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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Career before the Revolution</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Career_before_the_Revolution-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Career before the Revolution subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Career_before_the_Revolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Opponent_of_Stamp_Act" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Opponent_of_Stamp_Act"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Opponent of Stamp Act</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Opponent_of_Stamp_Act-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Counsel_for_the_British:_Boston_Massacre" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Counsel_for_the_British:_Boston_Massacre"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Counsel for the British: Boston Massacre</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Counsel_for_the_British:_Boston_Massacre-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-American_Revolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#American_Revolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>American Revolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-American_Revolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Continental_Congress" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Continental_Congress"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Continental Congress</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Continental_Congress-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Continental Congress subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Continental_Congress-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Member_of_Continental_Congress" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Member_of_Continental_Congress"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Member of Continental Congress</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Member_of_Continental_Congress-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Independence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Independence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Independence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Independence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diplomatic_service" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diplomatic_service"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Diplomatic service</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Diplomatic_service-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Diplomatic service subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Diplomatic_service-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Commissioner_to_France" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Commissioner_to_France"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Commissioner to France</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Commissioner_to_France-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ambassador_to_the_Dutch_Republic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ambassador_to_the_Dutch_Republic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Ambassador to the Dutch Republic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ambassador_to_the_Dutch_Republic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Treaty_of_Paris" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Treaty_of_Paris"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Treaty of Paris</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Treaty_of_Paris-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ambassador_to_Great_Britain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ambassador_to_Great_Britain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Ambassador to Great Britain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ambassador_to_Great_Britain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vice_presidency_(1789–1797)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vice_presidency_(1789–1797)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Vice presidency (1789–1797)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Vice_presidency_(1789–1797)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Vice presidency (1789–1797) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Vice_presidency_(1789–1797)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Election" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Election"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Election</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Election-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tenure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tenure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Tenure</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tenure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Election_of_1796" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Election_of_1796"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Election of 1796</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Election_of_1796-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Presidency_(1797–1801)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Presidency_(1797–1801)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Presidency (1797–1801)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Presidency_(1797–1801)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Presidency (1797–1801) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Presidency_(1797–1801)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Inauguration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Inauguration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Inauguration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Inauguration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Failed_peace_commission_and_XYZ_affair" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Failed_peace_commission_and_XYZ_affair"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Failed peace commission and XYZ affair</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Failed_peace_commission_and_XYZ_affair-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alien_and_Sedition_Acts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alien_and_Sedition_Acts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Alien and Sedition Acts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alien_and_Sedition_Acts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Quasi-War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Quasi-War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Quasi-War</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Quasi-War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fries's_Rebellion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fries's_Rebellion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span>Fries's Rebellion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fries's_Rebellion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Federalist_divisions_and_peace" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Federalist_divisions_and_peace"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.6</span> <span>Federalist divisions and peace</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Federalist_divisions_and_peace-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Establishing_government_institutions_and_move_to_Washington" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Establishing_government_institutions_and_move_to_Washington"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.7</span> <span>Establishing government institutions and move to Washington</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Establishing_government_institutions_and_move_to_Washington-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Election_of_1800" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Election_of_1800"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.8</span> <span>Election of 1800</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Election_of_1800-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cabinet" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cabinet"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.9</span> <span>Cabinet</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cabinet-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Judicial_appointments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Judicial_appointments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.10</span> <span>Judicial appointments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Judicial_appointments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post-presidency_(1801–1826)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-presidency_(1801–1826)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Post-presidency (1801–1826)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Post-presidency_(1801–1826)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Post-presidency (1801–1826) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Post-presidency_(1801–1826)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Initial_years" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Initial_years"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Initial years</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Initial_years-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Correspondence_with_Jefferson" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Correspondence_with_Jefferson"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Correspondence with Jefferson</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Correspondence_with_Jefferson-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Last_years_and_death" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Last_years_and_death"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Last years and death</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Last_years_and_death-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_writings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_writings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Political writings</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Political_writings-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Political writings subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Political_writings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Thoughts_on_Government" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thoughts_on_Government"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span><i>Thoughts on Government</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thoughts_on_Government-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Massachusetts_Constitution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Massachusetts_Constitution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Massachusetts Constitution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Massachusetts_Constitution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Defence_of_the_Constitutions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Defence_of_the_Constitutions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span><i>Defence of the Constitutions</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Defence_of_the_Constitutions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_philosophy_and_views" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_philosophy_and_views"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Political philosophy and views</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Political_philosophy_and_views-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Political philosophy and views subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Political_philosophy_and_views-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Slavery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slavery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Slavery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Slavery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Monarchism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Monarchism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Monarchism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Monarchism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religious_views" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religious_views"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.3</span> <span>Religious views</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religious_views-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Legacy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Legacy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Historical_reputation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical_reputation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Historical reputation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historical_reputation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_memoriam" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_memoriam"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2</span> <span>In memoriam</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_memoriam-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Explanatory_notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Explanatory_notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Explanatory notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Explanatory_notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Bibliography subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Biographies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biographies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.1</span> <span>Biographies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biographies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Specialized_studies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Specialized_studies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.2</span> <span>Specialized studies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Specialized_studies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Primary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.3</span> <span>Primary sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">John Adams</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 145 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-145" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">145 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8C%86%E1%8A%95_%E1%8A%A0%E1%8B%B3%E1%88%9D%E1%88%B5" title="ጆን አዳምስ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ጆን አዳምስ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iohannes_Adams" title="Iohannes Adams – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Iohannes Adams" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ænglisc</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%A2%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B2" title="جون آدامز – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="جون آدامز" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%A1%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%9B%E0%A7%8D" title="জন আডামছ্ – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="জন আডামছ্" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-awa mw-list-item"><a href="https://awa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%90%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8" title="जॉन ऐडम्स – Awadhi" lang="awa" hreflang="awa" data-title="जॉन ऐडम्स" data-language-autonym="अवधी" data-language-local-name="Awadhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अवधी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ay mw-list-item"><a href="https://ay.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Aymara" lang="ay" hreflang="ay" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Aymar aru" data-language-local-name="Aymara" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aymar aru</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Con_Adams" title="Con Adams – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Con Adams" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%A2%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B2" title="جان آدامز – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="جان آدامز" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Bali</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%85%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A1%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%B8" title="জন অ্যাডামস – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="জন অ্যাডামস" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%90%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%81" title="Джон Адамс – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Джон Адамс" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%90%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B7" title="Джон Адамз – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Джон Адамз" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bi mw-list-item"><a href="https://bi.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Bislama" lang="bi" hreflang="bi" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Bislama" data-language-local-name="Bislama" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bislama</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%90%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%81" title="Джон Адамс – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Джон Адамс" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams_(prezidant)" title="John Adams (prezidant) – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="John Adams (prezidant)" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%90%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%81" title="Джон Адамс – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Джон Адамс" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cebuano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tum mw-list-item"><a href="https://tum.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Tumbuka" lang="tum" hreflang="tum" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="ChiTumbuka" data-language-local-name="Tumbuka" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiTumbuka</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Corsican" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="Corsican" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Corsu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D8%AC%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%A3%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B2" title="دجون أدامز – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="دجون أدامز" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>الدارجة</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dv mw-list-item"><a href="https://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%96%DE%AF%DE%82%DE%B0_%DE%87%DE%AC%DE%91%DE%A6%DE%89%DE%B0%DE%90%DE%B0" title="ޖޯން އެޑަމްސް – Divehi" lang="dv" hreflang="dv" data-title="ޖޯން އެޑަމްސް" data-language-autonym="ދިވެހިބަސް" data-language-local-name="Divehi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ދިވެހިބަސް</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A4%CE%B6%CE%BF%CE%BD_%CE%86%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%BC%CF%82" title="Τζον Άνταμς – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Τζον Άνταμς" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ee mw-list-item"><a href="https://ee.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Ewe" lang="ee" hreflang="ee" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Eʋegbe" data-language-local-name="Ewe" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eʋegbe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%A2%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B2" title="جان آدامز – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جان آدامز" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams_(homme_d%27%C3%89tat)" title="John Adams (homme d'État) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="John Adams (homme d'État)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaelg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A1%B4_%EC%95%A0%EB%8D%A4%EC%8A%A4" title="존 애덤스 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="존 애덤스" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8B%D5%B8%D5%B6_%D4%B1%D5%A4%D5%A1%D5%B4%D5%BD" title="Ջոն Ադամս – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ջոն Ադամս" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%90%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8" title="जॉन ऐडम्स – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="जॉन ऐडम्स" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Upper Sorbian" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="Upper Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hornjoserbsce</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%92%27%D7%95%D7%9F_%D7%90%D7%93%D7%9E%D7%A1" title="ג'ון אדמס – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ג'ון אדמס" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%9C%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%8D_%E0%B2%86%E0%B2%A1%E0%B2%AE%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D" title="ಜಾನ್ ಆಡಮ್ಸ್ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಜಾನ್ ಆಡಮ್ಸ್" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam mw-list-item"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Pampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="Pampanga" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kapampangan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AF%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C_%E1%83%90%E1%83%93%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98" title="ჯონ ადამსი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ჯონ ადამსი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%90%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%81" title="Джон Адамс – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Джон Адамс" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kernowek</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rw mw-list-item"><a href="https://rw.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Kinyarwanda" lang="rw" hreflang="rw" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Ikinyarwanda" data-language-local-name="Kinyarwanda" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ikinyarwanda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ioannes_Adams" title="Ioannes Adams – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Ioannes Adams" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C5%BEons_Adamss_(prezidents)" title="Džons Adamss (prezidents) – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Džons Adamss (prezidents)" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ligure</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams_(prizzedent)" title="John Adams (prizzedent) – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="John Adams (prizzedent)" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams_(amerikai_eln%C3%B6k)" title="John Adams (amerikai elnök) – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="John Adams (amerikai elnök)" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8" title="जोन एडम्स – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="जोन एडम्स" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मैथिली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%8F%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%90%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%81" title="Џон Адамс – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Џон Адамс" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%9C%E0%B5%8B%E0%B5%BA_%E0%B4%86%E0%B4%A1%E0%B4%82%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D" title="ജോൺ ആഡംസ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ജോൺ ആഡംസ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%85%E2%80%8D%E0%A5%85%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8" title="जॉन अ‍ॅडम्स – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="जॉन अ‍ॅडम्स" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AF%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C_%E1%83%90%E1%83%93%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98" title="ჯონ ადამსი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ჯონ ადამსი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B2" title="جون ادامز – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="جون ادامز" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%A2%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B2" title="جان آدامز – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="جان آدامز" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%90%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%81" title="Жон Адамс – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Жон Адамс" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%82%E1%80%BB%E1%80%BD%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA_%E1%80%A1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%92%E1%80%99%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%87%E1%80%BA" title="ဂျွန် အာဒမ်းဇ် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဂျွန် အာဒမ်းဇ်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nah mw-list-item"><a href="https://nah.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Nahuatl" lang="nah" hreflang="nah" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Nāhuatl" data-language-local-name="Nahuatl" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nāhuatl</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams_(politicus)" title="John Adams (politicus) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="John Adams (politicus)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8" title="जोन एडम्स – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="जोन एडम्स" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B8%E3%83%A7%E3%83%B3%E3%83%BB%E3%82%A2%E3%83%80%E3%83%A0%E3%82%BA" title="ジョン・アダムズ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ジョン・アダムズ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%9C%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A8_%E0%A8%90%E0%A8%A1%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%9C%E0%A8%BC" title="ਜਾਨ ਐਡਮਜ਼ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਜਾਨ ਐਡਮਜ਼" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%A7%DB%8C%DA%88%D9%85%D8%B2" title="جان ایڈمز – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="جان ایڈمز" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%A7%DA%89%D9%85%D8%B2" title="جان اډمز – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="جان اډمز" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qaraqalpaqsha</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Con_Adams" title="Con Adams – Crimean Tatar" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="Con Adams" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="Crimean Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qırımtatarca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ksh mw-list-item"><a href="https://ksh.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Colognian" lang="ksh" hreflang="ksh" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Ripoarisch" data-language-local-name="Colognian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ripoarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%81,_%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Адамс, Джон – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Адамс, Джон" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%A2%E0%B7%9D%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A_%E0%B6%87%E0%B6%A9%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%8A%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%8A" title="ජෝන් ඇඩම්ස් – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ජෝන් ඇඩම්ස්" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams_(prezident_USA)" title="John Adams (prezident USA) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="John Adams (prezident USA)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%DB%86%D9%86_%D8%A6%D8%A7%D8%AF%DB%95%D9%85%D8%B2" title="جۆن ئادەمز – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="جۆن ئادەمز" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%8F%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%90%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%81" title="Џон Адамс – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Џон Адамс" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%9C%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%86%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B8%E0%AF%8D" title="ஜான் ஆடம்ஸ் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="ஜான் ஆடம்ஸ்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%96%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D3%98%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%81" title="Җон Әдамс – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Җон Әдамс" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%9C%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%8D_%E0%B0%86%E0%B0%A1%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D_(%E0%B0%85%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%86%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%95%E0%B0%BE_%E0%B0%85%E0%B0%A7%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B7%E0%B1%81%E0%B0%A1%E0%B1%81)" title="జాన్ ఆడమ్స్ (అమెరికా అధ్యక్షుడు) – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="జాన్ ఆడమ్స్ (అమెరికా అధ్యక్షుడు)" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%AB%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%99_%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%AA%E0%B9%8C" title="จอห์น แอดัมส์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="จอห์น แอดัมส์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%B6%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%90%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%81_(%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82)" title="Ҷон Адамс (президент) – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Ҷон Адамс (президент)" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-chr mw-list-item"><a href="https://chr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8F%A3%E1%8F%82_%E1%8E%A0%E1%8F%93%E1%8E%BB%E1%8F%8F" title="ᏣᏂ ᎠᏓᎻᏏ – Cherokee" lang="chr" hreflang="chr" data-title="ᏣᏂ ᎠᏓᎻᏏ" data-language-autonym="ᏣᎳᎩ" data-language-local-name="Cherokee" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᏣᎳᎩ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jon_Adams" title="Jon Adams – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Jon Adams" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkmençe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%90%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%81" title="Джон Адамс – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Джон Адамс" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%A7%DB%8C%DA%88%D9%85%D8%B2" title="جان ایڈمز – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="جان ایڈمز" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo mw-list-item"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Volapük" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="Volapük" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Volapük</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%80%81%E4%BA%9E%E7%95%B6%E6%96%AF" title="老亞當斯 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="老亞當斯" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BA%A6%E7%BF%B0%C2%B7%E9%98%BF%E5%BD%93%E5%A3%AB" title="约翰·阿当士 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="约翰·阿当士" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%96%D7%A9%D7%90%D7%9F_%D7%A2%D7%93%D7%A2%D7%9E%D7%A1" title="זשאן עדעמס – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="זשאן עדעמס" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Yorùbá</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%B4%84%E7%BF%B0%E4%BA%9E%E7%95%B6%E6%96%AF" title="約翰亞當斯 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="約翰亞當斯" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="John Adams" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BA%A6%E7%BF%B0%C2%B7%E4%BA%9A%E5%BD%93%E6%96%AF" title="约翰·亚当斯 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="约翰·亚当斯" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q11806#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div 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For his son, the sixth president, see <a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams" title="John Quincy Adams">John Quincy Adams</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/John_Adams_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="John Adams (disambiguation)">John Adams (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%;"><div class="fn" style="font-size:125%;">John Adams</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Official_Presidential_portrait_of_John_Adams_(by_John_Trumbull,_circa_1792).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="John Adams' official portrait as vice president" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Official_Presidential_portrait_of_John_Adams_%28by_John_Trumbull%2C_circa_1792%29.jpg/220px-Official_Presidential_portrait_of_John_Adams_%28by_John_Trumbull%2C_circa_1792%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Official_Presidential_portrait_of_John_Adams_%28by_John_Trumbull%2C_circa_1792%29.jpg/330px-Official_Presidential_portrait_of_John_Adams_%28by_John_Trumbull%2C_circa_1792%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Official_Presidential_portrait_of_John_Adams_%28by_John_Trumbull%2C_circa_1792%29.jpg/440px-Official_Presidential_portrait_of_John_Adams_%28by_John_Trumbull%2C_circa_1792%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2398" data-file-height="3000" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption" style="line-height:normal;padding-top:0.2em;">Official portrait c.1792-1793</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;">2nd <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none"><span class="nowrap"><b>In office</b></span><br />March 4, 1797 – March 4, 1801</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States" title="Vice President of the United States">Vice President</a></span></th><td class="infobox-data">Thomas Jefferson</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Preceded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Succeeded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;">1st <a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States" title="Vice President of the United States">Vice President of the United States</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none"><span class="nowrap"><b>In office</b></span><br />April 21, 1789 – March 4, 1797</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">President</th><td class="infobox-data">George Washington</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Preceded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><i>Office established</i></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Succeeded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data">Thomas Jefferson</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;">1st <a href="/wiki/United_States_Ambassador_to_Great_Britain" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Ambassador to Great Britain">United States Minister to <span class="nowrap">Great Britain</span></a> </th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none"><span class="nowrap"><b>In office</b></span><br />April 1, 1785 – February 20, 1788<sup id="cite_ref-Office_of_the_Historian_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Office_of_the_Historian-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Appointed by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_the_Confederation" title="Congress of the Confederation">Congress of the Confederation</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Succeeded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Pinckney" title="Thomas Pinckney">Thomas Pinckney</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;">1st <a href="/wiki/United_States_Ambassador_to_the_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Ambassador to the Netherlands">United States Minister to <span class="nowrap">the Netherlands</span></a> </th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none"><span class="nowrap"><b>In office</b></span><br />April 19, 1782 – March 30, 1788<sup id="cite_ref-Office_of_the_Historian_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Office_of_the_Historian-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Appointed by</span></th><td class="infobox-data">Congress of the Confederation</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Succeeded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Charles_W._F._Dumas" title="Charles W. F. Dumas">Charles W. F. Dumas</a> (acting)</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Chairman_of_the_Marine_Committee" class="mw-redirect" title="Chairman of the Marine Committee">Chairman of the Marine Committee</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none"><span class="nowrap"><b>In office</b></span><br />October 13, 1775 – October 28, 1779</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Preceded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><i>Office established</i></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Succeeded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Francis_Lewis" title="Francis Lewis">Francis Lewis</a> (Continental Board of Admiralty)</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;">12th <a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_the_Massachusetts_Superior_Court_of_Judicature" class="mw-redirect" title="Chief Justice of the Massachusetts Superior Court of Judicature">Chief Justice of the Massachusetts Superior Court of Judicature</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none"><span class="nowrap"><b>In office</b></span><br />October 1775 – February 1777</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Appointed by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Provincial_Congress" title="Massachusetts Provincial Congress">Provincial Congress</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Preceded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Oliver_(loyalist)" title="Peter Oliver (loyalist)">Peter Oliver</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Succeeded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/William_Cushing" title="William Cushing">William Cushing</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_delegates_to_the_Continental_Congress" title="List of delegates to the Continental Congress">Delegate</a> from <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts" title="Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a> <span class="avoidwrap" style="display:inline-block;">to the <a href="/wiki/Continental_Congress" title="Continental Congress">Continental Congress</a></span></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none"><span class="nowrap"><b>In office</b></span><br />September 5, 1774 – November 28, 1777</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Preceded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><i>Office established</i></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Succeeded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Holten" title="Samuel Holten">Samuel Holten</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender">Personal details</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data">October 30, 1735 [<a href="/wiki/Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates" title="Old Style and New Style dates">O.S.