr></tbody></table> Linus Carl Pauling <a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Fellow of the Royal Society">FRS</a> (<a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/ˈpɔːlɪŋ/</a> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key">PAW-ling</a>; February 28, 1901 – August 19, 1994)<a href="#cite_note-ChemNobel-4">[4]</a> was an American <a href="/wiki/Chemist" title="Chemist">chemist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biochemist" title="Biochemist">biochemist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chemical_engineer" title="Chemical engineer">chemical engineer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peace_activist" class="mw-redirect" title="Peace activist">peace activist</a>, author, and educator. He published more than 1,200 papers and books, of which about 850 dealt with scientific topics.<a href="#cite_note-VolumeI-5">[5]</a> <a href="/wiki/New_Scientist" title="New Scientist">New Scientist</a> called him one of the 20 greatest scientists of all time.<a href="#cite_note-Horgan-6">[6]</a> For his scientific work, Pauling was awarded the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Nobel Prize in Chemistry</a> in 1954. For his peace activism, he was awarded the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="Nobel Peace Prize">Nobel Peace Prize</a> in 1962. He is one of five people to have <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize#Multiple_laureates" title="Nobel Prize">won more than one Nobel Prize</a> (the others being <a href="/wiki/Marie_Curie" title="Marie Curie">Marie Curie</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Bardeen" title="John Bardeen">John Bardeen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Sanger" title="Frederick Sanger">Frederick Sanger</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Karl_Barry_Sharpless" title="Karl Barry Sharpless">Karl Barry Sharpless</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Nobel-7">[7]</a> Of these, he is the only person to have been awarded two unshared Nobel Prizes,<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> and one of two people to be awarded Nobel Prizes in different fields, the other being <a href="/wiki/Marie_Curie" title="Marie Curie">Marie Curie</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Nobel-7">[7]</a> Pauling was one of the founders of the fields of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_chemistry" title="Quantum chemistry">quantum chemistry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">molecular biology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-natureobit-9">[9]</a> His contributions to the theory of the chemical bond include the concept of <a href="/wiki/Orbital_hybridisation" title="Orbital hybridisation">orbital hybridisation</a> and the first accurate scale of <a href="/wiki/Electronegativity" title="Electronegativity">electronegativities</a> of the elements. Pauling also worked on the structures of biological molecules, and showed the importance of the <a href="/wiki/Alpha_helix" title="Alpha helix">alpha helix</a> and <a href="/wiki/Beta_sheet" title="Beta sheet">beta sheet</a> in <a href="/wiki/Protein_secondary_structure" title="Protein secondary structure">protein secondary structure</a>. Pauling's approach combined methods and results from <a href="/wiki/X-ray_crystallography" title="X-ray crystallography">X-ray crystallography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Molecular_model" title="Molecular model">molecular model</a> building, and quantum chemistry. His discoveries inspired the work of <a href="/wiki/Rosalind_Franklin" title="Rosalind Franklin">Rosalind Franklin</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_Watson" title="James Watson">James Watson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Francis_Crick" title="Francis Crick">Francis Crick</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Wilkins" title="Maurice Wilkins">Maurice Wilkins</a> on the structure of <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a>, which in turn made it possible for geneticists to crack the DNA code of all organisms.<a href="#cite_note-Contributions_to_DNA_double-helix_discovery-10">[10]</a> In his later years, he promoted <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_disarmament" title="Nuclear disarmament">nuclear disarmament</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Orthomolecular_medicine" title="Orthomolecular medicine">orthomolecular medicine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Megavitamin_therapy" title="Megavitamin therapy">megavitamin therapy</a>,<a href="#cite_note-isbn0-399-50764-7-11">[11]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dietary_supplement" title="Dietary supplement">dietary supplements</a>, especially <a href="/wiki/Ascorbic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Ascorbic acid">ascorbic acid</a> (commonly known as Vitamin C). None of his ideas concerning the medical usefulness of large doses of vitamins have gained much acceptance in the mainstream scientific community.<a href="#cite_note-Horgan-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-Offit-12">[12]</a> He was married to the American human rights activist <a href="/wiki/Ava_Helen_Pauling" title="Ava Helen Pauling">Ava Helen Pauling</a>. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_life_and_education">Early life and education</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linus_Pauling&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early life and education">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Herman_Henry_William_Pauling.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Herman_Henry_William_Pauling.jpg/220px-Herman_Henry_William_Pauling.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="280" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Herman_Henry_William_Pauling.jpg/330px-Herman_Henry_William_Pauling.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Herman_Henry_William_Pauling.jpg/440px-Herman_Henry_William_Pauling.jpg 2x" data-file-width="549" data-file-height="699" /></a><figcaption>Herman Henry William Pauling, Linus Pauling's father, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1900</figcaption></figure> Linus Carl Pauling was born on February 28, 1901, in <a href="/wiki/Portland,_Oregon" title="Portland, Oregon">Portland, Oregon</a>,<a href="#cite_note-frs-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-childhood-14">[14]</a> the firstborn child of Herman Henry William Pauling (1876–1910) and Lucy Isabelle "Belle" Darling (1881–1926).<a href="#cite_note-Nature-15">[15]</a>: 22  He was named "Linus Carl", in honor of Lucy's father, Linus, and Herman's father, Carl.<a href="#cite_note-MeadHager-16">[16]</a>: 8  His ancestry included German and English.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> In 1902, after his sister Pauline was born, Pauling's parents decided to move out of Portland to find more affordable and spacious living quarters than their one-room apartment.<a href="#cite_note-GoGo-19">[19]</a>: 4  Lucy stayed with her husband's parents in Oswego until Herman brought the family to <a href="/wiki/Salem,_Oregon" title="Salem, Oregon">Salem</a>, where he worked briefly as a traveling salesman for the Skidmore Drug Company. Within a year of Lucile's birth in 1904, Herman Pauling moved his family to <a href="/wiki/Oswego,_Oregon" class="mw-redirect" title="Oswego, Oregon">Oswego, Oregon</a> where he opened his own drugstore.<a href="#cite_note-GoGo-19">[19]</a>: 4  He moved his family to <a href="/wiki/Condon,_Oregon" title="Condon, Oregon">Condon, Oregon</a>, in 1905.<a href="#cite_note-GoGo-19">[19]</a>: 5  By 1906, Herman Pauling was suffering from recurrent <a href="/wiki/Abdominal_pain" title="Abdominal pain">abdominal pain</a>. He died of a perforated <a href="/wiki/Peptic_ulcer" class="mw-redirect" title="Peptic ulcer">ulcer</a> on June 11, 1910, leaving Lucy to care for Linus, Lucile and Pauline.<a href="#cite_note-MeadHager-16">[16]</a>: 9  Pauling attributes his interest in becoming a chemist to being amazed by experiments conducted by a friend, <a href="/wiki/Lloyd_A._Jeffress" title="Lloyd A. Jeffress">Lloyd A. Jeffress</a>, who had a small chemistry lab kit.<a href="#cite_note-GoGo-19">[19]</a>: 17  He later wrote: "I was simply entranced by chemical phenomena, by the reactions in which substances, often with strikingly different properties, appear; and I hoped to learn more and more about this aspect of the world."<a href="#cite_note-Abrams-20">[20]</a> In high school, Pauling conducted chemistry experiments by scavenging equipment and material from an abandoned steel plant. With an older friend, Lloyd Simon, Pauling set up Palmon Laboratories in Simon's basement. They approached local dairies offering to perform butterfat samplings at cheap prices but dairymen were wary of trusting two boys with the task, and the business ended in failure.<a href="#cite_note-GoGo-19">[19]</a>: 21  At age 15, the high school senior had enough credits to enter <a href="/wiki/Oregon_State_University" title="Oregon State University">Oregon State University</a> (OSU), known then as Oregon Agricultural College.<a href="#cite_note-GoGo-19">[19]</a>: 22  Lacking two American history courses required for his <a href="/wiki/High_school_diploma" title="High school diploma">high school diploma</a>, Pauling asked the school principal if he could take the courses concurrently during the spring semester. Denied, he left <a href="/wiki/Washington_High_School_(Portland,_Oregon)" class="mw-redirect" title="Washington High School (Portland, Oregon)">Washington High School</a> in June without a diploma.<a href="#cite_note-Nature-15">[15]</a>: 48  The school awarded him an honorary diploma 45 years later, after he was awarded two Nobel Prizes.<a href="#cite_note-Nobel-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> Pauling held a number of jobs to earn money for his future college expenses, including working part-time at a grocery store for <a href="/wiki/United_States_dollar" title="United States dollar">US$</a>8 per week (equivalent to <a href="/wiki/United_States_dollar" title="United States dollar">US$</a>220 in 2023). His mother arranged an interview with the owner of a number of manufacturing plants in Portland, Mr. Schwietzerhoff, who hired him as an apprentice machinist at a salary of <a href="/wiki/United_States_dollar" title="United States dollar">US$</a>40 per month (equivalent to <a href="/wiki/United_States_dollar" title="United States dollar">US$</a>1,120 in 2023). This was soon raised to <a href="/wiki/United_States_dollar" title="United States dollar">US$</a>50 per month.<a href="#cite_note-GoGo-19">[19]</a>: 23  Pauling also set up a photography laboratory with two friends.<a href="#cite_note-GoGo-19">[19]</a>: 24  In September 1917, Pauling was finally admitted by Oregon State University. He immediately resigned from the machinist's job and informed his mother, who saw no point in a university education, of his plans.<a href="#cite_note-GoGo-19">[19]</a>: 25  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Higher_education">Higher education</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linus_Pauling&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Higher education">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LinusPaulingGraduation1922.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/LinusPaulingGraduation1922.jpg/220px-LinusPaulingGraduation1922.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="309" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/LinusPaulingGraduation1922.jpg/330px-LinusPaulingGraduation1922.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/LinusPaulingGraduation1922.jpg/440px-LinusPaulingGraduation1922.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1779" data-file-height="2497" /></a><figcaption>Pauling's graduation photo from <a href="/wiki/Oregon_State_University" title="Oregon State University">Oregon State University</a>, 1922</figcaption></figure> In his first semester, Pauling registered for two courses in chemistry, two in mathematics, mechanical drawing, introduction to mining and use of explosives, modern English prose, gymnastics and military drill.<a href="#cite_note-GoGo-19">[19]</a>: 26  His roommate was childhood pal and lifelong best friend Lloyd Jeffress.<a href="#cite_note-Linus-23">[23]</a> He was active in campus life and founded the school's chapter of the <a href="/wiki/Delta_Upsilon" title="Delta Upsilon">Delta Upsilon</a> fraternity.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> After his second year, he planned to take a job in Portland to help support his mother. The college offered him a position teaching <a href="/wiki/Quantitative_analysis_(chemistry)" title="Quantitative analysis (chemistry)">quantitative analysis</a>, a course he had just finished taking himself. He worked forty hours a week in the laboratory and classroom and earned <a href="/wiki/United_States_dollar" title="United States dollar">US$</a>100 a month (equivalent to <a href="/wiki/United_States_dollar" title="United States dollar">US$</a>1,500 in 2023), enabling him to continue his studies.<a href="#cite_note-GoGo-19">[19]</a>: 29  In his last two years at school, Pauling became aware of the work of <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_N._Lewis" title="Gilbert N. Lewis">Gilbert N. Lewis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Irving_Langmuir" title="Irving Langmuir">Irving Langmuir</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Electronic_structure" class="mw-redirect" title="Electronic structure">electronic structure</a> of atoms and their <a href="/wiki/Chemical_bond" title="Chemical bond">bonding</a> to form <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">molecules</a>.<a href="#cite_note-GoGo-19">[19]</a>: 29  He decided to focus his research on how the <a href="/wiki/Physical_property" title="Physical property">physical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chemical_property" title="Chemical property">chemical properties</a> of substances are related to the structure of the atoms of which they are composed, becoming one of the founders of the new science of quantum chemistry.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Engineering professor Samuel Graf (1887–1966)<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> selected Pauling to be his teaching assistant in a mechanics and materials course.<a href="#cite_note-GoGo-19">[19]</a>: 29 <a href="#cite_note-OSUArchives-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-Marinacci-28">[28]</a> During the winter of his senior year, Pauling taught a chemistry course for <a href="/wiki/Family_and_consumer_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Family and consumer science">home economics</a> majors. It was in one of these classes that Pauling met his future wife, <a href="/wiki/Ava_Helen_Pauling" title="Ava Helen Pauling">Ava Helen Miller</a>.<a href="#cite_note-GoGo-19">[19]</a>: 31 <a href="#cite_note-Marinacci-28">[28]</a>: 41 <a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-AvaBook-30">[30]</a> In 1922, Pauling graduated with a degree in <a href="/wiki/Chemical_engineering" title="Chemical engineering">chemical engineering</a>. He went on to graduate school at the <a href="/wiki/California_Institute_of_Technology" title="California Institute of Technology">California Institute of Technology</a> (Caltech) in <a href="/wiki/Pasadena,_California" title="Pasadena, California">Pasadena, California</a>, under the guidance of <a href="/wiki/Roscoe_G._Dickinson" title="Roscoe G. Dickinson">Roscoe Dickinson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Richard_C._Tolman" title="Richard C. Tolman">Richard Tolman</a>.<a href="#cite_note-mathgene-1">[1]</a> His graduate research involved the use of <a href="/wiki/X-ray_diffraction" title="X-ray diffraction">X-ray diffraction</a> to determine the structure of <a href="/wiki/Crystal" title="Crystal">crystals</a>. He published seven papers on the <a href="/wiki/Crystal_structure" title="Crystal structure">crystal structure</a> of minerals while he was at Caltech. He received his PhD in <a href="/wiki/Physical_chemistry" title="Physical chemistry">physical chemistry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_physics" title="Mathematical physics">mathematical physics</a>,<a href="#cite_note-paulingphd-3">[3]</a> <a href="/wiki/Summa_cum_laude" class="mw-redirect" title="Summa cum laude">summa cum laude</a>, in 1925.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Career">Career</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linus_Pauling&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Career">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox" style="width: 190px; clear: right; float:right;margin:0 0 1.5em 1.5em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:115%">External videos</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Sickle_Cell_Blood_Smear.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Sickle_Cell_Blood_Smear.JPG/170px-Sickle_Cell_Blood_Smear.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Sickle_Cell_Blood_Smear.JPG/255px-Sickle_Cell_Blood_Smear.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Sickle_Cell_Blood_Smear.JPG/340px-Sickle_Cell_Blood_Smear.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><img alt="video icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://watch.opb.org/video/1954582651/">Linus Pauling</a>, Oregon Experience, <a href="/wiki/Oregon_Historical_Society" title="Oregon Historical Society">Oregon Historical Society</a></td></tr></tbody></table>In 1926, Pauling was awarded a <a href="/wiki/Guggenheim_Fellowship" title="Guggenheim Fellowship">Guggenheim Fellowship</a> to travel to Europe, to study under German physicist <a href="/wiki/Arnold_Sommerfeld" title="Arnold Sommerfeld">Arnold Sommerfeld</a> in Munich, Danish physicist <a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a> in Copenhagen and Austrian physicist <a href="/wiki/Erwin_Schr%C3%B6dinger" title="Erwin Schrödinger">Erwin Schrödinger</a> in <a href="/wiki/Z%C3%BCrich" class="mw-redirect" title="Zürich">Zürich</a>. All three were experts in the new field of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a> and other branches of physics.<a href="#cite_note-Guggenheim-2">[2]</a> Pauling became interested in how quantum mechanics might be applied in his chosen field of interest, the <a href="/wiki/Electron_configuration" title="Electron configuration">electronic structure</a> of atoms and molecules. In Zürich, Pauling was also exposed to one of the first quantum mechanical analyses of bonding in the <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> molecule, done by <a href="/wiki/Walter_Heitler" title="Walter Heitler">Walter Heitler</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fritz_London" title="Fritz London">Fritz London</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Realism-32">[32]</a> Pauling devoted the two years of his European trip to this work and decided to make it the focus of his future research. He became one of the first scientists in the field of quantum chemistry and a pioneer in the application of quantum theory to the structure of molecules.<a href="#cite_note-PNNL-33">[33]</a> In 1927, Pauling took a new position as an assistant professor at <a href="/wiki/Caltech" class="mw-redirect" title="Caltech">Caltech</a> in <a href="/wiki/Theoretical_chemistry" title="Theoretical chemistry">theoretical chemistry</a>.<a href="#cite_note-OH-34">[34]</a> He launched his faculty career with a very productive five years, continuing with his <a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">X-ray</a> crystal studies and also performing quantum mechanical calculations on atoms and molecules. He published approximately fifty papers in those five years, and created the five rules now known as <a href="/wiki/Pauling%27s_rules" title="Pauling's rules">Pauling's rules</a>.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pauling1960-36">[36]</a> By 1929, he was promoted to associate professor, and by 1930, to full professor.<a href="#cite_note-OH-34">[34]</a> In 1931, the <a href="/wiki/American_Chemical_Society" title="American Chemical Society">American Chemical Society</a> awarded Pauling the Langmuir Prize for the most significant work in pure science by a person 30 years of age or younger.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> The following year, Pauling published what he regarded as his most important paper, in which he first laid out the concept of <a href="/wiki/Orbital_hybridization" class="mw-redirect" title="Orbital hybridization">hybridization of atomic orbitals</a> and analyzed the <a href="/wiki/Tetravalence" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetravalence">tetravalency</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a> atom.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> At Caltech, Pauling struck up a close friendship with <a href="/wiki/Theoretical_physics" title="Theoretical physics">theoretical physicist</a> <a href="/wiki/Robert_Oppenheimer" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Oppenheimer">Robert Oppenheimer</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley" title="University of California, Berkeley">University of California, Berkeley</a>, who spent part of his research and teaching schedule as a visitor at Caltech each year.<a href="#cite_note-Nature-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-Oppenheimer-39">[39]</a> Pauling was also affiliated with Berkeley, serving as a visiting lecturer in physics and chemistry from 1929 to 1934.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> Oppenheimer even gave Pauling a stunning personal collection of minerals.<a href="#cite_note-LostAlly-41">[41]</a> The two men planned to mount a joint attack on the nature of the chemical bond: apparently Oppenheimer would supply the mathematics and Pauling would interpret the results. Their relationship soured when Oppenheimer tried to pursue Pauling's wife, Ava Helen. When Pauling was at work, Oppenheimer came to their home and blurted out an invitation to Ava Helen to join him on a tryst in Mexico. She flatly refused, and reported the incident to Pauling. He immediately cut off his relationship with Oppenheimer.<a href="#cite_note-Nature-15">[15]</a>: 152 <a href="#cite_note-Oppenheimer-39">[39]</a> In the summer of 1930, Pauling made another European trip, during which he learned about gas-phase electron <a href="/wiki/Diffraction" title="Diffraction">diffraction</a> from <a href="/wiki/Herman_Francis_Mark" title="Herman Francis Mark">Herman Francis Mark</a>. After returning, he built an <a href="/wiki/Electron_diffraction" title="Electron diffraction">electron diffraction</a> instrument at Caltech with a student of his, <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_O._Brockway" title="Lawrence O. Brockway">Lawrence Olin Brockway</a>, and used it to study the <a href="/wiki/Molecular_geometry" title="Molecular geometry">molecular structure</a> of a large number of chemical substances.<a href="#cite_note-Hargittai-42">[42]</a> Pauling introduced the concept of <a href="/wiki/Electronegativity" title="Electronegativity">electronegativity</a> in 1932.<a href="#cite_note-paulingJACS-43">[43]</a> Using the various properties of molecules, such as the energy required to break bonds and the <a href="/wiki/Dipole" title="Dipole">dipole</a> <a href="/wiki/Moment_(physics)" title="Moment (physics)">moments</a> of molecules, he established a scale and an associated numerical value for most of the elements — the <a href="/wiki/Pauling_scale_of_electronegativity" class="mw-redirect" title="Pauling scale of electronegativity">Pauling Electronegativity Scale</a> — which is useful in predicting the nature of bonds between atoms in molecules.<a href="#cite_note-Scale2-44">[44]</a> In 1936, Pauling was promoted to chairman of the division of chemistry and chemical engineering at Caltech, and to the position of director of the Gates and Crellin Laboratories of Chemistry. He would hold both positions until 1958.<a href="#cite_note-OH-34">[34]</a> Pauling also spent a year in 1948 at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oxford" title="University of Oxford">University of Oxford</a> as George Eastman Visiting Professor and Fellow of Balliol.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nature_of_the_chemical_bond">Nature of the chemical bond</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linus_Pauling&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Nature of the chemical bond">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Linus_Pauling_1955a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Linus_Pauling_1955a.jpg/220px-Linus_Pauling_1955a.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="254" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Linus_Pauling_1955a.jpg/330px-Linus_Pauling_1955a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Linus_Pauling_1955a.jpg/440px-Linus_Pauling_1955a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1431" data-file-height="1655" /></a><figcaption>Linus Pauling with an inset of his Nobel Prize in 1955</figcaption></figure> In the late 1920s, Pauling began publishing papers on the nature of the <a href="/wiki/Chemical_bond" title="Chemical bond">chemical bond</a>. Between 1937 and 1938, he took a position as George Fischer Baker Non-Resident Lecturer in Chemistry at <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University" title="Cornell University">Cornell University</a>. While at Cornell, he delivered a series of nineteen lectures<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> and completed the bulk of his famous textbook The Nature of the Chemical Bond.<a href="#cite_note-The_George_Fischer_Baker_Lectureship_and_the_Beginnings_of_the_Manuscript-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pauling1960-36">[36]</a>: Preface  It is based primarily on his work in this area that he received the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Nobel Prize in Chemistry</a> in 1954 "for his research into the nature of the chemical bond and its application to the elucidation of the structure of complex substances".<a href="#cite_note-Nobel-7">[7]</a> Pauling's book has been considered "chemistry's most influential book of this century and its effective bible".<a href="#cite_note-Genes2001-48">[48]</a> In the 30 years after its first edition was published in 1939, the book was cited more than 16,000 times. Even today, many modern scientific papers and articles in important journals cite this work, more than seventy years after the first publication.<a href="#cite_note-Google-49">[49]</a> Part of Pauling's work on the nature of the chemical bond led to his introduction of the concept of <a href="/wiki/Orbital_hybridization" class="mw-redirect" title="Orbital hybridization">orbital hybridization</a>.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> While it is normal to think of the electrons in an atom as being described by <a href="/wiki/Atomic_orbital" title="Atomic orbital">orbitals</a> of types such as s and p, it turns out that in describing the bonding in molecules, it is better to construct functions that partake of some of the properties of each. Thus the one 2s and three 2p orbitals in a carbon atom can be (mathematically) 'mixed' or combined to make four equivalent orbitals (called sp3 hybrid orbitals), which would be the appropriate orbitals to describe carbon compounds such as <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a>, or the 2s orbital may be combined with two of the 2p orbitals to make three equivalent orbitals (called sp2 hybrid orbitals), with the remaining 2p orbital unhybridized, which would be the appropriate orbitals to describe certain <a href="/wiki/Alkene" title="Alkene">unsaturated</a> carbon compounds such as <a href="/wiki/Ethylene" title="Ethylene">ethylene</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Pauling1960-36">[36]</a>: 111–120  Other hybridization schemes are also found in other types of molecules. Another area which he explored was the relationship between <a href="/wiki/Ionic_bond" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionic bond">ionic bonding</a>, where electrons are transferred between atoms, and <a href="/wiki/Covalent_bond" title="Covalent bond">covalent bonding</a>, where electrons are shared between atoms on an equal basis. Pauling showed that these were merely extremes, and that for most actual cases of bonding, the <a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_quantum_mechanics" title="Introduction to quantum mechanics">quantum-mechanical</a> <a href="/wiki/Wave_function" title="Wave function">wave function</a> for a polar molecule AB is a <a href="/wiki/Linear_combination" title="Linear combination">combination</a> of wave functions for covalent and ionic molecules.<a href="#cite_note-Pauling1960-36">[36]</a>: 66  Here Pauling's <a href="/wiki/Electronegativity" title="Electronegativity">electronegativity</a> concept is particularly useful; the electronegativity difference between a pair of atoms will be the surest predictor of the degree of ionicity of the bond.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> The third of the topics that Pauling attacked under the overall heading of "the nature of the chemical bond" was the accounting of the structure of <a href="/wiki/Aromatic_hydrocarbon" class="mw-redirect" title="Aromatic hydrocarbon">aromatic hydrocarbons</a>, particularly the prototype, <a href="/wiki/Benzene" title="Benzene">benzene</a>.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> The best description of benzene had been made by the German chemist <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_August_Kekul%C3%A9_von_Stradonitz" class="mw-redirect" title="Friedrich August Kekulé von Stradonitz">Friedrich Kekulé</a>. He had treated it as a rapid interconversion between two structures, each with alternating single and <a href="/wiki/Double_bond" title="Double bond">double bonds</a>, but with the double bonds of one structure in the locations where the single bonds were in the other. Pauling showed that a proper description based on quantum mechanics was an intermediate structure which was a blend of each. The structure was a superposition of structures rather than a rapid interconversion between them. The name "<a href="/wiki/Resonance_(chemistry)" title="Resonance (chemistry)">resonance</a>" was later applied to this phenomenon.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> In a sense, this phenomenon resembles those of hybridization and also polar bonding, both described above, because all three phenomena involve combining more than one electronic structure to achieve an intermediate result.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ionic_crystal_structures">Ionic crystal structures</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linus_Pauling&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Ionic crystal structures">edit</a>]</div> In 1929, Pauling published <a href="/wiki/Pauling%27s_rules" title="Pauling's rules">five rules</a> which help to <a href="/wiki/Crystal_structure_prediction" title="Crystal structure prediction">predict</a> and explain <a href="/wiki/Crystal_structure" title="Crystal structure">crystal structures</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ionic_compound" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionic compound">ionic compounds</a>.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pauling1960-36">[36]</a> These rules concern (1) the ratio of cation radius to anion radius, (2) the electrostatic bond strength, (3) the sharing of polyhedron corners, edges and faces, (4) crystals containing different cations, and (5) the rule of parsimony.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biological_molecules">Biological molecules</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linus_Pauling&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Biological molecules">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Linus_Pauling_1941.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Linus_Pauling_1941.png/220px-Linus_Pauling_1941.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Linus_Pauling_1941.png/330px-Linus_Pauling_1941.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Linus_Pauling_1941.png/440px-Linus_Pauling_1941.png 2x" data-file-width="601" data-file-height="820" /></a><figcaption>Pauling in 1941</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Helix_electron_density_myoglobin_2nrl_17-32.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Helix_electron_density_myoglobin_2nrl_17-32.jpg/170px-Helix_electron_density_myoglobin_2nrl_17-32.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="299" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Helix_electron_density_myoglobin_2nrl_17-32.jpg/255px-Helix_electron_density_myoglobin_2nrl_17-32.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Helix_electron_density_myoglobin_2nrl_17-32.jpg/340px-Helix_electron_density_myoglobin_2nrl_17-32.jpg 2x" data-file-width="740" data-file-height="1300" /></a><figcaption>An alpha helix in ultra-high-resolution electron density contours, with O atoms in red, N atoms in blue, and hydrogen bonds as green dotted lines (PDB file 2NRL, 17–32)</figcaption></figure> In the mid-1930s, Pauling, strongly influenced by the biologically oriented funding priorities of the Rockefeller Foundation's <a href="/wiki/Warren_Weaver" title="Warren Weaver">Warren Weaver</a>, decided to strike out into new areas of interest.<a href="#cite_note-Kay-55">[55]</a> Although Pauling's early interest had focused almost exclusively on inorganic molecular structures, he had occasionally thought about molecules of biological importance, in part because of Caltech's growing strength in biology. Pauling interacted with such great biologists as <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hunt_Morgan" title="Thomas Hunt Morgan">Thomas Hunt Morgan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theodosius_Dobzhanski" class="mw-redirect" title="Theodosius Dobzhanski">Theodosius Dobzhanski</a>, <a href="/wiki/Calvin_Bridges" title="Calvin Bridges">Calvin Bridges</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Sturtevant" title="Alfred Sturtevant">Alfred Sturtevant</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Califano-56">[56]</a> His early work in this area included studies of the structure of <a href="/wiki/Hemoglobin" title="Hemoglobin">hemoglobin</a> with his student <a href="/wiki/Charles_D._Coryell" title="Charles D. Coryell">Charles D. Coryell</a>. He demonstrated that the hemoglobin molecule changes structure when it gains or loses an <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> molecule.<a href="#cite_note-Califano-56">[56]</a> As a result of this observation, he decided to conduct a more thorough study of <a href="/wiki/Protein_structure" title="Protein structure">protein structure</a> in general. He returned to his earlier use of X-ray diffraction analysis. But protein structures were far less amenable to this technique than the crystalline minerals of his former work. The best X-ray pictures of proteins in the 1930s had been made by the British crystallographer <a href="/wiki/William_Astbury" title="William Astbury">William Astbury</a>, but when Pauling tried, in 1937, to account for Astbury's observations quantum mechanically, he could not.<a href="#cite_note-Livio-57">[57]</a> It took eleven years for Pauling to explain the problem: his <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematical</a> analysis was correct, but Astbury's pictures were taken in such a way that the protein molecules were tilted from their expected positions. Pauling had formulated a model for the structure of hemoglobin in which atoms were arranged in a <a href="/wiki/Helix" title="Helix">helical</a> pattern, and applied this idea to proteins in general.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In 1951, based on the structures of <a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acids</a> and <a href="/wiki/Peptide" title="Peptide">peptides</a> and the planar nature of the <a href="/wiki/Peptide_bond" title="Peptide bond">peptide bond</a>, Pauling, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Corey" title="Robert Corey">Robert Corey</a> and <a href="/wiki/Herman_Branson" title="Herman Branson">Herman Branson</a> correctly proposed the <a href="/wiki/Alpha_helix" title="Alpha helix">alpha helix</a> and <a href="/wiki/Beta_sheet" title="Beta sheet">beta sheet</a> as the primary <a href="/wiki/Structural_motif" title="Structural motif">structural motifs</a> in protein <a href="/wiki/Secondary_structure" class="mw-redirect" title="Secondary structure">secondary structure</a>.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-Goertzel_and_Goertzel,_p._95-100-59">[59]</a> This work exemplified Pauling's ability to think unconventionally; central to the structure was the unorthodox assumption that one turn of the helix may well contain a non-<a href="/wiki/Integer" title="Integer">integer</a> number of amino acid residues; for the alpha helix it is 3.7 amino acid residues per turn.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Pauling then proposed that <a href="/wiki/Deoxyribonucleic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Deoxyribonucleic acid">deoxyribonucleic acid</a> (DNA) was a <a href="/wiki/Triple_helix" title="Triple helix">triple helix</a>;<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> his model contained several basic mistakes, including a proposal of neutral phosphate groups, an idea that conflicted with the acidity of DNA. <a href="/wiki/William_Lawrence_Bragg" class="mw-redirect" title="William Lawrence Bragg">Sir Lawrence Bragg</a> had been disappointed that Pauling had won the race to find the alpha <a href="/wiki/Alpha_helix" title="Alpha helix">helix structure</a> of proteins. Bragg's team had made a fundamental error in making their models of protein by not recognizing the planar nature of the peptide bond. When it was learned at the <a href="/wiki/Cavendish_Laboratory" title="Cavendish Laboratory">Cavendish Laboratory</a> that Pauling was working on molecular models of the structure of DNA, <a href="/wiki/James_Watson" title="James Watson">James Watson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Francis_Crick" title="Francis Crick">Francis Crick</a> were allowed to make a molecular model of DNA. They later benefited from unpublished data from <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Wilkins" title="Maurice Wilkins">Maurice Wilkins</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rosalind_Franklin" title="Rosalind Franklin">Rosalind Franklin</a> at <a href="/wiki/King%27s_College_London" title="King's College London">King's College</a> which showed evidence for a helix and planar base stacking along the helix axis. Early in 1953 Watson and Crick proposed a correct structure for the DNA double helix. Pauling later cited several reasons to explain how he had been misled about the structure of DNA, among them misleading density data and the lack of high quality X-ray diffraction photographs. Pauling described this situation as "the biggest disappointment in his life".<a href="#cite_note-Dye-LATimes-62">[62]</a> During the time Pauling was researching the problem, Rosalind Franklin in England was creating the world's best images. They were key to Watson's and Crick's success. Pauling did not see them before devising his mistaken DNA structure, although his assistant Robert Corey did see at least some of them, while taking Pauling's place at a summer 1952 protein conference in England. Pauling had been prevented from attending because his passport was withheld by the State Department on suspicion that he had Communist sympathies. This led to the legend that Pauling missed the structure of DNA because of the politics of the day (this was at the start of the <a href="/wiki/McCarthyism" title="McCarthyism">McCarthy</a> period in the United States). Politics did not play a critical role. Not only did Corey see the images at the time, but Pauling himself regained his passport within a few weeks and toured English laboratories well before writing his DNA paper. He had ample opportunity to visit Franklin's lab and see her work, but chose not to.<a href="#cite_note-Nature-15">[15]</a>: 414–415  Despite these times, Pauling chose to move on from them and be thankful for the discoveries that he had already found.<a href="#cite_note-Dye-LATimes-62">[62]</a> Pauling also studied <a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzyme</a> reactions and was among the first to point out that enzymes bring about reactions by stabilizing the <a href="/wiki/Transition_state" title="Transition state">transition state</a> of the reaction, a view which is central to understanding their mechanism of action.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> He was also among the first scientists to postulate that the binding of <a href="/wiki/Antibodies" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibodies">antibodies</a> to antigens would be due to a complementarity between their structures.<a href="#cite_note-Lewis-64">[64]</a> Along the same lines, with the physicist turned biologist <a href="/wiki/Max_Delbr%C3%BCck" title="Max Delbrück">Max Delbrück</a>, he wrote an early paper arguing that <a href="/wiki/DNA_replication" title="DNA replication">DNA replication</a> was likely to be due to <a href="/wiki/Complementarity_(molecular_biology)" title="Complementarity (molecular biology)">complementarity</a>, rather than similarity, as suggested by a few researchers. This was made clear in the model of the structure of DNA that Watson and Crick discovered.<a href="#cite_note-Tudge-65">[65]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Molecular_genetics">Molecular genetics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linus_Pauling&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Molecular genetics">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Linus_Pauling_1948.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Linus_Pauling_1948.png/220px-Linus_Pauling_1948.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="309" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Linus_Pauling_1948.png/330px-Linus_Pauling_1948.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Linus_Pauling_1948.png/440px-Linus_Pauling_1948.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="900" /></a><figcaption>Pauling in 1948</figcaption></figure> In November 1949, Pauling, <a href="/wiki/Harvey_Itano" title="Harvey Itano">Harvey Itano</a>, <a href="/wiki/Seymour_Jonathan_Singer" title="Seymour Jonathan Singer">S. J. Singer</a> and Ibert Wells published "<a href="/wiki/Sickle_Cell_Anemia,_a_Molecular_Disease" title="Sickle Cell Anemia, a Molecular Disease">Sickle Cell Anemia, a Molecular Disease</a>"<a href="#cite_note-Itano-66">[66]</a> in the journal Science. It was the first proof of a human disease being caused by an abnormal protein, and <a href="/wiki/Sickle_cell_anemia" class="mw-redirect" title="Sickle cell anemia">sickle cell anemia</a> became the first disease understood at the molecular level. (It was not, however, the first demonstration that variant forms of hemoglobin could be distinguished by electrophoresis, which had been shown several years earlier by <a href="/wiki/Maud_Menten" title="Maud Menten">Maud Menten</a> and collaborators).