</a> October 19, 1735]<br /><a href="/wiki/Braintree,_Massachusetts" title="Braintree, Massachusetts">Braintree</a>, <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Massachusetts_Bay" title="Province of Massachusetts Bay">Massachusetts Bay</a>, <a href="/wiki/British_America" title="British America">British America</a> (now <a href="/wiki/Quincy,_Massachusetts" title="Quincy, Massachusetts">Quincy</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">July 4, 1826<span style="display:none">(1826-07-04)</span> (aged 90)<br />Quincy, Massachusetts, U.S.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Resting place</th><td class="infobox-data label"><a href="/wiki/United_First_Parish_Church" title="United First Parish Church">United First Parish Church</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Political party</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pro-Administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Pro-Administration">Pro-Administration</a> (before 1795)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalist_Party" title="Federalist Party">Federalist</a> (1795–<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1808</span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic-Republican_Party" title="Democratic-Republican Party">Democratic-Republican</a> (from <span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1808</span>)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001599_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001599-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Spouse</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1151524712">.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-ws{display:inline;white-space:nowrap}</style> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;margin-top:1px;white-space:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Abigail_Adams" title="Abigail Adams">Abigail Smith</a></div> <div class="marriage-line-margin2px"></div> <div style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:1px;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="October 25, 1764">1764</span>; died <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="October 28, 1818">1818</span>)<wbr /></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Children</th><td class="infobox-data">6, including <a href="/wiki/Abigail_Adams_Smith" title="Abigail Adams Smith">Abigail</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams" title="John Quincy Adams">John Quincy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Adams_(1770%E2%80%931800)" title="Charles Adams (1770–1800)">Charles</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Boylston_Adams_(judge)" title="Thomas Boylston Adams (judge)">Thomas</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Parents</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Adams_Sr." title="John Adams Sr.">John Adams Sr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susanna_Boylston" title="Susanna Boylston">Susanna Boylston</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Education</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Harvard_College" title="Harvard College">Harvard College</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts" title="Bachelor of Arts">AB</a>, <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Arts" title="Master of Arts">AM</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Occupation</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Politician</li><li>lawyer</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Signature</th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Adams_Sig_2.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="John Adams's signature"><img alt="Cursive signature in ink" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/John_Adams_Sig_2.svg/128px-John_Adams_Sig_2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="128" height="31" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/John_Adams_Sig_2.svg/192px-John_Adams_Sig_2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/John_Adams_Sig_2.svg/256px-John_Adams_Sig_2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="406" data-file-height="97" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below" style="border-top: 1px solid right;"><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>John Adams</b> (October 30, 1735 – July 4, 1826) was an American <a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Founding Father</a> who served as the second <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">president of the United States</a> from 1797 to 1801. Before <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_John_Adams" title="Presidency of John Adams">his presidency</a>, he was a leader of the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> that achieved independence from <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">Great Britain</a>. During the latter part of the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">Revolutionary War</a> and in the early years of the new nation, he served the <a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">U.S. government</a> as a senior diplomat in Europe. Adams was the first person to hold the office of <a href="/wiki/Vice_president_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Vice president of the United States">vice president of the United States</a>, serving from 1789 to 1797. He was a dedicated diarist and regularly corresponded with important contemporaries, including his wife and adviser <a href="/wiki/Abigail_Adams" title="Abigail Adams">Abigail Adams</a> and his friend and political rival <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a>. </p><p>A lawyer and political activist prior to the Revolution, Adams was devoted to the <a href="/wiki/Right_to_counsel" title="Right to counsel">right to counsel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Presumption_of_innocence" title="Presumption of innocence">presumption of innocence</a>. He defied anti-British sentiment and successfully defended British soldiers against murder charges arising from the <a href="/wiki/Boston_Massacre" title="Boston Massacre">Boston Massacre</a>. Adams was a <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Massachusetts_Bay" title="Province of Massachusetts Bay">Massachusetts</a> delegate to the <a href="/wiki/Continental_Congress" title="Continental Congress">Continental Congress</a> and became a leader of the revolution. He assisted Jefferson in drafting the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">Declaration of Independence</a> in 1776 and was its primary advocate in Congress. As a diplomat, he helped negotiate a <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1783)" title="Treaty of Paris (1783)">peace treaty with Great Britain</a> and secured vital governmental loans. Adams was the primary author of the <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Massachusetts Constitution">Massachusetts Constitution</a> in 1780, which influenced the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">United States Constitution</a>, as did his essay <i><a href="/wiki/Thoughts_on_Government" title="Thoughts on Government">Thoughts on Government</a></i>. </p><p>Adams was elected to two terms as vice president under President <a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a> and was elected as the United States' second president <a href="/wiki/1796_United_States_presidential_election" title="1796 United States presidential election">in 1796</a>. He was the only president elected under the banner of the <a href="/wiki/Federalist_Party" title="Federalist Party">Federalist Party</a>. Adams's term was dominated by the issue of the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="French Revolutionary Wars">French Revolutionary Wars</a>, and his insistence on American neutrality led to fierce criticism from both the <a href="/wiki/Democratic-Republican_Party" title="Democratic-Republican Party">Jeffersonian Republicans</a> and from some in his own party, led by his rival <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</a>. Adams signed the controversial <a href="/wiki/Alien_and_Sedition_Acts" title="Alien and Sedition Acts">Alien and Sedition Acts</a> and built up the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army" title="United States Army">Army</a> and <a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">Navy</a> in an <a href="/wiki/Quasi-War" title="Quasi-War">undeclared naval war</a> with France. He was the first president to reside in the <a href="/wiki/White_House" title="White House">White House</a>. </p><p>In his bid in 1800 for <a href="/wiki/1800_United_States_presidential_election" title="1800 United States presidential election">reelection</a> to the presidency, opposition from Federalists and accusations of despotism from Jeffersonians led to Adams losing to his vice president and former friend Jefferson, and he retired to Massachusetts. He eventually resumed his friendship with Jefferson by initiating a continuing correspondence. He and Abigail started the <a href="/wiki/Adams_political_family" title="Adams political family">Adams political family</a>, which includes their son <a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams" title="John Quincy Adams">John Quincy Adams</a>, the sixth president. John Adams died on July 4, 1826 – the fiftieth anniversary of the adoption of the Declaration of Independence. <a href="/wiki/New_Englanders" title="New Englanders">New Englanders</a> Adams and his son are the only <a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States_who_owned_slaves" title="List of presidents of the United States who owned slaves">presidents of the first twelve</a> who never owned <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">slaves</a>. Historians and scholars have <a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="Historical rankings of presidents of the United States">favorably ranked his administration</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_life_and_education">Early life and education</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Adams_political_family" title="Adams political family">Adams political family</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Adams_birthplace,_Quincy,_Massachusetts.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Small wooden house with red-brick chimney in the middle" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/John_Adams_birthplace%2C_Quincy%2C_Massachusetts.JPG/220px-John_Adams_birthplace%2C_Quincy%2C_Massachusetts.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/John_Adams_birthplace%2C_Quincy%2C_Massachusetts.JPG/330px-John_Adams_birthplace%2C_Quincy%2C_Massachusetts.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/John_Adams_birthplace%2C_Quincy%2C_Massachusetts.JPG/440px-John_Adams_birthplace%2C_Quincy%2C_Massachusetts.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/John_Adams_Birthplace" title="John Adams Birthplace">Adams's birthplace</a> in present-day <a href="/wiki/Quincy,_Massachusetts" title="Quincy, Massachusetts">Quincy, Massachusetts</a></figcaption></figure> <p>John Adams was born on October 30, 1735,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to <a href="/wiki/John_Adams_Sr." title="John Adams Sr.">John Adams Sr.</a> and <a href="/wiki/Susanna_Boylston" title="Susanna Boylston">Susanna Boylston</a>. He had two younger brothers, Peter and Elihu.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling199211_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling199211-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adams was <a href="/wiki/John_Adams_Birthplace" title="John Adams Birthplace">born on the family farm</a> in <a href="/wiki/Braintree,_Massachusetts" title="Braintree, Massachusetts">Braintree</a>, Massachusetts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling1992317_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling1992317-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His mother was from a leading medical family of present-day <a href="/wiki/Brookline,_Massachusetts" title="Brookline, Massachusetts">Brookline, Massachusetts</a>. His father was a <a href="/wiki/Deacon" title="Deacon">deacon</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Congregationalism_in_the_United_States" title="Congregationalism in the United States">Congregational Church</a>, a farmer, a <a href="/wiki/Cordwainer" title="Cordwainer">cordwainer</a>, and a lieutenant in the <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_National_Guard" title="Massachusetts National Guard">militia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough200129–30_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough200129–30-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adams often praised his father and recalled their close relationship.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling199211–14_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling199211–14-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adams's great-great-grandfather <a href="/wiki/Henry_Adams_(farmer)" title="Henry Adams (farmer)">Henry Adams</a> immigrated to Massachusetts from <a href="/wiki/Braintree,_Essex" title="Braintree, Essex">Braintree, Essex</a>, England, around 1638.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough200129–30_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough200129–30-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Adams's formal education began at age six at a <a href="/wiki/Dame_school" title="Dame school">dame school</a>, conducted at a teacher's home and centered on <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_England_Primer" title="The New England Primer">The New England Primer</a></i>. He then attended Braintree Latin School under Joseph Cleverly, where studies included Latin, rhetoric, logic, and arithmetic. Adams's early education included incidents of truancy, a dislike for his master, and a desire to become a farmer, but his father commanded that he remain in school. Deacon Adams hired a new schoolmaster named Joseph Marsh, and his son responded positively.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling199212–14_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling199212–14-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adams later noted that "As a child I enjoyed perhaps the greatest of blessings that can be bestowed upon men – that of a mother who was anxious and capable to form the characters of her children."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKirtley1910366_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirtley1910366-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="College_education_and_adulthood">College education and adulthood</h3></div> <p>At age sixteen, Adams entered <a href="/wiki/Harvard_College" title="Harvard College">Harvard College</a> in 1751, studying under <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Mayhew" title="Joseph Mayhew">Joseph Mayhew</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough200135_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough200135-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As an adult, Adams was a keen scholar, studying the works of ancient writers such as <a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a> in their original languages.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough200113_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough200113-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though his father expected him to be a minister,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling199216_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling199216-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> after his 1755 graduation with an <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts" title="Bachelor of Arts">A.B. degree</a>, he taught school temporarily in <a href="/wiki/Worcester,_Massachusetts" title="Worcester, Massachusetts">Worcester</a>, while pondering his permanent vocation. In the next four years, he began to seek prestige, craving "Honour or Reputation" and "more defference from [his] fellows", and was determined to be "a great Man". He decided to become a lawyer, writing his father that he found among lawyers "noble and gallant achievements" but, among the clergy, the "pretended sanctity of some absolute dunces". He had reservations about his self-described "trumpery" and failure to share the "happiness of [his] fellow men".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling199217–18_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling199217–18-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When the <a href="/wiki/French_and_Indian_War" title="French and Indian War">French and Indian War</a> began in 1754, Adams, aged nineteen, felt guilty he was the first in his family not to be a militia officer; he said "I longed more ardently to be a Soldier than I ever did to be a Lawyer".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling199221_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling199221-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Law_practice_and_marriage">Law practice and marriage</h3></div> <p>In 1756, Adams began <a href="/wiki/Reading_law" title="Reading law">reading law</a> under James Putnam, a leading lawyer in Worcester.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling199219_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling199219-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1758, he earned an <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Arts" title="Master of Arts">A.M.</a> from Harvard,<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in 1759 was admitted to the bar.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough200144_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough200144-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He developed an early habit of diary writing; this included his impressions of <a href="/wiki/James_Otis_Jr." title="James Otis Jr.">James Otis Jr.</a>'s 1761 challenge to the legality of British <a href="/wiki/Writs_of_assistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Writs of assistance">writs of assistance</a>, which allowed British officials to search a home without notice or reason. Otis's argument against the writs inspired Adams to the cause of the <a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">American colonies</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling199246_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling199246-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1763, Adams explored aspects of political theory in seven essays written for Boston newspapers. Under the <a href="/wiki/Pen_name" title="Pen name">pen name</a> "Humphrey Ploughjogger", he ridiculed the selfish thirst for power he perceived among the Massachusetts colonial elite.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling199236–39_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling199236–39-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adams was initially less well known than his older cousin <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Adams" title="Samuel Adams">Samuel Adams</a>, but his influence emerged from his work as a constitutional lawyer, his analysis of history, and his dedication to <a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">republicanism</a>. Adams often found his own irascible nature a constraint in his political career.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling199216_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling199216-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:308px;max-width:308px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Abigail_Adams.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Woman with deep black hair and dark eyes wearing a blue and pink dress" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Abigail_Adams.jpg/150px-Abigail_Adams.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="197" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Abigail_Adams.jpg/225px-Abigail_Adams.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Abigail_Adams.jpg/300px-Abigail_Adams.jpg 2x" data-file-width="711" data-file-height="936" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Adams_(1766).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Man in dark gray clothing with dark hair" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/John_Adams_%281766%29.jpg/150px-John_Adams_%281766%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="197" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/John_Adams_%281766%29.jpg/225px-John_Adams_%281766%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/John_Adams_%281766%29.jpg/300px-John_Adams_%281766%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="987" data-file-height="1296" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Portraits of John and <a href="/wiki/Abigail_Adams" title="Abigail Adams">Abigail Adams</a> by Benjamin Blyth, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1766</span></div></div></div></div> <p>In the late 1750s, Adams fell in love with Hannah Quincy; he was poised to propose but was interrupted by friends, and the moment was lost. In 1759, he met 15-year-old <a href="/wiki/Abigail_Adams" title="Abigail Adams">Abigail Smith</a>, his third cousin,<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> through his friend Richard Cranch, who was courting Abigail's older sister. Adams initially was not impressed with Abigail and her two sisters, writing that they were not "fond, nor frank, nor candid".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough200151–52_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough200151–52-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In time, Adams grew close to Abigail. They were married on October 25, 1764, despite the opposition of Abigail's mother. The pair shared a love of books and proved honest in their praise and criticism of each other. After his father's death in 1761, Adams had inherited a <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style><span class="frac">9<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span>-acre (3.8 ha) farm and <a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams_Birthplace" title="John Quincy Adams Birthplace">a house</a> where they lived until 1783.<sup id="cite_ref-Life1961_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Life1961-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough200155–56_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough200155–56-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>John and Abigail had six children: <a href="/wiki/Abigail_Adams_Smith" title="Abigail Adams Smith">Abigail</a> (known as "Nabby") in 1765,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough200158_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough200158-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams" title="John Quincy Adams">John Quincy</a> in 1767,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling199257_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling199257-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Susanna in 1768, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Adams_(1770%E2%80%931800)" title="Charles Adams (1770–1800)">Charles</a> in 1770, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Boylston_Adams_(judge)" title="Thomas Boylston Adams (judge)">Thomas</a> in 1772,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling199271_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling199271-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Elizabeth in 1777.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001171–172_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001171–172-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Susanna died when she was one year old,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling199271_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling199271-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while Elizabeth was stillborn.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001171–172_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001171–172-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All three of Adams's sons became lawyers. Charles and Thomas were unsuccessful, became alcoholics, and died at a relatively young age. In contrast, John Quincy excelled and launched a political career, eventually becoming president himself.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001634–635_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001634–635-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Career_before_the_Revolution">Career before the Revolution</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Opponent_of_Stamp_Act">Opponent of Stamp Act</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Stamp_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Stamp Act">Stamp Act</a></div> <p>Adams rose to prominence leading widespread opposition to the <a href="/wiki/Stamp_Act_1765" title="Stamp Act 1765">Stamp Act</a>. The Act was imposed by the <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Great_Britain" title="Parliament of Great Britain">British Parliament</a> without consulting the American legislatures. It required payment of a direct tax by the colonies for stamped documents,<sup id="cite_ref-Declaration_of_Independence_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Declaration_of_Independence-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stamp_Act_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stamp_Act-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and was designed to pay for the costs of Britain's war with France. Power of enforcement was given to British <a href="/wiki/Vice_admiralty_court" title="Vice admiralty court">vice admiralty courts</a>, rather than <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> courts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith1962a72–76_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1962a72–76-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stamp_Act_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stamp_Act-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These Admiralty courts acted without juries and were greatly disliked.<sup id="cite_ref-Declaration_of_Independence_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Declaration_of_Independence-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Act was despised for both its monetary cost and implementation without colonial consent, and encountered violent resistance, preventing its enforcement.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith1962a72–76_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1962a72–76-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adams authored the "<a href="/wiki/Braintree_Instructions" title="Braintree Instructions">Braintree Instructions</a>" in 1765, in a letter sent to the representatives of Braintree in the Massachusetts legislature. It explained that the Act should be opposed since it denied two fundamental rights guaranteed to all Englishmen (and which all free men deserved): to be taxed only by consent and to be tried by a jury of one's peers. The instructions were a succinct and forthright defense of colonial rights and liberties, and served as a model for other towns.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling199255–56_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling199255–56-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Adams also reprised his pen name "Humphrey Ploughjogger" in opposition to the Stamp Act in August of that year. Included were four articles to the <i><a href="/wiki/Boston_Gazette" title="Boston Gazette">Boston Gazette</a></i>. The articles were republished in <a href="/wiki/London_Chronicle" title="London Chronicle"><i>The London Chronicle</i></a> in 1768 as <i>True Sentiments of America</i>, or <i>A Dissertation on the Canon and Feudal Law</i>. He also spoke in December before the governor and council, pronouncing the Stamp Act invalid in the absence of Massachusetts representation at Parliament.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling199239_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling199239-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough200159–61_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough200159–61-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He noted that many protests were sparked by a popular sermon of Boston minister <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Mayhew" title="Jonathan Mayhew">Jonathan Mayhew</a>, invoking <a href="/wiki/Epistle_to_the_Romans" title="Epistle to the Romans">Romans 13</a> to justify insurrection.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While Adams strongly opposed the Act in writing, he rebuffed attempts by Samuel Adams, a leader in the popular protest movements, to involve him in mob actions and public demonstrations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling199247–49_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling199247–49-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1766, a town meeting of Braintree elected Adams as a selectman.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough200163_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough200163-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With the repeal of the Stamp Act in early 1766, tensions with Britain temporarily eased.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough200162–63_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough200162–63-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Putting politics aside, Adams moved his family to Boston in April 1768 to focus on his law practice. The family rented a house on <a href="/wiki/Brattle_Street_(Boston)" title="Brattle Street (Boston)">Brattle Street</a> that was known locally as the "White House". He, Abigail, and the children lived there for a year, then moved to Cold Lane; later they moved again to a larger house in Brattle Square in the center of the city.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling199257_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling199257-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1768, Adams successfully defended the merchant <a href="/wiki/John_Hancock" title="John Hancock">John Hancock</a>, who was accused of violating British acts of trade in the <a href="/wiki/Liberty_Affair" title="Liberty Affair">Liberty Affair</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling199259_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling199259-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the death of <a href="/wiki/Jeremiah_Gridley" title="Jeremiah Gridley">Jeremiah Gridley</a> and the mental collapse of <a href="/wiki/James_Otis_Jr." title="James Otis Jr.">James Otis Jr.</a>, Adams became Boston's most prominent lawyer.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough200163_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough200163-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Counsel_for_the_British:_Boston_Massacre">Counsel for the British: Boston Massacre</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Boston_Massacre" title="Boston Massacre">Boston Massacre</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BostonMassacre_byAlonzoChappel1878.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Depiction of chaotic confrontation between British soldiers and Bostonians" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/BostonMassacre_byAlonzoChappel1878.png/220px-BostonMassacre_byAlonzoChappel1878.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/BostonMassacre_byAlonzoChappel1878.png/330px-BostonMassacre_byAlonzoChappel1878.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/BostonMassacre_byAlonzoChappel1878.png/440px-BostonMassacre_byAlonzoChappel1878.png 2x" data-file-width="3601" data-file-height="2793" /></a><figcaption><i>Boston Massacre of 1770</i>, an 1878 portrait by <a href="/wiki/Alonzo_Chappel" title="Alonzo Chappel">Alonzo Chappel</a> depicting the <a href="/wiki/Boston_Massacre" title="Boston Massacre">Boston Massacre</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Britain's passage of the <a href="/wiki/Townshend_Acts" title="Townshend Acts">Townshend Acts</a> in 1767 revived tensions, and an increase in mob violence led the British to dispatch more troops to the colonies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling199257–59_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling199257–59-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On March 5, 1770, when a lone British sentry was accosted by a mob, eight of his fellow <a href="/wiki/29th_(Worcestershire)_Regiment_of_Foot" title="29th (Worcestershire) Regiment of Foot">soldiers</a> reinforced him, and the crowd around them grew to several hundred. The soldiers were struck with snowballs, ice, and stones, and in the chaos the soldiers opened fire, killing five civilians, in the infamous <a href="/wiki/Boston_Massacre" title="Boston Massacre">Boston Massacre</a>. The accused soldiers were arrested on charges of murder. When no other attorneys would come to their defense, Adams was impelled to do so despite the risk to his reputation. He believed no person should be denied the right to counsel and a fair trial. The trials were delayed so that passions could cool.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough200165–66_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough200165–66-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The week-long trial of the commander, Captain <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Preston_(British_Army_officer)" title="Thomas Preston (British Army officer)">Thomas Preston</a>, began on October 24 and ended in his acquittal, because it was impossible to prove that he had ordered his soldiers to fire.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorse188439_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorse188439-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The remaining soldiers were tried in December when Adams made his famed argument regarding jury decisions: "Facts are stubborn things; and whatever may be our wishes, our inclinations, or the dictates of our passion, they cannot alter the state of facts and evidence."