<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> Using <a href="/wiki/Electrophoresis" title="Electrophoresis">electrophoresis</a>, they demonstrated that individuals with <a href="/wiki/Sickle_cell_disease" title="Sickle cell disease">sickle cell disease</a> have a modified form of hemoglobin in their <a href="/wiki/Red_blood_cell" title="Red blood cell">red blood cells</a>, and that individuals with <a href="/wiki/Sickle_cell_trait" title="Sickle cell trait">sickle cell trait</a> have both the normal and abnormal forms of hemoglobin. This was the first demonstration causally linking an abnormal protein to a disease, and also the first demonstration that <a href="/wiki/Mendelian_inheritance" title="Mendelian inheritance">Mendelian inheritance</a> determines the specific physical properties of proteins, not simply their presence or absence – the dawn of <a href="/wiki/Molecular_genetics" title="Molecular genetics">molecular genetics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Strasser-68">[68]</a> His success with sickle cell anemia led Pauling to speculate that a number of other diseases, including mental illnesses such as <a href="/wiki/Schizophrenia" title="Schizophrenia">schizophrenia</a>, might result from flawed genetics. As chairman of the Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering and director of the Gates and Crellin Chemical Laboratories, he encouraged the hiring of researchers with a chemical-biomedical approach to mental illness, a direction not always popular with established <a href="/wiki/California_Institute_of_Technology" title="California Institute of Technology">Caltech</a> chemists.<a href="#cite_note-LATimes1994-69">[69]</a>: 2  In 1951, Pauling gave a lecture entitled "Molecular Medicine".<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> In the late 1950s, he studied the role of enzymes in brain function, believing that mental illness may be partly caused by enzyme dysfunction. In the 1960s, as part of his interest in the effects of nuclear weapons, he investigated the role of mutations in evolution, proposing with his student Emile Zuckerkandl, the molecular evolutionary clock, the idea that mutations in proteins and DNA accumulate at a constant rate over time .<a href="#cite_note-Morgan-71">[71]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Structure_of_the_atomic_nucleus">Structure of the atomic nucleus</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linus_Pauling&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Structure of the atomic nucleus">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Linus_Pauling_1962.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Linus_Pauling_1962.jpg/220px-Linus_Pauling_1962.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="311" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3d/Linus_Pauling_1962.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="280" data-file-height="396" /></a><figcaption>Pauling in 1962</figcaption></figure> On September 16, 1952, Pauling opened a new research notebook with the words "I have decided to attack the problem of the structure of nuclei." On October 15, 1965, Pauling published his Close-Packed Spheron Model of the atomic nucleus in two well respected journals, Science and the <a href="/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.<a href="#cite_note-SpheronPNAS-72">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-SpheronScience-73">[73]</a> For nearly three decades, until his death in 1994, Pauling published numerous papers on his spheron cluster model.<a href="#cite_note-SpheronPNAS-72">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> The basic idea behind Pauling's spheron model is that a nucleus can be viewed as a set of "clusters of nucleons". The basic nucleon clusters include the <a href="/wiki/Deuteron" class="mw-redirect" title="Deuteron">deuteron</a> [np], <a href="/wiki/Helion_(chemistry)" title="Helion (chemistry)">helion</a> [pnp], and <a href="/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium">triton</a> [npn]. <a href="/wiki/Even-even_nucleus" class="mw-redirect" title="Even-even nucleus">Even–even nuclei</a> are described as being composed of clusters of <a href="/wiki/Alpha_particle" title="Alpha particle">alpha particles</a>, as has often been done for light nuclei.<a href="#cite_note-Clusters-79">[79]</a> Pauling attempted to derive the shell structure of nuclei from pure geometrical considerations related to <a href="/wiki/Platonic_solids" class="mw-redirect" title="Platonic solids">Platonic solids</a> rather than starting from an independent particle model as in the usual <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_shell_model" title="Nuclear shell model">shell model</a>. In an interview given in 1990 Pauling commented on his model:<a href="#cite_note-AOA-80">[80]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">Now recently, I have been trying to determine detailed structures of atomic nuclei by analyzing the ground state and excited state vibrational bends, as observed experimentally. From reading the physics literature, Physical Review Letters and other journals, I know that many physicists are interested in atomic nuclei, but none of them, so far as I have been able to discover, has been attacking the problem in the same way that I attack it. So I just move along at my own speed, making calculations ...</blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Activism">Activism</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linus_Pauling&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Activism">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wartime_work">Wartime work</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linus_Pauling&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Wartime work">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Beckman_D2_Oxygen_Analyzer_2012_002_5132_cn69m4659.tiff" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Beckman_D2_Oxygen_Analyzer_2012_002_5132_cn69m4659.tiff/lossless-page1-220px-Beckman_D2_Oxygen_Analyzer_2012_002_5132_cn69m4659.tiff.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Beckman_D2_Oxygen_Analyzer_2012_002_5132_cn69m4659.tiff/lossless-page1-330px-Beckman_D2_Oxygen_Analyzer_2012_002_5132_cn69m4659.tiff.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Beckman_D2_Oxygen_Analyzer_2012_002_5132_cn69m4659.tiff/lossless-page1-440px-Beckman_D2_Oxygen_Analyzer_2012_002_5132_cn69m4659.tiff.png 2x" data-file-width="1042" data-file-height="734" /></a><figcaption>Beckman D2 Oxygen Analyzer, ca. 1950</figcaption></figure> Pauling had been practically apolitical until <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>. At the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a>, Robert Oppenheimer invited him to be in charge of the Chemistry division of the project. He declined, not wanting to uproot his family.<a href="#cite_note-Hiroshima-81">[81]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Beckman_Model_735_Dissolved_O2_Analyzer_2012_002_3598_jm214p459_crop.tiff" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Beckman_Model_735_Dissolved_O2_Analyzer_2012_002_3598_jm214p459_crop.tiff/lossless-page1-220px-Beckman_Model_735_Dissolved_O2_Analyzer_2012_002_3598_jm214p459_crop.tiff.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Beckman_Model_735_Dissolved_O2_Analyzer_2012_002_3598_jm214p459_crop.tiff/lossless-page1-330px-Beckman_Model_735_Dissolved_O2_Analyzer_2012_002_3598_jm214p459_crop.tiff.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Beckman_Model_735_Dissolved_O2_Analyzer_2012_002_3598_jm214p459_crop.tiff/lossless-page1-440px-Beckman_Model_735_Dissolved_O2_Analyzer_2012_002_3598_jm214p459_crop.tiff.png 2x" data-file-width="1118" data-file-height="989" /></a><figcaption> Beckman Model 735 Dissolved O2 Analyzer, later model based on Pauling's design, 1968</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Beckman_Model_D_Oxygen_Meter_with_infant_incubator_73666474j.tiff" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Beckman_Model_D_Oxygen_Meter_with_infant_incubator_73666474j.tiff/lossless-page1-220px-Beckman_Model_D_Oxygen_Meter_with_infant_incubator_73666474j.tiff.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Beckman_Model_D_Oxygen_Meter_with_infant_incubator_73666474j.tiff/lossless-page1-330px-Beckman_Model_D_Oxygen_Meter_with_infant_incubator_73666474j.tiff.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Beckman_Model_D_Oxygen_Meter_with_infant_incubator_73666474j.tiff/lossless-page1-440px-Beckman_Model_D_Oxygen_Meter_with_infant_incubator_73666474j.tiff.png 2x" data-file-width="2951" data-file-height="2360" /></a><figcaption>Beckman Model D Oxygen Meter, based on Pauling's design, with infant incubator, 1959</figcaption></figure> Pauling did, however, work on research for the military. He was a principal investigator on 14 <a href="/wiki/Office_of_Scientific_Research_and_Development" title="Office of Scientific Research and Development">OSRD contracts</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Kay2-82">[82]</a> The <a href="/wiki/National_Defense_Research_Committee" title="National Defense Research Committee">National Defense Research Committee</a> called a meeting on October 3, 1940, wanting an instrument that could reliably measure oxygen content in a mixture of gases, so that they could measure oxygen conditions in submarines and airplanes. In response Pauling designed the Pauling oxygen meter, which was developed and manufactured by <a href="/wiki/Arnold_O._Beckman" class="mw-redirect" title="Arnold O. Beckman">Arnold O. Beckman, Inc.</a> After the war, Beckman adapted the oxygen analyzers for use in incubators for premature babies.<a href="#cite_note-hundred-83">[83]</a>: 180–186 <a href="#cite_note-D2OxygenAnalyzer-84">[84]</a> In 1942, Pauling successfully submitted a proposal on "The Chemical Treatment of Protein Solutions in the Attempt to Find a Substitute for Human Serum for Transfusions". His project group, which included Joseph B. Koepfli and Dan H. Campbell, developed a possible replacement for <a href="/wiki/Blood_plasma" title="Blood plasma">human blood plasma</a> in <a href="/wiki/Blood_transfusion" title="Blood transfusion">transfusions</a>: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Polyoxy_gelatin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Polyoxy gelatin (page does not exist)">polyoxy gelatin</a> (Oxypolygelatin).<a href="#cite_note-Oxypolygelatin-85">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-Chadarevian-86">[86]</a> Other wartime projects with more direct military applications included work on explosives, rocket propellants and the patent for an armor-piercing shell. In October 1948, Pauling, along with <a href="/wiki/Lee_Alvin_DuBridge" title="Lee Alvin DuBridge">Lee A. DuBridge</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Alfred_Fowler" title="William Alfred Fowler">William A. Fowler</a>, <a href="/wiki/Max_Mason" title="Max Mason">Max Mason</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bruce_Hornbrook_Sage" title="Bruce Hornbrook Sage">Bruce H. Sage</a>, was awarded a <a href="/wiki/Presidential_Medal_for_Merit" class="mw-redirect" title="Presidential Medal for Merit">Presidential Medal for Merit</a> by President <a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Harry S. Truman</a>. The citation credits him for his "imaginative mind", "brilliant success", and "exceptionally meritorious conduct in the performance of outstanding services".<a href="#cite_note-PMFM-87">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-NLM-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-Paulus-89">[89]</a> In 1949, he served as president of the <a href="/wiki/American_Chemical_Society" title="American Chemical Society">American Chemical Society</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ACS1949-90">[90]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nuclear_activism">Nuclear activism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linus_Pauling&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Nuclear activism">edit</a>]</div> The aftermath of the <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a> and his wife Ava's pacifism changed Pauling's life profoundly, and he became a peace activist.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In June 1945, a "May-Johnson Bill" began<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> that would become the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_Energy_Act_of_1946" title="Atomic Energy Act of 1946">Atomic Energy Act of 1946</a> (signed August 1, 1946). In November 1945, Pauling spoke to the <a href="/wiki/Independent_Citizens_Committee_of_the_Arts,_Sciences_and_Professions" title="Independent Citizens Committee of the Arts, Sciences and Professions">Independent Citizens Committee of the Arts, Sciences and Professions</a> (ICCASP) on <a href="/wiki/Atomic_weapons" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic weapons">atomic weapons</a>; shortly after, wife Ava and he accepted membership.<a href="#cite_note-PaulingICCASP-94">[94]</a> On January 21, 1946, the group met to discuss <a href="/wiki/Academic_freedom" title="Academic freedom">academic freedom</a>, during which Pauling said, "There is, of course, always a threat to academic freedom – as there is to the other aspects of the freedom and rights of the individual, in the continued attacks which are made on this freedom, these rights, by the selfish, the overly ambitious, the misguided, the unscrupulous, who seek to oppress the great body of mankind in order that they themselves may profit – and we must always be on the alert against this threat, and must fight it with vigor when it becomes dangerous."<a href="#cite_note-PaulingICCASP-94">[94]</a> In 1946, he joined the <a href="/wiki/Emergency_Committee_of_Atomic_Scientists" title="Emergency Committee of Atomic Scientists">Emergency Committee of Atomic Scientists</a>, chaired by <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a>.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> Its mission was to warn the public of the dangers associated with the development of nuclear weapons. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Letter_from_Ruth_B._Shipley,_Chief_Passport_Division,_Department_of_State_(United_States)_to_Linus_Pauling_on_February_14,_1952.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Letter_from_Ruth_B._Shipley%2C_Chief_Passport_Division%2C_Department_of_State_%28United_States%29_to_Linus_Pauling_on_February_14%2C_1952.jpg/220px-Letter_from_Ruth_B._Shipley%2C_Chief_Passport_Division%2C_Department_of_State_%28United_States%29_to_Linus_Pauling_on_February_14%2C_1952.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="288" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Letter_from_Ruth_B._Shipley%2C_Chief_Passport_Division%2C_Department_of_State_%28United_States%29_to_Linus_Pauling_on_February_14%2C_1952.jpg/330px-Letter_from_Ruth_B._Shipley%2C_Chief_Passport_Division%2C_Department_of_State_%28United_States%29_to_Linus_Pauling_on_February_14%2C_1952.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Letter_from_Ruth_B._Shipley%2C_Chief_Passport_Division%2C_Department_of_State_%28United_States%29_to_Linus_Pauling_on_February_14%2C_1952.jpg/440px-Letter_from_Ruth_B._Shipley%2C_Chief_Passport_Division%2C_Department_of_State_%28United_States%29_to_Linus_Pauling_on_February_14%2C_1952.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="1179" /></a><figcaption>Denial letter from <a href="/wiki/Ruth_B._Shipley" class="mw-redirect" title="Ruth B. Shipley">Ruth B. Shipley</a>, Chief Passport Division, Department of State to Linus Pauling on February 14, 1952</figcaption></figure> His political activism prompted the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_State" title="United States Department of State">US State Department</a> to deny him a passport in 1952, when he was invited to speak at a scientific conference in London.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> In a speech before the <a href="/wiki/US_Senate" class="mw-redirect" title="US Senate">US Senate</a> on June 6 of the same year, Senator <a href="/wiki/Wayne_Morse" title="Wayne Morse">Wayne Morse</a> publicly denounced the action of the State Department, and urged the Passport Division to reverse its decision. Pauling and his wife Ava were then issued a "limited passport" to attend the conference.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> His full passport was restored in 1954, shortly before the ceremony in <a href="/wiki/Stockholm" title="Stockholm">Stockholm</a> where he received his first Nobel Prize.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Joining Einstein, <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a> and eight other leading scientists and intellectuals, he signed the <a href="/wiki/Russell-Einstein_Manifesto" class="mw-redirect" title="Russell-Einstein Manifesto">Russell-Einstein Manifesto</a> issued July 9, 1955.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> He also supported the <a href="/wiki/Mainau_Declaration" title="Mainau Declaration">Mainau Declaration</a> of July 15, 1955, signed by 52 Nobel Prize laureates.<a href="#cite_note-Snow-101">[101]</a> In May 1957, working with <a href="/wiki/Washington_University_in_St._Louis" title="Washington University in St. Louis">Washington University in St. Louis</a> professor <a href="/wiki/Barry_Commoner" title="Barry Commoner">Barry Commoner</a>, Pauling began to circulate a petition among scientists to stop nuclear testing.<a href="#cite_note-Tooth-102">[102]</a> On January 15, 1958, Pauling and his wife presented a petition to United Nations Secretary General <a href="/wiki/Dag_Hammarskj%C3%B6ld" title="Dag Hammarskjöld">Dag Hammarskjöld</a> calling for an end to <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_testing" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear testing">the testing of nuclear weapons</a>. It was signed by 11,021 scientists representing fifty countries.<a href="#cite_note-NobelLecture-103">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-NobelBlog-104">[104]</a> In February 1958, Pauling participated in a publicly televised debate with the atomic physicist <a href="/wiki/Edward_Teller" title="Edward Teller">Edward Teller</a> about the actual probability of fallout causing mutations.<a href="#cite_note-Moore-105">[105]</a> Later in 1958, Pauling published No more war!, in which he not only called for an end to the testing of nuclear weapons but also an end to war itself. He proposed that a World Peace Research Organization be set up as part of the United Nations to "attack the problem of preserving the peace".<a href="#cite_note-Nobel-7">[7]</a> Pauling also supported the work of the St. Louis Citizen's Committee for Nuclear Information (CNI).<a href="#cite_note-Tooth-102">[102]</a> This group, headed by <a href="/wiki/Barry_Commoner" title="Barry Commoner">Barry Commoner</a>, Eric Reiss, M. W. Friedlander and John Fowler, organized a longitudinal study to measure radioactive <a href="/wiki/Strontium" title="Strontium">strontium</a>-90 in the <a href="/wiki/Baby_teeth" class="mw-redirect" title="Baby teeth">baby teeth</a> of children across North America. The "<a href="/wiki/Baby_Tooth_Survey" title="Baby Tooth Survey">Baby Tooth Survey</a>", published by <a href="/wiki/Louise_Reiss" title="Louise Reiss">Louise Reiss</a>, demonstrated conclusively in 1961 that above-ground nuclear testing posed significant public health risks in the form of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fallout" title="Nuclear fallout">radioactive fallout</a> spread primarily via milk from cows that had ingested contaminated grass.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> The Committee for Nuclear Information is frequently credited for its significant contribution to supporting the test ban,<a href="#cite_note-McCormick-109">[109]</a> as is the ground-breaking research conducted by Reiss and the "Baby Tooth Survey".<a href="#cite_note-activism-110">[110]</a> Public pressure and the frightening results of the CNI research led to a moratorium on above-ground nuclear weapons testing, followed by the <a href="/wiki/Partial_Test_Ban_Treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="Partial Test Ban Treaty">Partial Test Ban Treaty</a>, signed in 1963 by <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev" title="Nikita Khrushchev">Nikita Khrushchev</a>. On the day that the treaty went into force, October 10, 1963, the Nobel Prize Committee awarded Pauling the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="Nobel Peace Prize">Nobel Peace Prize</a> for 1962. (No prize had previously been awarded for that year.)<a href="#cite_note-PaloAlto-111">[111]</a> They described him as "Linus Carl Pauling, who ever since 1946 has campaigned ceaselessly, not only against nuclear weapons tests, not only against the spread of these armaments, not only against their very use, but against all warfare as a means of solving international conflicts."<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> Pauling himself acknowledged his wife Ava's deep involvement in peace work, and regretted that she was not awarded the Nobel Peace Prize with him.<a href="#cite_note-LPIBio-113">[113]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political_criticism">Political criticism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linus_Pauling&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Political criticism">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Linus_Pauling%27s_beret_at_the_Nobel_Museum_(51969).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Linus_Pauling%27s_beret_at_the_Nobel_Museum_%2851969%29.jpg/220px-Linus_Pauling%27s_beret_at_the_Nobel_Museum_%2851969%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Linus_Pauling%27s_beret_at_the_Nobel_Museum_%2851969%29.jpg/330px-Linus_Pauling%27s_beret_at_the_Nobel_Museum_%2851969%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Linus_Pauling%27s_beret_at_the_Nobel_Museum_%2851969%29.jpg/440px-Linus_Pauling%27s_beret_at_the_Nobel_Museum_%2851969%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4608" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption>Pauling's beret on display at the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_Museum" title="Nobel Prize Museum">Nobel Prize Museum</a></figcaption></figure> Many of Pauling's critics, including scientists who appreciated the contributions that he had made in chemistry, disagreed with his political positions and saw him as a naïve spokesman for <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Soviet communism</a>. In 1960, he was ordered to appear before the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate_Subcommittee_on_Internal_Security" title="United States Senate Subcommittee on Internal Security">Senate Internal Security Subcommittee</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Senate-114">[114]</a> which termed him "the number one scientific name in virtually every major activity of the Communist peace offensive in this country".<a href="#cite_note-Humanism-115">[115]</a> A headline in <a href="/wiki/Life_magazine" class="mw-redirect" title="Life magazine">Life</a> magazine characterized his 1962 Nobel Prize as "A Weird Insult from Norway".<a href="#cite_note-Kovac-116">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-Life-117">[117]</a> Pauling was a frequent target of the <a href="/wiki/National_Review" title="National Review">National Review</a> magazine. In an article entitled "The Collaborators" in the magazine's July 17, 1962, issue, Pauling was referred to not only as a collaborator, but as a "fellow traveler" of proponents of Soviet-style communism. In 1963, Pauling sued the magazine, its publisher <a href="/wiki/William_Rusher" class="mw-redirect" title="William Rusher">William Rusher</a>, and its editor <a href="/wiki/William_F._Buckley,_Jr" class="mw-redirect" title="William F. Buckley, Jr">William F. Buckley, Jr</a> for $1 million. He lost both his libel suits and the 1968 appeal (unlike his earlier 1963 libel case against the <a href="/wiki/Hearst_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="Hearst Corporation">Hearst Corporation</a>), because in the meantime the landmark case <a href="/wiki/New_York_Times_Co._v._Sullivan" title="New York Times Co. v. Sullivan">New York Times Co. v. Sullivan</a> had established the <a href="/wiki/Actual_malice" title="Actual malice">actual malice</a> standard for libel lawsuits by public figures, requiring that not only falsehood but deliberate lying should be proved by the plaintiff in such cases.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> His peace activism, his frequent travels, and his enthusiastic expansion into chemical-biomedical research all aroused opposition at Caltech. In 1958, the Caltech Board of Trustees demanded that Pauling step down as chairman of the Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Division.<a href="#cite_note-LATimes1994-69">[69]</a>: 2  Although he had retained tenure as a full professor, Pauling chose to resign from Caltech after he received the Nobel peace prize money. He spent the next three years at the <a href="/wiki/Center_for_the_Study_of_Democratic_Institutions" title="Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions">Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions</a> (1963–1967).<a href="#cite_note-Abrams-20">[20]</a> In 1967, he moved to the University of California at San Diego, but remained there only briefly, leaving in 1969 in part because of political tensions with the Reagan-era board of regents.<a href="#cite_note-LATimes1994-69">[69]</a>: 3  From 1969 to 1974, he accepted a position as professor of chemistry at Stanford University.<a href="#cite_note-OH-34">[34]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vietnam_war_activism">Vietnam war activism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linus_Pauling&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Vietnam war activism">edit</a>]</div> During the 1960s, President Lyndon Johnson's policy of increasing America's involvement in the Vietnam War caused an <a href="/wiki/Anti-war_movement" title="Anti-war movement">anti-war movement</a> that the Paulings joined with enthusiasm. Pauling denounced the war as unnecessary and unconstitutional. He made speeches, signed protest letters and communicated personally with the North Vietnamese leader, Ho Chi Minh, and gave the lengthy written response to President Johnson. His efforts were ignored by the American government.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> Pauling was awarded the <a href="/wiki/Lenin_Peace_Prize" title="Lenin Peace Prize">International Lenin Peace Prize</a> by the USSR in 1970.<a href="#cite_note-Humanism-115">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-LeninPrize-123">[123]</a> He continued his peace activism in the following years. He and his wife Ava helped to found the <a href="/wiki/International_League_of_Humanists" title="International League of Humanists">International League of Humanists</a> in 1974.<a href="#cite_note-HumanistFounders-124">[124]</a> He was president of the scientific advisory board of the <a href="/wiki/World_Union_for_Protection_of_Life" title="World Union for Protection of Life">World Union for Protection of Life</a> and also one of the signatories of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Dubrovnik%E2%80%93Philadelphia_statement&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dubrovnik–Philadelphia statement (page does not exist)">Dubrovnik–Philadelphia statement</a> of 1974/1976.<a href="#cite_note-Dubrovnik-125">[125]</a> Linus Carl Pauling was an honorary president and member of the International Academy of Science, Munich, until the end of his life.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> Pauling was also a supporter of the <a href="/wiki/Fair_Play_for_Cuba_Committee" title="Fair Play for Cuba Committee">Fair Play for Cuba Committee</a>.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Global_activism">Global activism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linus_Pauling&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Global activism">edit</a>]</div> He was one of the signatories of the agreement to convene a convention for drafting a <a href="/wiki/World_constitution" title="World constitution">world constitution</a>.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> As a result, for the first time in human history, a <a href="/wiki/World_Constituent_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="World Constituent Assembly">World Constituent Assembly</a> convened to draft and adopt a <a href="/wiki/Constitution_for_the_Federation_of_Earth" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution for the Federation of Earth">Constitution for the Federation of Earth</a>.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eugenics">Eugenics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linus_Pauling&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Eugenics">edit</a>]</div> Pauling supported a limited form of <a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">eugenics</a> by suggesting that human carriers of defective genes be given a compulsory visible mark – such as a forehead tattoo – to discourage potential mates with the same defect, in order to reduce the number of babies with diseases such as <a href="/wiki/Sickle_cell_anemia" class="mw-redirect" title="Sickle cell anemia">sickle cell anemia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medical_research_and_vitamin_C_advocacy">Medical research and vitamin C advocacy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linus_Pauling&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Medical research and vitamin C advocacy">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_C_megadosage" title="Vitamin C megadosage">Vitamin C megadosage</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pauling_Vit_C_Book_Cover.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/eb/Pauling_Vit_C_Book_Cover.jpg/150px-Pauling_Vit_C_Book_Cover.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="244" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/eb/Pauling_Vit_C_Book_Cover.jpg/225px-Pauling_Vit_C_Book_Cover.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/e/eb/Pauling_Vit_C_Book_Cover.jpg 2x" data-file-width="247" data-file-height="401" /></a><figcaption>Pauling's book, How to Live Longer and Feel Better, advocated very high intake of <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_C" title="Vitamin C">Vitamin C</a>.<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a></figcaption></figure> In 1941, at age 40, Pauling was diagnosed with <a href="/wiki/Bright%27s_disease" title="Bright's disease">Bright's disease</a>, a renal disease. Following the recommendations of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Addis" title="Thomas Addis">Thomas Addis</a>, who actively recruited Ava Helen Pauling as "nutritionist, cook, and eventually as deputy 'doctor'", Pauling believed he was able to control the disease with Addis's then-unusual low-protein salt-free diet and vitamin supplements.<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> Thus Pauling's initial – and intensely personal – exposure to the idea of treating disease with vitamin supplements was positive.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In 1965, Pauling read Niacin Therapy in Psychiatry by <a href="/wiki/Abram_Hoffer" title="Abram Hoffer">Abram Hoffer</a> and theorized vitamins might have important biochemical effects unrelated to their prevention of associated deficiency diseases.<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a> In 1968, Pauling published a brief paper in <a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a> entitled "Orthomolecular psychiatry",<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> giving a name to the popular but controversial <a href="/wiki/Megavitamin_therapy" title="Megavitamin therapy">megavitamin therapy</a> movement of the 1970s, and advocating that "orthomolecular therapy, the provision for the individual person of the optimum concentrations of important normal constituents of the brain, may be the preferred treatment for many mentally ill patients." Pauling coined the term "orthomolecular" to refer to the practice of varying the concentration of substances normally present in the body to prevent and treat disease. His ideas formed the basis of <a href="/wiki/Orthomolecular_medicine" title="Orthomolecular medicine">orthomolecular medicine</a>, which is not generally practiced by conventional medical professionals and has been strongly criticized.<a href="#cite_note-Cassileth-137">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-bccancer-138">[138]</a> In 1973, with <a href="/wiki/Arthur_B._Robinson" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthur B. Robinson">Arthur B. Robinson</a> and another colleague, Pauling founded the Institute of Orthomolecular Medicine in Menlo Park, California, which was soon renamed the <a href="/wiki/Linus_Pauling_Institute" title="Linus Pauling Institute">Linus Pauling Institute</a> of Science and Medicine. Pauling directed research on vitamin C, but also continued his theoretical work in chemistry and physics until his death. In his last years, he became especially interested in the possible role of vitamin C in preventing <a href="/wiki/Atherosclerosis" title="Atherosclerosis">atherosclerosis</a> and published three case reports on the use of <a href="/wiki/Lysine" title="Lysine">lysine</a> and vitamin C to relieve <a href="/wiki/Angina_pectoris" class="mw-redirect" title="Angina pectoris">angina pectoris</a>. During the 1990s, Pauling put forward a comprehensive plan for the treatment of heart disease using lysine and vitamin C. In 1996, a website was created expounding Pauling's treatment which it referred to as Pauling Therapy. Proponents of Pauling Therapy believe that heart disease can be treated and even cured using only lysine and Vitamin C and without drugs or heart operations.<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> Pauling's work on <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_C" title="Vitamin C">vitamin C</a> in his later years generated much controversy. He was first introduced to the concept of high-dose vitamin C by biochemist <a href="/wiki/Irwin_Stone" title="Irwin Stone">Irwin Stone</a> in 1966. After becoming convinced of its worth, Pauling took 3 grams of vitamin C every day to prevent <a href="/wiki/Colds" class="mw-redirect" title="Colds">colds</a>.<a href="#cite_note-frs-13">[13]</a> Excited by his own perceived results, he researched the clinical literature and published <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_C_and_the_Common_Cold_(book)" title="Vitamin C and the Common Cold (book)">Vitamin C and the Common Cold</a> in 1970. He began a long clinical collaboration with the British cancer surgeon <a href="/wiki/Ewan_Cameron_(physician)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ewan Cameron (physician)">Ewan Cameron</a> in 1971 on the use of intravenous and oral vitamin C as cancer therapy for terminal patients.<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> Cameron and Pauling wrote many technical papers and a popular book, Cancer and Vitamin C, that discussed their observations. Pauling made vitamin C popular with the public<a href="#cite_note-OnThisDay-141">[141]</a> and eventually published two studies of a group of 100 allegedly <a href="/wiki/Terminal_illness" title="Terminal illness">terminal</a> patients that claimed vitamin C increased survival by as much as four times compared to untreated patients.<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> A re-evaluation of the claims in 1982 found that the patient groups were not actually comparable, with the vitamin C group being less sick on entry to the study, and judged to be "terminal" much earlier than the comparison group.<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> Later clinical trials conducted by the <a href="/wiki/Mayo_Clinic" title="Mayo Clinic">Mayo Clinic</a> led by oncologist <a href="/wiki/Edward_T._Creagan" title="Edward T. Creagan">Dr. Edward T. Creagan</a> also concluded that high-dose (10,000 mg) vitamin C was no better than <a href="/wiki/Placebo" title="Placebo">placebo</a> at treating cancer and that there was no benefit to high-dose vitamin C.<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a><a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> The failure of the clinical trials to demonstrate any benefit resulted in the conclusion that vitamin C was not effective in treating cancer; the medical establishment concluded that his claims that vitamin C could prevent colds or treat cancer were <a href="/wiki/Quackery" title="Quackery">quackery</a>.<a href="#cite_note-frs-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-PNASChen2007-148">[148]</a> Pauling denounced the conclusions of these studies and handling of the final study as "fraud and deliberate misrepresentation",<a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-Golem-150">[150]</a> and criticized the studies for using oral, rather than <a href="/wiki/Intravenous_therapy" title="Intravenous therapy">intravenous</a> vitamin C<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> (which was the dosing method used for the first ten days of Pauling's original study<a href="#cite_note-PNASChen2007-148">[148]</a>). Pauling also criticised the Mayo Clinic studies because the controls were taking vitamin C during the trial, and because the duration of the treatment with vitamin C was short; Pauling advocated continued high-dose vitamin C for the rest of the cancer patient's life whereas the Mayo Clinic patients in the second trial were treated with vitamin C for a median of 2.5 months.<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> Ultimately the negative findings of the Mayo Clinic studies ended general interest in vitamin C as a treatment for cancer.<a href="#cite_note-Golem-150">[150]</a> Despite this, Pauling continued to promote vitamin C for treating cancer and the common cold, working with <a href="/wiki/The_Institutes_for_the_Achievement_of_Human_Potential" title="The Institutes for the Achievement of Human Potential">The Institutes for the Achievement of Human Potential</a> to use vitamin C in the treatment of brain-injured children.<a href="#cite_note-Pauling1978-153">[153]</a> He later collaborated with the Canadian physician <a href="/wiki/Abram_Hoffer" title="Abram Hoffer">Abram Hoffer</a> on a micronutrient regime, including high-dose vitamin C, as adjunctive cancer therapy.<a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a> A 2009 review also noted differences between the studies, such as the Mayo Clinic not using intravenous Vitamin C, and suggested further studies into the role of vitamin C when given intravenously.<a href="#cite_note-Cancerreevaluated-155">[155]</a> Results from most clinical trials suggest that modest vitamin C supplementation alone or with other nutrients offers no benefit in the prevention of cancer.<a href="#cite_note-Oncologist-156">[156]</a><a href="#cite_note-NIHFactsheet-157">[157]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Personal_life">Personal life</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linus_Pauling&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Personal life">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Linus_Pauling_family_1954.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Linus_Pauling_family_1954.jpg/300px-Linus_Pauling_family_1954.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="267" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Linus_Pauling_family_1954.jpg/450px-Linus_Pauling_family_1954.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Linus_Pauling_family_1954.jpg/600px-Linus_Pauling_family_1954.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="801" /></a><figcaption>The Pauling children at a gathering in celebration of the 1954 Nobel Prizes in Stockholm, Sweden. Seated from left: Linus Pauling, Jr., Peter Pauling and Linda Pauling. Standing from left: an unidentified person, and Crellin Pauling</figcaption></figure> Pauling married <a href="/wiki/Ava_Helen_Pauling" title="Ava Helen Pauling">Ava Helen Miller</a> on June 17, 1923. The marriage lasted until her death in 1981. They had four children.<a href="#cite_note-family-158">[158]</a> Linus Carl Jr. (1925–2023) became a <a href="/wiki/Psychiatry" title="Psychiatry">psychiatrist</a>;<a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a> Peter (1931–2003) a <a href="/wiki/Crystallography" title="Crystallography">crystallographer</a> at <a href="/wiki/University_College_London" title="University College London">University College London</a>;<a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a> Edward Crellin (1937–1997) a <a href="/wiki/Biologist" title="Biologist">biologist</a>;<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a> and Linda Helen (born 1932) married noted Caltech geologist and glaciologist <a href="/wiki/Barclay_Kamb" title="Barclay Kamb">Barclay Kamb</a>.<a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a> Pauling was raised as a member of the <a href="/wiki/Lutheran" class="mw-redirect" title="Lutheran">Lutheran</a> Church,<a href="#cite_note-AIPOralHistory-163">[163]</a> but later joined the <a href="/wiki/Unitarian_Universalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Unitarian Universalist">Unitarian Universalist</a> Church.<a href="#cite_note-UUBio-164">[164]</a> Two years before his death, in a published dialogue with Buddhist philosopher <a href="/wiki/Daisaku_Ikeda" title="Daisaku Ikeda">Daisaku Ikeda</a>, Pauling publicly declared his <a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">atheism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a> On January 30, 1960, Pauling and his wife were using a cabin about 80 miles (130 km) south of <a href="/wiki/Monterey,_California" title="Monterey, California">Monterey</a>, California, and he decided to go for a walk on a coastal trail. He got lost and tried to climb the rocky cliff, but reached a large overhanging rock about 300 feet (90 m) above the ocean. He decided it was safest to stay there, and meanwhile he was reported missing. He spent a sleepless night on the cliff before being found after almost 24 hours.<a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Death_and_legacy">Death and legacy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linus_Pauling&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Death and legacy">edit</a>]</div> Pauling died of <a href="/wiki/Prostate_cancer" title="Prostate cancer">prostate cancer</a> on August 19, 1994, at 19:20 at home in <a href="/wiki/Big_Sur" title="Big Sur">Big Sur</a>, California.<a href="#cite_note-Offit-12">[12]</a> He was 93 years old.<a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a> A grave marker for Pauling was placed in Oswego Pioneer Cemetery in <a href="/wiki/Lake_Oswego,_Oregon" title="Lake Oswego, Oregon">Lake Oswego</a>, Oregon by his sister Pauline, but Pauling's ashes, along with those of his wife, were not buried there until 2005.<a href="#cite_note-grave-168">[168]</a> Pauling's discoveries led to decisive contributions in a diverse array of areas including around 350 publications in the fields of quantum mechanics, inorganic chemistry, organic chemistry, protein structure, molecular biology, and medicine.<a href="#cite_note-California-169">[169]</a><a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a> His work on chemical bonding marks him as one of the founders of modern <a href="/wiki/Quantum_chemistry" title="Quantum chemistry">quantum chemistry</a>.<a href="#cite_note-natureobit-9">[9]</a> The Nature of the Chemical Bond was the standard work for many years,<a href="#cite_note-Hamilton-171">[171]</a> and concepts like <a href="/wiki/Orbital_hybridisation" title="Orbital hybridisation">hybridization</a> and <a href="/wiki/Electronegativity" title="Electronegativity">electronegativity</a> remain part of standard chemistry textbooks. While his <a href="/wiki/Valence_bond" class="mw-redirect" title="Valence bond">Valence bond</a> approach fell short of accounting quantitatively for some of the characteristics of molecules, such as the color of <a href="/wiki/Organometallic" class="mw-redirect" title="Organometallic">organometallic</a> complexes, and would later be eclipsed by the <a href="/wiki/Molecular_orbital_theory" title="Molecular orbital theory">molecular orbital theory</a> of <a href="/wiki/Robert_Mulliken" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Mulliken">Robert Mulliken</a>, Valence Bond Theory still competes, in its modern form, with Molecular Orbital Theory and <a href="/wiki/Density_functional_theory" title="Density functional theory">density functional theory</a> (DFT) as a way of describing chemical phenomena.