<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adams won an acquittal for six of the soldiers. Two, who had fired directly into the crowd, were convicted of manslaughter. Adams was paid a small sum by his clients.<sup id="cite_ref-Life1961_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Life1961-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to biographer <a href="/wiki/John_E._Ferling" title="John E. Ferling">John E. Ferling</a>, during <a href="/wiki/Voir_dire" title="Voir dire">jury selection</a> Adams "expertly exercised his right to challenge individual jurors and contrived what amounted to a packed jury. Not only were several jurors closely tied through business arrangements to the British army, but five ultimately became Loyalist exiles." While Adams's defense was helped by a weak prosecution, he "performed brilliantly."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling199269_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling199269-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ferling surmises that Adams was encouraged to take the case in exchange for political office; one of Boston's seats opened three months later in the <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_General_Court" title="Massachusetts General Court">Massachusetts legislature</a>, and Adams was the town's choice to fill the vacancy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling199267–68_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling199267–68-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The prosperity of his law practice increased from this exposure, as did the demands on his time. In 1771, Adams moved his family to <a href="/wiki/Braintree,_Massachusetts" title="Braintree, Massachusetts">Braintree, Massachusetts</a>, but kept his office in <a href="/wiki/Boston" title="Boston">Boston</a>; he noted "Now my family is away, I feel no Inclination at all, no Temptation, to be any where but at my Office." After some time in the capital, he became disenchanted with the rural and "vulgar" Braintree as a home for his family – in August 1772, he moved them back to Boston. He purchased a large brick house on <a href="/wiki/Court_Street_(Boston)" title="Court Street (Boston)">Queen Street</a>, not far from his office.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling199274_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling199274-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1774, Adams and Abigail returned the family to the farm due to the increasingly unstable situation in Boston, and Braintree remained their permanent Massachusetts home.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="American_Revolution">American Revolution</h3></div> <p>Adams, who had been among the more conservative of the <a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Founding Fathers</a>, persistently held that while British actions against the colonies had been wrong, open insurrection was unwarranted and peaceful petition with the view of remaining part of Great Britain was preferable.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling199272–73_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling199272–73-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His ideas began to change around 1772, as the British Crown assumed payment of the salaries of Governor <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hutchinson_(governor)" title="Thomas Hutchinson (governor)">Thomas Hutchinson</a> and his judges instead of the Massachusetts legislature. Adams wrote in the <i>Gazette</i> that these measures would destroy judicial independence and place the colonial government in closer subjugation to the Crown. After discontent among members of the legislature, Hutchinson delivered a speech warning that Parliament's powers over the colonies were absolute and that any resistance was illegal. John Adams, Samuel, and <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Hawley_(Massachusetts_politician)" title="Joseph Hawley (Massachusetts politician)">Joseph Hawley</a> drafted a resolution adopted by the <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_General_Court" title="Massachusetts General Court">House of Representatives</a> threatening independence as an alternative to tyranny. The resolution argued that the colonists had never been under the sovereignty of <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Great_Britain" title="Parliament of Great Britain">Parliament</a>: their charter, as well as their allegiance, was exclusive to the King.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling199278–80_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling199278–80-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Boston_Tea_Party" title="Boston Tea Party">Boston Tea Party</a>, a demonstration against the <a href="/wiki/Tea_Act" title="Tea Act">Tea Act</a> and the British <a href="/wiki/East_India_Company" title="East India Company">East India Company</a>'s tea monopoly over American merchants, took place on December 16, 1773. Protestors demolished 342 chests of tea worth about ten thousand pounds on the British schooner <i>Dartmouth</i>, anchored in Boston harbor. The <i>Dartmouth</i> owners briefly retained Adams as legal counsel regarding their liability for the destroyed shipment. Adams applauded the destruction of the tea, calling it the "grandest Event" in the history of the colonial protest movement,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling199292–94_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling199292–94-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and writing in his diary that it was an "absolutely and indispensably" necessary action.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Continental_Congress">Continental Congress</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Member_of_Continental_Congress">Member of Continental Congress</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Declaration_of_Independence_(1819),_by_John_Trumbull.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="56 figures stand or sit in a room. Five lay papers on a table." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Declaration_of_Independence_%281819%29%2C_by_John_Trumbull.jpg/220px-Declaration_of_Independence_%281819%29%2C_by_John_Trumbull.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Declaration_of_Independence_%281819%29%2C_by_John_Trumbull.jpg/330px-Declaration_of_Independence_%281819%29%2C_by_John_Trumbull.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Declaration_of_Independence_%281819%29%2C_by_John_Trumbull.jpg/440px-Declaration_of_Independence_%281819%29%2C_by_John_Trumbull.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="1970" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/John_Trumbull" title="John Trumbull">John Trumbull</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_Independence_(Trumbull)" class="mw-redirect" title="Declaration of Independence (Trumbull)">Declaration of Independence</a></i> depicting the <a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Five" title="Committee of Five">Committee of Five</a> presenting its draft of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">Declaration</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Second_Continental_Congress" title="Second Continental Congress">Congress</a> in <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a>; Adams appears in the center with his hand on his hip.</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1774, at the instigation of Samuel Adams, the <a href="/wiki/First_Continental_Congress" title="First Continental Congress">First Continental Congress</a> was convened in response to the <a href="/wiki/Intolerable_Acts" title="Intolerable Acts">Intolerable Acts</a>, a series of deeply unpopular measures intended to punish Massachusetts, centralize authority in Britain, and prevent rebellion in other colonies. Four delegates were chosen by the Massachusetts legislature, including John Adams, who agreed to attend,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling199295–97_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling199295–97-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> despite an emotional plea from his friend, Attorney General <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Sewall" title="Jonathan Sewall">Jonathan Sewall</a>, not to.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough200171_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough200171-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Shortly after he arrived in <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a>, Adams was placed on the 23-member Grand Committee tasked with drafting a letter of grievances to <a href="/wiki/George_III_of_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="George III of the United Kingdom">King George III</a>. The committee soon split into conservative and radical factions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling1992107–108_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling1992107–108-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the Massachusetts delegation was largely passive, Adams criticized conservatives such as <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Galloway" title="Joseph Galloway">Joseph Galloway</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_Duane" title="James Duane">James Duane</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Peter_Oliver_(loyalist)" title="Peter Oliver (loyalist)">Peter Oliver</a> who advocated a conciliatory policy towards the British or felt that the colonies had a duty to remain loyal to Britain, although his views at the time aligned with those of conservative <a href="/wiki/John_Dickinson_(Pennsylvania_and_Delaware)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Dickinson (Pennsylvania and Delaware)">John Dickinson</a>. Adams sought the repeal of objectionable policies, but at this stage he continued to see benefits in maintaining the ties with Britain.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling1992128–130_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling1992128–130-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He renewed his push for the right to a jury trial.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He complained of what he considered the pretentiousness of the other delegates, writing to Abigail, "I believe if it was moved and seconded that We should come to a Resolution that Three and two make five We should be entertained with Logick and Rhetorick, Law, History, Politicks and Mathematicks, concerning the Subject for two whole Days, and then We should pass the Resolution unanimously in the Affirmative."<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adams ultimately helped engineer a compromise between the conservatives and the radicals.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling1992112_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling1992112-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Congress disbanded in October after sending the petition to the King and showing its displeasure with the Intolerable Acts by endorsing the <a href="/wiki/Suffolk_Resolves" title="Suffolk Resolves">Suffolk Resolves</a>, which called for a boycott of British goods.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Adams's absence was hard on Abigail, who was left alone to care for the family. She still encouraged her husband in his task, writing: "You cannot be, I know, nor do I wish to see you an inactive Spectator, but if the Sword be drawn I bid adieu to all domestick felicity, and look forward to that Country where there is neither wars nor rumors of War in a firm belief that thro the mercy of its King we shall both rejoice there together."<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>News of the opening hostilities with the British at the <a href="/wiki/Battles_of_Lexington_and_Concord" title="Battles of Lexington and Concord">Battles of Lexington and Concord</a> made Adams hope that independence would soon become a reality. Three days after the battle, he rode into a militia camp and, while reflecting positively on the high spirits of the men, was distressed by their poor condition and lack of discipline.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith1962a196_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1962a196-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A month later, Adams returned to Philadelphia for the <a href="/wiki/Second_Continental_Congress" title="Second Continental Congress">Second Continental Congress</a> as the leader of the Massachusetts delegation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough200187–88_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough200187–88-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He moved cautiously at first, noting that the Congress was divided between <a href="/wiki/Loyalist_(American_Revolution)" title="Loyalist (American Revolution)">Loyalists</a>, those favoring independence, and those hesitant to take any position.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough200190_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough200190-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He became convinced that Congress was moving in the proper direction – away from Great Britain. Publicly, Adams supported "reconciliation if practicable," but privately agreed with <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a>'s confidential observation that independence was inevitable.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling1992136_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling1992136-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In June 1775, with a view of promoting union among the colonies against Great Britain, he nominated <a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a> of Virginia as commander-in-chief of the <a href="/wiki/Continental_Army" title="Continental Army">army</a> then assembled around Boston.<sup id="cite_ref-Time_Line_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Time_Line-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He praised Washington's "skill and experience" as well as his "excellent universal character."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling1992124_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling1992124-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adams opposed various attempts, including the <a href="/wiki/Olive_Branch_Petition" title="Olive Branch Petition">Olive Branch Petition</a>, aimed at finding peace.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough200194–95_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough200194–95-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Invoking the already-long list of British actions against the colonies, he wrote, "In my opinion Powder and Artillery are the most efficacious, Sure, and infallibly conciliatory Measures We can adopt."<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After his failure to prevent the petition from being enacted, he wrote a private letter derisively referring to Dickinson as a "piddling genius." The letter was intercepted and published in Loyalist newspapers. The well-respected Dickinson refused to greet Adams and he was for a time largely ostracized.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough200195–96_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough200195–96-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ferling writes, "By the fall of 1775 no one in Congress labored more ardently than Adams to hasten the day when America would be separate from Great Britain."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling1992136_66-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling1992136-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In October 1775, Adams was appointed chief judge of the Massachusetts Superior Court, but he never served, and resigned in February 1777.<sup id="cite_ref-Time_Line_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Time_Line-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In response to queries from other delegates, Adams wrote the 1776 pamphlet <i><a href="/wiki/Thoughts_on_Government" title="Thoughts on Government">Thoughts on Government</a></i>, which laid out an influential framework for republican constitutions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling1992155–157_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling1992155–157-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Independence">Independence</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Independence_Hall_Assembly_Room.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Independence_Hall_Assembly_Room.jpg/220px-Independence_Hall_Assembly_Room.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Independence_Hall_Assembly_Room.jpg/330px-Independence_Hall_Assembly_Room.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Independence_Hall_Assembly_Room.jpg/440px-Independence_Hall_Assembly_Room.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3008" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>The Assembly Room at <a href="/wiki/Independence_Hall_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Independence Hall (United States)">Independence Hall</a> in <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a>, where the <a href="/wiki/Second_Continental_Congress" title="Second Continental Congress">Second Continental Congress</a> adopted the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">Declaration of Independence</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Throughout the first half of 1776, Adams grew increasingly impatient with what he perceived to be the slow pace of declaring independence.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith1962a263_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1962a263-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/Second_Continental_Congress" title="Second Continental Congress">Second Continental Congress</a> in Philadelphia, he helped push through a plan to outfit armed ships to launch raids on enemy vessels. Later in the year, he drafted the first set of regulations for the provisional navy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough200199–100_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough200199–100-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adams drafted the preamble to the <a href="/wiki/Lee_Resolution" title="Lee Resolution">Lee Resolution</a> of colleague <a href="/wiki/Richard_Henry_Lee" title="Richard Henry Lee">Richard Henry Lee</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaier199837_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier199837-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He developed a rapport with delegate <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a> of Virginia, who had been slower to support independence but by early 1776 agreed that it was necessary.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001113–117_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001113–117-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On June 7, 1776, Adams <a href="/wiki/Second_(parliamentary_procedure)" title="Second (parliamentary procedure)">seconded the Lee Resolution</a>, which stated that the colonies were "free and independent states."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling1992146_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling1992146-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Prior to independence being declared, Adams organized a <a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Five" title="Committee of Five">Committee of Five</a> charged with drafting a <a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">Declaration of Independence</a>. He chose himself, Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, <a href="/wiki/Robert_R._Livingston_(chancellor)" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert R. Livingston (chancellor)">Robert R. Livingston</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roger_Sherman" title="Roger Sherman">Roger Sherman</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoydGawalt199921_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoydGawalt199921-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jefferson thought Adams should write the document, but Adams persuaded the committee to choose Jefferson. Many years later, Adams recorded his reasoning to Jefferson: "Reason first, you are a Virginian, and a Virginian ought to appear at the head of this business. Reason second, I am obnoxious, suspected, and unpopular. You are very much otherwise. Reason third, you can write ten times better than I can."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001119_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001119-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Committee left no minutes, and the drafting process itself remains uncertain. Accounts written years later by Jefferson and Adams, although frequently cited, are often contradictory.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaier199897–105_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier199897–105-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the first draft was written primarily by Jefferson, Adams assumed a major role.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001130–135_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001130–135-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On July 1, the resolution was debated in Congress. It was expected to pass, but opponents such as Dickinson made a strong effort to oppose it. Jefferson, a poor debater, remained silent while Adams argued for its adoption.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorse1884127–128_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorse1884127–128-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many years later, Jefferson hailed Adams as "the pillar of [the Declaration's] support on the floor of Congress, [its] ablest advocate and defender against the multifarious assaults it encountered."<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On July 2, Congress officially voted for independence. Twelve colonies voted in the affirmative, while New York abstained. Dickinson was absent.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001136_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001136-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith1962a270–272_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1962a270–272-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On July 3, Adams wrote to Abigail that "yesterday was decided the greatest question which was ever debated in America, and a greater perhaps never was nor will be decided among men." He predicted that "[t]he second day of July, 1776, will be the most memorable epoch in the history of America," and would be celebrated annually.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorse1884128_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorse1884128-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Congress approved the Declaration of Independence on July 4.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith1962a272–273_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1962a272–273-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the congress, Adams sat on ninety committees, chairing twenty-five, an unmatched workload among the congressmen. As <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Rush" title="Benjamin Rush">Benjamin Rush</a> reported, he was acknowledged "to be the first man in the House."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001163_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001163-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In June 1776, Adams became head of the <a href="/wiki/Board_of_War_and_Ordnance" class="mw-redirect" title="Board of War and Ordnance">Board of War and Ordnance</a>, charged with recording the officers in the army and their ranks, the disposition of troops throughout the colonies, and ammunition.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith1962a266–267_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1962a266–267-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was referred to as a "one man war department," working up to eighteen-hour days and mastering the details of raising, equipping and fielding an army under civilian control.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllis199341–42_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllis199341–42-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adams functioned as a <i>de facto</i> Secretary of War. He kept extensive correspondences with <a href="/wiki/Continental_Army" title="Continental Army">Continental Army</a> officers concerning supplies, munitions, and tactics. Adams emphasized to them the role of discipline in keeping an army orderly.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith1962a298–305_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1962a298–305-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He authored the "Plan of Treaties," laying out Congress's requirements for a treaty with France.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllis199341–42_90-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllis199341–42-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was worn out by the rigor of his duties and longed to return home. His finances were unsteady, and the money that he received as a delegate failed to cover his expenses. However, the crisis caused by the defeat of the American soldiers kept him at his post.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith1962a298_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1962a298-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After defeating the Continental Army at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Long_Island" title="Battle of Long Island">Battle of Long Island</a> on August 27, 1776, British Admiral <a href="/wiki/Richard_Howe,_1st_Earl_Howe" title="Richard Howe, 1st Earl Howe">Richard Howe</a> determined that a strategic advantage was at hand, and requested that Congress send representatives to negotiate peace. A delegation consisting of Adams, Franklin, and <a href="/wiki/Edward_Rutledge" title="Edward Rutledge">Edward Rutledge</a> met with Howe at the <a href="/wiki/Staten_Island_Peace_Conference" title="Staten Island Peace Conference">Staten Island Peace Conference</a> on September 11.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001153–157_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001153–157-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith1962a301_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1962a301-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Howe's authority was premised on the states' submission, so the parties found no common ground. When Lord Howe stated he could view the American delegates only as British subjects, Adams replied, "Your lordship may consider me in what light you please, ... except that of a British subject."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001157_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001157-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adams learned many years later that his name was on a list of people specifically excluded from Howe's pardon-granting authority.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001158_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001158-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adams was unimpressed with Howe and predicted American success.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling1992164–165_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling1992164–165-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was able to return home to Braintree in October before leaving in January 1777 to resume his duties in Congress.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith1962a308–312_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1962a308–312-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Diplomatic_service">Diplomatic service</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Diplomacy_of_John_Adams" title="Diplomacy of John Adams">Diplomacy of John Adams</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Commissioner_to_France">Commissioner to France</h3></div> <p>Adams advocated in <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a> that independence was necessary to establish trade, and conversely, trade was essential for the attainment of independence; he specifically urged negotiation of a commercial treaty with France. He was appointed, along with Franklin, Dickinson, <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Harrison_V" title="Benjamin Harrison V">Benjamin Harrison</a> from <a href="/wiki/Virginia" title="Virginia">Virginia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Morris_(financier)" title="Robert Morris (financier)">Robert Morris</a> from <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania" title="Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a>, "to prepare a plan of treaties to be proposed to foreign powers." While Jefferson was writing the Declaration of Independence, Adams worked on the <a href="/wiki/Model_Treaty" title="Model Treaty">Model Treaty</a>, which authorized a commercial agreement with France but contained no provisions for formal recognition or military assistance. The treaty adhered to the provision that "<a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_navigation" title="Freedom of navigation">free ships make free goods</a>," allowing neutral nations to trade reciprocally while exempting an agreed-upon list of contraband. By late 1777, America's finances were in tatters, and that September a British army had <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Brandywine" title="Battle of Brandywine">defeated</a> General Washington and captured Philadelphia. More Americans came to determine that mere commercial ties between the U.S. and France would not be enough, and that military assistance would be needed. The defeat of the British at <a href="/wiki/Battles_of_Saratoga" title="Battles of Saratoga">Saratoga</a> was expected to help induce France to agree to an alliance.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling1992189–190_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling1992189–190-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In November 1777, Adams learned that he was to be named commissioner to France, replacing <a href="/wiki/Silas_Deane" title="Silas Deane">Silas Deane</a> and joining Franklin and <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Lee_(diplomat)" title="Arthur Lee (diplomat)">Arthur Lee</a> in Paris to negotiate an alliance with the French. <a href="/wiki/James_Lovell_(politician)" title="James Lovell (politician)">James Lovell</a> invoked Adams's "inflexible integrity" and the need to have a youthful man who could counterbalance Franklin's age. On November 27, Adams accepted, wasting no time. Abigail was left in Massachusetts to manage their home, but it was agreed that 10-year-old John Quincy would go with Adams, for the experience was "of inestimable value" to his maturation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001174–176_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001174–176-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On February 17, 1778, Adams set sail aboard the frigate <i><a href="/wiki/USS_Boston_(1777)" title="USS Boston (1777)">Boston</a></i>, commanded by Captain <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Tucker_(naval_officer)" title="Samuel Tucker (naval officer)">Samuel Tucker</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001177–179_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001177–179-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The trip was stormy and treacherous. The ship was pursued by British vessels, with Adams personally taking up arms to help capture one. A cannon malfunction wounded several sailors and killed one. On April 1, the <i>Boston</i> arrived in France, where Adams learned that France had agreed to an <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Alliance_(1778)" title="Treaty of Alliance (1778)">alliance</a> with the United States on February 6.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001186–187_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001186–187-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adams was annoyed by the other two commissioners: Lee, whom he thought paranoid and cynical, and the popular and influential Franklin, whom he found lethargic and overly deferential to the French.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001198,_209_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001198,_209-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He assumed a less visible role but helped manage the delegation's finances and record-keeping.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling1992199_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling1992199-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Frustrated by the perceived lack of commitment on the part of the French, Adams wrote a letter to French foreign minister <a href="/wiki/Charles_Gravier,_comte_de_Vergennes" title="Charles Gravier, comte de Vergennes">Vergennes</a> in December, arguing for French naval support in North America. Franklin toned down the letter, but Vergennes ignored it.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001210_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001210-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In September 1778, Congress increased Franklin's powers by naming him <a href="/wiki/Minister_plenipotentiary" class="mw-redirect" title="Minister plenipotentiary">minister plenipotentiary</a> to France while Lee was sent to Spain. Adams received no instructions. Frustrated by the apparent slight, he departed France with John Quincy on March 8, 1779.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001210–213_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001210–213-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On August 2, they arrived in Braintree.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001218_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001218-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Joseph_Siffrein_Duplessis_-_Benjamin_Franklin_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Joseph_Siffrein_Duplessis_-_Benjamin_Franklin_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/200px-Joseph_Siffrein_Duplessis_-_Benjamin_Franklin_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="244" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Joseph_Siffrein_Duplessis_-_Benjamin_Franklin_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/300px-Joseph_Siffrein_Duplessis_-_Benjamin_Franklin_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Joseph_Siffrein_Duplessis_-_Benjamin_Franklin_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/400px-Joseph_Siffrein_Duplessis_-_Benjamin_Franklin_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6396" data-file-height="7801" /></a><figcaption>Adams frequently clashed with <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a> over how to manage relations with <a href="/wiki/France_in_the_early_modern_period" title="France in the early modern period">France</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>In late 1779, Adams was appointed as the sole minister charged with negotiations to establish a commercial treaty with Britain and end the war.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling1992221_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling1992221-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following the Massachusetts constitutional convention, he departed for France in November,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith1962a451_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1962a451-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> accompanied by his sons John Quincy and 9-year-old Charles.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling1992218_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling1992218-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A leak forced the ship to land in <a href="/wiki/Ferrol,_Spain" title="Ferrol, Spain">Ferrol, Spain</a>, and Adams and his party spent six weeks travelling overland to Paris.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith1962a452–459_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1962a452–459-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Constant disagreement between Lee and Franklin eventually resulted in Adams assuming the role of tie-breaker in almost all votes on commission business. He increased his usefulness by mastering French. Lee was eventually recalled. Adams closely supervised his sons' education while writing to Abigail about once every ten days.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling1992219–222_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling1992219–222-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In contrast to Franklin, Adams viewed the Franco-American alliance pessimistically. The French, he believed, were involved for their own self-interest, and he grew frustrated by what he saw as their sluggishness in providing substantial aid. The French, Adams wrote, meant to keep their hands "above our chin to prevent us from drowning, but not to lift our heads out of water."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001233_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001233-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In March 1780, Congress, trying to curb inflation, voted to devalue the dollar. Vergennes summoned Adams for a meeting. In a letter sent in June, he insisted that fluctuation of the dollar value without an exception for French merchants was unacceptable and requested that Adams write to Congress asking it to "retrace its steps." Adams bluntly defended the decision, not only claiming that the French merchants were doing better than Vergennes implied but voicing other grievances he had with the French. The alliance had been made over two years before. During that period, an army under the <a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Donatien_de_Vimeur,_comte_de_Rochambeau" title="Jean-Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, comte de Rochambeau">comte de Rochambeau</a> had been sent to assist Washington, but it had yet to do anything of significance and America was expecting French warships. These were needed, Adams wrote, to contain the British armies in the port cities and contend with the powerful British Navy. However, the French Navy had been sent not to the United States but to the West Indies to protect French interests there. France, Adams believed, needed to commit itself more fully to the alliance. Vergennes responded that he would deal only with Franklin, who sent a letter back to Congress critical of Adams.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001239–241_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001239–241-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adams then left France of his own accord.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001242_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001242-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ambassador_to_the_Dutch_Republic">Ambassador to the Dutch Republic</h3></div> <p>In mid-1780, Adams traveled to the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a>. One of the few other republics at the time, Adams thought it might be sympathetic to the American cause. Securing a Dutch loan could increase American independence from France and pressure Britain into peace. At first, Adams had no official status, but in July he was formally given permission to negotiate for a loan and took up residence in <a href="/wiki/Amsterdam" title="Amsterdam">Amsterdam</a> in August. Adams was originally optimistic and greatly enjoyed the city, but soon became disappointed. The Dutch, fearing British retaliation, refused to meet Adams. Before he had arrived, the British found out about secret aid the Dutch had sent to the Americans and authorized reprisals against their ships, which only increased their apprehension. Word had also reached Europe of American battlefield defeats. After five months of not meeting with a single Dutch official, Adams in early 1781 pronounced Amsterdam "the capital of the reign of <a href="/wiki/Mammon" title="Mammon">Mammon</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling1992228–230_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling1992228–230-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was finally invited to present his credentials as ambassador to the Dutch government at <a href="/wiki/The_Hague" title="The Hague">The Hague</a> on April 19, 1781, but they did not promise any assistance. In the meantime, Adams thwarted an attempt by neutral European powers to mediate the war without consulting the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001254–255_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001254–255-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In July, Adams consented to the departure of both of his sons; John Quincy went with Adams's secretary <a href="/wiki/Francis_Dana" title="Francis Dana">Francis Dana</a> to <a href="/wiki/Saint_Petersburg" title="Saint Petersburg">Saint Petersburg</a> as a French interpreter, in an effort to seek recognition from <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>, and a homesick Charles returned home with Adams's friend <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Waterhouse" title="Benjamin Waterhouse">Benjamin Waterhouse</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001262_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001262-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In August, shortly after being removed from his position of sole head of peace treaty negotiations, Adams had "a major nervous breakdown."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling1992236_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling1992236-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That November, he learned that American and French troops had decisively defeated the British at <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Yorktown" title="Siege of Yorktown">Yorktown</a>. The victory was in large part due to the assistance of the French Navy, which vindicated Adams's stand for increased naval assistance.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling1992239–240_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling1992239–240-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>News of the American triumph at Yorktown convulsed Europe. In January 1782, after recovering, Adams arrived at The Hague to demand that the <a href="/wiki/States_General_of_the_Netherlands" title="States General of the Netherlands">States General</a> answer his petitions. His efforts stalled, and he took his cause to the people, successfully capitalizing on popular pro-American sentiment. Several provinces began recognizing American independence. On April 19, the States General formally recognized American independence and acknowledged Adams as ambassador.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001268–270_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001268–270-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On June 11, with the aid of the Dutch <a href="/wiki/Patriottentijd" title="Patriottentijd"><i>Patriotten</i></a> leader <a href="/wiki/Joan_van_der_Capellen_tot_den_Pol" class="mw-redirect" title="Joan van der Capellen tot den Pol">Joan van der Capellen tot den Pol</a>, Adams negotiated a loan of five million guilders. In October, he negotiated a treaty of amity and commerce.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001171–173_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001171–173-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The house that Adams bought during this stay in the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a> became the first American embassy on foreign soil.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Treaty_of_Paris">Treaty of Paris</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Treaty_of_Paris_by_Benjamin_West_1783.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Treaty_of_Paris_by_Benjamin_West_1783.jpg/240px-Treaty_of_Paris_by_Benjamin_West_1783.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Treaty_of_Paris_by_Benjamin_West_1783.jpg/360px-Treaty_of_Paris_by_Benjamin_West_1783.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Treaty_of_Paris_by_Benjamin_West_1783.jpg/480px-Treaty_of_Paris_by_Benjamin_West_1783.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="932" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(painting)" title="Treaty of Paris (painting)">Treaty of Paris</a></i>, an unfinished 1783 portrait by <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_West" title="Benjamin West">Benjamin West</a> with Adams seated in front</figcaption></figure> <p>After negotiating the loan with the Dutch, Adams was re-appointed as the American commissioner to negotiate the war-ending treaty, the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1783)" title="Treaty of Paris (1783)">Treaty of Paris</a>. Vergennes and France's minister to the United States, <a href="/wiki/Anne-C%C3%A9sar_de_La_Luzerne" title="Anne-César de La Luzerne">Anne-César de La Luzerne</a>, disapproved of Adams, so Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, <a href="/wiki/John_Jay" title="John Jay">John Jay</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Henry_Laurens" title="Henry Laurens">Henry Laurens</a> were appointed to collaborate with Adams, although Jefferson did not initially go to Europe and Laurens was posted to the Dutch Republic following his imprisonment in the Tower of London.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling1992185–242_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling1992185–242-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the final negotiations, securing fishing rights off <a href="/wiki/Newfoundland" class="mw-redirect" title="Newfoundland">Newfoundland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cape_Breton_Island" title="Cape Breton Island">Cape Breton Island</a> proved both very important and very difficult. In response to very strict restrictions proposed by the British, Adams insisted that not only should American fishermen be allowed to travel as close to shore as desired, but that they should be allowed to cure their fish on the shores of Newfoundland.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith1962a545–546_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1962a545–546-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This, and other statements, prompted Vergennes to secretly inform the British that France did not feel compelled to "sustain [these] pretentious ambitions." Overruling Franklin and distrustful of Vergennes, Jay and Adams decided not to consult with France, instead dealing directly with the British.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001281–284_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001281–284-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During these negotiations, Adams mentioned to the British that his proposed fishing terms were more generous than those offered by France in 1778 and that accepting would foster goodwill between Britain and the United States while putting pressure on France. Britain agreed, and the two sides worked out other provisions afterward. Vergennes was angered when he learned from Franklin of the American duplicity, but did not demand renegotiation. He was surprised at how much the Americans could extract. The independent negotiations also allowed the French to plead innocence to their Spanish allies, whose demands for <a href="/wiki/Gibraltar" title="Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a> might have caused significant problems.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith1962a546–547_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1962a546–547-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On September 3, 1783, the treaty was signed and American independence was recognized.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001285_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001285-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ambassador_to_Great_Britain">Ambassador to Great Britain</h3></div> <p>Adams was appointed the first <a href="/wiki/List_of_ambassadors_of_the_United_States_to_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of ambassadors of the United States to the United Kingdom">American ambassador to Great Britain</a> in 1785.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdamsAdams1851392_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdamsAdams1851392-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After arriving in London from Paris, Adams had his first audience with <a href="/wiki/King_George_III" class="mw-redirect" title="King George III">King George III</a> on June 1, which he meticulously recorded in a letter to Foreign Minister Jay the next day. The pair's exchange was respectful; Adams promised to do all that he could to restore friendship and cordiality "between People who, tho Seperated [<i><a href="/wiki/Sic" title="Sic">sic</a></i>] by an Ocean and under different Governments have the Same Language, a Similar Religion and kindred Blood," and the King agreed to "receive with Pleasure, the Assurances of the friendly Dispositions of the United States." The King added that although "he had been the last to consent" to American independence, he had always done what he thought was right. He startled Adams by commenting that "There is an Opinion, among Some People, that you are not the most attached of all Your Countrymen, to the manners of France." Adams replied, "That Opinion sir, is not mistaken... I have no Attachments but to my own Country." King George responded, "An honest Man will never have any other."<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:JohnAdams.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/JohnAdams.png/200px-JohnAdams.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/JohnAdams.png/300px-JohnAdams.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/JohnAdams.png/400px-JohnAdams.png 2x" data-file-width="799" data-file-height="998" /></a><figcaption><i>Adams – 1785</i>, a portrait by <a href="/wiki/Mather_Brown" title="Mather Brown">Mather Brown</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Adams was joined by Abigail in London. Suffering the hostility of the King's courtiers, they escaped when they could by seeking out <a href="/wiki/Richard_Price" title="Richard Price">Richard Price</a>, minister of <a href="/wiki/Newington_Green_Unitarian_Church" title="Newington Green Unitarian Church">Newington Green Unitarian Church</a> and instigator of the <a href="/wiki/Revolution_Controversy" title="Revolution Controversy">debate over the Revolution</a> within Britain.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001343–344_131-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001343–344-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adams corresponded with his sons John Quincy and Charles, both of whom were at Harvard, cautioning the former against the "smell of the midnight lamp" while admonishing the latter to devote sufficient time to study.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001364–365_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001364–365-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jefferson visited Adams in 1786 while serving as Minister to France; the two toured the countryside and saw many historical sites.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001354–357_133-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001354–357-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While in London, Adams met his old friend <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Sewall" title="Jonathan Sewall">Jonathan Sewall</a>, but the two discovered that they had grown too far apart to renew their friendship. Adams considered Sewall one of the war's casualties, and Sewall critiqued him as an ambassador: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>His abilities are undoubtedly equal to the mechanical parts of his business as ambassador, but this is not enough. He cannot dance, drink, game, flatter, promise, dress, swear with the gentlemen, and small talk and flirt with the ladies; in short, he has none of those essential arts or ornaments which constitute a courtier. There are thousands who, with a tenth of his understanding and without a spark of his honesty, would distance him infinitely in any court in Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001348–350_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001348–350-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>While in London Adams wrote his three-volume <i><a href="/wiki/A_Defense_of_the_Constitutions_of_Government_of_the_United_States_of_America" class="mw-redirect" title="A Defense of the Constitutions of Government of the United States of America">A Defense of the Constitutions of Government of the United States of America</a></i>, a response to those he had met in Europe who criticized the government systems of the American states.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChinard1933203_135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChinard1933203-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Adams's tenure in Britain was complicated by both countries failing to follow their treaty obligations. The American states had been delinquent in paying debts owed to British merchants, and in response, the British refused to vacate forts in the northwest as promised. Adams's attempts to resolve this dispute failed, and he was often frustrated by a lack of news of progress from home.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith1962b655_136-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1962b655-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The news he received of tumult at home, such as <a href="/wiki/Shays%27_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Shays' Rebellion">Shays' Rebellion</a>, heightened his anxiety. He asked Jay to be relieved;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith1962b702_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1962b702-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in 1788, he took his leave of George III, who promised to uphold his end of the treaty once America did the same.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith1962b729_138-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1962b729-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adams then went to The Hague to take formal leave of his ambassadorship there and to secure refinancing from the Dutch, allowing the United States to meet obligations on earlier loans.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001382_139-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001382-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Vice_presidency_(1789–1797)"><span id="Vice_presidency_.281789.E2.80.931797.29"></span>Vice presidency (1789–1797)</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Election">Election</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/1788%E2%80%931789_United_States_presidential_election" class="mw-redirect" title="1788–1789 United States presidential election">1788–1789 United States presidential election</a></div> <p>On June 17, 1788, Adams returned to a triumphant welcome in Massachusetts. He returned to farming life in the months after. The nation's first <a href="/wiki/1788%E2%80%9389_United_States_presidential_election" title="1788–89 United States presidential election">presidential election</a> was soon to take place. Because George Washington was widely expected to win the presidency, many felt that the vice presidency should go to a northerner. Although he made no public comments on the matter, Adams was the primary contender.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001389–392_140-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001389–392-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each state's <a href="/wiki/Electoral_College_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Electoral College (United States)">presidential electors</a> gathered on February 4, 1789, to cast their <a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_3:_Electors" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">two votes for the president</a>. The person with the most votes would be president and the second would become vice president.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling2009270–274_141-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling2009270–274-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adams received 34 <a href="/wiki/United_States_Electoral_College" title="United States Electoral College">electoral college</a> votes in the election, second behind Washington, who was a unanimous choice with 69 votes. As a result, Washington became the nation's <a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="List of presidents of the United States">first president</a>, and Adams became its first <a href="/wiki/List_of_vice_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="List of vice presidents of the United States">vice president</a>. Adams finished well ahead of all others except Washington, but was still offended by Washington receiving more than twice as many votes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001393–394_142-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001393–394-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In an effort to ensure that Adams did not accidentally become president and that Washington would have an overwhelming victory, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</a> convinced at least 7 of the 69 electors not to cast their vote for Adams. After finding out about the manipulation but not Hamilton's role in it, Adams wrote to Benjamin Rush that his election was "a curse rather than a blessing."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001393–394_142-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001393–394-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChernow2004272–273_143-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChernow2004272–273-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although his term started on March 4, 1789, Adams did not begin serving as vice president until April 21, because he did not arrive in New York in time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith1962b742–745_144-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1962b742–745-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001398–401_145-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001398–401-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tenure">Tenure</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Official_Presidential_portrait_of_John_Adams_(by_John_Trumbull,_circa_1792).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Official_Presidential_portrait_of_John_Adams_%28by_John_Trumbull%2C_circa_1792%29.jpg/200px-Official_Presidential_portrait_of_John_Adams_%28by_John_Trumbull%2C_circa_1792%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Official_Presidential_portrait_of_John_Adams_%28by_John_Trumbull%2C_circa_1792%29.jpg/300px-Official_Presidential_portrait_of_John_Adams_%28by_John_Trumbull%2C_circa_1792%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Official_Presidential_portrait_of_John_Adams_%28by_John_Trumbull%2C_circa_1792%29.jpg/400px-Official_Presidential_portrait_of_John_Adams_%28by_John_Trumbull%2C_circa_1792%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2398" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>A 1793 portrait of Adams by <a href="/wiki/John_Trumbull" title="John Trumbull">John Trumbull</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The sole constitutionally prescribed responsibility of the <a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States" title="Vice President of the United States">vice president</a> is to preside over the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">U.S. Senate</a>, where they were empowered to cast a tie-breaking vote.<sup id="cite_ref-USSadamsdoc_146-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USSadamsdoc-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Early in his term, Adams became deeply involved in a lengthy Senate controversy over the official titles for the president and executive officers of the new government. Although the House agreed that the president should be addressed simply as "George Washington, President of the United States", the Senate debated the issue at some length. Adams favored the style of <i>Highness</i> (as well as the title of <i>Protector of Their [the United States'] Liberties</i>) for the president.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHutson196830–39_147-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHutson196830–39-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some senators favored a variant of <i>Highness</i> or the lesser <i>Excellency</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001404–405_148-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001404–405-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Anti-Federalism" title="Anti-Federalism">Anti-federalists</a> in the Senate objected to the monarchical sound of them all; Jefferson described them as "superlatively ridiculous."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001410_149-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001410-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They argued that these "distinctions," as Adams called them, violated the Constitution's <a href="/wiki/Title_of_Nobility_Clause" class="mw-redirect" title="Title of Nobility Clause">prohibition on titles of nobility</a>. Adams said that the distinctions were necessary because the highest office of the United States must be marked with "dignity and splendor". He was widely derided for his combative nature and stubbornness, especially as he actively debated and lectured the senators. "For forty minutes he harangued us from the chair," wrote Senator <a href="/wiki/William_Maclay_(Pennsylvania_senator)" class="mw-redirect" title="William Maclay (Pennsylvania senator)">William Maclay</a> of Pennsylvania. Maclay became Adams's fiercest opponent and repeatedly expressed personal contempt for him in public and private. He likened Adams to "a monkey just put into breeches."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001406–408_150-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001406–408-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Izard" title="Ralph Izard">Ralph Izard</a> suggested that Adams be referred to as "His Rotundity," a joke which soon became popular.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001408_151-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001408-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On May 14, 1789, the Senate decided that the title of "<a href="/wiki/Mr._President_(title)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mr. President (title)">Mr. President</a>" would be used.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWood200654_152-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood200654-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Privately, Adams conceded that his vice presidency had begun poorly and that perhaps he had been out of the country too long to know the sentiment of the people. Washington quietly expressed his displeasure with the fuss.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001408–409_153-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001408–409-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:George_Washington_1795.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/George_Washington_1795.jpg/200px-George_Washington_1795.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="239" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/George_Washington_1795.jpg/300px-George_Washington_1795.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/George_Washington_1795.jpg/400px-George_Washington_1795.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3105" data-file-height="3710" /></a><figcaption><i>Portrait of George Washington</i> by <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Stuart" title="Gilbert Stuart">Gilbert Stuart</a>, 1795. Washington rarely consulted Vice President Adams, who often felt marginalized and overshadowed by Washington's prestige.</figcaption></figure> <p>As vice president, Adams largely sided with the Washington administration and the emerging <a href="/wiki/Federalist_Party" title="Federalist Party">Federalist Party</a>. He supported Washington's policies against opposition from <a href="/wiki/Democratic-Republican_Party" title="Democratic-Republican Party">anti-Federalist Republicans</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001460_154-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001460-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He cast 29 <a href="/wiki/List_of_tie-breaking_votes_cast_by_vice_presidents_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="List of tie-breaking votes cast by vice presidents of the United States">tie-breaking votes</a>, and is one of only three vice presidents who have cast more than 20 during their tenure.<sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He voted against a bill sponsored by Maclay that would have required Senate consent for the removal of executive branch officials who had been confirmed by the Senate.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001413–414_156-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001413–414-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1790, Jefferson, <a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a>, and Hamilton struck a <a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1790" title="Compromise of 1790">bargain</a> guaranteeing Republican support for Hamilton's <a href="/wiki/Funding_Act_of_1790" title="Funding Act of 1790">debt assumption plan</a> in exchange for the capital being temporarily moved from New York to <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a>, and then to a permanent site on the <a href="/wiki/Potomac_River" title="Potomac River">Potomac River</a> to placate Southerners. In the Senate, Adams cast a tie-breaking vote against a last-minute motion to keep the capital in New York.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001425–426_157-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001425–426-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Adams played a minor role in politics as vice president. He attended few <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_George_Washington#Cabinet" title="Presidency of George Washington">cabinet</a> meetings, and the President sought his counsel infrequently.<sup id="cite_ref-USSadamsdoc_146-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USSadamsdoc-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While Adams brought energy and dedication to the office,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith1962b769_158-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1962b769-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> by mid-1789 he had already found it "not quite adapted to my character ... too inactive, and mechanical."<sup id="cite_ref-159" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He wrote, "My country has in its wisdom contrived for me the most insignificant office that ever the invention of man contrived or his imagination conceived."<sup id="cite_ref-160" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adams's initial behavior in the Senate made him a target for critics of the Washington administration. Toward the end of his first term, he grew accustomed to a marginal role, and rarely intervened in debate.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001434_161-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001434-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adams never questioned Washington's courage or patriotism, but Washington did join Franklin and others as the object of Adams's ire or envy. "The History of our Revolution will be one continued lie," Adams declared. "The essence of the whole will be that Dr. Franklin's <a href="/wiki/Lightning_rod#America" title="Lightning rod">electrical Rod</a> smote the Earth and out sprung General Washington. That Franklin electrified him with his Rod – and henceforth these two conducted all the Policy, Negotiations, Legislatures and War."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling1992310_162-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling1992310-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adams won reelection with little difficulty in <a href="/wiki/1792_United_States_presidential_election" title="1792 United States presidential election">1792</a> with 77 votes. His strongest challenger, <a href="/wiki/George_Clinton_(vice_president)" title="George Clinton (vice president)">George Clinton</a>, had 50.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001439_163-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001439-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On July 14, 1789, the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a> began. Republicans were jubilant. Adams at first expressed cautious optimism, but soon began denouncing the revolutionaries as barbarous and tyrannical.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001416–417_164-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001416–417-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Washington eventually consulted Adams more often, but not until near the end of his administration, by which point distinguished cabinet members Hamilton and Jefferson had resigned.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith1962b878_165-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1962b878-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The British had been raiding American trading vessels, and John Jay was sent to London to negotiate an end to hostilities. When he returned in 1795 with a <a href="/wiki/Jay_Treaty" title="Jay Treaty">peace treaty</a> on terms unfavorable to the United States, Adams urged Washington to sign it to prevent war. Washington did so, igniting protests and riots. He was accused of surrendering American honor to a tyrannical monarchy and of turning his back on the French Republic.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001456–457_166-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001456–457-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> John Adams predicted in a letter to Abigail that ratification would deeply divide the nation.<sup id="cite_ref-167" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Election_of_1796">Election of 1796</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/1796_United_States_presidential_election" title="1796 United States presidential election">1796 United States presidential election</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ElectoralCollege1796.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/ElectoralCollege1796.svg/240px-ElectoralCollege1796.svg.png" decoding="async" width="240" height="197" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/ElectoralCollege1796.svg/360px-ElectoralCollege1796.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/ElectoralCollege1796.svg/480px-ElectoralCollege1796.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="542" data-file-height="446" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/1796_United_States_presidential_election" title="1796 United States presidential election">1796 presidential election</a> results in which Adams narrowly defeated <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/1796_United_States_presidential_election" title="1796 United States presidential election">1796 election</a> was the first contested American presidential election.<sup id="cite_ref-168" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Twice, George Washington had been elected to office unanimously but, during <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_George_Washington" title="Presidency of George Washington">his presidency</a>, deep philosophical differences between the two leading figures in the administration – Hamilton and Jefferson – had caused a rift, leading to the founding of the Federalist and Republican parties.<sup id="cite_ref-FerlingTime_169-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FerlingTime-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When Washington announced that he would not stand for a third term, an intense <a href="/wiki/Partisan_(political)" class="mw-redirect" title="Partisan (political)">partisan</a> struggle for control of Congress and the presidency began.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlexner1974360–361_170-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlexner1974360–361-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As in the previous two presidential elections, no candidates were put forward for voters to choose between in 1796. The Constitution provided for the selection of electors who would then choose a president.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith1962b898–899_171-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1962b898–899-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In seven states voters chose the presidential electors. In the remaining nine states, they were chosen by the state's legislature.<sup id="cite_ref-JAelections_172-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JAelections-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The clear Republican favorite was Jefferson.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcDonald1974178–181_173-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcDonald1974178–181-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adams was the Federalist frontrunner.