<a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a> Pauling's work on crystal structure contributed significantly to the prediction and elucidation of the structures of complex minerals and compounds.<a href="#cite_note-Marinacci-28">[28]</a>: 80–81  His discovery of the alpha helix and beta sheet is a fundamental foundation for the study of protein structure.<a href="#cite_note-Goertzel_and_Goertzel,_p._95-100-59">[59]</a> <a href="/wiki/Francis_Crick" title="Francis Crick">Francis Crick</a> acknowledged Pauling as the "father of <a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">molecular biology</a>".<a href="#cite_note-natureobit-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a> His discovery of <a href="/wiki/Sickle_cell_anemia" class="mw-redirect" title="Sickle cell anemia">sickle cell anemia</a> as a "molecular disease" opened the way toward examining genetically acquired mutations at a molecular level.<a href="#cite_note-Strasser-68">[68]</a> Pauling's 1951 publication with Robert B. Corey and H. R. Branson, "The Structure of Proteins: Two Hydrogen-Bonded Helical Configurations of the Polypeptide Chain," was a key early finding in the then newly emerging field of molecular biology. This publication was honored by a Citation for Chemical Breakthrough Award from the Division of History of Chemistry of the American Chemical Society presented to the department of chemistry, Caltech, in 2017.<a href="#cite_note-breakthrough-174">[174]</a><a href="#cite_note-configurations-175">[175]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Commemorations">Commemorations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linus_Pauling&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Commemorations">edit</a>]</div> Oregon State University completed construction of the $77 million, 100,000-square-foot (9,300 m2) Linus Pauling Science Center in the late 2000s, now housing the bulk of Oregon State's chemistry classrooms, labs, and instruments.<a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a> On March 6, 2008, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Postal_Service" title="United States Postal Service">United States Postal Service</a> released a 41 cent stamp honoring Pauling designed by artist <a href="/wiki/Victor_Stabin" title="Victor Stabin">Victor Stabin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-177">[177]</a><a href="#cite_note-stamp-178">[178]</a> His description reads: "A remarkably versatile scientist, structural chemist Linus Pauling (1901–1994) won the 1954 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for determining the nature of the chemical bond linking atoms into molecules. His work in establishing the field of molecular biology; his studies of hemoglobin led to the classification of sickle cell anemia as a molecular disease."<a href="#cite_note-Strasser-68">[68]</a> The other scientists on this sheet of stamps included <a href="/wiki/Gerty_Cori" title="Gerty Cori">Gerty Cori</a>, biochemist, <a href="/wiki/Edwin_Hubble" title="Edwin Hubble">Edwin Hubble</a>, astronomer, and <a href="/wiki/John_Bardeen" title="John Bardeen">John Bardeen</a>, physicist.<a href="#cite_note-stamp-178">[178]</a> California Governor <a href="/wiki/Arnold_Schwarzenegger" title="Arnold Schwarzenegger">Arnold Schwarzenegger</a> and First Lady <a href="/wiki/Maria_Shriver" title="Maria Shriver">Maria Shriver</a> announced on May 28, 2008, that Pauling would be inducted into the <a href="/wiki/California_Hall_of_Fame" title="California Hall of Fame">California Hall of Fame</a>, located at <a href="/wiki/The_California_Museum_for_History,_Women_and_the_Arts" class="mw-redirect" title="The California Museum for History, Women and the Arts">The California Museum for History, Women and the Arts</a>. The induction ceremony took place December 15, 2008. Pauling's son was asked to accept the honor in his place.<a href="#cite_note-CA.gov-179">[179]</a> By proclamation of Gov. <a href="/wiki/John_Kitzhaber" title="John Kitzhaber">John Kitzhaber</a> in the state of Oregon, February 28 has been named "Linus Pauling Day".<a href="#cite_note-Notebooks-180">[180]</a> The Linus Pauling Institute still exists, but moved in 1996 from Palo Alto, California, to Corvallis, Oregon, where it is part of the Linus Pauling Science Center at <a href="/wiki/Oregon_State_University" title="Oregon State University">Oregon State University</a>.<a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a><a href="#cite_note-CGT2011-182">[182]</a><a href="#cite_note-OSUFoundation-183">[183]</a> <a href="/wiki/The_Valley_Library" title="The Valley Library">The Valley Library</a> Special Collections at Oregon State University contain the Ava Helen and Linus Pauling Papers, including digitized versions of Pauling's forty-six research notebooks.<a href="#cite_note-Notebooks-180">[180]</a> In 1986, Caltech commemorated Linus Pauling with a symposium and lectureship.<a href="#cite_note-Zewail-184">[184]</a> The Pauling Lecture series at Caltech began in 1989 with a lecture by Pauling himself. The Caltech Chemistry Department renamed room 22 of Gates Hall the Linus Pauling Lecture Hall, since Pauling spent so much time there.<a href="#cite_note-Baum-185">[185]</a> Other places named after Pauling include Pauling Street in Foothill Ranch, California;<a href="#cite_note-Factory-186">[186]</a> Linus Pauling Drive in Hercules, California; Linus and Ava Helen Pauling Hall at <a href="/wiki/Soka_University_of_America" title="Soka University of America">Soka University of America</a> in Aliso Viejo, California;<a href="#cite_note-Gottlieb-187">[187]</a> Linus Pauling Middle School in Corvallis, Oregon;<a href="#cite_note-Woodward-188">[188]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Condon_State_Airport" title="Condon State Airport">Pauling Field</a>, a small airfield located in Condon, Oregon, where Pauling spent his youth.<a href="#cite_note-Airport-189">[189]</a> There is a psychedelic rock band in Houston, Texas, named <a href="/wiki/The_Linus_Pauling_Quartet" title="The Linus Pauling Quartet">The Linus Pauling Quartet</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Heberlein-190">[190]</a> The asteroid <a href="/wiki/4674_Pauling" title="4674 Pauling">4674 Pauling</a> in the inner asteroid belt, discovered by <a href="/wiki/Eleanor_F._Helin" title="Eleanor F. Helin">Eleanor F. Helin</a>, was named after Linus Pauling in 1991, on his 90th birthday.<a href="#cite_note-Schmadel-191">[191]</a> <a href="/wiki/Linus_Torvalds" title="Linus Torvalds">Linus Torvalds</a>, developer of the <a href="/wiki/Linux" title="Linux">Linux</a> kernel, is named after Pauling.<a href="#cite_note-moody-192">[192]</a> Nobel laureate <a href="/wiki/Peter_Agre" title="Peter Agre">Peter Agre</a> has said that Linus Pauling inspired him.<a href="#cite_note-193">[193]</a> In 2010, <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Northwest_National_Laboratory" title="Pacific Northwest National Laboratory">Pacific Northwest National Laboratory</a> named its distinguished postdoctoral program in his honor, as the Linus Pauling Distinguished Postdoctoral Fellowship Program.<a href="#cite_note-194">[194]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Honors_and_awards">Honors and awards</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linus_Pauling&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Honors and awards">edit</a>]</div> Pauling received numerous awards and honors during his career, including the following:<a href="#cite_note-summary-195">[195]</a><a href="#cite_note-OH-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-honors-196">[196]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li>1931 <a href="/wiki/ACS_Award_in_Pure_Chemistry" title="ACS Award in Pure Chemistry">ACS Award in Pure Chemistry</a><a href="#cite_note-197">[197]</a></li> <li>1931 <a href="/wiki/Irving_Langmuir_Award" title="Irving Langmuir Award">Irving Langmuir Award</a>, American Chemical Society.<a href="#cite_note-OH-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-honors-196">[196]</a></li> <li>1933 Elected Member of the United States <a href="/wiki/National_Academy_of_Sciences" title="National Academy of Sciences">National Academy of Sciences</a><a href="#cite_note-198">[198]</a></li> <li>1936 Elected Member of the United States <a href="/wiki/American_Philosophical_Society" title="American Philosophical Society">American Philosophical Society</a><a href="#cite_note-199">[199]</a></li> <li>1940 <a href="/wiki/Alpha_Chi_Sigma" title="Alpha Chi Sigma">Alpha Chi Sigma</a>, professional chemistry fraternity.<a href="#cite_note-Chi1940-200">[200]</a></li> <li>1941 <a href="/wiki/William_H._Nichols#Nichols'_legacy" title="William H. Nichols">Nichols Medal</a>, New York Section, American Chemical Society.<a href="#cite_note-OH-34">[34]</a></li> <li>1944 Elected Member of the <a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences" title="American Academy of Arts and Sciences">American Academy of Arts and Sciences</a><a href="#cite_note-201">[201]</a></li> <li>1946 <a href="/wiki/Willard_Gibbs_Award" title="Willard Gibbs Award">Willard Gibbs Award</a>, Chicago section of the American Chemical Society.<a href="#cite_note-honors-196">[196]</a></li> <li>1947 <a href="/wiki/Davy_Medal" title="Davy Medal">Davy Medal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a>.<a href="#cite_note-OH-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-honors-196">[196]</a></li> <li>1947 T. W. Richards Medal, Northeastern Section of the American Chemical Society.<a href="#cite_note-honors-196">[196]</a></li> <li>1948 <a href="/wiki/Presidential_Medal_for_Merit" class="mw-redirect" title="Presidential Medal for Merit">Presidential Medal for Merit</a> by President <a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Harry S. Truman</a> of the United States.<a href="#cite_note-OH-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-honors-196">[196]</a></li> <li>1948 Elected a Foreign Member of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a> of London (ForMemRS)<a href="#cite_note-frs-13">[13]</a></li> <li>1951 <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_N._Lewis" title="Gilbert N. Lewis">Gilbert N. Lewis</a> medal, California section of the American Chemical Society.<a href="#cite_note-honors-196">[196]</a></li> <li>1952 Pasteur Medal, Biochemical Society of France.<a href="#cite_note-OH-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-202">[202]</a></li> <li>1954 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Nobel Prize in Chemistry</a>.<a href="#cite_note-OH-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-honors-196">[196]</a></li> <li>1955 Addis Medal, National Nephrosis Foundation.<a href="#cite_note-OH-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-honors-196">[196]</a></li> <li>1955 John Phillips Memorial Award, <a href="/wiki/American_College_of_Physicians" title="American College of Physicians">American College of Physicians</a>.<a href="#cite_note-OH-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-honors-196">[196]</a></li> <li>1956 Avogadro Medal, Italian Academy of Science.<a href="#cite_note-OH-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-honors-196">[196]</a></li> <li>1957 <a href="/wiki/Paul_Sabatier_(chemist)" title="Paul Sabatier (chemist)">Paul Sabatier</a> Medal.</li> <li>1957 Pierre Fermat Medal in Mathematics (awarded for only the sixth time in three centuries).<a href="#cite_note-OH-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-honors-196">[196]</a><a href="#cite_note-203">[203]</a></li> <li>1957 International <a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Grotius</a> Medal.<a href="#cite_note-OH-34">[34]</a></li> <li>1959 <a href="/wiki/Messenger_Lectures" title="Messenger Lectures">Messenger Lectureship</a></li> <li>1960 Fellow, <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society_of_Arts" title="Royal Society of Arts">Royal Society of Arts</a></li> <li>1961 Humanist of the Year, <a href="/wiki/American_Humanist_Association" title="American Humanist Association">American Humanist Association</a>.</li> <li>1961 <a href="/wiki/Gandhi_Peace_Award" title="Gandhi Peace Award">Gandhi Peace Award</a> by <a href="/wiki/Promoting_Enduring_Peace" title="Promoting Enduring Peace">Promoting Enduring Peace</a>.<a href="#cite_note-204">[204]</a></li> <li>1962 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="Nobel Peace Prize">Nobel Peace Prize</a>.<a href="#cite_note-OH-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-honors-196">[196]</a></li> <li>1965 Medal, Academy of the Rumanian People's Republic.<a href="#cite_note-OH-34">[34]</a></li> <li>1966 <a href="/wiki/Linus_Pauling_Award" title="Linus Pauling Award">Linus Pauling Award</a>.<a href="#cite_note-OH-34">[34]</a></li> <li>1966 Silver Medal, <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Institute of France">Institute of France</a>.<a href="#cite_note-OH-34">[34]</a></li> <li>1966 Supreme Peace Sponsor, World Fellowship of Religion.<a href="#cite_note-OH-34">[34]</a></li> <li>1967 <a href="/wiki/Washington_A._Roebling" class="mw-redirect" title="Washington A. Roebling">Washington A. Roebling</a> Medal, <a href="/wiki/Mineralogical_Society_of_America" title="Mineralogical Society of America">Mineralogical Society of America</a>.<a href="#cite_note-honors-196">[196]</a></li> <li>1972 <a href="/wiki/Lenin_Peace_Prize" title="Lenin Peace Prize">Lenin Peace Prize</a>.<a href="#cite_note-OH-34">[34]</a></li> <li>1974 <a href="/wiki/National_Medal_of_Science" title="National Medal of Science">National Medal of Science</a> by President <a href="/wiki/Gerald_R._Ford" class="mw-redirect" title="Gerald R. Ford">Gerald R. Ford</a> of the United States.<a href="#cite_note-honors-196">[196]</a></li> <li>1978 <a href="/wiki/Lomonosov_Gold_Medal" title="Lomonosov Gold Medal">Lomonosov Gold Medal</a>, Presidium of the Academy of the USSR.<a href="#cite_note-OH-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-honors-196">[196]</a></li> <li>1979 Gold Medal Honoree, <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_of_Social_Sciences" title="National Institute of Social Sciences">National Institute of Social Sciences</a>.<a href="#cite_note-205">[205]</a></li> <li>1979 <a href="/wiki/NAS_Award_in_Chemical_Sciences" title="NAS Award in Chemical Sciences">NAS Award in Chemical Sciences</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States_National_Academy_of_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="United States National Academy of Sciences">National Academy of Sciences</a>.<a href="#cite_note-OH-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-Chemical-206">[206]</a></li> <li>1979 Golden Plate Award, <a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Achievement" class="mw-redirect" title="American Academy of Achievement">American Academy of Achievement</a><a href="#cite_note-207">[207]</a></li> <li>1981 <a href="/wiki/John_K._Lattimer" title="John K. Lattimer">John K. Lattimer</a> Award, <a href="/wiki/American_Urological_Association" title="American Urological Association">American Urological Association</a>.<a href="#cite_note-honors-196">[196]</a></li> <li>1984 <a href="/wiki/Priestley_Medal" title="Priestley Medal">Priestley Medal</a>, American Chemical Society.<a href="#cite_note-OH-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-honors-196">[196]</a></li> <li>1984 Award for Chemistry, <a href="/wiki/Arthur_M._Sackler" title="Arthur M. Sackler">Arthur M. Sackler</a> Foundation.<a href="#cite_note-OH-34">[34]</a></li> <li>1986 <a href="/wiki/Lavoisier_Medal" title="Lavoisier Medal">Lavoisier Medal</a> by Fondation de la Maison de la Chimie.<a href="#cite_note-honors-196">[196]</a></li> <li>1987 Award in Chemical Education, American Chemical Society.<a href="#cite_note-OH-34">[34]</a></li> <li>1989 <a href="/wiki/Vannevar_Bush_Award" title="Vannevar Bush Award">Vannevar Bush Award</a>, <a href="/wiki/National_Science_Board" title="National Science Board">National Science Board</a>.<a href="#cite_note-OH-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-honors-196">[196]</a></li> <li>1990 <a href="/wiki/Richard_C._Tolman" title="Richard C. Tolman">Richard C. Tolman</a> Medal, American Chemical Society Southern California Section.<a href="#cite_note-OH-34">[34]</a></li> <li>1992 <a href="/wiki/Daisaku_Ikeda" title="Daisaku Ikeda">Daisaku Ikeda</a> Medal, <a href="/wiki/Soka_Gakkai_International" title="Soka Gakkai International">Soka Gakkai International</a><a href="#cite_note-honors-196">[196]</a></li> <li>2008 "American Scientists" <a href="/wiki/List_of_people_on_stamps_of_the_United_States#P" class="mw-redirect" title="List of people on stamps of the United States">U.S. postage stamp</a> series, $0.41, for his sickle cell disease work.<a href="#cite_note-208">[208]</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Publications">Publications</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linus_Pauling&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Publications">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Books">Books</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linus_Pauling&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Books">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about Linus Pauling <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=viaf&su=91892412">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=viaf&su=91892412&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> <div class="side-box-abovebelow">By Linus Pauling <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?at=viaf&au=91892412&library=OLBP">Online books</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?at=viaf&au=91892412">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?at=viaf&au=91892412&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li></ul> </div></div> </div> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFPaulingWilson1985" class="citation book cs1">——; Wilson, E. B. (1985) [Originally published in 1935]. Introduction to Quantum Mechanics with Applications to Chemistry. Reprinted by <a href="/wiki/Dover_Publications" title="Dover Publications">Dover Publications</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-64871-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-486-64871-2"><bdi>978-0-486-64871-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Quantum+Mechanics+with+Applications+to+Chemistry&rft.pub=Reprinted+by+Dover+Publications&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-486-64871-2&rft.aulast=Pauling&rft.aufirst=Linus&rft.au=Wilson%2C+E.+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPauling1939" class="citation book cs1">—— (1939). The Nature of the Chemical Bond and the Structure of Molecules and Crystals. <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University_Press" title="Cornell University Press">Cornell University Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nature+of+the+Chemical+Bond+and+the+Structure+of+Molecules+and+Crystals&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=1939&rft.aulast=Pauling&rft.aufirst=Linus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPauling1947" class="citation book cs1">—— (1947). General Chemistry: An Introduction to Descriptive Chemistry and Modern Chemical Theory. <a href="/wiki/W._H._Freeman_and_Company" title="W. H. Freeman and Company">Freeman</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=General+Chemistry%3A+An+Introduction+to+Descriptive+Chemistry+and+Modern+Chemical+Theory&rft.pub=Freeman&rft.date=1947&rft.aulast=Pauling&rft.aufirst=Linus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> <ul><li>Greatly revised and expanded in 1947, 1953, and 1970. Reprinted by <a href="/wiki/Dover_Publications" title="Dover Publications">Dover Publications</a> in 1988.</li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaulingHayward1964" class="citation journal cs1">——; Hayward, Roger (1964). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC300194">"The Architecture of Molecules"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences_of_the_United_States_of_America" title="Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>. 51 (5). San Francisco: <a href="/wiki/W._H._Freeman_and_Company" title="W. H. Freeman and Company">Freeman</a>: 977–84. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1964PNAS...51..977P">1964PNAS...51..977P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.51.5.977">10.1073/pnas.51.5.977</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-0158-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-0158-3"><bdi>978-0-7167-0158-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC300194">300194</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16591181">16591181</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=The+Architecture+of+Molecules&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E977-%3C%2Fspan%3E84&rft.date=1964&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC300194%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1964PNAS...51..977P&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16591181&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.51.5.977&rft.isbn=978-0-7167-0158-3&rft.aulast=Pauling&rft.aufirst=Linus&rft.au=Hayward%2C+Roger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC300194&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/bond/index.html">Manuscript notes and typescripts (clear images)</a></li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPauling1958" class="citation book cs1">—— (1958). No more war!. Dodd, Mead & Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-124-11966-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-124-11966-3"><bdi>978-1-124-11966-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=No+more+war%21&rft.pub=Dodd%2C+Mead+%26+Co&rft.date=1958&rft.isbn=978-1-124-11966-3&rft.aulast=Pauling&rft.aufirst=Linus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPauling1977" class="citation book cs1">—— (1977). Vitamin C, the Common Cold and the Flu. <a href="/wiki/W._H._Freeman_and_Company" title="W. H. Freeman and Company">Freeman</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-0360-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-0360-0"><bdi>978-0-7167-0360-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vitamin+C%2C+the+Common+Cold+and+the+Flu&rft.pub=Freeman&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-0-7167-0360-0&rft.aulast=Pauling&rft.aufirst=Linus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPauling1987" class="citation book cs1">—— (1987). How to Live Longer and Feel Better. Avon. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-380-70289-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-380-70289-3"><bdi>978-0-380-70289-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+to+Live+Longer+and+Feel+Better&rft.pub=Avon&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-380-70289-3&rft.aulast=Pauling&rft.aufirst=Linus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCameronPauling1993" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ewan_Cameron" title="Ewan Cameron">Cameron, E.</a>; —— (1993). Cancer and Vitamin C: A Discussion of the Nature, Causes, Prevention, and Treatment of Cancer With Special Reference to the Value of Vitamin C. Camino. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-940159-21-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-940159-21-1"><bdi>978-0-940159-21-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cancer+and+Vitamin+C%3A+A+Discussion+of+the+Nature%2C+Causes%2C+Prevention%2C+and+Treatment+of+Cancer+With+Special+Reference+to+the+Value+of+Vitamin+C&rft.pub=Camino&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-940159-21-1&rft.aulast=Cameron&rft.aufirst=E.&rft.au=Pauling%2C+Linus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPauling1998" class="citation book cs1">—— (1998). Linus Pauling On Peace: A Scientist Speaks Out on Humanism and World Survival. Rising Star Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-933670-03-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-933670-03-7"><bdi>978-0-933670-03-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Linus+Pauling+On+Peace%3A+A+Scientist+Speaks+Out+on+Humanism+and+World+Survival&rft.pub=Rising+Star+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-933670-03-7&rft.aulast=Pauling&rft.aufirst=Linus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHofferPauling2004" class="citation book cs1">Hoffer, Abram; —— (2004). Healing Cancer: Complementary Vitamin & Drug Treatments. Toronto: CCNM Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-897025-11-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-897025-11-6"><bdi>978-1-897025-11-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Healing+Cancer%3A+Complementary+Vitamin+%26+Drug+Treatments&rft.place=Toronto&rft.pub=CCNM+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-897025-11-6&rft.aulast=Hoffer&rft.aufirst=Abram&rft.au=Pauling%2C+Linus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIkedaPauling2008" class="citation book cs1">Ikeda, Daisaku; —— (2008). A Lifelong Quest for Peace: A Dialogue. Richard L. Gage (ed., trans.). London: I. B. Tauris. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84511-889-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84511-889-1"><bdi>978-1-84511-889-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Lifelong+Quest+for+Peace%3A+A+Dialogue&rft.place=London&rft.pub=I.+B.+Tauris&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-84511-889-1&rft.aulast=Ikeda&rft.aufirst=Daisaku&rft.au=Pauling%2C+Linus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Journal_articles">Journal articles</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linus_Pauling&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Journal articles">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPauling1927" class="citation journal cs1">—— (1927). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspa.1927.0035">"The Theoretical Prediction of the Physical Properties of Many-Electron Atoms and Ions. Mole Refraction, Diamagnetic Susceptibility, and Extension in Space"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Proceedings of the Royal Society">Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences</a>. 114 (767): 181–211. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1927RSPSA.114..181P">1927RSPSA.114..181P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspa.1927.0035">10.1098/rspa.1927.0035</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Royal+Society+A%3A+Mathematical%2C+Physical+and+Engineering+Sciences&rft.atitle=The+Theoretical+Prediction+of+the+Physical+Properties+of+Many-Electron+Atoms+and+Ions.+Mole+Refraction%2C+Diamagnetic+Susceptibility%2C+and+Extension+in+Space&rft.volume=114&rft.issue=767&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E181-%3C%2Fspan%3E211&rft.date=1927&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frspa.1927.0035&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1927RSPSA.114..181P&rft.aulast=Pauling&rft.aufirst=L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1098%252Frspa.1927.0035&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPauling1929" class="citation journal cs1">—— (1929). "The Principles Determining the Structure of Complex Ionic Crystals". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 51 (4): 1010–1026. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1929JAChS..51.1010P">1929JAChS..51.1010P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fja01379a006">10.1021/ja01379a006</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Chemical+Society&rft.atitle=The+Principles+Determining+the+Structure+of+Complex+Ionic+Crystals&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1010-%3C%2Fspan%3E1026&rft.date=1929&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fja01379a006&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1929JAChS..51.1010P&rft.aulast=Pauling&rft.aufirst=L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPauling1931" class="citation journal cs1">—— (1931). "The Nature of the Chemical Bond. I. Application of Results Obtained from the Quantum Mechanics and from a Theory of Paramagnetic Susceptibility to the Structure of Molecules". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 53 (4): 1367–1400. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1931JAChS..53.1367P">1931JAChS..53.1367P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fja01355a027">10.1021/ja01355a027</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Chemical+Society&rft.atitle=The+Nature+of+the+Chemical+Bond.+I.+Application+of+Results+Obtained+from+the+Quantum+Mechanics+and+from+a+Theory+of+Paramagnetic+Susceptibility+to+the+Structure+of+Molecules&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1367-%3C%2Fspan%3E1400&rft.date=1931&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fja01355a027&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1931JAChS..53.1367P&rft.aulast=Pauling&rft.aufirst=L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPauling1931" class="citation journal cs1">—— (1931). "The Nature of the Chemical Bond. II. The One-Electron Bond and the Three-Electron Bond". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 53 (9): 3225–3237. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1931JAChS..53.3225P">1931JAChS..53.3225P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fja01360a004">10.1021/ja01360a004</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Chemical+Society&rft.atitle=The+Nature+of+the+Chemical+Bond.+II.+The+One-Electron+Bond+and+the+Three-Electron+Bond&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E3225-%3C%2Fspan%3E3237&rft.date=1931&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fja01360a004&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1931JAChS..53.3225P&rft.aulast=Pauling&rft.aufirst=L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPauling1932" class="citation journal cs1">—— (1932). "The Nature of the Chemical Bond. III. The Transition from One Extreme Bond Type to Another". 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"The Nature of the Chemical Bond. IV. The Energy of Single Bonds and the Relative Electronegativity of Atoms". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 54 (9): 3570–3582. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1932JAChS..54.3570P">1932JAChS..54.3570P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fja01348a011">10.1021/ja01348a011</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Chemical+Society&rft.atitle=The+Nature+of+the+Chemical+Bond.+IV.+The+Energy+of+Single+Bonds+and+the+Relative+Electronegativity+of+Atoms&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E3570-%3C%2Fspan%3E3582&rft.date=1932&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fja01348a011&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1932JAChS..54.3570P&rft.aulast=Pauling&rft.aufirst=L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaulingWheland1933" class="citation journal cs1">——; Wheland, G. 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The Journal of Chemical Physics. 1 (6): 362. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1933JChPh...1..362P">1933JChPh...1..362P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.1749304">10.1063/1.1749304</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://authors.library.caltech.edu/11409/1/PAUjcp33c.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Chemical+Physics&rft.atitle=The+Nature+of+the+Chemical+Bond.+V.+The+Quantum-Mechanical+Calculation+of+the+Resonance+Energy+of+Benzene+and+Naphthalene+and+the+Hydrocarbon+Free+Radicals&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=362&rft.date=1933&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1063%2F1.1749304&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1933JChPh...1..362P&rft.aulast=Pauling&rft.aufirst=L.&rft.au=Wheland%2C+G.+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fauthors.library.caltech.edu%2F11409%2F1%2FPAUjcp33c.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPauling1935" class="citation journal cs1">—— (1935). "The Structure and Entropy of Ice and of Other Crystals with Some Randomness of Atomic Arrangement". 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Science. 110 (2865): 543–548. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1949Sci...110..543P">1949Sci...110..543P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.110.2865.543">10.1126/science.110.2865.543</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15395398">15395398</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:31674765">31674765</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Sickle+Cell+Anemia%2C+a+Molecular+Disease&rft.volume=110&rft.issue=2865&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E543-%3C%2Fspan%3E548&rft.date=1949&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.110.2865.543&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A31674765%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15395398&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1949Sci...110..543P&rft.aulast=Pauling&rft.aufirst=L.&rft.au=Itano%2C+H.+A.&rft.au=Singer%2C+S.+J.&rft.au=Wells%2C+I.+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaulingCoreyBranson1951" class="citation journal cs1">——; Corey, R. B.; <a href="/wiki/Herman_Branson" title="Herman Branson">Branson, H. R.</a> (1951). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1063337">"The structure of proteins: Two hydrogen-bonded helical configurations of the polypeptide chain"</a>. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 37 (4): 205–11. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1951PNAS...37..205P">1951PNAS...37..205P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.37.4.205">10.1073/pnas.37.4.205</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1063337">1063337</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14816373">14816373</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=The+structure+of+proteins%3A+Two+hydrogen-bonded+helical+configurations+of+the+polypeptide+chain&rft.volume=37&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E205-%3C%2Fspan%3E11&rft.date=1951&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1063337%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F14816373&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.37.4.205&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1951PNAS...37..205P&rft.aulast=Pauling&rft.aufirst=L.&rft.au=Corey%2C+R.+B.&rft.au=Branson%2C+H.+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1063337&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linus_Pauling&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_peace_activists" title="List of peace activists">List of peace activists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niacin_(substance)" class="mw-redirect" title="Niacin (substance)">Niacin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobel_disease" title="Nobel disease">Nobel disease</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linus_Pauling&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linus_Pauling&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-mathgene-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-mathgene_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-mathgene_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-mathgene_1-2">c</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mathgenealogy.org/id.php?id=113591">Linus Pauling</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Mathematics_Genealogy_Project" title="Mathematics Genealogy Project">Mathematics Genealogy Project</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Guggenheim-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Guggenheim_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Guggenheim_2-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/chronology/page9.html">"A Guggenheim Fellow in Europe during the Golden Years of Physics (1926–1927)"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Oregon_State_University" title="Oregon State University">Oregon State University</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211028235401/http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/chronology/page9.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-10-28. Retrieved 2015-05-27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Oregon+State+University&rft.atitle=A+Guggenheim+Fellow+in+Europe+during+the+Golden+Years+of+Physics+%281926%E2%80%931927%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscarc.library.oregonstate.edu%2Fcoll%2Fpauling%2Fchronology%2Fpage9.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-paulingphd-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-paulingphd_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-paulingphd_3-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPauling1925" class="citation thesis cs1">———— (1925). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://thesis.library.caltech.edu/1791/">The determination with x-rays of the structures of crystals</a> (PhD thesis). <a href="/wiki/California_Institute_of_Technology" title="California Institute of Technology">California Institute of Technology</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7907%2FF7V6-4P98">10.7907/F7V6-4P98</a>. Retrieved 2022-04-13.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=The+determination+with+x-rays+of+the+structures+of+crystals&rft.degree=PhD&rft.inst=California+Institute+of+Technology&rft.date=1925&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7907%2FF7V6-4P98&rft.aulast=Pauling&rft.aufirst=Linus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fthesis.library.caltech.edu%2F1791%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ChemNobel-4"><a href="#cite_ref-ChemNobel_4-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/1954/pauling/facts/">"Linus Pauling: Facts"</a>. Nobel Prize. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220404140945/https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/1954/pauling/facts/">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-04-04. Retrieved 2022-04-13.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Nobel+Prize&rft.atitle=Linus+Pauling%3A+Facts&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nobelprize.org%2Fprizes%2Fchemistry%2F1954%2Fpauling%2Ffacts%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-VolumeI-5"><a href="#cite_ref-VolumeI_5-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPauling1997" class="citation book cs1">———— (1997). Pauling, Linus Jr. (ed.). Selected papers of Linus Pauling (Volume I ed.). <a href="/wiki/River_Edge,_New_Jersey" title="River Edge, New Jersey">River Edge, New Jersey</a>: <a href="/wiki/World_Scientific" title="World Scientific">World Scientific</a>. p. xvii. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-02-2939-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-981-02-2939-9"><bdi>978-981-02-2939-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Selected+papers+of+Linus+Pauling&rft.place=River+Edge%2C+New+Jersey&rft.pages=xvii&rft.edition=Volume+I&rft.pub=World+Scientific&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-981-02-2939-9&rft.aulast=Pauling&rft.aufirst=Linus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Horgan-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Horgan_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Horgan_6-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHorgan1993" class="citation magazine cs1">Horgan, J (1993). "Profile: Linus C. Pauling – Stubbornly Ahead of His Time". <a href="/wiki/Scientific_American" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a>. Vol. 266, no. 3. pp. 36–40. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1993SciAm.266c..36H">1993SciAm.266c..36H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0393-36">10.1038/scientificamerican0393-36</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=Profile%3A+Linus+C.+Pauling+%E2%80%93+Stubbornly+Ahead+of+His+Time&rft.volume=266&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E36-%3C%2Fspan%3E40&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0393-36&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1993SciAm.266c..36H&rft.aulast=Horgan&rft.aufirst=J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nobel-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nobel_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nobel_7-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nobel_7-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nobel_7-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nobel_7-4">e</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/laureate/217">Linus Pauling</a> on Nobelprize.org <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q48983#P8024" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a>, accessed 30 April 2020 </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/facts/">"Nobel Prize Facts"</a>. Nobel Prize. 2022-04-12 [2009-10-05]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170111161907/http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/facts/">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-01-11. Retrieved 2022-04-13.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Nobel+Prize&rft.atitle=Nobel+Prize+Facts&rft.date=2022-04-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Ffacts%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-natureobit-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-natureobit_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-natureobit_9-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-natureobit_9-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRich1994" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Rich" title="Alexander Rich">Rich, Alexander</a> (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F371285a0">"Linus Pauling (1901–1994)"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a>. 371 (6495): 285. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1994Natur.371..285R">1994Natur.371..285R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F371285a0">10.1038/371285a0</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8090196">8090196</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:8923975">8923975</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Linus+Pauling+%281901%E2%80%931994%29&rft.volume=371&rft.issue=6495&rft.pages=285&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F371285a0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A8923975%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F8090196&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1994Natur.371..285R&rft.aulast=Rich&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252F371285a0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Contributions_to_DNA_double-helix_discovery-10"><a href="#cite_ref-Contributions_to_DNA_double-helix_discovery_10-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGribbin2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Gribbin" title="John Gribbin">Gribbin, John</a> (2004). 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New York City: <a href="/wiki/Random_House" title="Random House">Random House</a>. pp. 558–569. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8129-6788-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8129-6788-3"><bdi>978-0-8129-6788-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL8020832M">8020832M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Scientists%3A+A+History+of+Science+Told+Through+the+Lives+of+Its+Greatest+Inventors&rft.place=New+York+City&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E558-%3C%2Fspan%3E569&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=2004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL8020832M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=978-0-8129-6788-3&rft.aulast=Gribbin&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-isbn0-399-50764-7-11"><a href="#cite_ref-isbn0-399-50764-7_11-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStone1982" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Irwin_Stone" title="Irwin Stone">Stone, Irwin</a> (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/healingfactorvit0000ston">The healing factor: "vitamin C" against disease</a>. New York: Perigee Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-399-50764-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-399-50764-9"><bdi>978-0-399-50764-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/10169988">10169988</a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL9567597M">9567597M</a> – via <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+healing+factor%3A+%22vitamin+C%22+against+disease&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Perigee+Books&rft.date=1982&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F10169988&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL9567597M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=978-0-399-50764-9&rft.aulast=Stone&rft.aufirst=Irwin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhealingfactorvit0000ston&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Offit-12">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Offit_12-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Offit_12-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOffit2013" class="citation magazine cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Offit" title="Paul Offit">Offit, Paul</a> (2013-07-19). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2013/07/the-vitamin-myth-why-we-think-we-need-supplements/277947/">"The Vitamin Myth: Why We Think We Need Supplements"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Atlantic" title="The Atlantic">The Atlantic</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2151-9463">2151-9463</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/936540106">936540106</a>. Retrieved 2013-07-19.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Atlantic&rft.atitle=The+Vitamin+Myth%3A+Why+We+Think+We+Need+Supplements&rft.date=2013-07-19&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F936540106&rft.issn=2151-9463&rft.aulast=Offit&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Fhealth%2Farchive%2F2013%2F07%2Fthe-vitamin-myth-why-we-think-we-need-supplements%2F277947%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-frs-13">^ <a href="#cite_ref-frs_13-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-frs_13-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-frs_13-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-frs_13-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDunitz1996" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jack_D._Dunitz" title="Jack D. Dunitz">Dunitz, Jack D.</a> (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsbm.1996.0020">"Linus Carl Pauling. 28 February 1901–19 August 1994"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Biographical_Memoirs_of_Fellows_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society">Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society</a>. 42 (9): 316–326. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsbm.1996.0020">10.1098/rsbm.1996.0020</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11619334">11619334</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biographical+Memoirs+of+Fellows+of+the+Royal+Society&rft.atitle=Linus+Carl+Pauling.+28+February+1901%E2%80%9319+August+1994&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E316-%3C%2Fspan%3E326&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frsbm.1996.0020&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11619334&rft.aulast=Dunitz&rft.aufirst=Jack+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1098%252Frsbm.1996.0020&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-childhood-14"><a href="#cite_ref-childhood_14-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/chronology/page3.html">"Linus Pauling's Childhood (1901–1910)"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Oregon_State_University" title="Oregon State University">Oregon State University</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220407144827/http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/chronology/page3.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-04-07. Retrieved 2013-04-25.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Oregon+State+University&rft.atitle=Linus+Pauling%27s+Childhood+%281901%E2%80%931910%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscarc.library.oregonstate.edu%2Fcoll%2Fpauling%2Fchronology%2Fpage3.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nature-15">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nature_15-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nature_15-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nature_15-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nature_15-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nature_15-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHager1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hager" title="Thomas Hager">Hager, Thomas</a> (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/forceofnaturelif00hage">Force of Nature: The Life of Linus Pauling</a>. <a href="/wiki/Simon_%26_Schuster" title="Simon & Schuster">Simon & Schuster</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-684-80909-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-684-80909-0"><bdi>978-0-684-80909-0</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Force+of+Nature%3A+The+Life+of+Linus+Pauling&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-684-80909-0&rft.aulast=Hager&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fforceofnaturelif00hage&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-MeadHager-16">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MeadHager_16-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MeadHager_16-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeadHager2001" class="citation book cs1">Mead, Clifford; <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hager" title="Thomas Hager">Hager, Thomas</a>, eds. (2001). Linus Pauling: Scientist and Peacemaker. <a href="/wiki/Oregon_State_University_Press" title="Oregon State University Press">Oregon State University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87071-489-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87071-489-4"><bdi>978-0-87071-489-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Linus+Pauling%3A+Scientist+and+Peacemaker&rft.pub=Oregon+State+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-87071-489-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/1954/pauling/biographical/">"Linus Pauling: Biographical"</a>. Nobel Prize. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220318142845/https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/1954/pauling/biographical/">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-03-18. Retrieved 2021-09-27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Nobel+Prize&rft.atitle=Linus+Pauling%3A+Biographical&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nobelprize.org%2Fprizes%2Fchemistry%2F1954%2Fpauling%2Fbiographical%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDunitz1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jack_D._Dunitz" title="Jack D. Dunitz">Dunitz, Jack D.</a> (1997). "Linus Carl Pauling". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nap.edu/read/5737/chapter/13">Biographical Memoirs</a>. Vol. 71. <a href="/wiki/National_Academies_Press" title="National Academies Press">National Academies Press</a>. pp. 221–261. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17226%2F5737">10.17226/5737</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-309-05738-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-309-05738-7"><bdi>978-0-309-05738-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211028051456/https://www.nap.edu/read/5737/chapter/13">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-10-28. Retrieved 2021-09-27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Linus+Carl+Pauling&rft.btitle=Biographical+Memoirs&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E221-%3C%2Fspan%3E261&rft.pub=National+Academies+Press&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17226%2F5737&rft.isbn=978-0-309-05738-7&rft.aulast=Dunitz&rft.aufirst=Jack+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nap.edu%2Fread%2F5737%2Fchapter%2F13&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-GoGo-19">^ <a href="#cite_ref-GoGo_19-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-GoGo_19-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-GoGo_19-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-GoGo_19-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-GoGo_19-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-GoGo_19-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-GoGo_19-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-GoGo_19-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-GoGo_19-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-GoGo_19-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-GoGo_19-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-GoGo_19-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-GoGo_19-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-GoGo_19-13">n</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoertzelGoertzel1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ted_Goertzel" title="Ted Goertzel">Goertzel, Ted</a>; Goertzel, Ben (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/linuspaulinglife0000goer_i4n1">Linus Pauling: A Life in Science and Politics</a>. Basic Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-00672-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-465-00672-4"><bdi>978-0-465-00672-4</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Linus+Pauling%3A+A+Life+in+Science+and+Politics&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-465-00672-4&rft.aulast=Goertzel&rft.aufirst=Ted&rft.au=Goertzel%2C+Ben&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flinuspaulinglife0000goer_i4n1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Abrams-20">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Abrams_20-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Abrams_20-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbrams1988" class="citation book cs1">Abrams, Irwin (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ny77bPwKxaUC&pg=PA198">The Nobel Peace Prize and the laureates : an illustrated biographical history, 1901–1987</a> (2. print. ed.). <a href="/wiki/Boston" title="Boston">Boston</a>: G.K. Hall. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8161-8609-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8161-8609-9"><bdi>978-0-8161-8609-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nobel+Peace+Prize+and+the+laureates+%3A+an+illustrated+biographical+history%2C+1901%E2%80%931987&rft.place=Boston&rft.edition=2.+print.&rft.pub=G.K.+Hall&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-8161-8609-9&rft.aulast=Abrams&rft.aufirst=Irwin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dny77bPwKxaUC%26pg%3DPA198&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBourgoinByers1998" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Bourgoin, Suzanne M.; Byers, Paula K., eds. (1998). "Pauling, Linus". Encyclopedia of World Biography. Vol. 12. <a href="/wiki/Thomson_Gale" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomson Gale">Thomson Gale</a>. p. 150. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7876-2221-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7876-2221-3"><bdi>978-0-7876-2221-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/498136139">498136139</a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL24962233M">24962233M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Pauling%2C+Linus&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+World+Biography&rft.pages=150&rft.pub=Thomson+Gale&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F498136139&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL24962233M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=978-0-7876-2221-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83045462/1962-06-19/ed-1/seq-1/">"Pauling Finally Gets High School Diploma"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Star" title="The Washington Star">Evening Star</a>. 1962-06-19. p. 1 col 6. Retrieved 2022-08-03.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Evening+Star&rft.atitle=Pauling+Finally+Gets+High+School+Diploma&rft.pages=p.+1+col+6&rft.date=1962-06-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fchroniclingamerica.loc.gov%2Flccn%2Fsn83045462%2F1962-06-19%2Fed-1%2Fseq-1%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Linus-23"><a href="#cite_ref-Linus_23-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPauling2009" class="citation web cs1">Pauling, Linus (2009-07-02). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://paulingblog.wordpress.com/2009/07/02/paulings-best-friend-lloyd-jeffress/">"Life with Lloyd Jeffress, June 5, 1986"</a>. The Pauling Blog. Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections and Archives Research Center. Retrieved 2016-06-01.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Pauling+Blog&rft.atitle=Life+with+Lloyd+Jeffress%2C+June+5%2C+1986&rft.date=2009-07-02&rft.aulast=Pauling&rft.aufirst=Linus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpaulingblog.wordpress.com%2F2009%2F07%2F02%2Fpaulings-best-friend-lloyd-jeffress%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSwanson2000" class="citation web cs1">Swanson, Stephen (2000-10-03). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303202915/http://oregonstate.edu/ua/ncs/archives/2000/oct/osu-fraternity-donate-pauling-treasures-campus-library">"OSU fraternity to donate Pauling treasures to campus library"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Oregon_State_University" title="Oregon State University">Oregon State University</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oregonstate.edu/ua/ncs/archives/2000/oct/osu-fraternity-donate-pauling-treasures-campus-library">the original</a> on 2016-03-03. Retrieved 2013-04-29.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Oregon+State+University&rft.atitle=OSU+fraternity+to+donate+Pauling+treasures+to+campus+library&rft.date=2000-10-03&rft.aulast=Swanson&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Foregonstate.edu%2Fua%2Fncs%2Farchives%2F2000%2Foct%2Fosu-fraternity-donate-pauling-treasures-campus-library&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://engineering.oregonstate.edu/alumni-partners/oregon-stater-awards/searchable-awards-database/samuel-graf-engineering-hall-fame">"Samuel Graf : Engineering Hall of Fame - 1998 | College of Engineering | Oregon State University"</a>. 2022-10-03.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Samuel+Graf+%3A+Engineering+Hall+of+Fame+-+1998+%26%23124%3B+College+of+Engineering+%26%23124%3B+Oregon+State+University&rft.date=2022-10-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fengineering.oregonstate.edu%2Falumni-partners%2Foregon-stater-awards%2Fsearchable-awards-database%2Fsamuel-graf-engineering-hall-fame&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newspapers.com/article/corvallis-gazette-times/31584297/">"Long-Time OSU Faculty Man, Sam Graf, Dies {Article clipped from Corvallis Gazette-Times)"</a>. newspapers.com. 1966-07-25.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=newspapers.com&rft.atitle=Long-Time+OSU+Faculty+Man%2C+Sam+Graf%2C+Dies+%7BArticle+clipped+from+Corvallis+Gazette-Times%29&rft.date=1966-07-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newspapers.com%2Farticle%2Fcorvallis-gazette-times%2F31584297%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-OSUArchives-27"><a href="#cite_ref-OSUArchives_27-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/chronology/page6.html">"Pauling's Years as an Undergraduate at Oregon Agricultural College, Part 2 (1919–1922)"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Oregon_State_University" title="Oregon State University">Oregon State University</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211031065844/http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/chronology/page6.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-10-31. Retrieved 2015-05-27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Oregon+State+University&rft.atitle=Pauling%27s+Years+as+an+Undergraduate+at+Oregon+Agricultural+College%2C+Part+2+%281919%E2%80%931922%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscarc.library.oregonstate.edu%2Fcoll%2Fpauling%2Fchronology%2Fpage6.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Marinacci-28">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Marinacci_28-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Marinacci_28-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Marinacci_28-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPauling1995" class="citation book cs1">———— (1995). Marinacci, Barbara (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/linuspaulinginhi0000paul">Linus Pauling: in his own words : selected writings, speeches, and interviews</a>. New York City: <a href="/wiki/Simon_%26_Schuster" title="Simon & Schuster">Simon & Schuster</a>. p. 39. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-684-81387-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-684-81387-5"><bdi>978-0-684-81387-5</bdi></a>. Retrieved 2015-05-27 – via <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Linus+Pauling%3A+in+his+own+words+%3A+selected+writings%2C+speeches%2C+and+interviews&rft.place=New+York+City&rft.pages=39&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-684-81387-5&rft.aulast=Pauling&rft.aufirst=Linus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flinuspaulinginhi0000paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/lpbio/timeline.html">"Linus Pauling Biographical Timeline"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Linus_Pauling_Institute" title="Linus Pauling Institute">Linus Pauling Institute</a>. <a href="/wiki/Oregon_State_University" title="Oregon State University">Oregon State University</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220302113523/https://lpi.oregonstate.edu/about/linus-pauling-biographical-timeline">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-03-02. Retrieved 2011-11-10.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Linus+Pauling+Institute&rft.atitle=Linus+Pauling+Biographical+Timeline&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flpi.oregonstate.edu%2Flpbio%2Ftimeline.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-AvaBook-30"><a href="#cite_ref-AvaBook_30-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichard2013" class="citation news cs1">Richard, Terry (2013-05-03). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oregonlive.com/books/index.ssf/2013/05/ava_helen_pauling_wife_of_linu.html">"Ava Helen Pauling, wife of Linus Pauling, subject of biography by Corvallis author Mina Carson"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Oregonian" title="The Oregonian">The Oregonian</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/8750-1317">8750-1317</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210513195013/https://www.oregonlive.com/books/2013/05/ava_helen_pauling_wife_of_linu.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-05-13. Retrieved 2015-06-02.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Oregonian&rft.atitle=Ava+Helen+Pauling%2C+wife+of+Linus+Pauling%2C+subject+of+biography+by+Corvallis+author+Mina+Carson&rft.date=2013-05-03&rft.issn=8750-1317&rft.aulast=Richard&rft.aufirst=Terry&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oregonlive.com%2Fbooks%2Findex.ssf%2F2013%2F05%2Fava_helen_pauling_wife_of_linu.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://caltechcampuspubs.library.caltech.edu/2537/1/1925.pdf">"Commencement 1925 California Institute of Technology Pasadena"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/California_Institute_of_Technology" title="California Institute of Technology">California Institute of Technology</a>. 1925-06-12. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201101163715/http://caltechcampuspubs.library.caltech.edu/2537/1/1925.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 2020-11-01. Retrieved 2013-03-29.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Commencement+1925+California+Institute+of+Technology+Pasadena&rft.pub=California+Institute+of+Technology&rft.date=1925-06-12&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcaltechcampuspubs.library.caltech.edu%2F2537%2F1%2F1925.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Realism-32"><a href="#cite_ref-Realism_32-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohenHilpinenQiu2010" class="citation conference cs1">Cohen, Robert S.; Hilpinen, Risto; Qiu, Ren-Zong, eds. (2010-12-09) [1996-10-31]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mvYIkgAACAAJ&pg=PA161">Realism and anti-realism in the philosophy of science</a>. Beijing International Conference 1992. <a href="/wiki/Dordrecht" title="Dordrecht">Dordrecht</a>: <a href="/wiki/Springer_Nature" title="Springer Nature">Springer</a>. p. 161. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-481-4493-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-481-4493-8"><bdi>978-90-481-4493-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL28281917M">28281917M</a>. Retrieved 2015-05-27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=Realism+and+anti-realism+in+the+philosophy+of+science&rft.place=Dordrecht&rft.pages=161&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2010-12-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL28281917M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=978-90-481-4493-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmvYIkgAACAAJ%26pg%3DPA161&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-PNNL-33"><a href="#cite_ref-PNNL_33-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pnnl.gov/projects/linus-pauling-distinguished-postdoctoral-fellowship/about">"About Linus Pauling"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Northwest_National_Laboratory" title="Pacific Northwest National Laboratory">Pacific Northwest National Laboratory</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220302175453/https://www.pnnl.gov/projects/linus-pauling-distinguished-postdoctoral-fellowship/about">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-03-02. Retrieved 2022-04-13.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Pacific+Northwest+National+Laboratory&rft.atitle=About+Linus+Pauling&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pnnl.gov%2Fprojects%2Flinus-pauling-distinguished-postdoctoral-fellowship%2Fabout&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-OH-34">^ <a href="#cite_ref-OH_34-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OH_34-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OH_34-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OH_34-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OH_34-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OH_34-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OH_34-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OH_34-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OH_34-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OH_34-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OH_34-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OH_34-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OH_34-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OH_34-13">n</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OH_34-14">o</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OH_34-15">p</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OH_34-16">q</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OH_34-17">r</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OH_34-18">s</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OH_34-19">t</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OH_34-20">u</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OH_34-21">v</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OH_34-22">w</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OH_34-23">x</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OH_34-24">y</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OH_34-25">z</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OH_34-26">aa</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OH_34-27">ab</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OH_34-28">ac</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPauling1987" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-location-test">———— (1987-04-06). Written at <a href="/wiki/Denver" title="Denver">Denver</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digital.sciencehistory.org/works/5h73px42w">Oral history interview with Linus C. Pauling</a>. Interviewed by Sturchio, Jeffrey L. <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a>: <a href="/wiki/Science_History_Institute" title="Science History Institute">Science History Institute</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210816110527/https://digital.sciencehistory.org/works/5h73px42w">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-08-16. Retrieved 2022-04-13.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Oral+history+interview+with+Linus+C.+Pauling&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pub=Science+History+Institute&rft.date=1987-04-06&rft.aulast=Pauling&rft.aufirst=Linus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdigital.sciencehistory.org%2Fworks%2F5h73px42w&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPauling1929" class="citation journal cs1">———— (1929-04-01). "The principles determining the structure of complex ionic crystals". <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_the_American_Chemical_Society" title="Journal of the American Chemical Society">Journal of the American Chemical Society</a>. 51 (4): 1010–1026. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1929JAChS..51.1010P">1929JAChS..51.1010P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fja01379a006">10.1021/ja01379a006</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Chemical+Society&rft.atitle=The+principles+determining+the+structure+of+complex+ionic+crystals&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1010-%3C%2Fspan%3E1026&rft.date=1929-04-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fja01379a006&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1929JAChS..51.1010P&rft.aulast=Pauling&rft.aufirst=Linus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pauling1960-36">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pauling1960_36-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pauling1960_36-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pauling1960_36-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pauling1960_36-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pauling1960_36-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPauling1960" class="citation book cs1">———— (1960-01-31) [1939]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=L-1K9HmKmUUC">The nature of the chemical bond and the structure of molecules and crystals; an introduction to modern structural chemistry</a> (3rd ed.). <a href="/wiki/Ithaca,_New_York" title="Ithaca, New York">Ithaca, New York</a>: <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University_Press" title="Cornell University Press">Cornell University Press</a>. pp. 543–562. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-0333-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-0333-0"><bdi>978-0-8014-0333-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL26811428M">26811428M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+nature+of+the+chemical+bond+and+the+structure+of+molecules+and+crystals%3B+an+introduction+to+modern+structural+chemistry&rft.place=Ithaca%2C+New+York&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E543-%3C%2Fspan%3E562&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=1960-01-31&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL26811428M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=978-0-8014-0333-0&rft.aulast=Pauling&rft.aufirst=Linus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DL-1K9HmKmUUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHager2004" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hager" title="Thomas Hager">Hager, Thomas</a> (December 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/bond/narrative/page28.html">"The Langmuir Prize"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Oregon_State_University" title="Oregon State University">Oregon State University</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201212140745/http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/bond/narrative/page28.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-12-12. Retrieved 2008-02-29.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Oregon+State+University&rft.atitle=The+Langmuir+Prize&rft.date=2004-12&rft.aulast=Hager&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscarc.library.oregonstate.edu%2Fcoll%2Fpauling%2Fbond%2Fnarrative%2Fpage28.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPauling1932" class="citation journal cs1">———— (1932-03-01). "The nature of the chemical bond. III. The transition from one extreme bond type to another". <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_the_American_Chemical_Society" title="Journal of the American Chemical Society">Journal of the American Chemical Society</a>. 54 (3): 988–1003. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1932JAChS..54..988P">1932JAChS..54..988P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fja01342a022">10.1021/ja01342a022</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Chemical+Society&rft.atitle=The+nature+of+the+chemical+bond.+III.+The+transition+from+one+extreme+bond+type+to+another&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E988-%3C%2Fspan%3E1003&rft.date=1932-03-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fja01342a022&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1932JAChS..54..988P&rft.aulast=Pauling&rft.aufirst=Linus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Oppenheimer-39">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Oppenheimer_39-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oppenheimer_39-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMonk2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ray_Monk" title="Ray Monk">Monk, Ray</a> (2014-03-11) [2012]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EkJ9aWTjWjUC&pg=PA203">Robert Oppenheimer : a life inside the center</a> (First Anchor Books ed.). <a href="/wiki/Anchor_Books" class="mw-redirect" title="Anchor Books">Anchor Books</a>. p. 203. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-385-72204-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-385-72204-9"><bdi>978-0-385-72204-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL32935915M">32935915M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Robert+Oppenheimer+%3A+a+life+inside+the+center&rft.pages=203&rft.edition=First+Anchor+Books&rft.pub=Anchor+Books&rft.date=2014-03-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL32935915M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=978-0-385-72204-9&rft.aulast=Monk&rft.aufirst=Ray&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEkJ9aWTjWjUC%26pg%3DPA203&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/chronology/page10.html">"Early Career at the California Institute of Technology (1927–1930)"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Oregon_State_University" title="Oregon State University">Oregon State University</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211112063521/http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/chronology/page10.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-11-12. Retrieved 2017-05-18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Oregon+State+University&rft.atitle=Early+Career+at+the+California+Institute+of+Technology+%281927%E2%80%931930%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscarc.library.oregonstate.edu%2Fcoll%2Fpauling%2Fchronology%2Fpage10.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-LostAlly-41"><a href="#cite_ref-LostAlly_41-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/bond/narrative/page20.html">"A Lost Ally"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Oregon_State_University" title="Oregon State University">Oregon State University</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210820230846/http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/bond/narrative/page20.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-08-20. Retrieved 2015-05-27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Oregon+State+University&rft.atitle=A+Lost+Ally&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscarc.library.oregonstate.edu%2Fcoll%2Fpauling%2Fbond%2Fnarrative%2Fpage20.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hargittai-42"><a href="#cite_ref-Hargittai_42-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHargittaiHargittai2000" class="citation book cs1">Hargittai, István; Hargittai, Magdolna (2000-02-29). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KPqac4Y551AC&pg=PA134">In our own image: personal symmetry in discovery</a>. New York City: <a href="/wiki/Springer_Nature" title="Springer Nature">Springer Nature</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-306-46091-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-306-46091-3"><bdi>978-0-306-46091-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/99033173">99033173</a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL9669915M">9669915M</a>. Retrieved 2015-05-27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+our+own+image%3A+personal+symmetry+in+discovery&rft.place=New+York+City&rft.pub=Springer+Nature&rft.date=2000-02-29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL9669915M%23id-name%3DOL&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F99033173&rft.isbn=978-0-306-46091-3&rft.aulast=Hargittai&rft.aufirst=Istv%C3%A1n&rft.au=Hargittai%2C+Magdolna&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKPqac4Y551AC%26pg%3DPA134&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-paulingJACS-43"><a href="#cite_ref-paulingJACS_43-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPauling1932" class="citation journal cs1">———— (1932-09-01). "The Nature of the Chemical Bond. IV. The Energy of Single Bonds and the Relative Electronegativity of Atoms". <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_the_American_Chemical_Society" title="Journal of the American Chemical Society">Journal of the American Chemical Society</a>. 54 (9): 3570–3582. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1932JAChS..54.3570P">1932JAChS..54.3570P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fja01348a011">10.1021/ja01348a011</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0002-7863">0002-7863</a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/16003159">16003159</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/01226990">01226990</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Chemical+Society&rft.atitle=The+Nature+of+the+Chemical+Bond.+IV.+The+Energy+of+Single+Bonds+and+the+Relative+Electronegativity+of+Atoms&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E3570-%3C%2Fspan%3E3582&rft.date=1932-09-01&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1932JAChS..54.3570P&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F01226990&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F16003159&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fja01348a011&rft.issn=0002-7863&rft.aulast=Pauling&rft.aufirst=L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Scale2-44"><a href="#cite_ref-Scale2_44-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://paulingblog.wordpress.com/2009/03/17/the-pauling-electronegativity-scale-part-2-inspired-by-biology/">"The Pauling Electronegativity Scale: Part 2, Inspired by Biology"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Oregon_State_University" title="Oregon State University">Oregon State University</a>. 2009-03-17. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211117185840/https://paulingblog.wordpress.com/2009/03/17/the-pauling-electronegativity-scale-part-2-inspired-by-biology/">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-11-17. Retrieved 2009-03-17.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Oregon+State+University&rft.atitle=The+Pauling+Electronegativity+Scale%3A+Part+2%2C+Inspired+by+Biology&rft.date=2009-03-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpaulingblog.wordpress.com%2F2009%2F03%2F17%2Fthe-pauling-electronegativity-scale-part-2-inspired-by-biology%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/obituary-professor-linus-pauling-1377923.html">"Obituary: Professor Linus Pauling"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Independent" title="The Independent">The Independent</a>. 1994-08-21. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210616040502/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/obituary-professor-linus-pauling-1377923.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-06-16. Retrieved 2018-01-25.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Independent&rft.atitle=Obituary%3A+Professor+Linus+Pauling&rft.date=1994-08-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.independent.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fpeople%2Fobituary-professor-linus-pauling-1377923.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/bond/notes/1937s.3-outline-01-large.html">"Outline of the George Fischer Baker Lectureship, Cornell University"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Oregon_State_University" title="Oregon State University">Oregon State University</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211112063624/http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/bond/notes/1937s.3-outline-01-large.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-11-12. Retrieved 2022-04-13.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Oregon+State+University&rft.atitle=Outline+of+the+George+Fischer+Baker+Lectureship%2C+Cornell+University&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscarc.library.oregonstate.edu%2Fcoll%2Fpauling%2Fbond%2Fnotes%2F1937s.3-outline-01-large.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_George_Fischer_Baker_Lectureship_and_the_Beginnings_of_the_Manuscript-47"><a href="#cite_ref-The_George_Fischer_Baker_Lectureship_and_the_Beginnings_of_the_Manuscript_47-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://paulingblog.wordpress.com/2014/07/30/the-george-fischer-baker-lectureship-and-the-beginnings-of-the-manuscript/">"The George Fischer Baker Lectureship and the Beginnings of the Manuscript"</a>. The Pauling Blog. <a href="/wiki/Oregon_State_University" title="Oregon State University">Oregon State University</a>. 2014-07-30. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220307085556/https://paulingblog.wordpress.com/2014/07/30/the-george-fischer-baker-lectureship-and-the-beginnings-of-the-manuscript/">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-03-07. Retrieved 2015-06-03.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Pauling+Blog&rft.atitle=The+George+Fischer+Baker+Lectureship+and+the+Beginnings+of+the+Manuscript&rft.date=2014-07-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpaulingblog.wordpress.com%2F2014%2F07%2F30%2Fthe-george-fischer-baker-lectureship-and-the-beginnings-of-the-manuscript%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Genes2001-48"><a href="#cite_ref-Genes2001_48-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatson2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_Watson" title="James Watson">Watson, James D.</a> (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/passionfordnagen0000wats">A passion for DNA: genes, genomes, and society</a> (2003 ed.). <a href="/wiki/Oxford" title="Oxford">Oxford</a>: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-860428-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-860428-0"><bdi>978-0-19-860428-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL7401431M">7401431M</a> – via <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+passion+for+DNA%3A+genes%2C+genomes%2C+and+society&rft.place=Oxford&rft.edition=2003&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL7401431M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=978-0-19-860428-0&rft.aulast=Watson&rft.aufirst=James+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpassionfordnagen0000wats&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Google-49"><a href="#cite_ref-Google_49-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?view_op=view_citation&hl=en&user=b0B12YAAAAAJ&citation_for_view=b0B12YAAAAAJ:j5aT6aphRxQC">"The nature of the chemical bond (citations and estimated counts)"</a>. Google Scholar. Retrieved 2015-05-27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Google+Scholar&rft.atitle=The+nature+of+the+chemical+bond+%28citations+and+estimated+counts%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholar.google.com%2Fcitations%3Fview_op%3Dview_citation%26hl%3Den%26user%3Db0B12YAAAAAJ%26citation_for_view%3Db0B12YAAAAAJ%3Aj5aT6aphRxQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPauling1928" class="citation web cs1">Pauling, Linus (1928). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/bond/notes/sci3.001.21.html">"London's paper. General ideas on bonds"</a>. Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections. Retrieved 2015-06-02.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=London%27s+paper.+General+ideas+on+bonds&rft.pub=Oregon+State+University+Libraries+Special+Collections&rft.date=1928&rft.aulast=Pauling&rft.aufirst=Linus&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscarc.library.oregonstate.edu%2Fcoll%2Fpauling%2Fbond%2Fnotes%2Fsci3.001.21.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPauling1930s" class="citation web cs1">Pauling, Linus (1930s). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/bond/notes/sci5.001.14.html">"Notes and Calculations re: Electronegativity and the Electronegativity Scale"</a>. Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections. Retrieved 2008-02-29.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Notes+and+Calculations+re%3A+Electronegativity+and+the+Electronegativity+Scale&rft.pub=Oregon+State+University+Libraries+Special+Collections&rft.date=1930&rft.aulast=Pauling&rft.aufirst=Linus&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscarc.library.oregonstate.edu%2Fcoll%2Fpauling%2Fbond%2Fnotes%2Fsci5.001.14.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPauling1934" class="citation web cs1">Pauling, Linus (1934-01-06). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/bond/notes/sci2.004.6.html">"Benzene"</a>. Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections. Retrieved 2008-02-29.