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith1962b898–899_171-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1962b898–899-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Republicans held a <a href="/wiki/Congressional_nominating_caucus" title="Congressional nominating caucus">congressional nominating caucus</a> and named Jefferson and <a href="/wiki/Aaron_Burr" title="Aaron Burr">Aaron Burr</a> as their presidential choices.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDiggins200383–88_174-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDiggins200383–88-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jefferson at first declined the nomination, but he agreed to run a few weeks later. Federalist members of Congress held an informal nominating caucus and named Adams and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Pinckney" title="Thomas Pinckney">Thomas Pinckney</a> as their candidates.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcDonald1974178–181_173-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcDonald1974178–181-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoadley198654_175-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoadley198654-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The campaign was mostly confined to newspaper attacks, pamphlets, and political rallies;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith1962b898–899_171-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1962b898–899-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of the four contenders, only Burr actively campaigned. The practice of not campaigning for office would persist for decades.<sup id="cite_ref-JAelections_172-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JAelections-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adams stated that he wanted to stay out of the "silly and wicked game" of electioneering.<sup id="cite_ref-176" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As the campaign progressed, fears grew among Hamilton and his supporters that Adams was too vain, opinionated, unpredictable and stubborn to follow their directions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElkinsMcKitrick1993513–537_177-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElkinsMcKitrick1993513–537-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>175<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Indeed, Adams did not consider himself a strong member of the Federalist Party. He had remarked that Hamilton's economic program, centered around banks, would "swindle" the poor and unleash the "gangrene of avarice."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChernow2004521_178-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChernow2004521-178"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>176<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Desiring "a more pliant president than Adams," Hamilton maneuvered to tip the election to Pinckney. He coerced South Carolina Federalist electors, pledged to vote for "<a href="/wiki/Favorite_son" title="Favorite son">favorite son</a>" Pinckney, to scatter their second votes among candidates other than Adams. Hamilton's scheme was undone when several <a href="/wiki/New_England" title="New England">New England</a> state electors heard of it and agreed not to vote for Pinckney.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith1962b902_179-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1962b902-179"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adams wrote shortly after the election that Hamilton was a "proud Spirited, conceited, aspiring Mortal always pretending to Morality, with as debauched Morals as old Franklin who is more his Model than any one I know."<sup id="cite_ref-180" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>178<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Throughout his life, Adams made highly critical statements about Hamilton. He made derogatory references to his womanizing, real or alleged, and slurred him as the "<a href="/wiki/Creole_peoples" title="Creole peoples">Creole</a> bastard."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChernow2004522_181-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChernow2004522-181"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>179<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Adams won the presidency by a narrow margin, receiving 71 electoral votes to 68 for Jefferson, who became the vice president; Pinckney finished third with 59 votes, and Burr came fourth with 30. The balance of the votes were dispersed among nine other candidates.<sup id="cite_ref-ECscore_182-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ECscore-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is the only election to date in which a president and vice president were elected from opposing tickets.<sup id="cite_ref-183" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-183"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>181<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Presidency_(1797–1801)"><span id="Presidency_.281797.E2.80.931801.29"></span>Presidency (1797–1801)</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_John_Adams" title="Presidency of John Adams">Presidency of John Adams</a> and <a href="/wiki/Diplomacy_of_John_Adams" title="Diplomacy of John Adams">Diplomacy of John Adams</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Inauguration">Inauguration</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PhiladelphiaPresidentsHouse.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/PhiladelphiaPresidentsHouse.jpg/240px-PhiladelphiaPresidentsHouse.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/PhiladelphiaPresidentsHouse.jpg/360px-PhiladelphiaPresidentsHouse.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/PhiladelphiaPresidentsHouse.jpg/480px-PhiladelphiaPresidentsHouse.jpg 2x" data-file-width="674" data-file-height="455" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/President%27s_House_(Philadelphia)" title="President's House (Philadelphia)">President's House</a> in <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a>, which was then the national capital; Adams occupied this Philadelphia mansion from March 1797 to May 1800.</figcaption></figure> <p>Adams <a href="/wiki/Inauguration_of_John_Adams" title="Inauguration of John Adams">was sworn into office</a> as the nation's second president on March 4, 1797. He followed Washington's lead in using the presidency to exemplify republican values and <a href="/wiki/Civic_virtue" title="Civic virtue">civic virtue</a>, and his service was free of scandal.<sup id="cite_ref-184" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-184"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adams spent much of his term at his Massachusetts home <a href="/wiki/Peacefield" title="Peacefield">Peacefield</a>, preferring the quietness of domestic life to business at the capital. He ignored the political patronage and office-seeking which other officeholders utilized.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerring200891_185-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring200891-185"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Historians debate the wisdom of his decision to retain Washington's cabinet given its loyalty to Hamilton. The "Hamiltonians who surround him," Jefferson remarked, "are only a little less hostile to him than to me."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling1992333_186-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling1992333-186"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although aware of Hamilton's influence, Adams was convinced that their retention ensured a smoother succession.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001471_187-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001471-187"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>185<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adams maintained the economic programs of Hamilton, who regularly consulted with key cabinet members, especially the powerful Treasury Secretary, <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Wolcott_Jr." title="Oliver Wolcott Jr.">Oliver Wolcott Jr.</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKurtz1957272_188-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKurtz1957272-188"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adams was in other respects quite independent of his cabinet, often making decisions despite opposition from it.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChernow2004593–594_189-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChernow2004593–594-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>187<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hamilton had grown accustomed to being regularly consulted by Washington. Shortly after Adams was inaugurated, Hamilton sent him a detailed letter with policy suggestions. Adams dismissively ignored it.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChernow2004524_190-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChernow2004524-190"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>188<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Failed_peace_commission_and_XYZ_affair">Failed peace commission and XYZ affair</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/XYZ_Affair" title="XYZ Affair">XYZ Affair</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox" style="clear: left; float:left;margin:0 1.5em 1.5em 0;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:115%">External videos</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="video icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></span></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.c-span.org/video/?49975-1/passionate-sage-john-adams"><i>Booknotes</i> interview with Joseph Ellis on <i>Passionate Sage: The Character and Legacy of John Adams</i>, September 5, 1993</a>, <a href="/wiki/C-SPAN" title="C-SPAN">C-SPAN</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Property_protected_%C3%A0_la_fran%C3%A7oise.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Property_protected_%C3%A0_la_fran%C3%A7oise.jpg/240px-Property_protected_%C3%A0_la_fran%C3%A7oise.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Property_protected_%C3%A0_la_fran%C3%A7oise.jpg/360px-Property_protected_%C3%A0_la_fran%C3%A7oise.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Property_protected_%C3%A0_la_fran%C3%A7oise.jpg/480px-Property_protected_%C3%A0_la_fran%C3%A7oise.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="816" /></a><figcaption>A 1798 political cartoon's depiction of the <a href="/wiki/XYZ_Affair" title="XYZ Affair">XYZ Affair</a> with America as a female being plundered by Frenchmen</figcaption></figure> <p>Historian <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Ellis" title="Joseph Ellis">Joseph Ellis</a> writes that "[t]he Adams presidency was destined to be dominated by a single question of American policy to an extent seldom if ever encountered by any succeeding occupant of the office." That question was whether to make war with France or find peace.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllis199328_191-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllis199328-191"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="French Revolutionary Wars">Britain and France were at war</a> as a result of the French Revolution. Hamilton and the Federalists strongly favored the British monarchy against what they denounced as the political radicalism and anti-religious frenzy of the French Revolution. Jefferson and the Republicans, with their firm opposition to monarchy, strongly supported the French overthrowing their king.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWood2009174–177,_240_192-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood2009174–177,_240-192"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>190<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The French had supported Jefferson for president in 1796 and became belligerent at his loss.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerring200882_193-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring200882-193"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>191<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adams continued Washington's policy of staying out of the war. Because of the Jay Treaty, the French saw America as Britain's junior partner and began seizing American merchant ships that were trading with the British. Most Americans were still pro-French due to France's assistance during the Revolution, the perceived humiliation of the Jay Treaty, and their desire to support a republic against the British monarchy, and would not tolerate war with France.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling1992342–345_194-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling1992342–345-194"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>192<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On May 16, 1797, Adams gave a speech to the House and Senate in which he called for increasing defense capabilities in case of war with France.<sup id="cite_ref-195" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-195"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>193<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He announced that he would send a peace commission to France but simultaneously called for a military buildup to counter any potential French threat. The speech was well received by the Federalists. Adams was depicted as an eagle holding an olive branch in one talon and the "emblems of defense" in the other. The Republicans were outraged, for Adams not only had failed to express support for the cause of the French Republic but appeared to be calling for war against it.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001484–485_196-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001484–485-196"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>194<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sentiments changed with the <a href="/wiki/XYZ_Affair" title="XYZ Affair">XYZ Affair</a>. The peace commission that Adams appointed consisted of <a href="/wiki/John_Marshall" title="John Marshall">John Marshall</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Cotesworth_Pinckney" title="Charles Cotesworth Pinckney">Charles Cotesworth Pinckney</a> and <a href="/wiki/Elbridge_Gerry" title="Elbridge Gerry">Elbridge Gerry</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001495_197-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001495-197"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>195<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jefferson met four times with Joseph Letombe, the French consul in Philadelphia. Letombe wrote to Paris stating that Jefferson had told him that it was in France's best interest to treat the American ministers civilly but "then drag out the negotiations at length" to arrive at most favorable solution. According to Letombe, Jefferson called Adams "vain, suspicious, and stubborn."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChernow2004547_198-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChernow2004547-198"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>196<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the envoys arrived in October, they were kept waiting for several days, and then granted only a 15-minute meeting with French Foreign Minister <a href="/wiki/Charles_Maurice_de_Talleyrand-P%C3%A9rigord" title="Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord">Talleyrand</a>. The diplomats were then met by three of Talleyrand's agents (later code-named, X, Y, and Z), who refused to conduct negotiations unless the United States paid enormous bribes to France and to Talleyrand personally.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001495_197-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001495-197"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>195<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Supposedly this was to make up for offenses given to France by Adams in his speech.<sup id="cite_ref-199" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-199"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>197<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Americans refused to negotiate on such terms.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001495–496_200-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001495–496-200"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>198<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Marshall and Pinckney returned home, while Gerry remained.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001502_201-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001502-201"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>199<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>News of the disastrous peace mission arrived in a memorandum from Marshall on March 4, 1798. Adams, not wanting to incite violent impulses among the populace, announced that the mission had failed without providing details.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChernow2004550_202-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChernow2004550-202"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>200<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also sent a message to Congress asking for a renewal of the nation's defenses. The Republicans frustrated the President's defense measures. Suspecting that he might be hiding material favorable to France, Republicans in the House, with the support of Federalists who had heard rumors of what was contained in the messages, voted overwhelmingly to demand that Adams release the papers. Once they were released, the Republicans, according to Abigail, were "struck dumb."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith1962b957–960_203-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1962b957–960-203"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>201<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin_Bache_(journalist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Benjamin Franklin Bache (journalist)">Benjamin Franklin Bache</a>, editor of the <i><a href="/wiki/Philadelphia_Aurora" title="Philadelphia Aurora">Philadelphia Aurora</a>,</i> blamed Adams's aggression for the disaster. Among the general public however, the affair substantially weakened popular American support of France. Adams reached the height of his popularity as many in the country called for full-scale war against the French.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001498_204-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001498-204"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>202<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alien_and_Sedition_Acts">Alien and Sedition Acts</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Alien_and_Sedition_Acts" title="Alien and Sedition Acts">Alien and Sedition Acts</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:T_Jefferson_by_Charles_Willson_Peale_1791_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/T_Jefferson_by_Charles_Willson_Peale_1791_2.jpg/200px-T_Jefferson_by_Charles_Willson_Peale_1791_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="281" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/T_Jefferson_by_Charles_Willson_Peale_1791_2.jpg/300px-T_Jefferson_by_Charles_Willson_Peale_1791_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/46/T_Jefferson_by_Charles_Willson_Peale_1791_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="506" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a>, Adams's vice president, attempted to undermine many of his actions as president and eventually defeated him for reelection in the <a href="/wiki/1800_United_States_presidential_election" title="1800 United States presidential election">1800 presidential election</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Despite the XYZ Affair, Republican opposition persisted. Federalists accused the French and their immigrants of provoking civil unrest. In an attempt to quell the outcry, the Federalists introduced, and the Congress passed, a series of laws collectively referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Alien_and_Sedition_Acts" title="Alien and Sedition Acts">Alien and Sedition Acts</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling1992365–368_205-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling1992365–368-205"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>203<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Passage of the <a href="/wiki/Naturalization_Act_of_1798" title="Naturalization Act of 1798">Naturalization Act</a>, the Alien Friends Act, the Alien Enemies Act and the Sedition Act all came within a period of two weeks, in what Jefferson called an "unguarded passion." The first three acts targeted immigrants, specifically French, by giving the president greater deportation authority and increasing citizenship requirements. The Sedition Act made it a crime to publish "false, scandalous, and malicious writing" against the government or its officials.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling1992365_206-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling1992365-206"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>204<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adams had not promoted any of these acts, but signed them in June 1798 at the urging of his wife and cabinet.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling1992366_207-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling1992366-207"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>205<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The administration initiated fourteen or more indictments under the Sedition Act, as well as suits against five of the six most prominent Republican newspapers. The majority of the legal actions began in 1798 and 1799, and went to trial on the eve of the 1800 presidential election.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling1992367_208-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling1992367-208"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>206<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Vocal opponents of the Federalists were imprisoned or fined under the Sedition Act for criticizing the government.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChernow2004574–575_209-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChernow2004574–575-209"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>207<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among them was Congressman <a href="/wiki/Matthew_Lyon" title="Matthew Lyon">Matthew Lyon</a> of Vermont, who was sentenced to four months in jail for criticizing the President.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChernow2004575_210-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChernow2004575-210"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>208<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The alien acts were not stringently enforced because Adams resisted Secretary of State <a href="/wiki/Timothy_Pickering" title="Timothy Pickering">Timothy Pickering</a>'s attempts to deport aliens, although many left on their own, largely in response to the hostile environment.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling1992367_208-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling1992367-208"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>206<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Republicans were outraged. Jefferson, disgusted by the acts, wrote nothing publicly but partnered with Madison to secretly draft the <a href="/wiki/Kentucky_and_Virginia_Resolutions" title="Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions">Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions</a>. Jefferson wrote for Kentucky that states had the "natural right" to <a href="/wiki/Nullification_(U.S._Constitution)" title="Nullification (U.S. Constitution)">nullify</a> any acts they deemed unconstitutional. Writing to Madison, he speculated that as a last resort the states might have to "sever ourselves from the union we so much value."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001520–521_211-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001520–521-211"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>209<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Federalists reacted bitterly to the resolutions, and the acts energized and unified the Republican Party while doing little to unite the Federalists.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChernow2004573–575_212-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChernow2004573–575-212"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>210<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Quasi-War">Quasi-War</h3></div> <p>In May 1798, a French <a href="/wiki/Privateer" title="Privateer">privateer</a> captured a merchant vessel off of <a href="/wiki/New_York_Harbor" title="New York Harbor">New York Harbor</a>. An increase in attacks on sea marked the beginning of the undeclared naval war known as the <a href="/wiki/Quasi-War" title="Quasi-War">Quasi-War</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChernow2004553_213-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChernow2004553-213"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>211<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adams knew that America would be unable to win a major conflict, both because of its internal divisions and because France at the time was dominating the fight in most of Europe. He pursued a strategy whereby America harassed French ships in an effort sufficient to stem the French assaults on American interests.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling1992356–357_214-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling1992356–357-214"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>212<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In May, shortly after the attack in New York, Congress created a separate Navy Department. The prospect of a French invasion led for calls to build up the army. Hamilton and other "High Federalists" were particularly adamant that a large army be called up, in spite of a common fear, particularly among Republicans, that large standing armies were subversive to liberty. In May, a provisional army of 10,000 soldiers was authorized by Congress. In July, Congress created twelve infantry regiments and provided for six cavalry companies, exceeding Adams's requests but falling short of Hamilton's.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChernow2004552–553_215-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChernow2004552–553-215"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>213<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Federalists pressured Adams to appoint Hamilton, who had served as Washington's aide-de-camp during the Revolution, to command the army.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlexner1974376_216-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlexner1974376-216"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>214<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Distrustful of Hamilton and fearing a plot to subvert his administration, Adams chose Washington without consulting him. As a condition of his acceptance, Washington demanded that he be permitted to appoint his own subordinates. He wished to have <a href="/wiki/Henry_Knox" title="Henry Knox">Henry Knox</a> as second-in-command, followed by Hamilton, and then Charles Pinckney.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlexner1974376–377_217-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlexner1974376–377-217"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>215<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On June 2, Hamilton wrote to Washington stating that he would not serve unless he was made Inspector General and second-in-command.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChernow2004555_218-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChernow2004555-218"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>216<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Washington conceded that Hamilton, despite holding a rank lower than Knox and Pinckney, had, by serving on his staff, more opportunity to comprehend the whole military scene, and should therefore outrank them. Adams sent Secretary of War <a href="/wiki/James_McHenry" title="James McHenry">James McHenry</a> to <a href="/wiki/Mount_Vernon" title="Mount Vernon">Mount Vernon</a> to convince Washington to accept the post. McHenry put forth his opinion that Washington would not serve unless permitted to choose his own officers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlexner1974378_219-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlexner1974378-219"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>217<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adams had intended to appoint Republicans Burr and <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Muhlenberg" title="Frederick Muhlenberg">Frederick Muhlenberg</a> to make the army appear bipartisan. Washington's list consisted entirely of Federalists.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith1962b978_220-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1962b978-220"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>218<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adams relented and agreed to submit to the Senate the names of Hamilton, Pinckney, and Knox, in that order, although final decisions of rank would be reserved to Adams.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlexner1974378_219-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlexner1974378-219"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>217<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Knox refused to serve under these conditions. Adams intended to give to Hamilton the lowest possible rank, while Washington and many other Federalists insisted that the order in which the names had been submitted to the Senate must determine seniority. On September 21, Adams received a letter from McHenry relaying a statement from Washington threatening to resign if Hamilton were not made second-in-command.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlexner1974380–381_221-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlexner1974380–381-221"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>219<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fearing Federalist backlash, Adams capitulated, despite bitter resentment.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith1962b982–983_222-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1962b982–983-222"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>220<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The illness of Abigail, whom Adams feared was near death, exacerbated his suffering.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlexner1974380–381_221-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlexner1974380–381-221"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>219<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alexander_Hamilton_portrait_by_John_Trumbull_1806.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Alexander_Hamilton_portrait_by_John_Trumbull_1806.jpg/220px-Alexander_Hamilton_portrait_by_John_Trumbull_1806.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="261" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Alexander_Hamilton_portrait_by_John_Trumbull_1806.jpg/330px-Alexander_Hamilton_portrait_by_John_Trumbull_1806.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Alexander_Hamilton_portrait_by_John_Trumbull_1806.jpg/440px-Alexander_Hamilton_portrait_by_John_Trumbull_1806.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2532" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>Alexander Hamilton's desire for high military rank and his push for war with France put him into conflict with Adams.</figcaption></figure> <p>It quickly became apparent that due to Washington's advanced age, Hamilton was the army's <i>de facto</i> commander. He exerted effective control over the War Department, taking over supplies for the army.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKurtz1957331_223-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKurtz1957331-223"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>221<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Meanwhile, Adams built up the Navy, adding <a href="/wiki/Six_original_United_States_frigates" class="mw-redirect" title="Six original United States frigates">six fast, powerful frigates</a>, most notably the <a href="/wiki/USS_Constitution" title="USS Constitution">USS <i>Constitution</i></a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001507_224-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001507-224"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>222<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Quasi-War continued, but there was a decline in war fever beginning in the fall once news arrived of the French defeat at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Nile" title="Battle of the Nile">Battle of the Nile</a>, which many Americans hoped would make them more disposed to negotiate.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001516–517_225-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001516–517-225"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>223<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In October, Adams heard from Gerry in Paris that the French wanted to make peace and would properly receive an American delegation. That December in his address to Congress, Adams relayed these statements while expressing the need to maintain adequate defenses. The speech angered both Federalists, including Hamilton, many of whom had wanted a request for a declaration of war, and Republicans.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChernow2004592–593_226-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChernow2004592–593-226"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>224<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hamilton secretly promoted a plan, already rejected by Adams, in which American and British troops would jointly seize <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Florida" title="Spanish Florida">Spanish Florida</a> and <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_(New_Spain)" title="Louisiana (New Spain)">Louisiana</a>, ostensibly to deter a possible French invasion. Hamilton's critics, including Abigail, saw in his military buildups the signs of an aspiring military dictator.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001518_227-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001518-227"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>225<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On February 18, 1799, Adams nominated diplomat <a href="/wiki/William_Vans_Murray" title="William Vans Murray">William Vans Murray</a> for a peace mission to France without consulting either his cabinet or Abigail, who nonetheless upon hearing of it described it as a "master stroke." To placate Republicans, he nominated <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Henry" title="Patrick Henry">Patrick Henry</a> and Ellsworth to accompany Murray, and the Senate immediately approved them on March 3. Henry declined the nomination and Adams chose <a href="/wiki/William_Richardson_Davie" title="William Richardson Davie">William Richardson Davie</a> to replace him.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001523–525_228-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001523–525-228"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>226<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hamilton strongly criticized the decision, as did Adams's cabinet members, who maintained frequent communication with him. Adams again questioned their loyalty but did not remove them.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChernow2004593–594_189-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChernow2004593–594-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>187<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To the annoyance of many, Adams spent March to September 1799 in Peacefield. He returned to Trenton, where the government had set up temporary quarters due to the <a href="/wiki/Yellow_fever" title="Yellow fever">yellow fever</a> epidemic, after a letter arrived from Talleyrand confirming that American ministers would be received. Adams then decided to send the commissioners to France.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001526–529_229-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001526–529-229"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>227<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adams arrived in Trenton on October 10.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorse1884304_230-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorse1884304-230"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>228<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shortly after, Hamilton, in a breach of military protocol, arrived uninvited at the city to speak with the President, urging him not to send the peace commissioners but instead to ally with Britain to restore the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Bourbon" title="House of Bourbon">Bourbons</a>. "I heard him with perfect good humor, though never in my life did I hear a man talk more like a fool," Adams said. On November 15, the commissioners set sail for Paris.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001530–531_231-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001530–531-231"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>229<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fries's_Rebellion"><span id="Fries.27s_Rebellion"></span>Fries's Rebellion</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fries%27s_Rebellion" title="Fries's Rebellion">Fries's Rebellion</a></div> <p>To pay for the military buildup of the Quasi-War, Adams and his Federalist allies enacted the <a href="/wiki/Direct_tax" title="Direct tax">Direct Tax</a> of 1798. Direct taxation by the federal government was widely unpopular, and the government's revenue under Washington had mostly come from <a href="/wiki/Excise_tax" class="mw-redirect" title="Excise tax">excise taxes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tariffs_in_United_States_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Tariffs in United States history">tariffs</a>. Though Washington had maintained a balanced budget with the help of a growing economy, increased military expenditures threatened to cause major budget deficits, and the Federalists developed a taxation plan to meet the need for increased government revenue. The Direct Tax of 1798 instituted a <a href="/wiki/Progressive_tax" title="Progressive tax">progressive</a> <a href="/wiki/Land_value_tax" title="Land value tax">land value tax</a> of up to 1% of a property's value. Taxpayers in eastern Pennsylvania resisted federal tax collectors, and in March 1799 the bloodless Fries's Rebellion broke out. Led by Revolutionary War veteran <a href="/wiki/John_Fries" title="John Fries">John Fries</a>, rural German-speaking farmers protested what they saw as a threat to their liberties. They intimidated tax collectors, who often found themselves unable to go about their business.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElkinsMcKitrick1993696–700_232-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElkinsMcKitrick1993696–700-232"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>230<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The disturbance was quickly ended with Hamilton leading the army to restore peace.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDiggins2003129–130_233-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDiggins2003129–130-233"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>231<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Fries and two other leaders were arrested, found guilty of treason, and sentenced to hang. They appealed to Adams requesting a pardon. The cabinet unanimously advised Adams to refuse, but he instead granted the pardon, arguing the men had instigated a mere riot as opposed to a rebellion.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001540–541_234-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001540–541-234"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>232<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his pamphlet attacking Adams before the election, Hamilton wrote that "it was impossible to commit a greater error."<sup id="cite_ref-Adams_Pamphlet_235-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Adams_Pamphlet-235"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>233<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Federalist_divisions_and_peace">Federalist divisions and peace</h3></div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 222px;"> <div class="thumbimage" style="width: 220px; height: 270px; overflow: hidden;"> <div style="position: relative; top: -67px; left: -52px; width: 325px"><div class="noresize"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:ADAMS,John-President_(BEP_engraved_portrait).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="An engraved portrait of Adams as president by the Bureau of Engraving and Printing" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/ADAMS%2CJohn-President_%28BEP_engraved_portrait%29.jpg/325px-ADAMS%2CJohn-President_%28BEP_engraved_portrait%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="325" height="376" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/ADAMS%2CJohn-President_%28BEP_engraved_portrait%29.jpg/488px-ADAMS%2CJohn-President_%28BEP_engraved_portrait%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/ADAMS%2CJohn-President_%28BEP_engraved_portrait%29.jpg/650px-ADAMS%2CJohn-President_%28BEP_engraved_portrait%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="8488" data-file-height="9818" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:ADAMS,John-President_(BEP_engraved_portrait).jpg" title="File:ADAMS,John-President (BEP engraved portrait).jpg"> </a></div>An engraved portrait of <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_John_Adams" title="Presidency of John Adams">Adams as president</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Engraving_and_Printing" title="Bureau of Engraving and Printing">Bureau of Engraving and Printing</a> </div> </div> </div> <p>On May 5, 1800, Adams's frustrations with the Hamilton wing of the party exploded during a meeting with McHenry, a Hamilton loyalist who was universally regarded, even by Hamilton, as an inept Secretary of War. Adams accused him of subservience to Hamilton and declared that he would rather serve as Jefferson's vice president or minister at The Hague than be beholden to Hamilton for the presidency. McHenry offered to resign at once, and Adams accepted. On May 10, he asked Pickering to resign. Pickering refused and was summarily dismissed. Adams named John Marshall as Secretary of State and <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Dexter" title="Samuel Dexter">Samuel Dexter</a> as Secretary of War.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001538–539_236-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001538–539-236"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>234<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith1962b1028–1029_237-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1962b1028–1029-237"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>235<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1799, <a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a> took over as head of the French government in the <a href="/wiki/Coup_of_18_Brumaire" title="Coup of 18 Brumaire">Coup of 18 Brumaire</a> and declared the French Revolution over.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001534_238-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001534-238"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>236<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> News of this event increased Adams's desire to disband the provisional army, which, with Washington now dead, was commanded only by Hamilton.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001539–540_239-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001539–540-239"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>237<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His moves to end the army after the departures of McHenry and Pickering were met with little opposition.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling1992395_240-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling1992395-240"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>238<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Federalists joined with Republicans in voting to disband the army in mid-1800.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001539–540_239-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001539–540-239"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>237<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Napoleon, determining that further conflict was pointless, signaled his readiness for friendly relations. By the <a href="/wiki/Convention_of_1800" title="Convention of 1800">Convention of 1800</a>, the two sides agreed to return any captured ships and to allow for the peaceful transfer of non-military goods to an enemy of the nation. On January 23, 1801, the Senate voted 16–14 in favor of the treaty, four votes short of the necessary two thirds. Some Federalists, including Hamilton, urged that the Senate vote in favor of the treaty with reservations. A new proposal was then drawn up demanding that the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Alliance_(1778)" title="Treaty of Alliance (1778)">Treaty of Alliance of 1778</a> be superseded and that France pay for its damages to American property. On February 3, the treaty with the reservations passed 22–9 and was signed by Adams.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001150_241-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001150-241"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>239<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-243" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-243"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> News of the peace treaty did not arrive in the United States until after the election, too late to sway the results.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChernow2004631_244-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChernow2004631-244"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>241<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As president, Adams proudly avoided war, but deeply split his party in the process. Historian <a href="/wiki/Ron_Chernow" title="Ron Chernow">Ron Chernow</a> writes that "the threat of <a href="/wiki/Jacobin" class="mw-redirect" title="Jacobin">Jacobinism</a>" was the one thing that united the Federalist Party, and that Adams's elimination of it unwittingly contributed to the party's demise.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChernow2004594_245-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChernow2004594-245"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>242<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Establishing_government_institutions_and_move_to_Washington">Establishing government institutions and move to Washington</h3></div> <p>Adams's leadership on naval defense has sometimes led him to be called the "father of the <a href="/wiki/American_Navy" class="mw-redirect" title="American Navy">American Navy</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-246" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-246"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>243<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller19979_247-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller19979-247"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>244<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In July 1798, he signed into law <a href="/wiki/An_Act_for_the_relief_of_sick_and_disabled_seamen" title="An Act for the relief of sick and disabled seamen">An Act for the relief of sick and disabled seamen</a>, which authorized the establishment of a government-operated marine hospital service.<sup id="cite_ref-248" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-248"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>245<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1800, he signed the law establishing the <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-OLC_249-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OLC-249"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>246<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Adams made his first official visit to the nation's new <a href="/wiki/Seat_of_government" title="Seat of government">seat of government</a> in early June 1800. Amid the "raw and unfinished" cityscape, the President found the public buildings "in a much greater forwardness of completion than expected."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith1962b1036_250-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1962b1036-250"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>247<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He moved into the nearly completed <a href="/wiki/White_House" title="White House">President's Mansion</a> (later known as the White House) on November 1. Abigail arrived a few weeks later. On arrival, Adams wrote to her, "Before I end my letter, I pray Heaven to bestow the best of Blessings on this House and all that shall hereafter inhabit it. May none but honest and wise Men ever rule under this roof."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith1962b1049_251-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1962b1049-251"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>248<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Senate of the <a href="/wiki/6th_United_States_Congress" title="6th United States Congress">7th Congress</a> met for the first time in the new <a href="/wiki/United_States_Capitol" title="United States Capitol">Congress House</a> (later known as the Capitol building) on November 17, 1800. On November 22, Adams delivered his fourth <a href="/wiki/State_of_the_Union_Address" class="mw-redirect" title="State of the Union Address">State of the Union Address</a> to a joint session of Congress.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith1962b1050_252-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1962b1050-252"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>249<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This would be the last annual message any president would personally deliver to Congress for the next 113 years.<sup id="cite_ref-253" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-253"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>250<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Election_of_1800">Election of 1800</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/1800_United_States_presidential_election" title="1800 United States presidential election">1800 United States presidential election</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ElectoralCollege1800.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/ElectoralCollege1800.svg/240px-ElectoralCollege1800.svg.png" decoding="async" width="240" height="197" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/ElectoralCollege1800.svg/360px-ElectoralCollege1800.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/ElectoralCollege1800.svg/480px-ElectoralCollege1800.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="542" data-file-height="446" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/1800_United_States_presidential_election" title="1800 United States presidential election">1800 United States presidential election</a> results in which Adams was defeated by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a></figcaption></figure> <p>With the Federalist Party deeply split over his negotiations with France, and the opposition Republican Party enraged over the Alien and Sedition Acts and the expansion of the military, Adams faced a daunting reelection campaign in <a href="/wiki/1800_United_States_presidential_election" title="1800 United States presidential election">1800</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-JAelections_172-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JAelections-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Federalist congressmen caucused in the spring of 1800 and nominated Adams and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Cotesworth_Pinckney" title="Charles Cotesworth Pinckney">Pinckney</a>. The Republicans nominated Jefferson and Burr, their candidates in the previous election.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling1992396–397_254-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling1992396–397-254"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>251<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The campaign was bitter and characterized by malicious insults by partisan presses on both sides. Federalists claimed that the Republicans were the enemies of "all who love order, peace, virtue, and religion." They were said to be libertines and dangerous radicals who favored states' rights over the Union and would instigate anarchy and civil war. Jefferson's rumored <a href="/wiki/Sally_Hemings" title="Sally Hemings">affairs</a> with slaves were used against him. Republicans accused Federalists of subverting republican principles through punitive federal laws and of favoring Britain and the other coalition countries in their war with France to promote aristocratic, anti-republican values. Jefferson was portrayed as an apostle of liberty and man of the people, while Adams was labelled a monarchist. He was accused of insanity and marital infidelity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001543–545_255-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001543–545-255"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>252<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/James_T._Callender" title="James T. Callender">James T. Callender</a>, a Republican propagandist secretly financed by Jefferson, degraded Adams's character and accused him of attempting to make war with France. Callender was arrested and jailed under the Sedition Act, which further inflamed Republican passions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001536–537_256-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001536–537-256"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>253<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Opposition from the Federalist Party was at times equally intense. Some, including Pickering, accused Adams of colluding with Jefferson so that he would end up either president or vice president.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001544_257-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001544-257"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>254<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hamilton was hard at work, attempting to sabotage the President's reelection. Planning an indictment of Adams's character, he requested and received private documents from both the ousted cabinet secretaries and Wolcott.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChernow2004619–620_258-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChernow2004619–620-258"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>255<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The letter was intended for only a few Federalist electors. Upon seeing a draft, several Federalists urged Hamilton not to send it. Wolcott wrote that "the poor old man" could do himself in without Hamilton's assistance. Hamilton did not heed their advice.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001549_259-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001549-259"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>256<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On October 24, he sent a pamphlet strongly attacking Adams's policies and character. Hamilton denounced the "precipitate nomination" of Murray, the pardoning of Fries, and the firing of Pickering. He vilified the President's "disgusting egotism" and "ungovernable temper." Adams, he concluded, was "emotionally unstable, given to impulsive and irrational decisions, unable to coexist with his closest advisers, and generally unfit to be president."<sup id="cite_ref-Adams_Pamphlet_235-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Adams_Pamphlet-235"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>233<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Strangely, it ended by saying that the electors should support Adams and Pinckney equally.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001550_260-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001550-260"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>257<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thanks to Burr, who had covertly obtained a copy, the pamphlet became public knowledge and was distributed throughout the country by Republicans.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorse1884320–321_261-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorse1884320–321-261"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>258<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The pamphlet ended Hamilton's political career and helped ensure Adams's already likely defeat.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001550_260-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001550-260"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>257<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When the electoral votes were counted, Adams finished third with 65 votes, and Pinckney came in fourth with 64 votes. Jefferson and Burr tied for first with 73 votes each. Because of the tie, the election devolved upon the House of Representatives, with each state having one vote and a majority required for victory. On February 17, 1801 – on the 36th ballot – Jefferson was elected by a vote of 10 to 4 (two states abstained).<sup id="cite_ref-JAelections_172-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JAelections-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ECscore_182-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ECscore-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hamilton's scheme, although it made the Federalists appear divided and therefore helped Jefferson win, failed in its overall attempt to woo Federalist electors away from Adams.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChernow2004626_262-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChernow2004626-262"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>259<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-265" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-265"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>d<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To compound the agony of his defeat, Adams's son Charles, a long-time alcoholic, died on November 30. Anxious to rejoin Abigail, who had already left for Massachusetts, Adams departed the White House in the predawn hours of March 4, 1801, and did not attend <a href="/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Thomas_Jefferson" title="First inauguration of Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson's inauguration</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-266" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-266"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>262<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-267" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-267"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>263<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Including him, only five out-going presidents (having served a full term) have not attended their successors' inaugurations.<sup id="cite_ref-268" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-268"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>264<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The complications of the 1796 and 1800 elections prompted a modification to the Electoral College through the <a href="/wiki/Twelfth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution">12th Amendment</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-269" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-269"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>265<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cabinet">Cabinet</h3></div> <table class="infobox" style="width:auto;text-align:left;line-height:1.2em;margin-left:0; margin-right:0; float:none; clear:none;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="3" style="line-height:1.5em;font-size:110%;background:#DCDCDC;text-align:center">The Adams cabinet</th></tr><tr><th>Office</th><th>Name</th><th>Term</th></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#000"></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold">John Adams</th><td>1797–1801</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States" title="Vice President of the United States">Vice President</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a></th><td>1797–1801</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_State" title="United States Secretary of State">Secretary of State</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Pickering" title="Timothy Pickering">Timothy Pickering</a></th><td>1797–1800</td></tr><tr class="mw-empty-elt"></tr><tr><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/John_Marshall" title="John Marshall">John Marshall</a></th><td>1800–1801</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Treasury" title="United States Secretary of the Treasury">Secretary of the Treasury</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Wolcott_Jr." title="Oliver Wolcott Jr.">Oliver Wolcott Jr.</a></th><td>1797–1800</td></tr><tr class="mw-empty-elt"></tr><tr><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Dexter" title="Samuel Dexter">Samuel Dexter</a></th><td>1801</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_War" title="United States Secretary of War">Secretary of War</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/James_McHenry" title="James McHenry">James McHenry</a></th><td>1797–1800</td></tr><tr class="mw-empty-elt"></tr><tr><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Dexter" title="Samuel Dexter">Samuel Dexter</a></th><td>1800–1801</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/United_States_Attorney_General" title="United States Attorney General">Attorney General</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Lee_(Attorney_General)" title="Charles Lee (Attorney General)">Charles Lee</a></th><td>1797–1801</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Navy" title="United States Secretary of the Navy">Secretary of the Navy</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Stoddert" title="Benjamin Stoddert">Benjamin Stoddert</a></th><td>1798–1801</td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Judicial_appointments">Judicial appointments</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_John_Adams" title="List of federal judges appointed by John Adams">List of federal judges appointed by John Adams</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Marshall_by_Henry_Inman,_1832.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/John_Marshall_by_Henry_Inman%2C_1832.jpg/200px-John_Marshall_by_Henry_Inman%2C_1832.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="248" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/John_Marshall_by_Henry_Inman%2C_1832.jpg/300px-John_Marshall_by_Henry_Inman%2C_1832.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/John_Marshall_by_Henry_Inman%2C_1832.jpg/400px-John_Marshall_by_Henry_Inman%2C_1832.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1059" data-file-height="1312" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/John_Marshall" title="John Marshall">John Marshall</a>, the fourth <a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_the_United_States" title="Chief Justice of the United States">Chief Justice</a> of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Supreme Court">U.S. Supreme Court</a>, was one of Adams's few dependable allies.</figcaption></figure> <table class="infobox" style="width:auto;text-align:left;line-height:1.2em;margin-left:0; margin-right:1em; float:left; clear:left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="3" style="line-height:1.5em;font-size:110%;background:#DCDCDC;text-align:center">Supreme Court appointments by President Adams</th></tr><tr><th>Position</th><th>Name</th><th>Term</th></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#000"></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_the_United_States" title="Chief Justice of the United States">Chief Justice</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/John_Marshall" title="John Marshall">John Marshall</a></th><td>1801–1835</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Associate_Justice_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States">Associate Justice</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Bushrod_Washington" title="Bushrod Washington">Bushrod Washington</a></th><td>1799–1829</td></tr><tr class="mw-empty-elt"></tr><tr><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Moore" title="Alfred Moore">Alfred Moore</a></th><td>1800–1804</td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Adams appointed two <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">U.S. Supreme Court</a> associate justices during his term in office: <a href="/wiki/Bushrod_Washington" title="Bushrod Washington">Bushrod Washington</a>, the nephew of George Washington, and <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Moore" title="Alfred Moore">Alfred Moore</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPerry1986371–410_270-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPerry1986371–410-270"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>266<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After Ellsworth's retirement due to ill health in 1800, it fell to Adams to appoint the Court's fourth Chief Justice. At the time, it was not yet certain whether Jefferson or Burr would win the election. Regardless, Adams believed that the choice should be someone "in the full vigor of middle age" who could counter what might be a long line of successive Republican presidents. Adams chose his Secretary of State John Marshall.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith1962b1063–1064_271-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1962b1063–1064-271"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>267<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He, along with Stoddert, was one of Adams's few trusted cabinet members, and was among the first to greet him when he arrived at the White House.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001550_260-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001550-260"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>257<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adams signed his commission on January 31 and the Senate approved it immediately.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001560_272-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001560-272"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>268<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Marshall's long tenure left a lasting influence on the Court. He maintained a carefully reasoned nationalistic interpretation of the Constitution and established the judicial branch as the equal of the executive and legislative branches.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling1992411_273-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling1992411-273"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>269<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the Federalists lost control of both houses of Congress along with the White House in the election of 1800, the <a href="/wiki/Lame-duck_session" title="Lame-duck session">lame-duck session</a> of the 6th Congress in February 1801 approved a judiciary act, commonly known as the <a href="/wiki/Midnight_Judges_Act" title="Midnight Judges Act">Midnight Judges Act</a>, which created a set of federal appeals courts between the district courts and the Supreme Court. Adams filled the vacancies created in this statute by appointing a series of judges, whom his opponents called the "Midnight Judges", just days before his term expired. Most of these judges lost their posts when the <a href="/wiki/7th_United_States_Congress" title="7th United States Congress">7th Congress</a>, with a solid Republican majority, approved the <a href="/wiki/Judiciary_Act_of_1802" title="Judiciary Act of 1802">Judiciary Act of 1802</a>, abolishing the newly created courts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling1992408–410_274-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling1992408–410-274"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>270<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Post-presidency_(1801–1826)"><span id="Post-presidency_.281801.E2.80.931826.29"></span>Post-presidency (1801–1826)</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Initial_years">Initial years</h3></div> <p>Adams resumed farming at <a href="/wiki/Peacefield" title="Peacefield">Peacefield</a> in <a href="/wiki/Quincy,_Massachusetts" title="Quincy, Massachusetts">Quincy, Massachusetts</a>, and also began work on an autobiography. The work had numerous gaps and was eventually abandoned and left unedited.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling1992421–423_275-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling1992421–423-275"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>271<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most of Adams's attention was focused on farm work,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling1992435_276-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling1992435-276"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>272<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although he mostly left manual labor to hired hands.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith1962b1075_277-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1962b1075-277"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>273<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His frugal lifestyle and presidential salary gave him a considerable fortune by 1801. In 1803, <a href="/wiki/Bird,_Savage_%26_Bird" title="Bird, Savage & Bird">Bird, Savage & Bird</a>, the bank holding his cash reserves of about $13,000, collapsed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolton2010340_278-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolton2010340-278"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>274<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> John Quincy resolved the crisis by buying his properties in Weymouth and Quincy, including Peacefield, for $12,800.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling1992435_276-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling1992435-276"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>272<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During his first four years of retirement, Adams made little effort to contact others, but eventually resumed contact with old acquaintances such as <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Waterhouse" title="Benjamin Waterhouse">Benjamin Waterhouse</a> and <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Rush" title="Benjamin Rush">Benjamin Rush</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling1992426_279-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling1992426-279"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>275<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Adams generally stayed quiet on public matters. He did not publicly denounce Jefferson's actions as president, believing that "instead of opposing Systematically any Administration, running down their Characters and opposing all their Measures right or wrong, We ought to Support every Administration as far as We can in Justice."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001595_280-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001595-280"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>276<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Adams_1808_281-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Adams_1808-281"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>277<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When a disgruntled James Callender, angry at not being appointed to an office, turned on the President by revealing the <a href="/wiki/Sally_Hemings" title="Sally Hemings">Sally Hemings</a> affair, Adams said nothing.