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Benzene&rft.pub=Oregon+State+University+Libraries+Special+Collections&rft.date=1934-01-06&rft.aulast=Pauling&rft.aufirst=Linus&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscarc.library.oregonstate.edu%2Fcoll%2Fpauling%2Fbond%2Fnotes%2Fsci2.004.6.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPauling1946" class="citation web cs1">Pauling, Linus (1946-07-29). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/bond/notes/1946a.3.html">"Resonance"</a>. Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections. Retrieved 2008-02-29.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Resonance&rft.pub=Oregon+State+University+Libraries+Special+Collections&rft.date=1946-07-29&rft.aulast=Pauling&rft.aufirst=Linus&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscarc.library.oregonstate.edu%2Fcoll%2Fpauling%2Fbond%2Fnotes%2F1946a.3.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPauling,_Linus1929" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Pauling_L" class="mw-redirect" title="Pauling L">Pauling, Linus</a> (1929). "The principles determining the structure of complex ionic crystals". J. Am. Chem. Soc. 51 (4): 1010–1026. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1929JAChS..51.1010P">1929JAChS..51.1010P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fja01379a006">10.1021/ja01379a006</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=J.+Am.+Chem.+Soc.&rft.atitle=The+principles+determining+the+structure+of+complex+ionic+crystals&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1010-%3C%2Fspan%3E1026&rft.date=1929&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fja01379a006&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1929JAChS..51.1010P&rft.au=Pauling%2C+Linus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kay-55"><a href="#cite_ref-Kay_55-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKay1996" class="citation book cs1">Kay, Lily E. (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vEHeNI2a8OEC&pg=PA148">The molecular vision of life: Caltech, the Rockefeller Foundation, and the rise of the new biology</a>. New York [u.a.]: Oxford University Press. pp. 148–151. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-511143-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-511143-9"><bdi>978-0-19-511143-9</bdi></a>. Retrieved 2015-05-27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+molecular+vision+of+life%3A+Caltech%2C+the+Rockefeller+Foundation%2C+and+the+rise+of+the+new+biology&rft.place=New+York+%5Bu.a.%5D&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E148-%3C%2Fspan%3E151&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-19-511143-9&rft.aulast=Kay&rft.aufirst=Lily+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvEHeNI2a8OEC%26pg%3DPA148&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Califano-56">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Califano_56-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Califano_56-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCalifano2012" class="citation book cs1">Califano, Salvatore (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=s-sCt4RT0bMC&pg=PA198">Pathways to modern chemical physics</a>. Heidelberg [Germany]: Springer. p. 198. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-642-28179-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-642-28179-2"><bdi>978-3-642-28179-2</bdi></a>. Retrieved 2015-05-27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pathways+to+modern+chemical+physics&rft.place=Heidelberg+%5BGermany%5D&rft.pages=198&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-3-642-28179-2&rft.aulast=Califano&rft.aufirst=Salvatore&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Ds-sCt4RT0bMC%26pg%3DPA198&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Livio-57"><a href="#cite_ref-Livio_57-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLivio2014" class="citation book cs1">Livio, Mario (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0XmmAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA285">Brilliant blunders: from Darwin to Einstein: colossal mistakes by great scientists that changed our understanding of life and the universe</a>. [S.l.]: Simon & Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4391-9237-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4391-9237-5"><bdi>978-1-4391-9237-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Brilliant+blunders%3A+from+Darwin+to+Einstein%3A+colossal+mistakes+by+great+scientists+that+changed+our+understanding+of+life+and+the+universe&rft.place=%5BS.l.%5D&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-4391-9237-5&rft.aulast=Livio&rft.aufirst=Mario&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0XmmAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA285&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaulingCorey1951" class="citation journal cs1">Pauling, L; Corey, RB (1951). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1063460">"Configurations of Polypeptide Chains With Favored Orientations Around Single Bonds: Two New Pleated Sheets"</a>. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 37 (11): 729–40. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1951PNAS...37..729P">1951PNAS...37..729P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.37.11.729">10.1073/pnas.37.11.729</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1063460">1063460</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16578412">16578412</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences+of+the+United+States+of+America&rft.atitle=Configurations+of+Polypeptide+Chains+With+Favored+Orientations+Around+Single+Bonds%3A+Two+New+Pleated+Sheets&rft.volume=37&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E729-%3C%2Fspan%3E40&rft.date=1951&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1063460%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16578412&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.37.11.729&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1951PNAS...37..729P&rft.aulast=Pauling&rft.aufirst=L&rft.au=Corey%2C+RB&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1063460&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Goertzel_and_Goertzel,_p._95-100-59">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Goertzel_and_Goertzel,_p._95-100_59-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Goertzel_and_Goertzel,_p._95-100_59-1">b</a> Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 95-100. </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaulingCorey1953" class="citation journal cs1">Pauling, L; Corey, RB (February 1953). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1063734">"A Proposed Structure For The Nucleic Acids"</a>. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 39 (2): 84–97. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1953PNAS...39...84P">1953PNAS...39...84P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.39.2.84">10.1073/pnas.39.2.84</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1063734">1063734</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16578429">16578429</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proc+Natl+Acad+Sci+U+S+A&rft.atitle=A+Proposed+Structure+For+The+Nucleic+Acids&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E84-%3C%2Fspan%3E97&rft.date=1953-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1063734%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16578429&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.39.2.84&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1953PNAS...39...84P&rft.aulast=Pauling&rft.aufirst=L&rft.au=Corey%2C+RB&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1063734&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120204210701/http://www.farooqhussain.org/projects/paulingdnamodel">"Linus Pauling's DNA Model"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.farooqhussain.org/projects/paulingdnamodel">the original</a> on 2012-02-04. 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Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 58 (6): 2175–2178. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1967PNAS...58.2175P">1967PNAS...58.2175P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.58.6.2175">10.1073/pnas.58.6.2175</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC223816">223816</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16591577">16591577</a>. 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Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 64 (3). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences: 807–9. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1969PNAS...64..807P">1969PNAS...64..807P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.64.3.807">10.1073/pnas.64.3.807</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC223305">223305</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16591799">16591799</a>. 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Jones & Bartlett. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780867202786/page/22">22</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86720-277-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-86720-277-9"><bdi>978-0-86720-277-9</bdi></a>. <q>...I [Pauling] am not, however, militant in my atheism. The great English theoretical physicist Paul Dirac is a militant atheist. I suppose he is interested in arguing about the existence of God. I am not. It was once quipped that there is no God and Dirac is his prophet.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Lifelong+Quest+for+Peace%3A+A+Dialogue&rft.pages=22&rft.pub=Jones+%26+Bartlett&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-86720-277-9&rft.aulast=Pauling&rft.aufirst=Linus&rft.au=Ikeda%2C+Daisaku&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780867202786%2Fpage%2F22&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/peace/newsclips/1960n.5.html">"Dr. Pauling Rescued, On a Sea Cliff 24 Hrs"</a> (clipping). scarc.library.oregonstate.edu. 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Retrieved 2015-06-01.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Register-Guard%2C+Eugene%2C+Oregon&rft.atitle=Scientist+cites+Condon+years+as+influential&rft.date=1988-10-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.google.com%2Fnewspapers%3Fnid%3D1310%26dat%3D19881019%26id%3D8_JVAAAAIBAJ%26pg%3D5043%2C4737376%26hl%3Den&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Heberlein-190"><a href="#cite_ref-Heberlein_190-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeberlein2002" class="citation book cs1">Heberlein, L. A. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5zV2XWD8q5sC&pg=PA81">The Rough guide to internet radio</a>. London: Rough Guides. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85828-961-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85828-961-8"><bdi>978-1-85828-961-8</bdi></a>. Retrieved 2015-06-01.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rough+guide+to+internet+radio&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Rough+Guides&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-85828-961-8&rft.aulast=Heberlein&rft.aufirst=L.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5zV2XWD8q5sC%26pg%3DPA81&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schmadel-191"><a href="#cite_ref-Schmadel_191-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchmadel2012" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lutz_D._Schmadel" title="Lutz D. 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Retrieved 2015-06-01.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+minor+planet+names&rft.place=Berlin&rft.edition=6th&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-3-642-29718-2&rft.aulast=Schmadel&rft.aufirst=Lutz+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DaeAg1X7afOoC%26pg%3DPA380&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-moody-192"><a href="#cite_ref-moody_192-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoody2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Glyn_Moody" title="Glyn Moody">Moody, Glyn</a> (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/rebelcodeinside000mood/page/336">Rebel Code: Linux and the Open Source Revolution</a>. Perseus Books Group. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/rebelcodeinside000mood/page/336">336</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7382-0670-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7382-0670-7"><bdi>978-0-7382-0670-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rebel+Code%3A+Linux+and+the+Open+Source+Revolution&rft.pages=336&rft.pub=Perseus+Books+Group&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-7382-0670-7&rft.aulast=Moody&rft.aufirst=Glyn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frebelcodeinside000mood%2Fpage%2F336&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAgre2013" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Agre" title="Peter Agre">Agre, Peter</a> (2013-12-10). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencediplomacy.org/sites/default/files/fifty_years_ago-linus_pauling_and_the_belated_nobel_prize_science__diplomacy.pdf">"Fifty Years Ago: Linus Pauling and the Belated Nobel Peace Prize"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Science_%26_Diplomacy" title="Science & Diplomacy">Science & Diplomacy</a>. 2 (4). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140213004929/https://www.sciencediplomacy.org/letter-field/2013/fifty-years-ago-linus-pauling-and-belated-nobel-peace-prize">Archived</a> from the original on 2014-02-13.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science+%26+Diplomacy&rft.atitle=Fifty+Years+Ago%3A+Linus+Pauling+and+the+Belated+Nobel+Peace+Prize&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=4&rft.date=2013-12-10&rft.aulast=Agre&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencediplomacy.org%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Ffifty_years_ago-linus_pauling_and_the_belated_nobel_prize_science__diplomacy.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-194"><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pnnl.gov/projects/linus-pauling-distinguished-postdoctoral-fellowship">"Linus Pauling Distinguished Postdoctoral Fellowship | PNNL"</a>. www.pnnl.gov.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.pnnl.gov&rft.atitle=Linus+Pauling+Distinguished+Postdoctoral+Fellowship+%26%23124%3B+PNNL&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pnnl.gov%2Fprojects%2Flinus-pauling-distinguished-postdoctoral-fellowship&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-summary-195"><a href="#cite_ref-summary_195-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCenter_for_Oral_History" class="citation web cs1">Center for Oral History. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oh.sciencehistory.org/oral-histories/pauling-linus-c">"Linus C. Pauling"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Science_History_Institute" title="Science History Institute">Science History Institute</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Science+History+Institute&rft.atitle=Linus+C.+Pauling&rft.au=Center+for+Oral+History&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Foh.sciencehistory.org%2Foral-histories%2Fpauling-linus-c&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-honors-196">^ <a href="#cite_ref-honors_196-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-honors_196-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-honors_196-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-honors_196-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-honors_196-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-honors_196-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-honors_196-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-honors_196-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-honors_196-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-honors_196-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-honors_196-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-honors_196-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-honors_196-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-honors_196-13">n</a> <a href="#cite_ref-honors_196-14">o</a> <a href="#cite_ref-honors_196-15">p</a> <a href="#cite_ref-honors_196-16">q</a> <a href="#cite_ref-honors_196-17">r</a> <a href="#cite_ref-honors_196-18">s</a> <a href="#cite_ref-honors_196-19">t</a> <a href="#cite_ref-honors_196-20">u</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/awards/">"Linus Pauling: Awards, Honors and Medals"</a>. Special Collections. Oregon State University Libraries. Retrieved 2013-04-25.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Special+Collections&rft.atitle=Linus+Pauling%3A+Awards%2C+Honors+and+Medals&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscarc.library.oregonstate.edu%2Fcoll%2Fpauling%2Fawards%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/funding-and-awards/awards/national/bytopic/acs-award-in-pure-chemistry.html">"ACS Award in Pure Chemistry"</a>. American Chemical Society. Retrieved 2014-01-18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=ACS+Award+in+Pure+Chemistry&rft.pub=American+Chemical+Society&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.acs.org%2Fcontent%2Facs%2Fen%2Ffunding-and-awards%2Fawards%2Fnational%2Fbytopic%2Facs-award-in-pure-chemistry.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-198"><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nasonline.org/member-directory/deceased-members/51785.html">"Linus Pauling"</a>. Member Directory. <a href="/wiki/National_Academy_of_Sciences" title="National Academy of Sciences">National Academy of Sciences</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Linus+Pauling&rft.pub=National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nasonline.org%2Fmember-directory%2Fdeceased-members%2F51785.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-199"><a href="#cite_ref-199">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.amphilsoc.org/memhist/search?creator=pauling&title=&subject=&subdiv=&mem=&year=&year-max=&dead=&keyword=&smode=advanced">"American Philosophical Society Member History"</a>. <a href="/wiki/American_Philosophical_Society" title="American Philosophical Society">American Philosophical Society</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=American+Philosophical+Society+Member+History&rft.pub=American+Philosophical+Society&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsearch.amphilsoc.org%2Fmemhist%2Fsearch%3Fcreator%3Dpauling%26title%3D%26subject%3D%26subdiv%3D%26mem%3D%26year%3D%26year-max%3D%26dead%3D%26keyword%3D%26smode%3Dadvanced&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chi1940-200"><a href="#cite_ref-Chi1940_200-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/awards/1940h.1.html">"Alpha Chi Sigma Fraternity, Certificate of Membership"</a>. Special Collections & Archives Research Center. Oregon State University Libraries. Retrieved 2015-05-27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Special+Collections+%26+Archives+Research+Center.&rft.atitle=Alpha+Chi+Sigma+Fraternity%2C+Certificate+of+Membership&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscarc.library.oregonstate.edu%2Fcoll%2Fpauling%2Fawards%2F1940h.1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-201"><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amacad.org/person/linus-carl-pauling">"Linus Carl Pauling"</a>. Member Directory. <a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences" title="American Academy of Arts and Sciences">American Academy of Arts and Sciences</a>. 2023-02-09.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Linus+Carl+Pauling&rft.pub=American+Academy+of+Arts+and+Sciences&rft.date=2023-02-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.amacad.org%2Fperson%2Flinus-carl-pauling&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-202"><a href="#cite_ref-202">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/awards/1952h.3.html">"Societe de Chimie Biologique, Louis Pasteur Medal. 1952 – Linus Pauling: Awards, Honors and Medals"</a>. scarc.library.oregonstate.edu.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=scarc.library.oregonstate.edu&rft.atitle=Societe+de+Chimie+Biologique%2C+Louis+Pasteur+Medal.+1952+%E2%80%93+Linus+Pauling%3A+Awards%2C+Honors+and+Medals&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscarc.library.oregonstate.edu%2Fcoll%2Fpauling%2Fawards%2F1952h.3.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-203"><a href="#cite_ref-203">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120113045400/http://oregondigital.org/cdm4/item_viewer.php?CISOROOT=/pawards&CISOPTR=33&CISOBOX=1&REC=2">Pauling's awards and medals</a> (includes image of Fermat medal). </li> <li id="cite_note-204"><a href="#cite_ref-204">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pepeace.org/gandhi-peace-award">"Gandhi Peace Award"</a>. 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Retrieved 2019-07-02.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Institute+of+Social+Sciences&rft.atitle=Gold+Medal+Honorees&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.socialsciencesinstitute.org%2Fgold-medal-honorees&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chemical-206"><a href="#cite_ref-Chemical_206-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nasonline.org/programs/awards/chemical-sciences.html">"NAS Award in Chemical Sciences"</a>. National Academy of Sciences. Retrieved 2015-06-02.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=NAS+Award+in+Chemical+Sciences&rft.pub=National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nasonline.org%2Fprograms%2Fawards%2Fchemical-sciences.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-207"><a href="#cite_ref-207">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.achievement.org/our-history/golden-plate-awards/#science-exploration">"Golden Plate Awardees of the American Academy of Achievement"</a>. www.achievement.org. <a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Achievement" class="mw-redirect" title="American Academy of Achievement">American Academy of Achievement</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.achievement.org&rft.atitle=Golden+Plate+Awardees+of+the+American+Academy+of+Achievement&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.achievement.org%2Four-history%2Fgolden-plate-awards%2F%23science-exploration&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-208"><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131102050729/http://oregonstate.edu/events/stamp/">"OSU Celebrates Linus Pauling and Release of New U.S. Postal Service Stamp"</a>. Events. Oregon State University. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oregonstate.edu/events/stamp/">the original</a> on 2013-11-02. Retrieved 2013-04-25.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Events&rft.atitle=OSU+Celebrates+Linus+Pauling+and+Release+of+New+U.S.+Postal+Service+Stamp&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Foregonstate.edu%2Fevents%2Fstamp%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linus_Pauling&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHager1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hager" title="Thomas Hager">Hager, Thomas</a> (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/linuspaulingchem00hage">Linus Pauling and the Chemistry of Life</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-513972-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-513972-3"><bdi>978-0-19-513972-3</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Linus+Pauling+and+the+Chemistry+of+Life&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-19-513972-3&rft.aulast=Hager&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flinuspaulingchem00hage&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarinacciKrishnamurthy1998" class="citation book cs1">Marinacci, Barbara; Krishnamurthy, Ramesh (1998). Linus Pauling on Peace. Rising Star Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-933670-03-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-933670-03-7"><bdi>978-0-933670-03-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Linus+Pauling+on+Peace&rft.pub=Rising+Star+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-933670-03-7&rft.aulast=Marinacci&rft.aufirst=Barbara&rft.au=Krishnamurthy%2C+Ramesh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSerafini1989" class="citation book cs1">Serafini, Anthony (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/linuspaulingmana00sera">Linus Pauling: A Man and His Science</a>. Paragon House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55778-440-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55778-440-7"><bdi>978-1-55778-440-7</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Linus+Pauling%3A+A+Man+and+His+Science&rft.pub=Paragon+House&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-1-55778-440-7&rft.aulast=Serafini&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flinuspaulingmana00sera&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="General_and_cited_references">General and cited references</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linus_Pauling&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: General and cited references">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHargittai2000" class="citation book cs1">Hargittai, István (2000). Hargittai, Magdolna (ed.). Candid Science: Conversations with Famous Chemists (Reprinted ed.). London: Imperial College Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-86094-151-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-86094-151-1"><bdi>978-1-86094-151-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Candid+Science%3A+Conversations+with+Famous+Chemists&rft.place=London&rft.edition=Reprinted&rft.pub=Imperial+College+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-1-86094-151-1&rft.aulast=Hargittai&rft.aufirst=Istv%C3%A1n&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarinacci1995" class="citation book cs1">Marinacci, Barbara, ed. (1995). Linus Pauling: In His Own Words: Selected Writings, Speeches, and Interviews. Introduction by Linus Pauling. New York: Simon & Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-684-81387-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-684-81387-5"><bdi>978-0-684-81387-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Linus+Pauling%3A+In+His+Own+Words%3A+Selected+Writings%2C+Speeches%2C+and+Interviews&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-684-81387-5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/linuspaulinginhi0000paul">online</a></li> <li>Pauling, Linus. Selected Scientific Papers Vol. II <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/linus-pauling-selected-scientific-papers-vol-ii">online</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSturchio1987" class="citation book cs1">Sturchio, Jeffrey L. (1987-04-06). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oh.sciencehistory.org/sites/default/files/pauling_l_0067_suppl.pdf">Linus C. Pauling, Transcript of an Interview Conducted by Jeffrey L. Sturchio in Denver, Colorado on 6 April 1987</a> (PDF). Philadelphia, PA: <a href="/wiki/Chemical_Heritage_Foundation" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical Heritage Foundation">Chemical Heritage Foundation</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Linus+C.+Pauling%2C+Transcript+of+an+Interview+Conducted+by+Jeffrey+L.+Sturchio+in+Denver%2C+Colorado+on+6+April+1987&rft.place=Philadelphia%2C+PA&rft.pub=Chemical+Heritage+Foundation&rft.date=1987-04-06&rft.aulast=Sturchio&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Foh.sciencehistory.org%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fpauling_l_0067_suppl.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linus_Pauling&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoffey2008" class="citation book cs1">Coffey, Patrick (2008). Cathedrals of Science: The Personalities and Rivalries That Made Modern Chemistry. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-532134-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-532134-0"><bdi>978-0-19-532134-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cathedrals+of+Science%3A+The+Personalities+and+Rivalries+That+Made+Modern+Chemistry&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-19-532134-0&rft.aulast=Coffey&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavenport1996" class="citation journal cs1">Davenport, Derek A. (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fed073pA210">"The Many Lives of Linus Pauling: A Review of Reviews"</a>. Journal of Chemical Education. 73 (9): A210. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1996JChEd..73A.210D">1996JChEd..73A.210D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fed073pA210">10.1021/ed073pA210</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Chemical+Education&rft.atitle=The+Many+Lives+of+Linus+Pauling%3A+A+Review+of+Reviews&rft.volume=73&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=A210&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fed073pA210&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1996JChEd..73A.210D&rft.aulast=Davenport&rft.aufirst=Derek+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1021%252Fed073pA210&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Gormley, Melinda. "The first ‘molecular disease’: a story of Linus Pauling, the intellectual patron." Endeavour 31.2 (2007): 71–77 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gerald.monard.free.fr/MC/m2bio/sickle-cell-anemia-1.pdf">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201031085636/http://gerald.monard.free.fr/MC/m2bio/sickle-cell-anemia-1.pdf">Archived</a> 2020-10-31 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</li> <li>Mead, Clifford. Linus Pauling: Scientist and Peacemaker (2008)</li> <li>Morgan, G. J. "Emile Zuckerkandl, Linus Pauling, and the molecular evolutionary clock, 1959–1965." Journal of the History of Biology (1998) 155–178.</li> <li>Nakamura, Jeanne, and Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi. "Catalytic creativity: The case of Linus Pauling." American Psychologist 56.4 (2001): 337+.</li> <li>Strasser, Bruno J. "A world in one dimension: Linus Pauling, Francis Crick and the central dogma of molecular biology." History and philosophy of the life sciences (2006): 491–512 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Bruno_Strasser/publication/5501485_A_world_in_one_dimension_Linus_Pauling_Francis_Crick_and_the_central_dogma_of_molecular_biology/links/00b4951e59db7402f4000000.pdf">online</a>.</li> <li>Strasser, Bruno J. "Linus Pauling's “molecular diseases”: Between history and memory." American journal of medical genetics 115.2 (2002): 83–93 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.613.5672&rep=rep1&type=pdf">online</a>.</li> <li>White, Florence Meiman. Linus Pauling Scientist and Crusader (1980) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/linuspaulingscie00whit">online</a></li> <li>Zannos, Susan. Linus Pauling and the chemical bond (2004), 48pp <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/linuspaulingchem0000zann">online</a>, for secondary schools</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Linus_Pauling&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiquote-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></a></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Linus_Pauling" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Linus Pauling">Linus Pauling</a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Linus_C._Pauling" class="extiw" title="commons:Linus C. Pauling">Linus C. Pauling</a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Scholia_logo.svg/40px-Scholia_logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Scholia_logo.svg/60px-Scholia_logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Scholia_logo.svg/80px-Scholia_logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="107" data-file-height="104" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Wikidata:Scholia" class="extiw" title="d:Wikidata:Scholia">Scholia</a> has an author profile for <a href="https://iw.toolforge.org/scholia/author/Q48983" class="extiw" title="toolforge:scholia/author/Q48983">Linus Pauling</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/digitalresources/pauling/">Linus Pauling Online</a> a Pauling portal created by Oregon State University Libraries</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071014174033/http://oregonstate.edu/dept/Special_Collections/subpages/ahp/1995symposium/crick.html">Crick, Francis, "The Impact of Linus Pauling on Molecular Biology" (transcribed from video at the 1995 Oregon State University symposium)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/index.html">The Ava Helen and Linus Pauling Papers at the Oregon State University Libraries</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190719010423/http://www.paulingcatalogue.org/">The Pauling Catalogue</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCenter_for_Oral_History" class="citation web cs1">Center for Oral History. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oh.sciencehistory.org/oral-histories/pauling-linus-c">"Linus C. Pauling"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Science_History_Institute" title="Science History Institute">Science History Institute</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Science+History+Institute&rft.atitle=Linus+C.+Pauling&rft.au=Center+for+Oral+History&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Foh.sciencehistory.org%2Foral-histories%2Fpauling-linus-c&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSturchio1987" class="citation book cs1">Sturchio, Jeffrey L. (1987-04-06). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oh.sciencehistory.org/sites/default/files/pauling_l_0067_suppl.pdf">Linus C. Pauling, Transcript of an Interview Conducted by Jeffrey L. Sturchio in Denver, Colorado on 6 April 1987</a> (PDF). Philadelphia, PA: <a href="/wiki/Chemical_Heritage_Foundation" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical Heritage Foundation">Chemical Heritage Foundation</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Linus+C.+Pauling%2C+Transcript+of+an+Interview+Conducted+by+Jeffrey+L.+Sturchio+in+Denver%2C+Colorado+on+6+April+1987&rft.place=Philadelphia%2C+PA&rft.pub=Chemical+Heritage+Foundation&rft.date=1987-04-06&rft.aulast=Sturchio&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Foh.sciencehistory.org%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fpauling_l_0067_suppl.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://paulingblog.wordpress.com">The Pauling Blog</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.users.muohio.edu/shermalw/honors_2001_fall/honors_papers_2001/Lowrey_LPauling.htm">Linus Pauling (1901–1994)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://globetrotter.berkeley.edu/conversations/Pauling">Berkeley Conversations With History interview</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/digitalresources/pauling/">Linus Pauling Centenary Exhibit</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uudb.org/articles/linuspauling.html">Linus Pauling from The Dictionary of Unitarian and Universalist Biography</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181016165013/http://uudb.org/articles/linuspauling.html">Archived</a> 2018-10-16 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/blood/">"It's in the Blood! A Documentary History of Linus Pauling, Hemoglobin and Sickle Cell Anemia – Special Collections & Archives Research Center – Oregon State University"</a>. Oregon State University Library. Retrieved 2015-02-25.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Oregon+State+University+Library&rft.atitle=It%27s+in+the+Blood%21+A+Documentary+History+of+Linus+Pauling%2C+Hemoglobin+and+Sickle+Cell+Anemia+%E2%80%93+Special+Collections+%26+Archives+Research+Center+%E2%80%93+Oregon+State+University&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscarc.library.oregonstate.edu%2Fcoll%2Fpauling%2Fblood%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinus+Pauling" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/">The Linus Pauling Institute</a> at Oregon State University</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070621142646/http://charon.girinst.org/~zeke/test.bit.pdf">Publications of Pauling</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/MM/">The Linus Pauling Papers</a> – Profiles in Science, National Library of Medicine</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.opb.org/television/programs/oregonexperience/segment/linus-pauling/">Linus Pauling</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190719010408/http://www.opb.org/television/programs/oregonexperience/segment/linus-pauling/">Archived</a> July 19, 2019, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Documentary produced by <a href="/wiki/Oregon_Public_Broadcasting" title="Oregon Public Broadcasting">Oregon Public Broadcasting</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digital.sciencehistory.org/works/5h73px42w">Oral history interview with Linus C. Pauling</a> from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digital.sciencehistory.org/">Science History Institute Digital Collections</a></li></ul> <table class="wikitable succession-box noprint" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:small;clear:both;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #FFF179;">Awards and achievements </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Staudinger" title="Hermann Staudinger">Hermann Staudinger</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates_in_Chemistry" title="List of Nobel laureates in Chemistry">Laureate</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Nobel Prize in Chemistry</a> 1954 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Vincent_du_Vigneaud" title="Vincent du Vigneaud">Vincent du Vigneaud</a></div> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Dag_Hammarskj%C3%B6ld" title="Dag Hammarskjöld">Dag Hammarskjöld</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_Peace_Prize_laureates" title="List of Nobel Peace Prize laureates">Laureate</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="Nobel Peace Prize">Nobel Peace Prize</a> 1962 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/International_Committee_of_the_Red_Cross" title="International Committee of the Red Cross">International Committee of the Red Cross</a>, <a href="/wiki/International_Federation_of_Red_Cross_and_Red_Crescent_Societies" title="International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies">League of Red Cross Societies</a></div> </td></tr> 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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Linus_Pauling" title="Template:Linus Pauling"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Linus_Pauling&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:Linus Pauling (page does not exist)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Linus_Pauling" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Linus Pauling"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Linus_Pauling51" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Linus Pauling</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Publications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>The Nature of the Chemical Bond (1939 book)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sickle_Cell_Anemia,_a_Molecular_Disease" title="Sickle Cell Anemia, a Molecular Disease">Sickle Cell Anemia, a Molecular Disease</a> (1949 paper)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitamin_C_and_the_Common_Cold_(book)" title="Vitamin C and the Common Cold (book)">Vitamin C and the Common Cold</a> (1970 book)</li> <li>How to Live Longer and Feel Better (1986)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Valence_bond_theory" title="Valence bond theory">Valence bond theory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_hybridisation" title="Orbital hybridisation">Orbital hybridisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resonance_(chemistry)" title="Resonance (chemistry)">Resonance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronegativity#Pauling_electronegativity" title="Electronegativity">Pauling Electronegativity Scale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pauling%27s_rules" title="Pauling's rules">Pauling's rules</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Founded</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Linus_Pauling_Institute" title="Linus Pauling Institute">Linus Pauling Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_League_of_Humanists" title="International League of Humanists">International League of Humanists</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ava_Helen_Pauling" title="Ava Helen Pauling">Ava Helen Pauling</a> (wife)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_medicine" title="Molecular medicine">Molecular medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitamin_C_megadosage" title="Vitamin C megadosage">Vitamin C megadosage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intravenous_ascorbic_acid#History" title="Intravenous ascorbic acid">Intravenous ascorbic acid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linus_Pauling_Award" title="Linus Pauling Award">Linus Pauling Award</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Condon_State_Airport" title="Condon State Airport">Pauling Field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/4674_Pauling" title="4674 Pauling">4674 Pauling</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Laureates_of_the_Nobel_Peace_Prize136" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nobel_Peace_Prize_laureates" title="Template:Nobel Peace Prize laureates"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nobel_Peace_Prize_laureates" title="Template talk:Nobel Peace Prize laureates"><abbr title="Discuss this 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href="/wiki/%C3%89lie_Ducommun" title="Élie Ducommun">Élie Ducommun</a> / <a href="/wiki/Charles_Albert_Gobat" title="Charles Albert Gobat">Charles Gobat</a></li> <li>1903: <a href="/wiki/Randal_Cremer" title="Randal Cremer">Randal Cremer</a></li> <li>1904: <a href="/wiki/Institut_de_Droit_International" title="Institut de Droit International">Institut de Droit International</a></li> <li>1905: <a href="/wiki/Bertha_von_Suttner" title="Bertha von Suttner">Bertha von Suttner</a></li> <li>1906: <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</a></li> <li>1907: <a href="/wiki/Ernesto_Teodoro_Moneta" title="Ernesto Teodoro Moneta">Ernesto Moneta</a> / <a href="/wiki/Louis_Renault_(jurist)" title="Louis Renault (jurist)">Louis Renault</a></li> <li>1908: <a href="/wiki/Klas_Pontus_Arnoldson" title="Klas Pontus Arnoldson">Klas Arnoldson</a> / <a href="/wiki/Fredrik_Bajer" title="Fredrik Bajer">Fredrik Bajer</a></li> <li>1909: <a href="/wiki/Auguste_Beernaert" title="Auguste Beernaert">A. M. F. Beernaert</a> / <a href="/wiki/Paul_Henri_Balluet_d%27Estournelles_de_Constant" title="Paul Henri Balluet d'Estournelles de Constant">Paul Estournelles de Constant</a></li> <li>1910: <a href="/wiki/International_Peace_Bureau" title="International Peace Bureau">International Peace Bureau</a></li> <li>1911: <a href="/wiki/Tobias_Asser" title="Tobias Asser">Tobias Asser</a> / <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Hermann_Fried" title="Alfred Hermann Fried">Alfred Fried</a></li> <li>1912: <a href="/wiki/Elihu_Root" title="Elihu Root">Elihu Root</a></li> <li>1913: <a href="/wiki/Henri_La_Fontaine" title="Henri La Fontaine">Henri La Fontaine</a></li> <li>1914</li> <li>1915</li> <li>1916</li> <li>1917: <a href="/wiki/International_Committee_of_the_Red_Cross" title="International Committee of the Red Cross">International Committee of the Red Cross</a></li> <li>1918</li> <li>1919: <a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a></li> <li>1920: <a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Bourgeois" title="Léon Bourgeois">Léon Bourgeois</a></li> <li>1921: <a href="/wiki/Hjalmar_Branting" title="Hjalmar Branting">Hjalmar Branting</a> / <a href="/wiki/Christian_Lous_Lange" title="Christian Lous Lange">Christian Lange</a></li> <li>1922: <a href="/wiki/Fridtjof_Nansen" title="Fridtjof Nansen">Fridtjof Nansen</a></li> <li>1923</li> <li>1924</li> <li>1925: <a href="/wiki/Austen_Chamberlain" title="Austen Chamberlain">Austen Chamberlain</a> / <a href="/wiki/Charles_G._Dawes" title="Charles G. Dawes">Charles Dawes</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/80px-Nobel_Prize.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="79" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/120px-Nobel_Prize.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/160px-Nobel_Prize.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="492" /></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1926–1950</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>1926: <a href="/wiki/Aristide_Briand" title="Aristide Briand">Aristide Briand</a> / <a href="/wiki/Gustav_Stresemann" title="Gustav Stresemann">Gustav Stresemann</a></li> <li>1927: <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Buisson" title="Ferdinand Buisson">Ferdinand Buisson</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Quidde" title="Ludwig Quidde">Ludwig Quidde</a></li> <li>1928</li> <li>1929: <a href="/wiki/Frank_B._Kellogg" title="Frank B. Kellogg">Frank B. Kellogg</a></li> <li>1930: <a href="/wiki/Nathan_S%C3%B6derblom" title="Nathan Söderblom">Nathan Söderblom</a></li> <li>1931: <a href="/wiki/Jane_Addams" title="Jane Addams">Jane Addams</a> / <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Murray_Butler" title="Nicholas Murray Butler">Nicholas Butler</a></li> <li>1932</li> <li>1933: <a href="/wiki/Norman_Angell" title="Norman Angell">Norman Angell</a></li> <li>1934: <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Henderson" title="Arthur Henderson">Arthur Henderson</a></li> <li>1935: <a href="/wiki/Carl_von_Ossietzky" title="Carl von Ossietzky">Carl von Ossietzky</a></li> <li>1936: <a href="/wiki/Carlos_Saavedra_Lamas" title="Carlos Saavedra Lamas">Carlos Saavedra Lamas</a></li> <li>1937: <a href="/wiki/Robert_Cecil,_1st_Viscount_Cecil_of_Chelwood" title="Robert Cecil, 1st Viscount Cecil of Chelwood">Robert Cecil</a></li> <li>1938: <a href="/wiki/Nansen_International_Office_for_Refugees" title="Nansen International Office for Refugees">Nansen International Office for Refugees</a></li> <li>1939</li> <li>1940</li> <li>1941</li> <li>1942</li> <li>1943</li> <li>1944: <a href="/wiki/International_Committee_of_the_Red_Cross" title="International Committee of the Red Cross">International Committee of the Red Cross</a></li> <li>1945: <a href="/wiki/Cordell_Hull" title="Cordell Hull">Cordell Hull</a></li> <li>1946: <a href="/wiki/Emily_Greene_Balch" title="Emily Greene Balch">Emily Balch</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Mott" title="John Mott">John Mott</a></li> <li>1947: <a href="/wiki/Quaker_Peace_and_Social_Witness" title="Quaker Peace and Social Witness">Friends Service Council</a> / <a href="/wiki/American_Friends_Service_Committee" title="American Friends Service Committee">American Friends Service Committee</a></li> <li>1948</li> <li>1949: <a href="/wiki/John_Boyd_Orr" title="John Boyd Orr">John Boyd Orr</a></li> <li>1950: <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Bunche" title="Ralph Bunche">Ralph Bunche</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1951–1975</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>1951: <a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Jouhaux" title="Léon Jouhaux">Léon Jouhaux</a></li> <li>1952: <a href="/wiki/Albert_Schweitzer" title="Albert Schweitzer">Albert Schweitzer</a></li> <li>1953: <a href="/wiki/George_C._Marshall" title="George C. Marshall">George C. Marshall</a></li> <li>1954: <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_High_Commissioner_for_Refugees" title="United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees">United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees</a></li> <li>1955</li> <li>1956</li> <li>1957: <a href="/wiki/Lester_B._Pearson" title="Lester B. Pearson">Lester B. Pearson</a></li> <li>1958: <a href="/wiki/Dominique_Pire" title="Dominique Pire">Georges Pire</a></li> <li>1959: <a href="/wiki/Philip_Noel-Baker" title="Philip Noel-Baker">Philip Noel-Baker</a></li> <li>1960: <a href="/wiki/Albert_Luthuli" title="Albert Luthuli">Albert Luthuli</a></li> <li>1961: <a href="/wiki/Dag_Hammarskj%C3%B6ld" title="Dag Hammarskjöld">Dag Hammarskjöld</a></li> <li>1962: <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Linus Pauling</a></li> <li>1963: <a href="/wiki/International_Committee_of_the_Red_Cross" title="International Committee of the Red Cross">International Committee of the Red Cross</a> / <a href="/wiki/International_Federation_of_Red_Cross_and_Red_Crescent_Societies" title="International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies">League of Red Cross Societies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1964_Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="1964 Nobel Peace Prize">1964</a>: <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1965_Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="1965 Nobel Peace Prize">1965</a>: <a href="/wiki/UNICEF" title="UNICEF">UNICEF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1966_Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="1966 Nobel Peace Prize">1966</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1967_Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="1967 Nobel Peace Prize">1967</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="1968 Nobel Peace Prize">1968</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Cassin" title="René Cassin">René Cassin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1969_Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="1969 Nobel Peace Prize">1969</a>: <a href="/wiki/International_Labour_Organization" title="International Labour Organization">International Labour Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1970_Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="1970 Nobel Peace Prize">1970</a>: <a href="/wiki/Norman_Borlaug" title="Norman Borlaug">Norman Borlaug</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1971_Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="1971 Nobel Peace Prize">1971</a>: <a href="/wiki/Willy_Brandt" title="Willy Brandt">Willy Brandt</a></li> <li>1972</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973_Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="1973 Nobel Peace Prize">1973</a>: <a href="/wiki/L%C3%AA_%C4%90%E1%BB%A9c_Th%E1%BB%8D" title="Lê Đức Thọ">Lê Đức Thọ</a> (declined award) / <a href="/wiki/Henry_Kissinger" title="Henry Kissinger">Henry Kissinger</a></li> <li>1974: <a href="/wiki/Se%C3%A1n_MacBride" title="Seán MacBride">Seán MacBride</a> / <a href="/wiki/Eisaku_Sat%C5%8D" title="Eisaku Satō">Eisaku Satō</a></li> <li>1975: <a href="/wiki/Andrei_Sakharov" title="Andrei Sakharov">Andrei Sakharov</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1976–2000</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>1976: <a href="/wiki/Betty_Williams" title="Betty Williams">Betty Williams</a> / <a href="/wiki/Mairead_Maguire" title="Mairead Maguire">Mairead Corrigan</a></li> <li>1977: <a href="/wiki/Amnesty_International" title="Amnesty International">Amnesty International</a></li> <li>1978: <a href="/wiki/Anwar_Sadat" title="Anwar Sadat">Anwar Sadat</a> / <a href="/wiki/Menachem_Begin" title="Menachem Begin">Menachem Begin</a></li> <li>1979: <a href="/wiki/Mother_Teresa" title="Mother Teresa">Mother Teresa</a></li> <li>1980: <a href="/wiki/Adolfo_P%C3%A9rez_Esquivel" title="Adolfo Pérez Esquivel">Adolfo Pérez Esquivel</a></li> <li>1981: <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_High_Commissioner_for_Refugees" title="United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees">United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees</a></li> <li>1982: <a href="/wiki/Alva_Myrdal" title="Alva Myrdal">Alva Myrdal</a> / <a href="/wiki/Alfonso_Garc%C3%ADa_Robles" title="Alfonso García Robles">Alfonso García Robles</a></li> <li>1983: <a href="/wiki/Lech_Wa%C5%82%C4%99sa" title="Lech Wałęsa">Lech Wałęsa</a></li> <li>1984: <a href="/wiki/Desmond_Tutu" title="Desmond Tutu">Desmond Tutu</a></li> <li>1985: <a href="/wiki/International_Physicians_for_the_Prevention_of_Nuclear_War" title="International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War">International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War</a></li> <li>1986: <a href="/wiki/Elie_Wiesel" title="Elie Wiesel">Elie Wiesel</a></li> <li>1987: <a href="/wiki/%C3%93scar_Arias" title="Óscar Arias">Óscar Arias</a></li> <li>1988: <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_peacekeeping" title="United Nations peacekeeping">UN Peacekeeping Forces</a></li> <li>1989: <a href="/wiki/14th_Dalai_Lama" title="14th Dalai Lama">Tenzin Gyatso (14th Dalai Lama)</a></li> <li>1990: <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Mikhail Gorbachev</a></li> <li>1991: <a href="/wiki/Aung_San_Suu_Kyi" title="Aung San Suu Kyi">Aung San Suu Kyi</a></li> <li>1992: <a href="/wiki/Rigoberta_Mench%C3%BA" title="Rigoberta Menchú">Rigoberta Menchú</a></li> <li>1993: <a href="/wiki/Nelson_Mandela" title="Nelson Mandela">Nelson Mandela</a> / <a href="/wiki/F._W._de_Klerk" title="F. W. de Klerk">F. W. de Klerk</a></li> <li>1994: <a href="/wiki/Shimon_Peres" title="Shimon Peres">Shimon Peres</a> / <a href="/wiki/Yitzhak_Rabin" title="Yitzhak Rabin">Yitzhak Rabin</a> / <a href="/wiki/Yasser_Arafat" title="Yasser Arafat">Yasser Arafat</a></li> <li>1995: <a href="/wiki/Pugwash_Conferences_on_Science_and_World_Affairs" title="Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs">Pugwash Conferences</a> / <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Rotblat" title="Joseph Rotblat">Joseph Rotblat</a></li> <li>1996: <a href="/wiki/Carlos_Filipe_Ximenes_Belo" title="Carlos Filipe Ximenes Belo">Carlos Belo</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ramos-Horta" title="José Ramos-Horta">José Ramos-Horta</a></li> <li>1997: <a href="/wiki/International_Campaign_to_Ban_Landmines" title="International Campaign to Ban Landmines">International Campaign to Ban Landmines</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jody_Williams" title="Jody Williams">Jody Williams</a></li> <li>1998: <a href="/wiki/John_Hume" title="John Hume">John Hume</a> / <a href="/wiki/David_Trimble" title="David Trimble">David Trimble</a></li> <li>1999: <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9decins_Sans_Fronti%C3%A8res" title="Médecins Sans Frontières">Médecins Sans Frontières</a></li> <li>2000: <a href="/wiki/Kim_Dae-jung" title="Kim Dae-jung">Kim Dae-jung</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2001–present</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2001_Nobel_Peace_Prize" class="mw-redirect" title="2001 Nobel Peace Prize">2001</a>: <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> / <a href="/wiki/Kofi_Annan" title="Kofi Annan">Kofi Annan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2002_Nobel_Peace_Prize" class="mw-redirect" title="2002 Nobel Peace Prize">2002</a>: <a href="/wiki/Jimmy_Carter" title="Jimmy Carter">Jimmy Carter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2003_Nobel_Peace_Prize" class="mw-redirect" title="2003 Nobel Peace Prize">2003</a>: <a href="/wiki/Shirin_Ebadi" title="Shirin Ebadi">Shirin Ebadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2004_Nobel_Peace_Prize" class="mw-redirect" title="2004 Nobel Peace Prize">2004</a>: <a href="/wiki/Wangari_Maathai" class="mw-redirect" title="Wangari Maathai">Wangari Maathai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2005_Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="2005 Nobel Peace Prize">2005</a>: <a href="/wiki/International_Atomic_Energy_Agency" title="International Atomic Energy Agency">International Atomic Energy Agency</a> / <a href="/wiki/Mohamed_ElBaradei" title="Mohamed ElBaradei">Mohamed ElBaradei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2006_Nobel_Peace_Prize" class="mw-redirect" title="2006 Nobel Peace Prize">2006</a>: <a href="/wiki/Grameen_Bank" title="Grameen Bank">Grameen Bank</a> / <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Yunus" title="Muhammad Yunus">Muhammad Yunus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2007_Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="2007 Nobel Peace Prize">2007</a>: <a href="/wiki/Al_Gore" title="Al Gore">Al Gore</a> / <a href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change" title="Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008_Nobel_Peace_Prize" class="mw-redirect" title="2008 Nobel Peace Prize">2008</a>: <a href="/wiki/Martti_Ahtisaari" title="Martti Ahtisaari">Martti Ahtisaari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2009_Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="2009 Nobel Peace Prize">2009</a>: <a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2010_Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="2010 Nobel Peace Prize">2010</a>: <a href="/wiki/Liu_Xiaobo" title="Liu Xiaobo">Liu Xiaobo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2011_Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="2011 Nobel Peace Prize">2011</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ellen_Johnson_Sirleaf" title="Ellen Johnson Sirleaf">Ellen Johnson Sirleaf</a> / <a href="/wiki/Leymah_Gbowee" title="Leymah Gbowee">Leymah Gbowee</a> / <a href="/wiki/Tawakkol_Karman" title="Tawakkol Karman">Tawakkol Karman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2012_Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="2012 Nobel Peace Prize">2012</a>: <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2013_Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="2013 Nobel Peace Prize">2013</a>: <a href="/wiki/Organisation_for_the_Prohibition_of_Chemical_Weapons" title="Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons">Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2014_Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="2014 Nobel Peace Prize">2014</a>: <a href="/wiki/Kailash_Satyarthi" title="Kailash Satyarthi">Kailash Satyarthi</a> / <a href="/wiki/Malala_Yousafzai" title="Malala Yousafzai">Malala Yousafzai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2015_Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="2015 Nobel Peace Prize">2015</a>: <a href="/wiki/Tunisian_National_Dialogue_Quartet" title="Tunisian National Dialogue Quartet">Tunisian National Dialogue Quartet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2016_Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="2016 Nobel Peace Prize">2016</a>: <a href="/wiki/Juan_Manuel_Santos" title="Juan Manuel Santos">Juan Manuel Santos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2017_Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="2017 Nobel Peace Prize">2017</a>: <a href="/wiki/International_Campaign_to_Abolish_Nuclear_Weapons" title="International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons">International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2018_Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="2018 Nobel Peace Prize">2018</a>: <a href="/wiki/Denis_Mukwege" title="Denis Mukwege">Denis Mukwege</a> / <a href="/wiki/Nadia_Murad" title="Nadia Murad">Nadia Murad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019_Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="2019 Nobel Peace Prize">2019</a>: <a href="/wiki/Abiy_Ahmed" title="Abiy Ahmed">Abiy Ahmed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="2020 Nobel Peace Prize">2020</a>: <a href="/wiki/World_Food_Programme" title="World Food Programme">World Food Programme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="2021 Nobel Peace Prize">2021</a>: <a href="/wiki/Maria_Ressa" title="Maria Ressa">Maria Ressa</a> / <a href="/wiki/Dmitry_Muratov" title="Dmitry Muratov">Dmitry Muratov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022_Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="2022 Nobel Peace Prize">2022</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ales_Bialiatski" title="Ales Bialiatski">Ales Bialiatski</a> / <a href="/wiki/Memorial_(society)" title="Memorial (society)">Memorial</a> / <a href="/wiki/Center_for_Civil_Liberties_(human_rights_organization)" title="Center for Civil Liberties (human rights organization)">Center for Civil Liberties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023_Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="2023 Nobel Peace Prize">2023</a>: <a href="/wiki/Narges_Mohammadi" title="Narges Mohammadi">Narges Mohammadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2024_Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="2024 Nobel Peace Prize">2024</a>: <a href="/wiki/Nihon_Hidankyo" title="Nihon Hidankyo">Nihon Hidankyo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Laureates_of_the_Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry144" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Template:Nobel Prize in Chemistry"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Template talk:Nobel Prize in Chemistry"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nobel Prize in Chemistry"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Laureates_of_the_Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry144" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates_in_Chemistry" title="List of Nobel laureates in Chemistry">Laureates</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Nobel Prize in Chemistry</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1901–1925</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>1901: <a href="/wiki/Jacobus_Henricus_van_%27t_Hoff" title="Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff">Jacobus van 't Hoff</a></li> <li>1902: <a href="/wiki/Emil_Fischer" title="Emil Fischer">Emil Fischer</a></li> <li>1903: <a href="/wiki/Svante_Arrhenius" title="Svante Arrhenius">Svante Arrhenius</a></li> <li>1904: <a href="/wiki/William_Ramsay" title="William Ramsay">William Ramsay</a></li> <li>1905: <a href="/wiki/Adolf_von_Baeyer" title="Adolf von Baeyer">Adolf von Baeyer</a></li> <li>1906: <a href="/wiki/Henri_Moissan" title="Henri Moissan">Henri Moissan</a></li> <li>1907: <a href="/wiki/Eduard_Buchner" title="Eduard Buchner">Eduard Buchner</a></li> <li>1908: <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford" title="Ernest Rutherford">Ernest Rutherford</a></li> <li>1909: <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Ostwald" title="Wilhelm Ostwald">Wilhelm Ostwald</a></li> <li>1910: <a href="/wiki/Otto_Wallach" title="Otto Wallach">Otto Wallach</a></li> <li>1911: <a href="/wiki/Marie_Curie" title="Marie Curie">Marie Curie</a></li> <li>1912: <a href="/wiki/Victor_Grignard" title="Victor Grignard">Victor Grignard</a> / <a href="/wiki/Paul_Sabatier_(chemist)" title="Paul Sabatier (chemist)">Paul Sabatier</a></li> <li>1913: <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Werner" title="Alfred Werner">Alfred Werner</a></li> <li>1914: <a href="/wiki/Theodore_William_Richards" title="Theodore William Richards">Theodore Richards</a></li> <li>1915: <a href="/wiki/Richard_Willst%C3%A4tter" title="Richard Willstätter">Richard Willstätter</a></li> <li>1916</li> <li>1917</li> <li>1918: <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Haber" title="Fritz Haber">Fritz Haber</a></li> <li>1919</li> <li>1920: <a href="/wiki/Walther_Nernst" title="Walther Nernst">Walther Nernst</a></li> <li>1921: <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Soddy" title="Frederick Soddy">Frederick Soddy</a></li> <li>1922: <a href="/wiki/Francis_William_Aston" title="Francis William Aston">Francis Aston</a></li> <li>1923: <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Pregl" title="Fritz Pregl">Fritz Pregl</a></li> <li>1924</li> <li>1925: <a href="/wiki/Richard_Adolf_Zsigmondy" title="Richard Adolf Zsigmondy">Richard Zsigmondy</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/80px-Nobel_Prize.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="79" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/120px-Nobel_Prize.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/160px-Nobel_Prize.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="492" /></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1926–1950</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>1926: <a href="/wiki/Theodor_Svedberg" title="Theodor Svedberg">Theodor Svedberg</a></li> <li>1927: <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Otto_Wieland" title="Heinrich Otto Wieland">Heinrich Wieland</a></li> <li>1928: <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Windaus" title="Adolf Windaus">Adolf Windaus</a></li> <li>1929: <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Harden" title="Arthur Harden">Arthur Harden</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hans_von_Euler-Chelpin" title="Hans von Euler-Chelpin">Hans von Euler-Chelpin</a></li> <li>1930: <a href="/wiki/Hans_Fischer" title="Hans Fischer">Hans Fischer</a></li> <li>1931: <a href="/wiki/Carl_Bosch" title="Carl Bosch">Carl Bosch</a> / <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Bergius" title="Friedrich Bergius">Friedrich Bergius</a></li> <li>1932: <a href="/wiki/Irving_Langmuir" title="Irving Langmuir">Irving Langmuir</a></li> <li>1933</li> <li>1934: <a href="/wiki/Harold_Urey" title="Harold Urey">Harold Urey</a></li> <li>1935: <a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Joliot-Curie" title="Frédéric Joliot-Curie">Frédéric Joliot-Curie</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ir%C3%A8ne_Joliot-Curie" title="Irène Joliot-Curie">Irène Joliot-Curie</a></li> <li>1936: <a href="/wiki/Peter_Debye" title="Peter Debye">Peter Debye</a></li> <li>1937: <a href="/wiki/Norman_Haworth" title="Norman Haworth">Norman Haworth</a> / <a href="/wiki/Paul_Karrer" title="Paul Karrer">Paul Karrer</a></li> <li>1938: <a href="/wiki/Richard_Kuhn" title="Richard Kuhn">Richard Kuhn</a></li> <li>1939: <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Butenandt" title="Adolf Butenandt">Adolf Butenandt</a> / <a href="/wiki/Leopold_Ru%C5%BEi%C4%8Dka" title="Leopold Ružička">Leopold Ružička</a></li> <li>1940</li> <li>1941</li> <li>1942</li> <li>1943: <a href="/wiki/George_de_Hevesy" title="George de Hevesy">George de Hevesy</a></li> <li>1944: <a href="/wiki/Otto_Hahn" title="Otto Hahn">Otto Hahn</a></li> <li>1945: <a href="/wiki/Artturi_Ilmari_Virtanen" title="Artturi Ilmari Virtanen">Artturi Virtanen</a></li> <li>1946: <a href="/wiki/James_B._Sumner" title="James B. Sumner">James B. Sumner</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Howard_Northrop" title="John Howard Northrop">John Northrop</a> / <a href="/wiki/Wendell_Meredith_Stanley" title="Wendell Meredith Stanley">Wendell Meredith Stanley</a></li> <li>1947: <a href="/wiki/Robert_Robinson_(chemist)" title="Robert Robinson (chemist)">Robert Robinson</a></li> <li>1948: <a href="/wiki/Arne_Tiselius" title="Arne Tiselius">Arne Tiselius</a></li> <li>1949: <a href="/wiki/William_Giauque" title="William Giauque">William Giauque</a></li> <li>1950: <a href="/wiki/Otto_Diels" title="Otto Diels">Otto Diels</a> / <a href="/wiki/Kurt_Alder" title="Kurt Alder">Kurt Alder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1951–1975</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>1951: <a href="/wiki/Edwin_McMillan" title="Edwin McMillan">Edwin McMillan</a> / <a href="/wiki/Glenn_T._Seaborg" title="Glenn T. Seaborg">Glenn T. Seaborg</a></li> <li>1952: <a href="/wiki/Archer_Martin" title="Archer Martin">Archer Martin</a> / <a href="/wiki/Richard_Laurence_Millington_Synge" title="Richard Laurence Millington Synge">Richard Synge</a></li> <li>1953: <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Staudinger" title="Hermann Staudinger">Hermann Staudinger</a></li> <li>1954: <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Linus Pauling</a></li> <li>1955: <a href="/wiki/Vincent_du_Vigneaud" title="Vincent du Vigneaud">Vincent du Vigneaud</a></li> <li>1956: <a href="/wiki/Cyril_Norman_Hinshelwood" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyril Norman Hinshelwood">Cyril Hinshelwood</a> / <a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Semyonov" title="Nikolay Semyonov">Nikolay Semyonov</a></li> <li>1957: <a href="/wiki/Alexander_R._Todd" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander R. Todd">Alexander Todd</a></li> <li>1958: <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Sanger" title="Frederick Sanger">Frederick Sanger</a></li> <li>1959: <a href="/wiki/Jaroslav_Heyrovsk%C3%BD" title="Jaroslav Heyrovský">Jaroslav Heyrovský</a></li> <li>1960: <a href="/wiki/Willard_Libby" title="Willard Libby">Willard Libby</a></li> <li>1961: <a href="/wiki/Melvin_Calvin" title="Melvin Calvin">Melvin Calvin</a></li> <li>1962: <a href="/wiki/Max_Perutz" title="Max Perutz">Max Perutz</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Kendrew" title="John Kendrew">John Kendrew</a></li> <li>1963: <a href="/wiki/Karl_Ziegler" title="Karl Ziegler">Karl Ziegler</a> / <a href="/wiki/Giulio_Natta" title="Giulio Natta">Giulio Natta</a></li> <li>1964: <a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Hodgkin" title="Dorothy Hodgkin">Dorothy Hodgkin</a></li> <li>1965: <a href="/wiki/Robert_Burns_Woodward" title="Robert Burns Woodward">Robert Woodward</a></li> <li>1966: <a href="/wiki/Robert_S._Mulliken" title="Robert S. Mulliken">Robert S. Mulliken</a></li> <li>1967: <a href="/wiki/Manfred_Eigen" title="Manfred Eigen">Manfred Eigen</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ronald_George_Wreyford_Norrish" title="Ronald George Wreyford Norrish">Ronald Norrish</a> / <a href="/wiki/George_Porter" title="George Porter">George Porter</a></li> <li>1968: <a href="/wiki/Lars_Onsager" title="Lars Onsager">Lars Onsager</a></li> <li>1969: <a href="/wiki/Derek_Barton" title="Derek Barton">Derek Barton</a> / <a href="/wiki/Odd_Hassel" title="Odd Hassel">Odd Hassel</a></li> <li>1970: <a href="/wiki/Luis_Federico_Leloir" title="Luis Federico Leloir">Luis Federico Leloir</a></li> <li>1971: <a href="/wiki/Gerhard_Herzberg" title="Gerhard Herzberg">Gerhard Herzberg</a></li> <li>1972: <a href="/wiki/Christian_B._Anfinsen" title="Christian B. Anfinsen">Christian B. Anfinsen</a> / <a href="/wiki/Stanford_Moore" title="Stanford Moore">Stanford Moore</a> / <a href="/wiki/William_Howard_Stein" title="William Howard Stein">William Stein</a></li> <li>1973: <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Otto_Fischer" title="Ernst Otto Fischer">Ernst Otto Fischer</a> / <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Wilkinson" title="Geoffrey Wilkinson">Geoffrey Wilkinson</a></li> <li>1974: <a href="/wiki/Paul_Flory" title="Paul Flory">Paul Flory</a></li> <li>1975: <a href="/wiki/John_Cornforth" title="John Cornforth">John Cornforth</a> / <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Prelog" title="Vladimir Prelog">Vladimir Prelog</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1976–2000</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>1976: <a href="/wiki/William_Lipscomb" title="William Lipscomb">William Lipscomb</a></li> <li>1977: <a href="/wiki/Ilya_Prigogine" title="Ilya Prigogine">Ilya Prigogine</a></li> <li>1978: <a href="/wiki/Peter_D._Mitchell" title="Peter D. Mitchell">Peter D. Mitchell</a></li> <li>1979: <a href="/wiki/Herbert_C._Brown" title="Herbert C. Brown">Herbert C. Brown</a> / <a href="/wiki/Georg_Wittig" title="Georg Wittig">Georg Wittig</a></li> <li>1980: <a href="/wiki/Paul_Berg" title="Paul Berg">Paul Berg</a> / <a href="/wiki/Walter_Gilbert" title="Walter Gilbert">Walter Gilbert</a> / <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Sanger" title="Frederick Sanger">Frederick Sanger</a></li> <li>1981: <a href="/wiki/Kenichi_Fukui" title="Kenichi Fukui">Kenichi Fukui</a> / <a href="/wiki/Roald_Hoffmann" title="Roald Hoffmann">Roald Hoffmann</a></li> <li>1982: <a href="/wiki/Aaron_Klug" title="Aaron Klug">Aaron Klug</a></li> <li>1983: <a href="/wiki/Henry_Taube" title="Henry Taube">Henry Taube</a></li> <li>1984: <a href="/wiki/Robert_Bruce_Merrifield" title="Robert Bruce Merrifield">Robert Merrifield</a></li> <li>1985: <a href="/wiki/Herbert_A._Hauptman" title="Herbert A. Hauptman">Herbert A. Hauptman</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jerome_Karle" title="Jerome Karle">Jerome Karle</a></li> <li>1986: <a href="/wiki/Dudley_R._Herschbach" title="Dudley R. Herschbach">Dudley R. Herschbach</a> / <a href="/wiki/Yuan_T._Lee" title="Yuan T. Lee">Yuan T. Lee</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Polanyi" title="John Polanyi">John Polanyi</a></li> <li>1987: <a href="/wiki/Donald_J._Cram" title="Donald J. Cram">Donald J. Cram</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jean-Marie_Lehn" title="Jean-Marie Lehn">Jean-Marie Lehn</a> / <a href="/wiki/Charles_J._Pedersen" title="Charles J. Pedersen">Charles J. Pedersen</a></li> <li>1988: <a href="/wiki/Johann_Deisenhofer" title="Johann Deisenhofer">Johann Deisenhofer</a> / <a href="/wiki/Robert_Huber" title="Robert Huber">Robert Huber</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hartmut_Michel" title="Hartmut Michel">Hartmut Michel</a></li> <li>1989: <a href="/wiki/Sidney_Altman" title="Sidney Altman">Sidney Altman</a> / <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cech" title="Thomas Cech">Thomas Cech</a></li> <li>1990: <a href="/wiki/Elias_James_Corey" title="Elias James Corey">Elias Corey</a></li> <li>1991: <a href="/wiki/Richard_R._Ernst" title="Richard R. Ernst">Richard R. Ernst</a></li> <li>1992: <a href="/wiki/Rudolph_A._Marcus" title="Rudolph A. Marcus">Rudolph A. Marcus</a></li> <li>1993: <a href="/wiki/Kary_Mullis" title="Kary Mullis">Kary Mullis</a> / <a href="/wiki/Michael_Smith_(chemist)" title="Michael Smith (chemist)">Michael Smith</a></li> <li>1994: <a href="/wiki/George_Andrew_Olah" title="George Andrew Olah">George Olah</a></li> <li>1995: <a href="/wiki/Paul_J._Crutzen" title="Paul J. Crutzen">Paul J. Crutzen</a> / <a href="/wiki/Mario_Molina" title="Mario Molina">Mario Molina</a> / <a href="/wiki/F._Sherwood_Rowland" title="F. Sherwood Rowland">F. Sherwood Rowland</a></li> <li>1996: <a href="/wiki/Robert_Curl" title="Robert Curl">Robert Curl</a> / <a href="/wiki/Harry_Kroto" title="Harry Kroto">Harold Kroto</a> / <a href="/wiki/Richard_Smalley" title="Richard Smalley">Richard Smalley</a></li> <li>1997: <a href="/wiki/Paul_D._Boyer" title="Paul D. Boyer">Paul D. Boyer</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_E._Walker" title="John E. Walker">John E. Walker</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jens_Christian_Skou" title="Jens Christian Skou">Jens Christian Skou</a></li> <li>1998: <a href="/wiki/Walter_Kohn" title="Walter Kohn">Walter Kohn</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Pople" title="John Pople">John Pople</a></li> <li>1999: <a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Zewail" title="Ahmed Zewail">Ahmed Zewail</a></li> <li>2000: <a href="/wiki/Alan_J._Heeger" title="Alan J. Heeger">Alan J. Heeger</a> / <a href="/wiki/Alan_MacDiarmid" title="Alan MacDiarmid">Alan MacDiarmid</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hideki_Shirakawa" title="Hideki Shirakawa">Hideki Shirakawa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2001–present</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>2001: <a href="/wiki/William_Standish_Knowles" title="William Standish Knowles">William Knowles</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ry%C5%8Dji_Noyori" title="Ryōji Noyori">Ryoji Noyori</a> / <a href="/wiki/Karl_Barry_Sharpless" title="Karl Barry Sharpless">K. Barry Sharpless</a></li> <li>2002: <a href="/wiki/John_B._Fenn" title="John B. Fenn">John B. Fenn</a> / <a href="/wiki/Koichi_Tanaka" title="Koichi Tanaka">Koichi Tanaka</a> / <a href="/wiki/Kurt_W%C3%BCthrich" title="Kurt Wüthrich">Kurt Wüthrich</a></li> <li>2003: <a href="/wiki/Peter_Agre" title="Peter Agre">Peter Agre</a> / <a href="/wiki/Roderick_MacKinnon" title="Roderick MacKinnon">Roderick MacKinnon</a></li> <li>2004: <a href="/wiki/Aaron_Ciechanover" title="Aaron Ciechanover">Aaron Ciechanover</a> / <a href="/wiki/Avram_Hershko" title="Avram Hershko">Avram Hershko</a> / <a href="/wiki/Irwin_Rose" title="Irwin Rose">Irwin Rose</a></li> <li>2005: <a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Grubbs" title="Robert H. Grubbs">Robert H. Grubbs</a> / <a href="/wiki/Richard_R._Schrock" title="Richard R. Schrock">Richard R. Schrock</a> / <a href="/wiki/Yves_Chauvin" title="Yves Chauvin">Yves Chauvin</a></li> <li>2006: <a href="/wiki/Roger_D._Kornberg" title="Roger D. Kornberg">Roger D. Kornberg</a></li> <li>2007: <a href="/wiki/Gerhard_Ertl" title="Gerhard Ertl">Gerhard Ertl</a></li> <li>2008: <a href="/wiki/Osamu_Shimomura" title="Osamu Shimomura">Osamu Shimomura</a> / <a href="/wiki/Martin_Chalfie" title="Martin Chalfie">Martin Chalfie</a> / <a href="/wiki/Roger_Y._Tsien" title="Roger Y. Tsien">Roger Y. Tsien</a></li> <li>2009: <a href="/wiki/Venki_Ramakrishnan" title="Venki Ramakrishnan">Venkatraman Ramakrishnan</a> / <a href="/wiki/Thomas_A._Steitz" title="Thomas A. Steitz">Thomas A. Steitz</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ada_Yonath" title="Ada Yonath">Ada E. Yonath</a></li> <li>2010: <a href="/wiki/Richard_F._Heck" title="Richard F. Heck">Richard F. Heck</a> / <a href="/wiki/Akira_Suzuki" title="Akira Suzuki">Akira Suzuki</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ei-ichi_Negishi" title="Ei-ichi Negishi">Ei-ichi Negishi</a></li> <li>2011: <a href="/wiki/Dan_Shechtman" title="Dan Shechtman">Dan Shechtman</a></li> <li>2012: <a href="/wiki/Robert_Lefkowitz" title="Robert Lefkowitz">Robert Lefkowitz</a> / <a href="/wiki/Brian_Kobilka" title="Brian Kobilka">Brian Kobilka</a></li> <li>2013: <a href="/wiki/Martin_Karplus" title="Martin Karplus">Martin Karplus</a> / <a href="/wiki/Michael_Levitt_(biophysicist)" title="Michael Levitt (biophysicist)">Michael Levitt</a> / <a href="/wiki/Arieh_Warshel" title="Arieh Warshel">Arieh Warshel</a></li> <li>2014: <a href="/wiki/Eric_Betzig" title="Eric Betzig">Eric Betzig</a> / <a href="/wiki/Stefan_Hell" title="Stefan Hell">Stefan Hell</a> / <a href="/wiki/William_E._Moerner" title="William E. Moerner">William E. Moerner</a></li> <li>2015: <a href="/wiki/Tomas_Lindahl" title="Tomas Lindahl">Tomas Lindahl</a> / <a href="/wiki/Paul_L._Modrich" title="Paul L. Modrich">Paul L. Modrich</a> / <a href="/wiki/Aziz_Sancar" title="Aziz Sancar">Aziz Sancar</a></li> <li>2016: <a href="/wiki/Jean-Pierre_Sauvage" title="Jean-Pierre Sauvage">Jean-Pierre Sauvage</a> / <a href="/wiki/Fraser_Stoddart" title="Fraser Stoddart">Fraser Stoddart</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ben_Feringa" title="Ben Feringa">Ben Feringa</a></li> <li>2017: <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Dubochet" title="Jacques Dubochet">Jacques Dubochet</a> / <a href="/wiki/Joachim_Frank" title="Joachim Frank">Joachim Frank</a> / <a href="/wiki/Richard_Henderson_(biologist)" title="Richard Henderson (biologist)">Richard Henderson</a></li> <li>2018: <a href="/wiki/Frances_Arnold" title="Frances Arnold">Frances Arnold</a> / <a href="/wiki/Gregory_Winter" title="Gregory Winter">Gregory Winter</a> / <a href="/wiki/George_Smith_(chemist)" title="George Smith (chemist)">George Smith</a></li> <li>2019: <a href="/wiki/John_B._Goodenough" title="John B. Goodenough">John B. Goodenough</a> / <a href="/wiki/M._Stanley_Whittingham" title="M. Stanley Whittingham">M. Stanley Whittingham</a> / <a href="/wiki/Akira_Yoshino" title="Akira Yoshino">Akira Yoshino</a></li> <li>2020: <a href="/wiki/Emmanuelle_Charpentier" title="Emmanuelle Charpentier">Emmanuelle Charpentier</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jennifer_Doudna" title="Jennifer Doudna">Jennifer Doudna</a></li> <li>2021: <a href="/wiki/David_MacMillan" title="David MacMillan">David MacMillan</a> / <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_List" title="Benjamin List">Benjamin List</a></li> <li>2022: <a href="/wiki/Carolyn_Bertozzi" title="Carolyn Bertozzi">Carolyn R. Bertozzi</a> / <a href="/wiki/Morten_P._Meldal" title="Morten P. Meldal">Morten P. Meldal</a> / <a href="/wiki/Karl_Barry_Sharpless" title="Karl Barry Sharpless">Karl Barry Sharpless</a></li> <li>2023: <a href="/wiki/Moungi_Bawendi" title="Moungi Bawendi">Moungi G. Bawendi</a> / <a href="/wiki/Louis_E._Brus" title="Louis E. Brus">Louis E. Brus</a> / <a href="/wiki/Alexey_Ekimov" title="Alexey Ekimov">Alexei I. Ekimov</a></li> <li>2024: <a href="/wiki/David_Baker_(biochemist)" title="David Baker (biochemist)">David Baker</a> / <a href="/wiki/Demis_Hassabis" title="Demis Hassabis">Demis Hassabis</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_M._Jumper" title="John M. Jumper">John M. Jumper</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="1962_Nobel_Prize_laureates913" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:1962_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1962 Nobel Prize winners"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:1962_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template talk:1962 Nobel Prize winners"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:1962_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Special:EditPage/Template:1962 Nobel Prize winners"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="1962_Nobel_Prize_laureates913" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">1962 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prize</a> laureates</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Chemistry</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Max_Perutz" title="Max Perutz">Max Perutz</a> (Great Britain)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Kendrew" title="John Kendrew">John Kendrew</a> (Great Britain)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="Nobel Prize in Literature">Literature</a> (<a href="/wiki/1962_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1962 Nobel Prize in Literature">1962</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Steinbeck" title="John Steinbeck">John Steinbeck</a> (United States)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="Nobel Peace Prize">Peace</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Linus Pauling</a> (United States)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Physics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lev_Landau" title="Lev Landau">Lev Landau</a> (Soviet Union)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Physiology or Medicine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Crick" title="Francis Crick">Francis Crick</a> (Great Britain)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Watson" title="James Watson">James D. Watson</a> (United States)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Wilkins" title="Maurice Wilkins">Maurice Wilkins</a> (Great Britain/Australia)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates" title="List of Nobel laureates">Nobel Prize recipients</a></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1957_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1957 Nobel Prize winners">1957</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1958_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1958 Nobel Prize winners">1958</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1959_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1959 Nobel Prize winners">1959</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1960_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1960 Nobel Prize winners">1960</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1961_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1961 Nobel Prize winners">1961</a></dd> <dd>1962 </dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1963_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1963 Nobel Prize winners">1963</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1964_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1964 Nobel Prize winners">1964</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1965_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1965 Nobel Prize winners">1965</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1966_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1966 Nobel Prize winners">1966</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1967_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1967 Nobel Prize winners">1967</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Time_Persons_of_the_Year103" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Time_Persons_of_the_Year" title="Template:Time Persons of the Year"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Time_Persons_of_the_Year" title="Template talk:Time Persons of the Year"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Time_Persons_of_the_Year" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Time Persons of the Year"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Time_Persons_of_the_Year103" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Time_Person_of_the_Year" title="Time Person of the Year">Time Persons of the Year</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1927–1950</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Lindbergh" title="Charles Lindbergh">Charles Lindbergh</a> (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Chrysler" title="Walter Chrysler">Walter Chrysler</a> (1928)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Owen_D._Young" title="Owen D. Young">Owen D. Young</a> (1929)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Mohandas Gandhi</a> (1930)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Laval" title="Pierre Laval">Pierre Laval</a> (1931)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> (1932)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_S._Johnson" title="Hugh S. Johnson">Hugh S. Johnson</a> (1933)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> (1934)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haile_Selassie" title="Haile Selassie">Haile Selassie</a> (1935)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wallis_Simpson" title="Wallis Simpson">Wallis Simpson</a> (1936)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek" title="Chiang Kai-shek">Chiang Kai-shek</a> / <a href="/wiki/Soong_Mei-ling" title="Soong Mei-ling">Soong Mei-ling</a> (1937)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a> (1938)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a> (1939)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a> (1940)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> (1941)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a> (1942)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_C._Marshall" title="George C. Marshall">George Marshall</a> (1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a> (1944)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Harry S. Truman</a> (1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_F._Byrnes" title="James F. Byrnes">James F. Byrnes</a> (1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_C._Marshall" title="George C. Marshall">George Marshall</a> (1947)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Harry S. Truman</a> (1948)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a> (1949)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">The American Fighting-Man</a> (1950)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1951–1975</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Mosaddegh" title="Mohammad Mosaddegh">Mohammed Mosaddeq</a> (1951)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_II" title="Elizabeth