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001579–585_282-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001579–585-282"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>278<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> John Quincy was elected to the Senate in 1803. Shortly thereafter, both he and his father crossed party lines to support Jefferson's <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Purchase" title="Louisiana Purchase">Louisiana Purchase</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001586_283-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001586-283"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>279<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The only major political incident involving the elder Adams during the Jefferson years was a dispute with <a href="/wiki/Mercy_Otis_Warren" title="Mercy Otis Warren">Mercy Otis Warren</a> in 1806. Warren, an old friend, had written a history of the American Revolution attacking Adams for his "partiality for monarchy" and "pride of talents and much ambition." A tempestuous correspondence ensued between her and Adams. In time, their friendship healed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001594–596_284-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001594–596-284"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>280<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adams did privately criticize the President over his <a href="/wiki/Embargo_Act_of_1807" title="Embargo Act of 1807">Embargo Act</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Adams_1808_281-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Adams_1808-281"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>277<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although John Quincy voted for it.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001598–599_285-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001598–599-285"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>281<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> John Quincy resigned from the Senate in 1808 after the Federalist-controlled <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Senate" title="Massachusetts Senate">Massachusetts Senate</a> refused to nominate him for a second term. After the Federalists denounced John Quincy as no longer being of their party, Adams wrote to him that he himself had long since "abdicated and disclaimed the name and character and attributes of that sect."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001599_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001599-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After Jefferson's retirement in 1809, Adams became more vocal. He published a three-year marathon of letters in the <i><a href="/wiki/Boston_Patriot_(newspaper)" title="Boston Patriot (newspaper)">Boston Patriot</a></i> newspaper, refuting line-by-line Hamilton's 1800 pamphlet. The initial piece was written shortly after his return from Peacefield and "had gathered dust for eight years." Adams had decided to shelve it over fears that it could negatively impact John Quincy should he ever seek office. Although Hamilton had died in 1804 in <a href="/wiki/Burr%E2%80%93Hamilton_duel" title="Burr–Hamilton duel">a duel with Aaron Burr</a>, Adams felt the need to vindicate his character against his charges. With John Quincy having broken from the Federalist Party and joined the Republicans, he felt that he could safely do so without threatening his political career.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling1992429–430_286-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling1992429–430-286"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>282<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adams supported the <a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a>. Having worried over the rise of sectionalism, he celebrated the growth of a "national character" that accompanied it.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling1992425–426_287-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling1992425–426-287"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>283<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adams supported <a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a> for reelection to the presidency in <a href="/wiki/1812_United_States_presidential_election" title="1812 United States presidential election">1812</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith1962b1107–1108_288-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1962b1107–1108-288"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>284<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Adams's daughter <a href="/wiki/Abigail_Adams_Smith" title="Abigail Adams Smith">Abigail</a> ("Nabby") was married to <a href="/wiki/William_Stephens_Smith" title="William Stephens Smith">William Stephens Smith</a>, but she returned to her parents' home after the failure of the marriage; she died of <a href="/wiki/Breast_cancer" title="Breast cancer">breast cancer</a> in 1813.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling1992430_289-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling1992430-289"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>285<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Correspondence_with_Jefferson">Correspondence with Jefferson</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Brooklyn_Museum_-_Portrait_of_John_Adams_-_Samuel_Finley_Breese_Morse_-_overall.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="An unsmiling elderly man sits in a red chair, slightly pointing left." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Brooklyn_Museum_-_Portrait_of_John_Adams_-_Samuel_Finley_Breese_Morse_-_overall.jpg/240px-Brooklyn_Museum_-_Portrait_of_John_Adams_-_Samuel_Finley_Breese_Morse_-_overall.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="291" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Brooklyn_Museum_-_Portrait_of_John_Adams_-_Samuel_Finley_Breese_Morse_-_overall.jpg/360px-Brooklyn_Museum_-_Portrait_of_John_Adams_-_Samuel_Finley_Breese_Morse_-_overall.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Brooklyn_Museum_-_Portrait_of_John_Adams_-_Samuel_Finley_Breese_Morse_-_overall.jpg/480px-Brooklyn_Museum_-_Portrait_of_John_Adams_-_Samuel_Finley_Breese_Morse_-_overall.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1266" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption><i>John Adams</i>, a <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1816</span> portrait by <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Morse" title="Samuel Morse">Samuel Morse</a> now on display at the <a href="/wiki/Brooklyn_Museum_of_Art" class="mw-redirect" title="Brooklyn Museum of Art">Brooklyn Museum of Art</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In early 1801, Adams sent Thomas Jefferson a brief note wishing him a happy and prosperous presidency. Jefferson failed to respond, and they did not speak again for nearly 12 years. In 1804, Abigail, unbeknownst to her husband, wrote to Jefferson to express her condolences upon the death of his daughter <a href="/wiki/Mary_Jefferson_Eppes" title="Mary Jefferson Eppes">Polly</a>, who had stayed with the Adamses in London in 1787. This initiated a brief correspondence between the two which quickly descended into political rancor. Jefferson terminated it by not replying to Abigail's fourth letter. Aside from that, by 1812 there had been no communication between <a href="/wiki/Monticello" title="Monticello">Monticello</a>, the home of Jefferson, and Peacefield since Adams left office.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling1992431_290-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling1992431-290"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>286<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In early 1812, Adams reconciled with Jefferson. The previous year had been tragic for Adams; his brother-in-law and friend Richard Cranch had died along with his widow Mary, and Nabby had been diagnosed with breast cancer. These events mellowed Adams and caused him to soften his outlook.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling1992429–430_286-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling1992429–430-286"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>282<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their mutual friend Benjamin Rush, who had been corresponding with both, encouraged them to reach out to each other. On New Year's Day, Adams sent a brief, friendly note to Jefferson to accompany a two-volume collection of lectures on rhetoric by John Quincy Adams. Jefferson replied immediately with a cordial letter, and the two revived their friendship, which they sustained by mail. Their correspondence lasted the rest of their lives, and has been hailed as among their great legacies of American literature. Their letters represent an insight into both the period and the minds of the two revolutionary leaders and presidents. The missives lasted fourteen years, and consisted of 158 letters – 109 from Adams and 49 from Jefferson.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling1992431–432_291-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling1992431–432-291"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>287<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Early on, Adams repeatedly tried to turn the correspondence to a discussion of their actions in the political arena.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001607_292-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001607-292"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>288<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jefferson refused to oblige him, saying that "nothing new can be added by you or me to what has been said by others and will be said in every age."<sup id="cite_ref-293" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-293"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>289<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adams made one more attempt, writing that "You and I ought not to die before we have explained ourselves to each other."<sup id="cite_ref-294" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-294"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>290<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Still, Jefferson declined to engage Adams in this sort of discussion. Adams accepted this, and the correspondence turned to other matters, particularly philosophy and their daily habits.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001608_295-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001608-295"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>291<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-298" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-298"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>e<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As the two grew older, the letters grew fewer and farther between. There was also important information that each man kept to himself. Jefferson said nothing about his construction of a new house, domestic turmoil, slave ownership, or poor financial situation, while Adams did not mention the troublesome behavior of his son Thomas, who had failed as a lawyer and become an alcoholic, resorting afterwards to living primarily as a caretaker at Peacefield.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001634_299-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001634-299"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>294<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Last_years_and_death">Last years and death</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Adams%27_Peacefield.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Peacefield – John Adams's Home" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/John_Adams%27_Peacefield.jpg/240px-John_Adams%27_Peacefield.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/John_Adams%27_Peacefield.jpg/360px-John_Adams%27_Peacefield.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/John_Adams%27_Peacefield.jpg/480px-John_Adams%27_Peacefield.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3872" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Peacefield" title="Peacefield">Peacefield</a>, John Adams's home in <a href="/wiki/Quincy,_Massachusetts" title="Quincy, Massachusetts">Quincy, Massachusetts</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Graves_of_the_Adams,_Quincy,_Massachusetts.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="3 marble sarcophagi, one in the foreground, 2 in the background are seen. 2 are seen with flags of the United States at the top." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Graves_of_the_Adams%2C_Quincy%2C_Massachusetts.JPG/240px-Graves_of_the_Adams%2C_Quincy%2C_Massachusetts.JPG" decoding="async" width="240" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Graves_of_the_Adams%2C_Quincy%2C_Massachusetts.JPG/360px-Graves_of_the_Adams%2C_Quincy%2C_Massachusetts.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Graves_of_the_Adams%2C_Quincy%2C_Massachusetts.JPG/480px-Graves_of_the_Adams%2C_Quincy%2C_Massachusetts.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption>The tombs of John and <a href="/wiki/Abigail_Adams" title="Abigail Adams">Abigail Adams</a> (far) and <a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams" title="John Quincy Adams">John Quincy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Louisa_Adams" title="Louisa Adams">Louisa Adams</a> (near), in the family crypt at <a href="/wiki/United_First_Parish_Church" title="United First Parish Church">United First Parish Church</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Abigail died of <a href="/wiki/Typhoid" class="mw-redirect" title="Typhoid">typhoid</a> on October 28, 1818, at Peacefield.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling1992437_300-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling1992437-300"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>295<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 1824 was filled with excitement in America, featuring a <a href="/wiki/1824_United_States_presidential_election" title="1824 United States presidential election">four-way presidential contest</a> that included John Quincy. The <a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Lafayette" class="mw-redirect" title="Marquis de Lafayette">Marquis de Lafayette</a> toured the country and met with Adams, who greatly enjoyed Lafayette's visit to Peacefield.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001637_301-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001637-301"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>296<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adams was delighted by the election of John Quincy to the presidency. The results became official in February 1825 after a deadlock was decided in the House of Representatives. He remarked, "No man who ever held the office of President would congratulate a friend on obtaining it."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001639_302-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001639-302"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>297<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On July 4, 1826, the 50th anniversary of the adoption of the Declaration of Independence, Adams died of a heart attack at Peacefield at approximately 6:20 pm.<sup id="cite_ref-303" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-303"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>298<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001646–647_304-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001646–647-304"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>299<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His last words included an acknowledgement of his longtime friend and rival: "Thomas Jefferson survives." Adams was unaware that Jefferson had died several hours before.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001646_305-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001646-305"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>300<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllis2003248_306-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllis2003248-306"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>301<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At 90, Adams was the <a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States_by_age" title="List of presidents of the United States by age">longest-lived US president</a> until <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a> surpassed him in 2001.<sup id="cite_ref-307" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-307"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>302<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>John and Abigail Adams's crypt at <a href="/wiki/United_First_Parish_Church" title="United First Parish Church">United First Parish Church</a> in Quincy also contains the bodies of John Quincy and Louisa Adams.<sup id="cite_ref-308" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-308"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>303<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Political_writings">Political writings</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Thoughts_on_Government"><i>Thoughts on Government</i></h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thoughts_on_Government.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="title page of Adam's pamphlet" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Thoughts_on_Government.jpg/240px-Thoughts_on_Government.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="386" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/Thoughts_on_Government.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="402" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Thoughts_on_Government" title="Thoughts on Government">Thoughts on Government</a></i>, a pamphlet written by Adams in 1776</figcaption></figure> <p>During the First Continental Congress, Adams was sometimes solicited for his views on government. While recognizing its importance, Adams had privately criticized <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Thomas Paine</a>'s 1776 pamphlet <i><a href="/wiki/Common_Sense_(pamphlet)" class="mw-redirect" title="Common Sense (pamphlet)">Common Sense</a></i>, which attacked all forms of monarchy, even constitutional monarchy of the sort advocated by <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a>. It supported a unicameral legislature and a weak executive elected by the legislature. According to Adams, the author had "a better hand at pulling down than building."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough200197_309-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough200197-309"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>304<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He believed that the views expressed in the pamphlet were "so democratical, without any restraint or even an attempt at any equilibrium or counter poise, that it must produce confusion and every evil work."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFootKramnick198711_310-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFootKramnick198711-310"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>305<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> What Paine advocated was a radical democracy, incompatible with the system of checks and balances that conservatives like Adams would implement.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGimbel195621_311-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGimbel195621-311"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>306<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the urging of some delegates, Adams committed his views to paper in separate letters. So impressed was Richard Henry Lee that, with Adams's consent, he had the most comprehensive letter printed. Published anonymously in April 1776, it was titled <i><a href="/wiki/Thoughts_on_Government" title="Thoughts on Government">Thoughts on Government</a></i> and styled as "a Letter from a Gentleman to his Friend." Many historians agree that none of Adams's other compositions rivaled the enduring influence of this pamphlet.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling1992155–157_72-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling1992155–157-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Adams advised that the form of government should be chosen to attain the desired ends – the happiness and virtue of the greatest number of people. He wrote, "There is no good government but what is <a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_States" title="Republicanism in the United States">republican</a>. That the only valuable part of the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Constitution of the United Kingdom">British constitution</a> is so because the very definition of a republic is an empire of laws, and not of men." The treatise defended <a href="/wiki/Bicameralism" title="Bicameralism">bicameralism</a>, for "a single assembly is liable to all the vices, follies and frailties of an individual."<sup id="cite_ref-312" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-312"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>307<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adams suggested that there should be a <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">separation of powers</a> between the <a href="/wiki/Executive_(government)" title="Executive (government)">executive</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Judicial" class="mw-redirect" title="Judicial">judicial</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Legislative" class="mw-redirect" title="Legislative">legislative</a> branches, and further recommended that if a continental government were to be formed then it "should sacredly be confined" to certain <a href="/wiki/Enumerated_powers" class="mw-redirect" title="Enumerated powers">enumerated powers</a>. <i>Thoughts on Government</i> was referenced in every state-constitution writing hall. Adams used the letter to attack opponents of independence. He claimed that <a href="/wiki/John_Dickinson" title="John Dickinson">John Dickinson</a>'s fear of republicanism was responsible for his refusal to support independence, and that opposition from Southern planters was rooted in fear that their aristocratic slaveholding status would be endangered.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling1992155–157_72-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling1992155–157-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Massachusetts_Constitution">Massachusetts Constitution</h3></div> <p>After returning from his first mission to France in 1779, Adams was elected to the <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Constitutional_Convention_of_1779%E2%80%931780" title="Massachusetts Constitutional Convention of 1779–1780">Massachusetts Constitutional Convention</a> with the purpose of establishing a new constitution for Massachusetts. He served on a committee of three, also including Samuel Adams and <a href="/wiki/James_Bowdoin" title="James Bowdoin">James Bowdoin</a>, to draft the constitution. The writing fell primarily to John Adams. The resulting <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Massachusetts" title="Constitution of Massachusetts">Constitution of Massachusetts</a> was approved in 1780. It was the first constitution written by a special committee, then ratified by the people, and was the first to feature a bicameral legislature. Included were a distinct executive – though restrained by an executive council – with a qualified (two-thirds) veto, and an independent judicial branch. The judges were given lifetime appointments, to "hold their offices during good behavior."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling1992214–216_313-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling1992214–216-313"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>308<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Constitution affirmed the "duty" of the individual to worship the "Supreme Being," and the right to do so without molestation "in the manner most agreeable to the dictates of his own conscience."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001222_314-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001222-314"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>309<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It established free public education for three years to the children of all citizens.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling1992272_315-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling1992272-315"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>310<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adams was a strong believer in education as a pillar of the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a>. He believed that people "in a State of Ignorance" were more easily enslaved while those "enlightened with knowledge" would be better able to protect their liberties.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurns201376_316-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns201376-316"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>311<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Defence_of_the_Constitutions"><i>Defence of the Constitutions</i></h3></div> <p>Adams's preoccupation with political and governmental affairs, which caused considerable separation from his wife and children, had a distinct familial context, which he articulated in 1780: "I must study Politicks and War that my sons may have the liberty to study Mathematicks and Philosophy. My sons ought to study Geography, natural History, Naval Architecture, navigation, Commerce and Agriculture, in order to give their children a right to study Painting, Poetry, Musick, Architecture, Statuary, Tapestry, and Porcelaine."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling1992174–175_317-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling1992174–175-317"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>312<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While in London, Adams learned of a <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)" title="Constitutional Convention (United States)">convention</a> being planned to amend the <a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a>. In January 1787, he published a work entitled <i>A Defence of the Constitutions of Government of the United States</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-318" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-318"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>313<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The pamphlet repudiated the views of <a href="/wiki/Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot" title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot">Turgot</a> and other European writers as to the viciousness of state government frameworks. He suggested that "the rich, the well-born and the able" should be set apart from other men in a senate – that would prevent them from dominating the lower house. Adams's <i>Defence</i> is described as an articulation of the theory of <a href="/wiki/Mixed_government" title="Mixed government">mixed government</a>. Adams contended that social classes exist in every political society, and that a good government must accept that reality. For centuries, a mixed regime balancing monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy was required to preserve order and liberty.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdams1954xvii_319-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdams1954xvii-319"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>314<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Historian <a href="/wiki/Gordon_S._Wood" title="Gordon S. Wood">Gordon S. Wood</a> maintained that Adams's political philosophy had become irrelevant by the time the Federal Constitution was ratified. By then, American political thought, transformed by more than a decade of vigorous debate as well as formative experiential pressures, had abandoned the classical perception of politics as a mirror of social estates. Americans' new understanding of <a href="/wiki/Popular_sovereignty" title="Popular sovereignty">popular sovereignty</a> was that the citizenry were the sole possessors of power in the nation. Representatives in the government enjoyed mere portions of the people's power and only for a limited time. Adams was thought to have overlooked this evolution and revealed his continued attachment to the older version of politics.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWood2006173–202_320-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood2006173–202-320"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>315<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yet Wood was accused of ignoring Adams's peculiar definition of the term "republic", and his support for a constitution ratified by the people.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThompson1998317_321-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompson1998317-321"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>316<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">separation of powers</a>, Adams wrote that, "Power must be opposed to power, and interest to interest."<sup id="cite_ref-Works_of_John_Adams,_IV:557_322-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Works_of_John_Adams,_IV:557-322"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>317<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This sentiment was later echoed by James Madison's statement that, "[a]mbition must be made to counteract ambition", in <a href="/wiki/Federalist_No._51" title="Federalist No. 51">Federalist No. 51</a>, explaining the separation of powers established under the new Constitution.<sup id="cite_ref-Works_of_John_Adams,_IV:557_322-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Works_of_John_Adams,_IV:557-322"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>317<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-323" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-323"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>318<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adams believed that humans naturally wanted to further their own ambitions, and a single democratically elected house, if left unchecked, would be subject to this error; it needed to be checked by an upper house and an executive. He wrote that a strong executive would defend the people's liberties against "aristocrats" attempting to take it away.<sup id="cite_ref-Ralston_324-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ralston-324"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>319<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Adams first saw the new <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">United States Constitution</a> in late 1787. To Jefferson, he wrote that he read it "with great satisfaction." Adams expressed regret that the president would be unable to make appointments without <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">Senate</a> approval and over the absence of a <a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001379_325-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001379-325"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>320<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Political_philosophy_and_views">Political philosophy and views</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid 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.sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of the <a href="/wiki/Category:Politics" title="Category:Politics">Politics series</a></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="border-top:1px #fafafa solid; border-bottom:1px #fafafa solid; background:#efefef; background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republicanism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abolition_of_monarchy" title="Abolition of monarchy">Anti-monarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-corruption" title="Anti-corruption">Anti-corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_society" title="Civil society">Civil society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civic_virtue" title="Civic virtue">Civic virtue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">Consent of the governed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratization" title="Democratization">Democratization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty#Republican_liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty as non-domination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed_government" title="Mixed government">Mixed government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_representation" title="Political representation">Political representation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_sovereignty" title="Popular sovereignty">Popular sovereignty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_participation_(decision_making)" title="Public participation (decision making)">Public participation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic" title="Republic">Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Res_publica" title="Res publica">Res publica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-governance" title="Self-governance">Self-governance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">Separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_equality" title="Social equality">Social equality</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Schools</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_republicanism" title="Classical republicanism">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_republicanism" title="Modern republicanism">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_republicanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal republicanism">Federal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kemalism" title="Kemalism">Kemalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khomeinism" title="Khomeinism">Khomeinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasserism" title="Nasserism">Nasserism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism#Neo-republicanism" title="Republicanism">Neo-republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venizelism" title="Venizelism">Venizelism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Types</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_republic" title="Autonomous republic">Autonomous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalist_republic" title="Capitalist republic">Capitalist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_republic" title="Christian republic">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_republic" title="Democratic republic">Democratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_republic" title="Federal republic">Federal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_parliamentary_republic" title="Federal parliamentary republic">Federal parliamentary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_empire" title="Republican empire">Imperial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_republic" title="Islamic republic">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_republic" title="Parliamentary republic">Parliamentary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_republic" title="People's republic">People's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_republic" title="Revolutionary republic">Revolutionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Secular republic">Secular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sister_republic" title="Sister republic">Sister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_republic" title="Soviet republic">Soviet</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Philosophers</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Baggini" title="Julian Baggini">Baggini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9s_Bello" title="Andrés Bello">Bello</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Bodin" title="Jean Bodin">Bodin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carlo_Cattaneo" title="Carlo Cattaneo">Cattaneo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophie_Grace_Chappell" title="Sophie Grace Chappell">Chappell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Crick" title="Bernard Crick">Crick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Harrington_(author)" title="James Harrington (author)">Harrington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ted_Honderich" title="Ted Honderich">Honderich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Machiavelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Mazzini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Pettit" title="Philip Pettit">Pettit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Sandel" title="Michael Sandel">Sandel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algernon_Sidney" title="Algernon Sidney">Sidney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cass_Sunstein" title="Cass Sunstein">Sunstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigel_Warburton" title="Nigel Warburton">Warburton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Wollstonecraft" title="Mary Wollstonecraft">Wollstonecraft</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Politicians</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gerry_Adams" title="Gerry Adams">Adams (Gerry)</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Adams (John)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mustafa_Kemal_Atat%C3%BCrk" title="Mustafa