II">Elizabeth II </a> (1952)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konrad_Adenauer" title="Konrad Adenauer">Konrad Adenauer</a> (1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Foster_Dulles" title="John Foster Dulles">John Foster Dulles</a> (1954)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlow_Curtice" title="Harlow Curtice">Harlow Curtice</a> (1955)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1956" title="Hungarian Revolution of 1956">Hungarian Freedom Fighters</a> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev" title="Nikita Khrushchev">Nikita Khrushchev</a> (1957)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle" title="Charles de Gaulle">Charles de Gaulle</a> (1958)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a> (1959)</li> <li> U.S. Scientists: <a href="/wiki/George_Beadle" title="George Beadle">George Beadle</a> / <a href="/wiki/Charles_Stark_Draper" title="Charles Stark Draper">Charles Draper</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Franklin_Enders" title="John Franklin Enders">John Enders</a> / <a href="/wiki/Donald_A._Glaser" title="Donald A. Glaser">Donald A. Glaser</a> / <a href="/wiki/Joshua_Lederberg" title="Joshua Lederberg">Joshua Lederberg</a> / <a href="/wiki/Willard_Libby" title="Willard Libby">Willard Libby</a> / <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Linus Pauling</a> / <a href="/wiki/Edward_Mills_Purcell" title="Edward Mills Purcell">Edward Purcell</a> / <a href="/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi">Isidor Rabi</a> / <a href="/wiki/Emilio_Segr%C3%A8" title="Emilio Segrè">Emilio Segrè</a> / <a href="/wiki/William_Shockley" title="William Shockley">William Shockley</a> / <a href="/wiki/Edward_Teller" title="Edward Teller">Edward Teller</a> / <a href="/wiki/Charles_H._Townes" title="Charles H. Townes">Charles Townes</a> / <a href="/wiki/James_Van_Allen" title="James Van Allen">James Van Allen</a> / <a href="/wiki/Robert_Burns_Woodward" title="Robert Burns Woodward">Robert Woodward</a> (1960)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a> (1961)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_John_XXIII" title="Pope John XXIII">Pope John XXIII</a> (1962)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a> (1963)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Lyndon B. Johnson</a> (1964)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Westmoreland" title="William Westmoreland">William Westmoreland</a> (1965)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baby_boomers" title="Baby boomers">The Generation Twenty-Five and Under</a> (1966)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Lyndon B. Johnson</a> (1967)</li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Apollo_8" title="Apollo 8">The Apollo 8 Astronauts</a>: <a href="/wiki/William_Anders" title="William Anders">William Anders</a> / <a href="/wiki/Frank_Borman" title="Frank Borman">Frank Borman</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jim_Lovell" title="Jim Lovell">Jim Lovell</a> (1968)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_America_(United_States)" title="Middle America (United States)">The Middle Americans</a> (1969)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willy_Brandt" title="Willy Brandt">Willy Brandt</a> (1970)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a> (1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Kissinger" title="Henry Kissinger">Henry Kissinger</a> / <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a> (1972)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Sirica" title="John Sirica">John Sirica</a> (1973)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faisal_of_Saudi_Arabia" title="Faisal of Saudi Arabia">King Faisal</a> (1974)</li> <li> American Women: <a href="/wiki/Susan_Brownmiller" title="Susan Brownmiller">Susan Brownmiller</a> / <a href="/wiki/Kathleen_Byerly" title="Kathleen Byerly">Kathleen Byerly</a> / <a href="/wiki/Alison_Cheek" title="Alison Cheek">Alison Cheek</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jill_Ker_Conway" title="Jill Ker Conway">Jill Conway</a> / <a href="/wiki/Betty_Ford" title="Betty Ford">Betty Ford</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ella_Grasso" title="Ella Grasso">Ella Grasso</a> / <a href="/wiki/Carla_Anderson_Hills" title="Carla Anderson Hills">Carla Hills</a> / <a href="/wiki/Barbara_Jordan" title="Barbara Jordan">Barbara Jordan</a> / <a href="/wiki/Billie_Jean_King" title="Billie Jean King">Billie Jean King</a> / <a href="/wiki/Susie_Sharp" title="Susie Sharp">Susie Sharp</a> / <a href="/wiki/Carol_Sutton_(journalist)" title="Carol Sutton (journalist)">Carol Sutton</a> / <a href="/wiki/Addie_L._Wyatt" title="Addie L. Wyatt">Addie Wyatt</a> (1975)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1976–2000</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jimmy_Carter" title="Jimmy Carter">Jimmy Carter</a> (1976)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anwar_Sadat" title="Anwar Sadat">Anwar Sadat</a> (1977)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deng_Xiaoping" title="Deng Xiaoping">Deng Xiaoping</a> (1978)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruhollah_Khomeini" title="Ruhollah Khomeini">Ayatollah Khomeini</a> (1979)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a> (1980)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lech_Wa%C5%82%C4%99sa" title="Lech Wałęsa">Lech Wałęsa</a> (1981)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_computer" title="Personal computer">The Computer</a> (1982)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a> / <a href="/wiki/Yuri_Andropov" title="Yuri Andropov">Yuri Andropov</a> (1983)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Ueberroth" title="Peter Ueberroth">Peter Ueberroth</a> (1984)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deng_Xiaoping" title="Deng Xiaoping">Deng Xiaoping</a> (1985)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corazon_Aquino" title="Corazon Aquino">Corazon Aquino</a> (1986)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Mikhail Gorbachev</a> (1987)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">The Endangered Earth</a> (1988)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Mikhail Gorbachev</a> (1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">George H. W. Bush</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ted_Turner" title="Ted Turner">Ted Turner</a> (1991)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</a> (1992)</li> <li> The Peacemakers: <a href="/wiki/Yasser_Arafat" title="Yasser Arafat">Yasser Arafat</a> / <a href="/wiki/F._W._de_Klerk" title="F. W. de Klerk">F. W. de Klerk</a> / <a href="/wiki/Nelson_Mandela" title="Nelson Mandela">Nelson Mandela</a> / <a href="/wiki/Yitzhak_Rabin" title="Yitzhak Rabin">Yitzhak Rabin</a> (1993)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_II" title="Pope John Paul II">Pope John Paul II</a> (1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newt_Gingrich" title="Newt Gingrich">Newt Gingrich</a> (1995)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Ho" title="David Ho">David Ho</a> (1996)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Grove" title="Andrew Grove">Andrew Grove</a> (1997)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ken_Starr" title="Ken Starr">Ken Starr</a> (1998)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeff_Bezos" title="Jeff Bezos">Jeff Bezos</a> (1999)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a> (2000)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2001–present</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rudy_Giuliani" title="Rudy Giuliani">Rudolph Giuliani</a> (2001)</li> <li> The Whistleblowers: <a href="/wiki/Cynthia_Cooper_(accountant)" title="Cynthia Cooper (accountant)">Cynthia Cooper</a> / <a href="/wiki/Coleen_Rowley" title="Coleen Rowley">Coleen Rowley</a> / <a href="/wiki/Sherron_Watkins" title="Sherron Watkins">Sherron Watkins</a> (2002)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_War" title="Iraq War">The American Soldier</a> (2003)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a> (2004)</li> <li> The Good Samaritans: <a href="/wiki/Bono" title="Bono">Bono</a> / <a href="/wiki/Bill_Gates" title="Bill Gates">Bill Gates</a> / <a href="/wiki/Melinda_French_Gates" title="Melinda French Gates">Melinda Gates</a> (2005)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/You_(Time_Person_of_the_Year)" title="You (Time Person of the Year)">You</a> (2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Putin" title="Vladimir Putin">Vladimir Putin</a> (2007)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a> (2008)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ben_Bernanke" title="Ben Bernanke">Ben Bernanke</a> (2009)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Zuckerberg" title="Mark Zuckerberg">Mark Zuckerberg</a> (2010)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protest" title="Protest">The Protester</a> (2011)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a> (2012)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Francis" title="Pope Francis">Pope Francis</a> (2013)</li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Responses_to_the_West_African_Ebola_virus_epidemic" title="Responses to the West African Ebola virus epidemic">Ebola Fighters</a>: Dr. Jerry Brown / Dr. <a href="/wiki/Kent_Brantly" title="Kent Brantly">Kent Brantly</a> / Ella Watson-Stryker / Foday Gollah / <a href="/wiki/Salome_Karwah" title="Salome Karwah">Salome Karwah</a> (2014)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angela_Merkel" title="Angela Merkel">Angela Merkel</a> (2015)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Donald Trump</a> (2016)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/MeToo_movement" title="MeToo movement">The Silence Breakers</a> (2017)</li> <li> The Guardians: <a href="/wiki/Jamal_Khashoggi" title="Jamal Khashoggi">Jamal Khashoggi</a> / <a href="/wiki/Maria_Ressa" title="Maria Ressa">Maria Ressa</a> / <a href="/wiki/Wa_Lone" title="Wa Lone">Wa Lone</a> / <a href="/wiki/Kyaw_Soe_Oo" title="Kyaw Soe Oo">Kyaw Soe Oo</a> / Staff of <a href="/wiki/Capital_Gazette_shooting" title="Capital Gazette shooting">The Capital</a> (2018)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greta_Thunberg" title="Greta Thunberg">Greta Thunberg</a> (2019)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joe_Biden" title="Joe Biden">Joe Biden</a> / <a href="/wiki/Kamala_Harris" title="Kamala Harris">Kamala Harris</a> (2020)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elon_Musk" title="Elon Musk">Elon Musk</a> (2021)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volodymyr_Zelenskyy" title="Volodymyr Zelenskyy">Volodymyr Zelenskyy</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ukrainians" title="Ukrainians">Spirit of Ukraine</a> (2022)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taylor_Swift" title="Taylor Swift">Taylor Swift</a> (2023)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Donald Trump</a> (2024)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Presidents_of_the_American_Chemical_Society120" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Presidents_of_the_American_Chemical_Society" title="Template:Presidents of the American Chemical Society"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Presidents_of_the_American_Chemical_Society" title="Template talk:Presidents of the American Chemical Society"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Presidents_of_the_American_Chemical_Society" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Presidents of the American Chemical Society"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Presidents_of_the_American_Chemical_Society120" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Presidents of the <a href="/wiki/American_Chemical_Society" title="American Chemical Society">American Chemical Society</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1876–1900</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_William_Draper" title="John William Draper">John W. Draper</a> (1876)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Lawrence_Smith_(chemist)" title="J. Lawrence Smith (chemist)">J. Lawrence Smith</a> (1877)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_William_Johnson" title="Samuel William Johnson">Samuel William Johnson</a> (1878)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sterry_Hunt" title="Thomas Sterry Hunt">T. Sterry Hunt</a> (1879)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Augustus_Genth" title="Frederick Augustus Genth">Frederick A. Genth</a> (1880)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_F._Chandler" title="Charles F. Chandler">Charles F. Chandler</a> (1881)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Mallet" title="John Mallet">John W. Mallet</a> (1882)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Curtis_Booth" title="James Curtis Booth">James C. Booth</a> (1883)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Benjamin_Prescott" title="Albert Benjamin Prescott">Albert B. Prescott</a> (1886)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Anthony_Goessmann" title="Charles Anthony Goessmann">Charles Anthony Goessmann</a> (1887)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sterry_Hunt" title="Thomas Sterry Hunt">T. Sterry Hunt</a> (1888)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_F._Chandler" title="Charles F. Chandler">Charles F. Chandler</a> (1889)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Bradford_Nason" title="Henry Bradford Nason">Henry B. Nason</a> (1890)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Frederick_Barker" title="George Frederick Barker">George F. Barker</a> (1891)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Chapman_Caldwell" title="George Chapman Caldwell">George C. Caldwell</a> (1892)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Washington_Wiley" title="Harvey Washington Wiley">Harvey W. Wiley</a> (1893)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edgar_Fahs_Smith" title="Edgar Fahs Smith">Edgar Fahs Smith</a> (1895)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Benjamin_Dudley" title="Charles Benjamin Dudley">Charles B. Dudley</a> (1896)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Edward_Munroe" title="Charles Edward Munroe">Charles E. Munroe</a> (1898)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_W._Morley" title="Edward W. Morley">Edward W. Morley</a> (1899)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_McMurtrie" title="William McMurtrie">William McMurtrie</a> (1900)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1901–1925</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Wigglesworth_Clarke" title="Frank Wigglesworth Clarke">Frank W. Clarke</a> (1901)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ira_Remsen" title="Ira Remsen">Ira Remsen</a> (1902)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_H._Long_(chemist)" title="John H. Long (chemist)">John H. Long</a> (1903)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Amos_Noyes" title="Arthur Amos Noyes">Arthur Amos Noyes</a> (1904)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Preston_Venable" title="Francis Preston Venable">Francis P. Venable</a> (1905)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Francis_Hillebrand" title="William Francis Hillebrand">William F. Hillebrand</a> (1906)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marston_T._Bogert" title="Marston T. Bogert">Marston T. Bogert</a> (1907)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willis_R._Whitney" title="Willis R. Whitney">Willis R. Whitney</a> (1909)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilder_Dwight_Bancroft" title="Wilder Dwight Bancroft">Wilder D. Bancroft</a> (1910)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Smith_(chemist)" title="Alexander Smith (chemist)">Alexander Smith</a> (1911)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Dehon_Little" title="Arthur Dehon Little">Arthur Dehon Little</a> (1912)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_William_Richards" title="Theodore William Richards">Theodore W. Richards</a> (1914)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Herty" title="Charles Herty">Charles H. Herty</a> (1915)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Stieglitz" title="Julius Stieglitz">Julius Stieglitz</a> (1917)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_H._Nichols" title="William H. Nichols">William H. Nichols</a> (1918)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_A._Noyes" title="William A. Noyes">William A. Noyes</a> (1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edgar_Fahs_Smith" title="Edgar Fahs Smith">Edgar Fahs Smith</a> (1921)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Curtis_Franklin" title="Edward Curtis Franklin">Edward C. Franklin</a> (1923)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Baekeland" title="Leo Baekeland">Leo H. Baekeland</a> (1924)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Flack_Norris" title="James Flack Norris">James Flack Norris</a> (1925)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1926–1950</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=George_D._Rosengarten&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="George D. Rosengarten (page does not exist)">George D. Rosengarten</a> (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_W._Parr" class="mw-redirect" title="Samuel W. Parr">Samuel W. Parr</a> (1928)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irving_Langmuir" title="Irving Langmuir">Irving Langmuir</a> (1929)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_McPherson_(university_president)" title="William McPherson (university president)">William McPherson</a> (1930)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moses_Gomberg" title="Moses Gomberg">Moses Gomberg</a> (1931)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_V._Redman" title="Lawrence V. Redman">Lawrence V. Redman</a> (1932)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arthur_B._Lamb&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Arthur B. Lamb (page does not exist)">Arthur B. Lamb</a> (1933)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Charles_L._Reese&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Charles L. Reese (page does not exist)">Charles L. Reese</a> (1934)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Adams" title="Roger Adams">Roger Adams</a> (1935)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Bartow" title="Edward Bartow">Edward Bartow</a> (1936)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_R._Weidlein" title="Edward R. Weidlein">Edward R. Weidlein</a> (1937)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_C._Whitmore" title="Frank C. Whitmore">Frank C. Whitmore</a> (1938)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_A._Kraus" title="Charles A. Kraus">Charles A. Kraus</a> (1939)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_C._Lind" title="Samuel C. Lind">Samuel C. Lind</a> (1940)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=William_Lloyd_Evans&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="William Lloyd Evans (page does not exist)">William Lloyd Evans</a> (1941)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Harry_N._Holmes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Harry N. Holmes (page does not exist)">Harry N. Holmes</a> (1942)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Per_K._Frolich&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Per K. Frolich (page does not exist)">Per K. Frolich</a> (1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Midgley_Jr." title="Thomas Midgley Jr.">Thomas Midgley Jr.</a> (1944)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Shipp_Marvel" title="Carl Shipp Marvel">Carl S. Marvel</a> (1945)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bradley_Dewey&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bradley Dewey (page does not exist)">Bradley Dewey</a> (1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._Albert_Noyes_Jr." title="W. Albert Noyes Jr.">W. Albert Noyes Jr.</a> (1947)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Allen_Thomas" title="Charles Allen Thomas">Charles A. Thomas</a> (1948)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Linus Pauling</a> (1949)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_H._Volwiler" title="Ernest H. Volwiler">Ernest H. Volwiler</a> (1950)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1951–1975</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=N._Howell_Funnan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="N. Howell Funnan (page does not exist)">N. Howell Funnan</a> (1951)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Edgar_C._Britton&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Edgar C. Britton (page does not exist)">Edgar C. Britton</a> (1952)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farrington_Daniels" title="Farrington Daniels">Farrington Daniels</a> (1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_L._Fisher" title="Harry L. Fisher">Harry L. Fisher</a> (1954)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joel_Henry_Hildebrand" title="Joel Henry Hildebrand">Joel H. Hildebrand</a> (1955)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_C._Warner&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John C. Warner (page does not exist)">John C. Warner</a> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_J._Williams" title="Roger J. Williams">Roger J. Williams</a> (1957)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Clifford_F._Rassweiler&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Clifford F. Rassweiler (page does not exist)">Clifford F. Rassweiler</a> (1958)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_C._Bailar_Jr." title="John C. Bailar Jr.">John C. Bailar Jr.</a> (1959)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Albert_L._Elder&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Albert L. Elder (page does not exist)">Albert L. Elder</a> (1960)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_C._Cope" title="Arthur C. Cope">Arthur C. Cope</a> (1961)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_August_Folkers" title="Karl August Folkers">Karl Folkers</a> (1962)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Eyring_(chemist)" title="Henry Eyring (chemist)">Henry Eyring</a> (1963)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Maurice_H._Arveson&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Maurice H. Arveson (page does not exist)">Maurice H. Arveson</a> (1964)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_C._Price" title="Charles C. Price">Charles C. Price</a> (1965)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_J._Sparks" title="William J. Sparks">William J. Sparks</a> (1966)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_G._Overberger" title="Charles G. Overberger">Charles G. Overberger</a> (1967)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_W._Cairns" title="Robert W. Cairns">Robert W. Cairns</a> (1968)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wallace_R._Brode" title="Wallace R. Brode">Wallace R. Brode</a> (1969)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Byron_Riegel&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Byron Riegel (page does not exist)">Byron Riegel</a> (1970)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melvin_Calvin" title="Melvin Calvin">Melvin Calvin</a> (1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Tishler" title="Max Tishler">Max Tishler</a> (1972)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alan_C._Nixon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alan C. Nixon (page does not exist)">Alan C. Nixon</a> (1973)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bernard_S._Friedman&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bernard S. Friedman (page does not exist)">Bernard S. Friedman</a> (1974)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_J._Bailey" title="William J. Bailey">William J. Bailey</a> (1975)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1976–2000</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glenn_T._Seaborg" title="Glenn T. Seaborg">Glenn T. Seaborg</a> (1976)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_A._Hill" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry A. Hill">Henry A. Hill</a> (1977)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anna_J._Harrison" title="Anna J. Harrison">Anna J. Harrison</a> (1978)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gardner_W._Stacy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gardner W. Stacy (page does not exist)">Gardner W. Stacy</a> (1979)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_D._D%27Ianni" title="James D. D'Ianni">James D. D'Ianni</a> (1980)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Albert_C._Zettlemoyer&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Albert C. Zettlemoyer (page does not exist)">Albert C. Zettlemoyer</a> (1981)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_W._Parry" title="Robert W. Parry">Robert W. Parry</a> (1982)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Basolo" title="Fred Basolo">Fred Basolo</a> (1983)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warren_D._Niederhauser" title="Warren D. Niederhauser">Warren D. Niederhauser</a> (1984)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ellis_K._Fields&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ellis K. Fields (page does not exist)">Ellis K. Fields</a> (1985)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_C._Pimentel" title="George C. Pimentel">George C. Pimentel</a> (1986)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_L._Good" title="Mary L. Good">Mary L. Good</a> (1987)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gordon_L._Nelson&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gordon L. Nelson (page does not exist)">Gordon L. Nelson</a> (1988)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Clayton_F._Callis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Clayton F. Callis (page does not exist)">Clayton F. Callis</a> (1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_G._Gassman" title="Paul G. Gassman">Paul G. Gassman</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=S._Allen_Heininger&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="S. Allen Heininger (page does not exist)">S. Allen Heininger</a> (1991)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_L._Eliel" title="Ernest L. Eliel">Ernest L. Eliel</a> (1992)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helen_Murray_Free" title="Helen Murray Free">Helen M. Free</a> (1993)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ned_D._Heindel" title="Ned D. Heindel">Ned D. Heindel</a> (1994)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Brian_M._Rushton&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Brian M. Rushton (page does not exist)">Brian M. Rushton</a> (1995)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Breslow" title="Ronald Breslow">Ronald Breslow</a> (1996)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_S._Anderson" title="Paul S. Anderson">Paul S. Anderson</a> (1997)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paul_H.L._Walter&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Paul H.L. Walter (page does not exist)">Paul H.L. Walter</a> (1998)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Edel_Wasserman&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Edel Wasserman (page does not exist)">Edel Wasserman</a> (1999)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daryle_H._Busch" title="Daryle H. Busch">Daryle H. Busch</a> (2000)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2001–present</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Attila_E._Pavlath&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Attila E. Pavlath (page does not exist)">Attila E. Pavlath</a> (2001)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eli_M._Pearce" title="Eli M. Pearce">Eli M. Pearce</a> (2002)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elsa_Reichmanis" title="Elsa Reichmanis">Elsa Reichmanis</a> (2003)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_P._Casey" title="Charles P. Casey">Charles P. Casey</a> (2004)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=William_F._Carroll_Jr.&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="William F. Carroll Jr. (page does not exist)">William F. Carroll Jr.</a> (2005)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Ann_Nalley" title="Elizabeth Ann Nalley">Elizabeth Ann Nalley</a> (2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catherine_T._Hunt" title="Catherine T. Hunt">Catherine T. Hunt</a> (2007)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruce_E._Bursten" title="Bruce E. Bursten">Bruce E. Bursten</a> (2008)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_H._Lane" title="Thomas H. Lane">Thomas H. Lane</a> (2009)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Francisco" title="Joseph Francisco">Joseph Francisco</a> (2010)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nancy_B._Jackson" title="Nancy B. Jackson">Nancy B. Jackson</a> (2011)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bassam_Shakhashiri" title="Bassam Shakhashiri">Bassam Z. Shakhashiri</a> (2012)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marinda_Li_Wu" title="Marinda Li Wu">Marinda Li Wu</a> (2013)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_J._Barton" title="Thomas J. Barton">Thomas J. Barton</a> (2014)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diane_Grob_Schmidt" title="Diane Grob Schmidt">Diane Grob Schmidt</a> (2015)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donna_Nelson" title="Donna Nelson">Donna J. Nelson</a> (2016)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allison_A._Campbell" title="Allison A. Campbell">Allison A. Campbell</a> (2017)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_K._Dorhout" title="Peter K. Dorhout">Peter K. Dorhout</a> (2018)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bonnie_A._Charpentier" title="Bonnie A. Charpentier">Bonnie A. Charpentier</a> (2019)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luis_Echegoyen" title="Luis Echegoyen">Luis Echegoyen</a> (2020)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/H.N._Cheng" class="mw-redirect" title="H.N. Cheng">H.N. Cheng</a> (2021)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angela_K._Wilson" title="Angela K. Wilson">Angela K. Wilson</a> (2022)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judith_Giordan" title="Judith Giordan">Judith Giordan</a> (2023)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_K._Carroll" title="Mary K. Carroll">Mary K. Carroll</a> (2024)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_J._Phillips" title="Dorothy J. Phillips">Dorothy J. Phillips</a>, President Elect (2025)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Anti-nuclear_movement_in_the_United_States367" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:US_anti-nuclear_movement" title="Template:US anti-nuclear movement"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:US_anti-nuclear_movement" title="Template talk:US anti-nuclear movement"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:US_anti-nuclear_movement" title="Special:EditPage/Template:US anti-nuclear movement"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Anti-nuclear_movement_in_the_United_States367" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement_in_the_United_States" title="Anti-nuclear movement in the United States">Anti-nuclear movement in the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-nuclear_groups_in_the_United_States" title="Anti-nuclear groups in the United States">Anti-nuclear groups in the US</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement_in_California" title="Anti-nuclear movement in California">California movement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Peace_March_for_Global_Nuclear_Disarmament" title="Great Peace March for Global Nuclear Disarmament">Great Peace March</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_history_of_the_United_States" title="Nuclear history of the United States">Nuclear history of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_the_United_States" title="Nuclear power in the United States">Nuclear power in the US</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cancelled_nuclear_reactors_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="List of cancelled nuclear reactors in the United States">Canceled nuclear reactors in the US</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_of_the_United_States" title="Nuclear weapons of the United States">Nuclear weapons and the US</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-nuclear_protests_in_the_United_States" title="Anti-nuclear protests in the United States">Protests in the US</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_anti-nuclear_advocates_in_the_United_States" title="List of anti-nuclear advocates in the United States">Anti-nuclear advocates in the US</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Organizations and groups</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abalone_Alliance" title="Abalone Alliance">Abalone Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alliance_for_Nuclear_Responsibility" title="Alliance for Nuclear Responsibility">Alliance for Nuclear Responsibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clamshell_Alliance" title="Clamshell Alliance">Clamshell Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_for_Nuclear_Responsibility" title="Committee for Nuclear Responsibility">Committee for Nuclear Responsibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_Accountability_International" class="mw-redirect" title="Corporate Accountability International">Corporate Accountability International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_Mass_Energy_Project" title="Critical Mass Energy Project">Critical Mass Energy Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friends_of_the_Earth" title="Friends of the Earth">Friends of the Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenpeace" title="Greenpeace">Greenpeace USA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institute_for_Energy_and_Environmental_Research" title="Institute for Energy and Environmental Research">Institute for Energy and Environmental Research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mothers_for_Peace" title="Mothers for Peace">Mothers for Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musicians_United_for_Safe_Energy" title="Musicians United for Safe Energy">Musicians United for Safe Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nevada_Desert_Experience" title="Nevada Desert Experience">Nevada Desert Experience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_Control_Institute" title="Nuclear Control Institute">Nuclear Control Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_Information_and_Resource_Service" title="Nuclear Information and Resource Service">Nuclear Information and Resource Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicians_for_Social_Responsibility" title="Physicians for Social Responsibility">Physicians for Social Responsibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plowshares_movement" title="Plowshares movement">Plowshares movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ploughshares_Fund" title="Ploughshares Fund">Ploughshares Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_Citizen" title="Public Citizen">Public Citizen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shad_Alliance" title="Shad Alliance">Shad Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Club" title="Sierra Club">Sierra Club</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement_in_the_United_States#Specific_groups" title="Anti-nuclear movement in the United States">Three Mile Island Alert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_Strike_for_Peace" title="Women Strike for Peace">Women Strike for Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kings_Bay_Plowshares" title="Kings Bay Plowshares">Kings Bay Plowshares</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Berrigan" title="Daniel Berrigan">Daniel Berrigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_J._Bichsel" title="William J. Bichsel">William J. Bichsel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruce_G._Blair" title="Bruce G. Blair">Bruce G. Blair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larry_Bogart" title="Larry Bogart">Larry Bogart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helen_Caldicott" title="Helen Caldicott">Helen Caldicott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barry_Commoner" title="Barry Commoner">Barry Commoner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Cousins" title="Norman Cousins">Norman Cousins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frances_Crowe" title="Frances Crowe">Frances Crowe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carrie_Barefoot_Dickerson" title="Carrie Barefoot Dickerson">Carrie Barefoot Dickerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_M._Doty" title="Paul M. Doty">Paul M. Doty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_T._Feld" title="Bernard T. Feld">Bernard T. Feld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randall_Forsberg" title="Randall Forsberg">Randall Forsberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Gofman" title="John Gofman">John Gofman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Gunter" title="Paul Gunter">Paul Gunter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hall_(New_York_politician)" title="John Hall (New York politician)">John Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jackie_Hudson" title="Jackie Hudson">Jackie Hudson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sam_Lovejoy" class="mw-redirect" title="Sam Lovejoy">Sam Lovejoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amory_Lovins" title="Amory Lovins">Amory Lovins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lown" title="Bernard Lown">Bernard Lown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arjun_Makhijani" title="Arjun Makhijani">Arjun Makhijani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregory_Minor" title="Gregory Minor">Gregory Minor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Joseph_Muller" title="Hermann Joseph Muller">Hermann Joseph Muller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Nader" title="Ralph Nader">Ralph Nader</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graham_Nash" title="Graham Nash">Graham Nash</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Linus Pauling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Rabinowitch" title="Eugene Rabinowitch">Eugene Rabinowitch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phil_Radford" title="Phil Radford">Phil Radford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bonnie_Raitt" title="Bonnie Raitt">Bonnie Raitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Sagan" title="Carl Sagan">Carl Sagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Sheen" title="Martin Sheen">Martin Sheen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karen_Silkwood" title="Karen Silkwood">Karen Silkwood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_(activist)" title="Thomas (activist)">Thomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Vitale" title="Louis Vitale">Louis Vitale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Wasserman" title="Harvey Wasserman">Harvey Wasserman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_Weisskopf" title="Victor Weisskopf">Victor Weisskopf</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Main protest sites</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Fox_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Black Fox Nuclear Power Plant">Black Fox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodega_Bay_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Bodega Bay Nuclear Power Plant">Bodega Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diablo_Canyon_Power_Plant" title="Diablo Canyon Power Plant">Diablo Canyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Point_Energy_Center" title="Indian Point Energy Center">Indian Point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Livermore_National_Laboratory" title="Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory">Lawrence Livermore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montague_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Montague Nuclear Power Plant">Montague</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_Base_Kitsap" title="Naval Base Kitsap">Naval Base Kitsap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nevada_Test_Site" title="Nevada Test Site">Nevada Test Site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rancho_Seco_Nuclear_Generating_Station" title="Rancho Seco Nuclear Generating Station">Rancho Seco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rocky_Flats_Plant" title="Rocky Flats Plant">Rocky Flats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Onofre_Nuclear_Generating_Station" title="San Onofre Nuclear Generating Station">San Onofre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seabrook_Station_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Seabrook Station Nuclear Power Plant">Seabrook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoreham_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Shoreham Nuclear Power Plant">Shoreham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Mile_Island_accident" title="Three Mile Island accident">Three Mile Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trojan_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Trojan Nuclear Power Plant">Trojan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vermont_Yankee_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Vermont Yankee Nuclear Power Plant">Vermont Yankee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_House_Peace_Vigil" title="White House Peace Vigil">White House Peace Vigil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Y-12_National_Security_Complex" title="Y-12 National Security Complex">Y-12 Weapons Plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yankee_Rowe_Nuclear_Power_Station" title="Yankee Rowe Nuclear Power Station">Yankee Rowe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_books_about_nuclear_issues" title="List of books about nuclear issues">Books</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-style:italic;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arjun_Makhijani#Publications" title="Arjun Makhijani">Carbon-Free and Nuclear-Free</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_Fallout" title="Conservation Fallout">Conservation Fallout: Nuclear Protest at Diablo Canyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contesting_the_Future_of_Nuclear_Power" title="Contesting the Future of Nuclear Power">Contesting the Future of Nuclear Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_Masses:_Opposition_to_Nuclear_Power_in_California,_1958%E2%80%931978" class="mw-redirect" title="Critical Masses: Opposition to Nuclear Power in California, 1958–1978">Critical Masses: Opposition to Nuclear Power in California, 1958–1978</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Cult_of_the_Atom" title="The Cult of the Atom">The Cult of the Atom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Doomsday_Machine_(book)" title="The Doomsday Machine (book)">The Doomsday Machine (book)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallout:_An_American_Nuclear_Tragedy" title="Fallout: An American Nuclear Tragedy">Fallout: An American Nuclear Tragedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Wasserman#Killing_Our_Own_(1982)" title="Harvey Wasserman">Killing Our Own</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Licensed_to_Kill%3F_The_Nuclear_Regulatory_Commission_and_the_Shoreham_Power_Plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Licensed to Kill? The Nuclear Regulatory Commission and the Shoreham Power Plant">Licensed to Kill? The Nuclear Regulatory Commission and the Shoreham Power Plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Making_a_Real_Killing" title="Making a Real Killing">Making a Real Killing: Rocky Flats and the Nuclear West</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_Implosions:_The_Rise_and_Fall_of_the_Washington_Public_Power_Supply_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear Implosions: The Rise and Fall of the Washington Public Power Supply System">Nuclear Implosions: The Rise and Fall of the Washington Public Power Supply System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_Politics_in_America" title="Nuclear Politics in America">Nuclear Politics in America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/We_Almost_Lost_Detroit" title="We Almost Lost Detroit">We Almost Lost Detroit</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_about_nuclear_issues" title="List of films about nuclear issues">Films</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-style:italic;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_Ed_and_the_Black_Hole" title="Atomic Ed and the Black Hole">Atomic Ed and the Black Hole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_China_Syndrome" title="The China Syndrome">The China Syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Countdown_to_Zero" title="Countdown to Zero">Countdown to Zero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_Circle_(film)" title="Dark Circle (film)">Dark Circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_Tipping_Point" title="Nuclear Tipping Point">Nuclear Tipping Point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silkwood" title="Silkwood">Silkwood</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Gandhi_Peace_Award_laureates65" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Gandhi_Peace_Award_laureates" title="Template:Gandhi Peace Award laureates"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Gandhi_Peace_Award_laureates" title="Template talk:Gandhi Peace Award laureates"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Gandhi_Peace_Award_laureates" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Gandhi Peace Award laureates"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Gandhi_Peace_Award_laureates65" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Gandhi_Peace_Award" title="Gandhi Peace Award">Gandhi Peace Award</a> laureates</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1960–1979</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>1960 <a href="/wiki/Eleanor_Roosevelt" title="Eleanor Roosevelt">Eleanor Roosevelt</a> / <a href="/wiki/Edwin_T._Dahlberg" title="Edwin T. Dahlberg">Edwin T. Dahlberg</a></li> <li>1961 <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Eisendrath" title="Maurice Eisendrath">Maurice Eisendrath</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Haynes_Holmes" title="John Haynes Holmes">John Haynes Holmes</a></li> <li>1962 <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Linus Pauling</a> / <a href="/wiki/James_Warburg" title="James Warburg">James Warburg</a></li> <li>1963 <a href="/wiki/E._Stanley_Jones" title="E. Stanley Jones">E. Stanley Jones</a></li> <li>1964</li> <li>1965</li> <li>1966 <a href="/wiki/A._J._Muste" title="A. J. Muste">A. J. Muste</a></li> <li>1967 <a href="/wiki/Norman_Thomas" title="Norman Thomas">Norman Thomas</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jerome_Davis_(sociologist)" title="Jerome Davis (sociologist)">Jerome Davis</a> / <a href="/wiki/William_Sloane_Coffin" title="William Sloane Coffin">William Sloane Coffin</a></li> <li>1968 <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Spock" title="Benjamin Spock">Benjamin Spock</a></li> <li>1969</li> <li>1970 <a href="/wiki/Wayne_Morse" title="Wayne Morse">Wayne Morse</a> / <a href="/wiki/Willard_Uphaus" title="Willard Uphaus">Willard Uphaus</a></li> <li>1971</li> <li>1972 <a href="/wiki/U_Thant" title="U Thant">U Thant</a></li> <li>1973</li> <li>1974</li> <li>1975 <a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Day" title="Dorothy Day">Dorothy Day</a></li> <li>1976 <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Ellsberg" title="Daniel Ellsberg">Daniel Ellsberg</a></li> <li>1977</li> <li>1978 <a href="/wiki/Peter_Benenson" title="Peter Benenson">Peter Benenson</a> / <a href="/wiki/Martin_Ennals" title="Martin Ennals">Martin Ennals</a></li> <li>1979 <a href="/wiki/Roland_Bainton" title="Roland Bainton">Roland Bainton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1980–1999</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>1980 <a href="/wiki/Helen_Caldicott" title="Helen Caldicott">Helen Caldicott</a></li> <li>1981 <a href="/wiki/Corliss_Lamont" title="Corliss Lamont">Corliss Lamont</a></li> <li>1982 <a href="/wiki/Randall_Forsberg" title="Randall Forsberg">Randall Watson Forsberg</a></li> <li>1983</li> <li>1984 <a href="/wiki/Robert_Jay_Lifton" title="Robert Jay Lifton">Robert Jay Lifton</a> / <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kay_Camp&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kay Camp (page does not exist)">Kay Camp</a></li> <li>1985</li> <li>1986 <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lown" title="Bernard Lown">Bernard Lown</a></li> <li>1987 <a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Somerville_(philosopher)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John Somerville (philosopher) (page does not exist)">John Somerville</a></li> <li>1988</li> <li>1989 <a href="/wiki/Cesar_Chavez" title="Cesar Chavez">César Chávez</a></li> <li>1990 <a href="/wiki/Marian_Wright_Edelman" title="Marian Wright Edelman">Marian Wright Edelman</a></li> <li>1991 <a href="/wiki/George_McGovern" title="George McGovern">George McGovern</a></li> <li>1992 <a href="/wiki/Ramsey_Clark" title="Ramsey Clark">Ramsey Clark</a></li> <li>1993 <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Walker" title="Lucius Walker">Lucius Walker</a></li> <li>1994 <a href="/wiki/Roy_Bourgeois" title="Roy Bourgeois">Roy Bourgeois</a></li> <li>1995 <a href="/wiki/Edith_Ballantyne" title="Edith Ballantyne">Edith Ballantyne</a></li> <li>1996 <a href="/w/index.php?title=New_Haven-Le%C3%B3n_Sister_City_Project&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="New Haven-León Sister City Project (page does not exist)">New Haven-León Sister City Project</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alan_Wright_(activist)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alan Wright (activist) (page does not exist)">Alan Wright</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paula_Kline&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Paula Kline (page does not exist)">Paula Kline</a></li></ul></li> <li>1997 <a href="/w/index.php?title=Howard_Frazier&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Howard Frazier (page does not exist)">Howard</a> / <a href="/w/index.php?title=Alice_Frazier&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alice Frazier (page does not exist)">Alice Frazier</a></li> <li>1998</li> <li>1999</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2000–2019</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>2000</li> <li>2001</li> <li>2002 <a href="/wiki/Michael_True" title="Michael True">Michael True</a></li> <li>2003 <a href="/wiki/Dennis_Kucinich" title="Dennis Kucinich">Dennis Kucinich</a></li> <li>2004 <a href="/w/index.php?title=Karen_Jacob&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Karen Jacob (page does not exist)">Karen Jacob</a> / <a href="/wiki/David_Cortright" title="David Cortright">David Cortright</a></li> <li>2005</li> <li>2006</li> <li>2007</li> <li>2008</li> <li>2009</li> <li>2010</li> <li>2011 <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ehud_Bandel&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ehud Bandel (page does not exist)">Ehud Bandel</a> / <a href="/wiki/Arik_Ascherman" title="Arik Ascherman">Arik Ascherman</a></li> <li>2012 <a href="/wiki/Amy_Goodman" title="Amy Goodman">Amy Goodman</a></li> <li>2013 <a href="/wiki/Bill_McKibben" title="Bill McKibben">Bill McKibben</a></li> <li>2014 <a href="/wiki/Medea_Benjamin" title="Medea Benjamin">Medea Benjamin</a></li> <li>2015 <a href="/wiki/Tom_B.K._Goldtooth" title="Tom B.K. Goldtooth">Tom B.K. Goldtooth</a> / <a href="/wiki/Kathy_Kelly" title="Kathy Kelly">Kathy Kelly</a></li> <li>2016</li> <li>2017 <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Nader" title="Ralph Nader">Ralph Nader</a> / <a href="/wiki/Omar_Barghouti" title="Omar Barghouti">Omar Barghouti</a></li> <li>2018 <a href="/wiki/Jackson_Browne" title="Jackson Browne">Jackson Browne</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="1954_Nobel_Prize_laureates913" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:1954_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1954 Nobel Prize winners"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:1954_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template talk:1954 Nobel Prize winners"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:1954_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Special:EditPage/Template:1954 Nobel Prize winners"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="1954_Nobel_Prize_laureates913" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">1954 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prize</a> laureates</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Chemistry</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Linus Pauling</a> (United States)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="Nobel Prize in Literature">Literature</a> (<a href="/wiki/1954_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1954 Nobel Prize in Literature">1954</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Hemingway" title="Ernest Hemingway">Ernest Hemingway</a> (United States)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="Nobel Peace Prize">Peace</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_High_Commissioner_for_Refugees" title="United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees">United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees</a> (Switzerland)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Physics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born">Max Born</a> (Great Britain)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walther_Bothe" title="Walther Bothe">Walther Bothe</a> (Germany)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Physiology or Medicine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Franklin_Enders" title="John Franklin Enders">John Franklin Enders</a> (United States)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Chapman_Robbins" title="Frederick Chapman Robbins">Frederick Chapman Robbins</a> (United States)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Huckle_Weller" title="Thomas Huckle Weller">Thomas Huckle Weller</a> (United States)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates" title="List of Nobel laureates">Nobel Prize recipients</a></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1949_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1949 Nobel Prize winners">1949</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1950_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1950 Nobel Prize winners">1950</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1951_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1951 Nobel Prize winners">1951</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1952_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1952 Nobel Prize winners">1952</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1953_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1953 Nobel Prize winners">1953</a></dd> <dd>1954 </dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1955_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1955 Nobel Prize winners">1955</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1956_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1956 Nobel Prize winners">1956</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1957_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1957 Nobel Prize winners">1957</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1958_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1958 Nobel Prize winners">1958</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1959_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1959 Nobel Prize winners">1959</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="World_Constitutional_Convention_call_signatories1029" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:World_Constitutional_Convention_call_signatories" title="Template:World Constitutional Convention call signatories"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:World_Constitutional_Convention_call_signatories" title="Template talk:World Constitutional Convention call signatories"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:World_Constitutional_Convention_call_signatories" title="Special:EditPage/Template:World Constitutional Convention call signatories"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="World_Constitutional_Convention_call_signatories1029" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/World_Constitutional_Convention" title="World Constitutional Convention">World Constitutional Convention</a> <a href="/wiki/World_Constitutional_Convention_call" class="mw-redirect" title="World Constitutional Convention call">call</a> signatories</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li> <a href="/wiki/Constitution_for_the_Federation_of_Earth" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution for the Federation of Earth">Constitution for the Federation of Earth</a> </li></ul> <dl><dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_Constitution_Coordinating_Committee" title="World Constitution Coordinating Committee">World Constitution Coordinating Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thane_Read" title="Thane Read">Thane Read</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Isely" title="Philip Isely">Philip Isely</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Isely" title="Margaret Isely">Margaret Isely</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgia_Lloyd" title="Georgia Lloyd">Georgia Lloyd</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries" class="mw-redirect" title="List of countries">Countries</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg/23px-Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg/35px-Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg/46px-Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Costa_Rica" title="Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/45px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Flag_of_Senegal.svg/23px-Flag_of_Senegal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Flag_of_Senegal.svg/35px-Flag_of_Senegal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Flag_of_Senegal.svg/45px-Flag_of_Senegal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Senegal" title="Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Flag_of_Sierra_Leone.svg/23px-Flag_of_Sierra_Leone.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Flag_of_Sierra_Leone.svg/35px-Flag_of_Sierra_Leone.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Flag_of_Sierra_Leone.svg/45px-Flag_of_Sierra_Leone.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone" title="Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Flag_of_Tanzania.svg/23px-Flag_of_Tanzania.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Flag_of_Tanzania.svg/35px-Flag_of_Tanzania.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Flag_of_Tanzania.svg/45px-Flag_of_Tanzania.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Tanzania" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Head_of_government" title="Head of government">Head of governments</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_presidents" title="Lists of presidents">Presidents</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/France" title="France"><img alt="France" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/35px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/45px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Edgar_Faure" title="Edgar Faure">Edgar Faure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Costa_Rica" title="Costa Rica"><img alt="Costa Rica" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg/23px-Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg/35px-Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg/46px-Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Orlich_Bolmarcich" title="Francisco Orlich Bolmarcich">Francisco Orlich Bolmarcich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Costa_Rica" title="Costa Rica"><img alt="Costa Rica" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg/23px-Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg/35px-Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg/46px-Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Figueres_Ferrer" title="José Figueres Ferrer">José Figueres Ferrer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanzania" title="Tanzania"><img alt="Tanzania" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Flag_of_Tanzania.svg/23px-Flag_of_Tanzania.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Flag_of_Tanzania.svg/35px-Flag_of_Tanzania.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Flag_of_Tanzania.svg/45px-Flag_of_Tanzania.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Julius_Nyerere" title="Julius Nyerere">Julius Nyerere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senegal" title="Senegal"><img alt="Senegal" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Flag_of_Senegal.svg/23px-Flag_of_Senegal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Flag_of_Senegal.svg/35px-Flag_of_Senegal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Flag_of_Senegal.svg/45px-Flag_of_Senegal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9opold_S%C3%A9dar_Senghor" title="Léopold Sédar Senghor">Léopold Sédar Senghor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan"><img alt="Pakistan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/45px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Ayub_Khan" title="Ayub Khan">Muhammad Ayub Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Costa_Rica" title="Costa Rica"><img alt="Costa Rica" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg/23px-Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg/35px-Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg/46px-Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Otilio_Ulate_Blanco" title="Otilio Ulate Blanco">Otilio Ulate Blanco</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Vice-presidents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kenya" title="Kenya"><img alt="Kenya" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Kenya.svg/23px-Flag_of_Kenya.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Kenya.svg/35px-Flag_of_Kenya.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Kenya.svg/45px-Flag_of_Kenya.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Jaramogi_Oginga_Odinga" title="Jaramogi Oginga Odinga">Jaramogi Oginga Odinga</a></li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Prime_Ministers" class="mw-redirect" title="Prime Ministers">Prime Ministers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom"><img alt="United Kingdom" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Clement_Attlee" title="Clement Attlee">Clement Attlee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone" title="Sierra Leone"><img alt="Sierra Leone" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Flag_of_Sierra_Leone.svg/23px-Flag_of_Sierra_Leone.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Flag_of_Sierra_Leone.svg/35px-Flag_of_Sierra_Leone.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Flag_of_Sierra_Leone.svg/45px-Flag_of_Sierra_Leone.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Milton_Margai" title="Milton Margai">Milton Margai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan"><img alt="Japan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/45px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Tetsu_Katayama" title="Tetsu Katayama">Tetsu Katayama</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Governors" class="mw-redirect" title="Governors">Governors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/California" title="California"><img alt="California" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Flag_of_California.svg/23px-Flag_of_California.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Flag_of_California.svg/35px-Flag_of_California.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Flag_of_California.svg/45px-Flag_of_California.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Culbert_Olson" title="Culbert Olson">Culbert Olson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiroshima_Prefecture" title="Hiroshima Prefecture"><img alt="Hiroshima Prefecture" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Flag_of_Hiroshima_Prefecture.svg/23px-Flag_of_Hiroshima_Prefecture.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Flag_of_Hiroshima_Prefecture.svg/35px-Flag_of_Hiroshima_Prefecture.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Flag_of_Hiroshima_Prefecture.svg/45px-Flag_of_Hiroshima_Prefecture.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Hiroo_%C5%8Chara" title="Hiroo Ōhara">Hiroo Ōhara</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mayors" class="mw-redirect" title="Mayors">Mayors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Accra_Region" title="Greater Accra Region"><img alt="Greater Accra Region" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Flag_of_Greater_Accra_Region.svg/23px-Flag_of_Greater_Accra_Region.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Flag_of_Greater_Accra_Region.svg/35px-Flag_of_Greater_Accra_Region.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Flag_of_Greater_Accra_Region.svg/45px-Flag_of_Greater_Accra_Region.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="304" data-file-height="202" /></a> <a href="/wiki/E.C._Quaye" class="mw-redirect" title="E.C. Quaye">E.C. Quaye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiroshima_Prefecture" title="Hiroshima Prefecture"><img alt="Hiroshima Prefecture" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Flag_of_Hiroshima_Prefecture.svg/23px-Flag_of_Hiroshima_Prefecture.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Flag_of_Hiroshima_Prefecture.svg/35px-Flag_of_Hiroshima_Prefecture.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Flag_of_Hiroshima_Prefecture.svg/45px-Flag_of_Hiroshima_Prefecture.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Setsuo_Yamada" title="Setsuo Yamada">Setsuo Yamada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiroshima_Prefecture" title="Hiroshima Prefecture"><img alt="Hiroshima Prefecture" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Flag_of_Hiroshima_Prefecture.svg/23px-Flag_of_Hiroshima_Prefecture.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Flag_of_Hiroshima_Prefecture.svg/35px-Flag_of_Hiroshima_Prefecture.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Flag_of_Hiroshima_Prefecture.svg/45px-Flag_of_Hiroshima_Prefecture.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Shinzo_Hamai" title="Shinzo Hamai">Shinzo Hamai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politicians" class="mw-redirect" title="Politicians">Politicians</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Flag_of_Europe.svg/23px-Flag_of_Europe.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Flag_of_Europe.svg/35px-Flag_of_Europe.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Flag_of_Europe.svg/45px-Flag_of_Europe.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="810" data-file-height="540" /> <a href="/wiki/Cornelis_Berkhouwer" title="Cornelis Berkhouwer">Cornelis Berkhouwer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan"><img alt="Pakistan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/45px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Ebrahim_Haroon_Jaffer" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahmed Ebrahim Haroon Jaffer">Ahmed Ebrahim Haroon Jaffer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan"><img alt="Japan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/45px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Akira_Kazami" title="Akira Kazami">Akira Kazami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/India" title="India"><img alt="India" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/23px-Flag_of_India.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/35px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/45px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/B._Satya_Narayan_Reddy" title="B. Satya Narayan Reddy">B. Satya Narayan Reddy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan"><img alt="Japan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/45px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Chiyo_Sakakibara" title="Chiyo Sakakibara">Chiyo Sakakibara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/India" title="India"><img alt="India" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/23px-Flag_of_India.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/35px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/45px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Diwan_Chaman_Lall" title="Diwan Chaman Lall">Diwan Chaman Lall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico"><img alt="Mexico" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg/23px-Flag_of_Mexico.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg/35px-Flag_of_Mexico.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg/46px-Flag_of_Mexico.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="980" data-file-height="560" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Ezequiel_Padilla_Pe%C3%B1aloza" title="Ezequiel Padilla Peñaloza">Ezequiel Padilla Peñaloza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany"><img alt="Germany" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/23px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/35px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/46px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Gerhard_Jahn" title="Gerhard Jahn">Gerhard Jahn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan"><img alt="Japan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/45px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Hisato_Ichimada" title="Hisato Ichimada">Hisato Ichimada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom"><img alt="United Kingdom" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Henry_Usborne" title="Henry Usborne">Henry Usborne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan"><img alt="Japan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/45px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Ichir%C5%8D_Kiyose" title="Ichirō Kiyose">Ichirō Kiyose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/India" title="India"><img alt="India" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/23px-Flag_of_India.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/35px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/45px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Inder_Kumar_Gujral" title="Inder Kumar Gujral">Inder Kumar Gujral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/France" title="France"><img alt="France" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/35px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/45px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Ir%C3%A8ne_de_Lipkowski" title="Irène de Lipkowski">Irène de Lipkowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom"><img alt="United Kingdom" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/John_Foster_(MP_for_Northwich)" title="John Foster (MP for Northwich)">John Foster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/India" title="India"><img alt="India" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/23px-Flag_of_India.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/35px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/45px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Kanaiyalal_Maneklal_Munshi" title="Kanaiyalal Maneklal Munshi">Kanaiyalal Maneklal Munshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan"><img alt="Japan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/45px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Kenz%C5%8D_Matsumura" title="Kenzō Matsumura">Kenzō Matsumura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghana" title="Ghana"><img alt="Ghana" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Flag_of_Ghana.svg/23px-Flag_of_Ghana.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Flag_of_Ghana.svg/35px-Flag_of_Ghana.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Flag_of_Ghana.svg/45px-Flag_of_Ghana.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Komla_Agbeli_Gbedemah" title="Komla Agbeli Gbedemah">Komla Agbeli Gbedemah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom"><img alt="United Kingdom" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Silkin,_1st_Baron_Silkin" title="Lewis Silkin, 1st Baron Silkin">Lewis Silkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/India" title="India"><img alt="India" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/23px-Flag_of_India.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/35px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/45px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/N._G._Ranga" title="N. G. Ranga">N. G. Ranga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil"><img alt="Brazil" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg/22px-Flag_of_Brazil.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg/33px-Flag_of_Brazil.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg/43px-Flag_of_Brazil.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="700" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Pascoal_Ranieri_Mazzilli" title="Pascoal Ranieri Mazzilli">Pascoal Ranieri Mazzilli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland"><img alt="Scotland" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Flag_of_Scotland.svg/23px-Flag_of_Scotland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Flag_of_Scotland.svg/35px-Flag_of_Scotland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Flag_of_Scotland.svg/46px-Flag_of_Scotland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Wolrige-Gordon" title="Patrick Wolrige-Gordon">Patrick Wolrige-Gordon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom"><img alt="United Kingdom" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/William_Beveridge" title="William Beveridge">William Beveridge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religious_leader" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious leader">Religious leaders</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abb%C3%A9_Pierre" title="Abbé Pierre">Abbé Pierre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dana_McLean_Greeley" title="Dana McLean Greeley">Dana McLean Greeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_MacLeod" title="George MacLeod">George MacLeod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Collins_(priest)" title="John Collins (priest)">John Collins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Niem%C3%B6ller" title="Martin Niemöller">Martin Niemöller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Scott_(priest)" title="Michael Scott (priest)">Michael Scott</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates" title="List of Nobel laureates">Nobel laureates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Physics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Kastler" title="Alfred Kastler">Alfred Kastler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._F._Powell" title="C. F. Powell">C. F. Powell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hideki_Yukawa" title="Hideki Yukawa">Hideki Yukawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born">Max Born</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Chemistry</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Sanger" title="Frederick Sanger">Frederick Sanger</a> (twice)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Hahn" title="Otto Hahn">Otto Hahn</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Physiology or Medicine</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Szent-Gy%C3%B6rgyi" title="Albert Szent-Györgyi">Albert Szent-Györgyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dickinson_W._Richards" title="Dickinson W. Richards">Dickinson W. Richards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Joseph_Muller" title="Hermann Joseph Muller">Hermann Joseph Muller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macfarlane_Burnet" title="Macfarlane Burnet">Macfarlane Burnet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Literature</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salvatore_Quasimodo" title="Salvatore Quasimodo">Salvatore Quasimodo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Peace</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Boyd_Orr" title="John Boyd Orr">John Boyd Orr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Rotblat" title="Joseph Rotblat">Joseph Rotblat</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Multiple</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Linus Pauling</a> (Chemistry & Peace)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Scientists" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientists">Scientists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_C._Price" title="Charles C. Price">Charles C. Price</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Condon" title="Edward Condon">Edward Condon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edris_Rice-Wray_Carson" title="Edris Rice-Wray Carson">Edris Rice-Wray Carson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlow_Shapley" title="Harlow Shapley">Harlow Shapley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Orcel" title="Jean Orcel">Jean Orcel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pitirim_Sorokin" title="Pitirim Sorokin">Pitirim Sorokin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priyadaranjan_Ray" title="Priyadaranjan Ray">Priyadaranjan Ray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Dumont" title="René Dumont">René Dumont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilder_Penfield" title="Wilder Penfield">Wilder Penfield</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_activists" class="mw-redirect" title="Human rights activists">Human rights activists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Humanitarians" class="mw-redirect" title="Humanitarians">Humanitarians</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_and_Magda_Trocm%C3%A9" title="André and Magda Trocmé">André and Magda Trocmé</a> (Righteous Among the Nations)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brock_Chisholm" title="Brock Chisholm">Brock Chisholm</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Veterans" class="mw-redirect" title="Veterans">Veterans</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_B._Hester" title="Hugh B. Hester">Hugh B. Hester</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Varied Fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Ernest_Bishop" title="Arthur Ernest Bishop">Arthur Ernest Bishop</a> (inventor)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Alfaro_Siqueiros" title="David Alfaro Siqueiros">David Alfaro Siqueiros</a> (Social realist)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._M._L._Odjidja" title="E. M. L. Odjidja">E. M. L. Odjidja</a> (teacher)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_J._Sparling" title="Edward J. Sparling">Edward J. Sparling</a> (educator)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Kahler" title="Erich Kahler">Erich Kahler</a> (scholar)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregorio_Bermann" title="Gregorio Bermann">Gregorio Bermann</a> (humanist)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerard_Piel" title="Gerard Piel">Gerard Piel</a> (science editor)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Laugier" title="Henri Laugier">Henri Laugier</a> (scholar)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_J._Schonfield" title="Hugh J. Schonfield">Hugh J. Schonfield</a> (scholar & pacifist)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaoru_%C5%8Cta" title="Kaoru Ōta">Kaoru Ōta</a> (union leader)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kay_Boyle" title="Kay Boyle">Kay Boyle</a> (writer)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lloyd_Morain" title="Lloyd Morain">Lloyd Morain</a> (humanist)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Van_Doren" title="Mark Van Doren">Mark Van Doren</a> (writer & scholar)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maur%C3%ADcio_Campos_de_Medeiros" title="Maurício Campos de Medeiros">Maurício Campos de Medeiros</a> (teacher)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oscar_Niemeyer" title="Oscar Niemeyer">Oscar Niemeyer</a> (architect)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%8Cuchi_Hy%C5%8Dei" title="Ōuchi Hyōei">Ōuchi Hyōei</a> (economist)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rameshwari_Nehru" title="Rameshwari Nehru">Rameshwari Nehru</a> (social worker)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satish_Gujral" title="Satish Gujral">Satish Gujral</a> (artist)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shigeri_Yamataka" title="Shigeri Yamataka">Shigeri Yamataka</a> (feminist)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophia_Wadia" title="Sophia Wadia">Sophia Wadia</a> (theosophist)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Slotkin" title="Stanley Slotkin">Stanley Slotkin</a> (businessman)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stuart_Hall_(cultural_theorist)" title="Stuart Hall (cultural theorist)">Stuart Hall</a> (cultural theorist)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamaki_Uemura" title="Tamaki Uemura">Tamaki Uemura</a> (<a href="/wiki/YWCA" title="YWCA">YWCA</a> executive)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tano_J%C5%8Ddai" title="Tano Jōdai">Tano Jōdai</a> (teacher & pacifist)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toyohiko_Kagawa" title="Toyohiko Kagawa">Toyohiko Kagawa</a> (pacifist)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_Committee_for_a_World_Constitutional_Convention" class="mw-redirect" title="World Committee for a World Constitutional Convention">World Committee for a World Constitutional Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provisional_World_Parliament" title="Provisional World Parliament">Provisional World Parliament</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_constitution" title="World constitution">World constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_government" title="World government">World government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_federalism" class="mw-redirect" title="World federalism">World federalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>Source: <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.afb.org/HelenKellerArchive?a=d&d=A-HK01-07-B154-F05-028.1.4">[1]</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.afb.org/HelenKellerArchive?a=d&d=A-HK01-07-B149-F04-022.1.3">[2]</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.afb.org/HelenKellerArchive?a=d&d=A-HK01-07-B149-F04-022.1.8">[3]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://books.google.com/books/about/Emerging_World_Law.html?id=Qw-IOgAACAAJ">[4]</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:World_Constitutional_Convention_call_signatories" title="Category:World Constitutional Convention call signatories">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q48983#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata4022" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q48983#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata4022" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q48983#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000121435407">ISNI</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/91892412">VIAF</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/47243/">FAST</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJmdy8F76c9GF9cD7dMtrq">WorldCat</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/118789953">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n79144786">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11918822h">France</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11918822h">BnF data</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00452314">Japan</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an35248754">Australia</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ola2004216927&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX1062701">Spain</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.bnportugal.gov.pt/aut/catbnp/152607">Portugal</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p06774687X">Netherlands</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/90155758">Norway</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000054915&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://katalog.nsk.hr/F/?func=direct&doc_number=000037836&local_base=nsk10">Croatia</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.nlg.gr/cgi-bin/koha/opac-authoritiesdetail.pl?authid=239954">Greece</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lod.nl.go.kr/resource/KAC199621214">Korea</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libris.kb.se/86lpvzss31tl0hl">Sweden</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810609587505606">Poland</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007266337205171">Israel</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cantic.bnc.cat/registre/981058523839806706">Catalonia</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA0071705X?l=en">CiNii</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mathgenealogy.org/id.php?id=113591">Mathematics Genealogy Project</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=55412518900">Scopus</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zbmath.org/authors/?q=ai:pauling.linus">zbMATH</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=b0B12YAAAAAJ">Google Scholar</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet/MRAuthorID/223090">MathSciNet</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.leopoldina.org/mitgliederverzeichnis/mitglieder/member/Member/show/linus-pauling/">Leopoldina</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://musicbrainz.org/artist/7ca75c99-a715-4a28-9c0f-651ef573841e">MusicBrainz</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/881449">Trove</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/118789953.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/person/gnd/118789953">DDB</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/027060896">IdRef</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10581545">NARA</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w6zk5j54">SNAC</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: 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