Kemal Atatürk">Atatürk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuel_Aza%C3%B1a" title="Manuel Azaña">Azaña</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Bartley" title="Jonathan Bartley">Bartley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tony_Benn" title="Tony Benn">Benn (Tony)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natalie_Bennett" title="Natalie Bennett">Bennett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar" title="Simón Bolívar">Bolívar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maggie_Chapman" title="Maggie Chapman">Chapman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katy_Clark" title="Katy Clark">Clark (Katy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Clarke_(Irish_republican)" title="Tom Clarke (Irish republican)">Clarke (Tom)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Connolly" title="James Connolly">Connolly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell">Cromwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ian_Davidson_(Scottish_politician)" title="Ian Davidson (Scottish politician)">Davidson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Drakeford" title="Mark Drakeford">Drakeford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Etherington" title="Bill Etherington">Etherington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linda_Fabiani" title="Linda Fabiani">Fabiani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Ferguson_(politician)" title="Mark Ferguson (politician)">Ferguson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Flynn" title="Stephen Flynn">Flynn (Stephen)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Gambetta" title="Léon Gambetta">Gambetta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Garibaldi" title="Giuseppe Garibaldi">Garibaldi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle" title="Charles de Gaulle">de Gaulle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jules_Gr%C3%A9vy" title="Jules Grévy">Grévy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nia_Griffith" title="Nia Griffith">Griffith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Griffiths_(Welsh_politician)" title="John Griffiths (Welsh politician)">Griffiths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Harvie" title="Patrick Harvie">Harvie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Hatton" title="Derek Hatton">Hatton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_H%C3%A9bert" title="Jacques Hébert">Hébert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelvin_Hopkins" title="Kelvin Hopkins">Hopkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Huppert" title="Julian Huppert">Huppert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhun_ap_Iorwerth" title="Rhun ap Iorwerth">Iorwerth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glenda_Jackson" title="Glenda Jackson">Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Jay" title="John Jay">Jay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elin_Jones" title="Elin Jones">Jones (Elin)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynne_Jones" title="Lynne Jones">Jones (Lynne)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benito_Ju%C3%A1rez" title="Benito Juárez">Juárez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosie_Kane" title="Rosie Kane">Kane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruhollah_Khomeini" title="Ruhollah Khomeini">Khomeini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugo_La_Malfa" title="Ugo La Malfa">La Malfa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clive_Lewis_(politician)" title="Clive Lewis (politician)">Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Lincoln</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caroline_Lucas" title="Caroline Lucas">Lucas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gillian_Mackay" title="Gillian Mackay">Mackay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lyon_Mackenzie" title="William Lyon Mackenzie">Mackenzie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magid_Magid" title="Magid Magid">Magid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ann_McKechin" title="Ann McKechin">McKechin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chris_Mullin_(politician)" title="Chris Mullin (politician)">Mullin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doug_Naysmith" title="Doug Naysmith">Naysmith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethel_Mannin" title="Ethel Mannin">Mannin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_McDonnell" title="John McDonnell">McDonnell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lisa_Nandy" title="Lisa Nandy">Nandy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jawaharlal_Nehru" title="Jawaharlal Nehru">Nehru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Pound" title="Stephen Pound">Pound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Prescott" title="John Prescott">Prescott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ken_Ritchie" title="Ken Ritchie">Ritchie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximilien_Robespierre" title="Maximilien Robespierre">Robespierre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bethan_Sayed" title="Bethan Sayed">Sayed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ken_Skates" title="Ken Skates">Skates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dennis_Skinner" title="Dennis Skinner">Skinner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lorna_Slater" title="Lorna Slater">Slater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andy_Slaughter" title="Andy Slaughter">Slaughter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cat_Smith" title="Cat Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Spadolini" title="Giovanni Spadolini">Spadolini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dick_Taverne" title="Dick Taverne">Taverne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleftherios_Venizelos" title="Eleftherios Venizelos">Venizelos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Wilson_(Scottish_politician)" title="Bill Wilson (Scottish politician)">Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leanne_Wood" title="Leanne Wood">Wood</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Theoretical works</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Republic_(Plato)" title="Republic (Plato)">Republic</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 375 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_re_publica" title="De re publica">De re publica</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(54–51 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Discourses_on_Livy" title="Discourses on Livy">Discourses on Livy</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1531)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Tenure_of_Kings_and_Magistrates" title="The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates">The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1649)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Commonwealth_of_Oceana" title="The Commonwealth of Oceana">The Commonwealth of Oceana</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1656)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Discourses_Concerning_Government" title="Discourses Concerning Government">Discourses Concerning Government</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1698)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Spirit_of_Law" title="The Spirit of Law">The Spirit of Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1748)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Discourse_on_Inequality" title="Discourse on Inequality">Discourse on Inequality</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1755)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Social_Contract" title="The Social Contract">The Social Contract</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1762)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Federalist_Papers" title="The Federalist Papers">The Federalist Papers</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1787–1788)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rights_of_Man" title="Rights of Man">Rights of Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1791)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_Peace:_A_Philosophical_Sketch" title="Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch">Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1794)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1835–1840)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_Revolution" title="On Revolution">On Revolution</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1963)</span></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">History</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ga%E1%B9%87asa%E1%B9%85gha" title="Gaṇasaṅgha"><span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn">Gaṇasaṅgha</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Athens" title="Classical Athens">Classical Athens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Republic of Venice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Republic of Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Republic of Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_American_wars_of_independence" title="Spanish American wars of independence">Spanish American wars of independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trienio_Liberal" title="Trienio Liberal">Trienio Liberal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution_of_1848" title="French Revolution of 1848">French Revolution of 1848</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/5_October_1910_revolution" title="5 October 1910 revolution">5 October 1910 revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1911_Revolution" title="1911 Revolution">Chinese Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Revolution_of_1918%E2%80%931919" class="mw-redirect" title="German Revolution of 1918–1919">German Revolution of 1918–1919</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_War_of_Independence" title="Turkish War of Independence">Turkish War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_Revolution_of_1921" title="Mongolian Revolution of 1921">Mongolian Revolution of 1921</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/11_September_1922_Revolution" title="11 September 1922 Revolution">11 September 1922 Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1935_Greek_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_attempt" class="mw-redirect" title="1935 Greek coup d'état attempt">1935 Greek coup d'état attempt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">Spanish Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1946_Italian_institutional_referendum" title="1946 Italian institutional referendum">1946 Italian institutional referendum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1952_Egyptian_revolution" title="1952 Egyptian revolution">1952 Egyptian revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/14_July_Revolution" title="14 July Revolution">14 July Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Yemen_Civil_War" title="North Yemen Civil War">North Yemen Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zanzibar_Revolution" title="Zanzibar Revolution">Zanzibar Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1969_Libyan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" class="mw-redirect" title="1969 Libyan coup d'état">1969 Libyan coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1970_Cambodian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1970 Cambodian coup d'état">1970 Cambodian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metapolitefsi" title="Metapolitefsi">Metapolitefsi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Revolution">Iranian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1987_Fijian_coups_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1987 Fijian coups d'état">1987 Fijian coups d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepalese_Civil_War" title="Nepalese Civil War">Nepalese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Barbados" title="Republicanism in Barbados">Barbadian Republic Proclamation</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">National variants</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Antigua_and_Barbuda" title="Republicanism in Antigua and Barbuda">Antigua and Barbuda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Australia" title="Republicanism in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_Bahamas" title="Republicanism in the Bahamas">Bahamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Barbados" title="Republicanism in Barbados">Barbados</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Canada" title="Republicanism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_republicanism" title="Irish republicanism">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Jamaica" title="Republicanism in Jamaica">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-monarchism_in_Japan" title="Anti-monarchism in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Morocco" title="Republicanism in Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_Netherlands" title="Republicanism in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_New_Zealand" title="Republicanism in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Norway" title="Republicanism in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Spain" title="Republicanism in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Sweden" title="Republicanism in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Republicanism in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_republicanism" title="Scottish republicanism">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_republicanism" title="Welsh republicanism">Wales</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_States" title="Republicanism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_radicalism" title="Classical radicalism">Classical radicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_good" title="Common good">Common good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_monarchy" title="Criticism of monarchy">Criticism of monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Egalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Emperor%27s_New_Clothes" title="The Emperor's New Clothes">The Emperor's New Clothes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacobin_(politics)" title="Jacobin (politics)">Jacobinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_republics" title="List of republics">List of republics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism" title="Monarchism">Monarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peasant_republic" title="Peasant republic">Peasant republic</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Primus_inter_pares" title="Primus inter pares">Primus inter pares</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_without_republicans" title="Republic without republicans">Republic without republicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_empire" title="Republican empire">Republican empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Republican Party (disambiguation)">Republican Party</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="background:#efefef;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/16px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/24px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/32px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 2x" 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.tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="border: 4px double #B0161E; border-spacing:0.2em 0;color: var(--color-base, #000);"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">This article is part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Conservatism in the United States">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#B0161E; padding-top:0.25em; font-size:160%; font-weight:normal; color:white; line-height:1em"><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Conservatism in the United States"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:#FFF">Conservatism<br />in the United States</span></a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg/90px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="95" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg/135px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg/180px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="451" data-file-height="476" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #B0161E; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Schools</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compassionate_conservatism" title="Compassionate conservatism">Compassionate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiscal_conservatism" title="Fiscal conservatism">Fiscal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fusionism" title="Fusionism">Fusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_conservatism#Relation_to_American_conservatism" title="Liberal conservatism">Liberal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_conservatism" title="Libertarian conservatism">Libertarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moderate_conservatism" title="Moderate conservatism">Moderate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Movement_conservatism" title="Movement conservatism">Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoconservatism" title="Neoconservatism">Neo-</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoconservatism" title="Paleoconservatism">Paleo-</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postliberalism" title="Postliberalism">Postliberal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-wing_populism#United_States" title="Right-wing populism">Populist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_conservatism" title="Progressive conservatism">Progressive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Social conservatism in the United States">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Straussianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Straussianism">Straussian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditionalist_conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Traditionalist conservatism in the United States">Traditionalist</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #B0161E; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Principles</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_exceptionalism" title="American exceptionalism">American exceptionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_nationalism" title="American nationalism">American nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-communism#United_States" title="Anti-communism">Anti-communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_nationalism#United_States" title="Christian nationalism">Christian nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_civil_religion" title="American civil religion">Civil religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism#United_States" title="Classical liberalism">Classical liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutionalism_in_the_United_States" title="Constitutionalism in the United States">Constitutionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_life" title="Culture of life">Culture of life</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_anti-abortion_movement" title="United States anti-abortion movement">Pro-life</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Familialism#United_States" title="Familialism">Familialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_values" title="Family values">Family values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalism_in_the_United_States" title="Federalism in the United States">Federalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/States%27_rights" title="States' rights">States' rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_essentialism" title="Gender essentialism">Gender essentialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Complementarianism" title="Complementarianism">Complementarianism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Christian_ethics" title="Judeo-Christian ethics">Judeo-Christian values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_order_(politics)" title="Law and order (politics)">Law and order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limited_government" title="Limited government">Limited government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">Meritocracy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_aristocracy" title="Natural aristocracy">Natural aristocracy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_militarism" title="United States militarism">Militarism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peace_through_strength" title="Peace through strength">Peace through strength</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Moral absolutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordered_liberty" title="Ordered liberty">Ordered liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Americanism_(ideology)" title="Americanism (ideology)">Patriotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_property" title="Right to property">Property rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_States" title="Republicanism in the United States">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms_in_the_United_States" title="Right to keep and bear arms in the United States">Right to bear arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supply-side_economics" title="Supply-side economics">Supply-side economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tradition" title="Tradition">Tradition</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #B0161E; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">History</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Loyalist_(American_Revolution)" title="Loyalist (American Revolution)">Loyalists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_chivalry" title="Southern chivalry">Southern chivalry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solid_South" title="Solid South">Solid South</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_humanism_(literature)" title="New humanism (literature)">New Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Agrarians" title="Southern Agrarians">Southern Agrarians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Right_(United_States)" title="Old Right (United States)">Old Right</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Manifesto" title="Conservative Manifesto">Conservative Manifesto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_coalition" title="Conservative coalition">Conservative coalition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/America_First_Committee" title="America First Committee">America First Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McCarthyism" title="McCarthyism">McCarthyism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barry_Goldwater_1964_presidential_campaign" title="Barry Goldwater 1964 presidential campaign">Goldwater campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Right#United_States" title="New Right">New Right</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reagan_era" title="Reagan era">Reagan era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reagan_Doctrine" title="Reagan Doctrine">Reagan Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reaganomics" title="Reaganomics">Reaganomics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoconservatism_and_paleoconservatism" title="Neoconservatism and paleoconservatism">Neo- vs. paleoconservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redeemers" title="Redeemers">Redeemers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Revolution" title="Republican Revolution">Republican Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tea_Party_movement" title="Tea Party movement">Tea Party movement</a></li> <li>Trump era <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_presidency_of_Donald_Trump" title="First presidency of Donald Trump">First term</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_presidency_of_Donald_Trump" title="Second presidency of Donald Trump">Second term</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #B0161E; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Intellectuals</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Adams" title="Henry Adams">Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Anton" title="Michael Anton">Anton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irving_Babbitt" title="Irving Babbitt">Babbitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Bacevich" title="Andrew Bacevich">Bacevich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Bell" title="Daniel Bell">Bell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Bellow" title="Saul Bellow">Bellow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_L._Berger" title="Peter L. Berger">Berger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allan_Bloom" title="Allan Bloom">Bloom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_J._Boorstin" title="Daniel J. Boorstin">Boorstin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_F._Buckley_Jr." title="William F. Buckley Jr.">Buckley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Burgess_(political_scientist)" title="John Burgess (political scientist)">Burgess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Burnham" title="James Burnham">Burnham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_C._Calhoun" title="John C. Calhoun">Calhoun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Carl" title="Jeremy Carl">Carl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whittaker_Chambers" title="Whittaker Chambers">Chambers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Conquest" title="Robert Conquest">Conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Deneen" title="Patrick Deneen">Deneen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Eastman" title="Max Eastman">Eastman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T._S._Eliot" title="T. S. Eliot">Eliot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sam_Francis_(writer)" title="Sam Francis (writer)">Francis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Genovese" title="Eugene Genovese">Genovese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Gottfried" title="Paul Gottfried">Gottfried</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_Davis_Hanson" title="Victor Davis Hanson">Hanson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoram_Hazony" title="Yoram Hazony">Hazony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gertrude_Himmelfarb" title="Gertrude Himmelfarb">Himmelfarb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zora_Neale_Hurston" title="Zora Neale Hurston">Hurston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_V._Jaffa" title="Harry V. Jaffa">Jaffa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willmoore_Kendall" title="Willmoore Kendall">Kendall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Kimball" title="Roger Kimball">Kimball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk" title="Russell Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeane_Kirkpatrick" title="Jeane Kirkpatrick">Kirkpatrick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kreeft" title="Peter Kreeft">Kreeft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irving_Kristol" title="Irving Kristol">Kristol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erik_von_Kuehnelt-Leddihn" title="Erik von Kuehnelt-Leddihn">Kuehnelt-Leddihn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Lasch" title="Christopher Lasch">Lasch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Lind" title="Michael Lind">Lind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H._P._Lovecraft" title="H. P. Lovecraft">Lovecraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glenn_Loury" title="Glenn Loury">Loury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lukacs" title="John Lukacs">Lukacs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Mansfield" title="Harvey Mansfield">Mansfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H._L._Mencken" title="H. L. Mencken">Mencken</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Meyer_(political_philosopher)" title="Frank Meyer (political philosopher)">Meyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Molnar" title="Thomas Molnar">Molnar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Murray_(political_scientist)" title="Charles Murray (political scientist)">Murray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nisbet" title="Robert Nisbet">Nisbet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Pangle" title="Thomas Pangle">Pangle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Crowe_Ransom" title="John Crowe Ransom">Ransom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Rieff" title="Philip Rieff">Rieff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">Santayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Schaeffer" title="Francis Schaeffer">Schaeffer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sowell" title="Thomas Sowell">Sowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss">Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Viereck" title="Peter Viereck">Viereck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_M._Weaver" title="Richard M. Weaver">Weaver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Weyl" title="Nathaniel Weyl">Weyl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Wolfe" title="Tom Wolfe">Wolfe</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #B0161E; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Politicians</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Adams (John)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams" title="John Quincy Adams">Adams (John Quincy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Bolton" title="John Bolton">Bolton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pat_Buchanan" title="Pat Buchanan">Buchanan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">Bush (George H. W.)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">Bush (George W.)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_C._Calhoun" title="John C. Calhoun">Calhoun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dick_Cheney" title="Dick Cheney">Cheney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Clay" title="Henry Clay">Clay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland" title="Grover Cleveland">Cleveland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calvin_Coolidge" title="Calvin Coolidge">Coolidge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ted_Cruz" title="Ted Cruz">Cruz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ron_DeSantis" title="Ron DeSantis">DeSantis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Everett_Dirksen" title="Everett Dirksen">Dirksen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Eisenhower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newt_Gingrich" title="Newt Gingrich">Gingrich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barry_Goldwater" title="Barry Goldwater">Goldwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warren_G._Harding" title="Warren G. Harding">Harding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josh_Hawley" title="Josh Hawley">Hawley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Helms" title="Jesse Helms">Helms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Hoover" title="Herbert Hoover">Hoover (Herbert)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mike_Huckabee" title="Mike Huckabee">Huckabee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Jordan" title="Jim Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Cabot_Lodge" title="Henry Cabot Lodge">Lodge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clare_Boothe_Luce" title="Clare Boothe Luce">Luce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_McCain" title="John McCain">McCain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_McCarthy" title="Joseph McCarthy">McCarthy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitch_McConnell" title="Mitch McConnell">McConnell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_McKinley" title="William McKinley">McKinley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Nixon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarah_Palin" title="Sarah Palin">Palin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rand_Paul" title="Rand Paul">Paul (Rand)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ron_Paul" title="Ron Paul">Paul (Ron)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mike_Pence" title="Mike Pence">Pence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_Pierce" title="Franklin Pierce">Pierce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Randolph_of_Roanoke" title="John Randolph of Roanoke">Randolph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Reagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitt_Romney" title="Mitt Romney">Romney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marco_Rubio" title="Marco Rubio">Rubio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Rumsfeld" title="Donald Rumsfeld">Rumsfeld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Ryan" title="Paul Ryan">Ryan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarah_Huckabee_Sanders" title="Sarah Huckabee Sanders">Sanders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rick_Santorum" title="Rick Santorum">Santorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Sherman" title="John Sherman">Sherman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_A._Taft" title="Robert A. Taft">Taft (Robert)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Howard_Taft" title="William Howard Taft">Taft (William)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Taylor_of_Caroline" title="John Taylor of Caroline">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strom_Thurmond" title="Strom Thurmond">Thurmond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Trump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/JD_Vance" title="JD Vance">Vance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Wallace" title="George Wallace">Wallace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Wolfowitz" title="Paul Wolfowitz">Wolfowitz</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #B0161E; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Jurists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Alito" title="Samuel Alito">Alito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amy_Coney_Barrett" title="Amy Coney Barrett">Barrett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bork" title="Robert Bork">Bork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warren_E._Burger" title="Warren E. Burger">Burger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Colson" title="Charles Colson">Colson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_T._Frelinghuysen" title="Frederick T. Frelinghuysen">Frelinghuysen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_P._George" title="Robert P. George">George</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Goldsmith" title="Jack Goldsmith">Goldsmith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neil_Gorsuch" title="Neil Gorsuch">Gorsuch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lino_Graglia" title="Lino Graglia">Graglia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Marshall_Harlan_II" title="John Marshall Harlan II">Harlan II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brett_Kavanaugh" title="Brett Kavanaugh">Kavanaugh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Kennedy" title="Anthony Kennedy">Kennedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Michael_Luttig" title="J. Michael Luttig">Luttig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_Meese" title="Edwin Meese">Meese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandra_Day_O%27Connor" title="Sandra Day O'Connor">O'Connor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alton_B._Parker" title="Alton B. Parker">Parker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Rehnquist" title="William Rehnquist">Rehnquist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Roberts" title="John Roberts">Roberts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Terry_Sanford" title="Edward Terry Sanford">Sanford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonin_Scalia" title="Antonin Scalia">Scalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeff_Sessions" title="Jeff Sessions">Sessions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Sutherland" title="George Sutherland">Sutherland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Howard_Taft" title="William Howard Taft">Taft (William)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas" title="Clarence Thomas">Thomas (Clarence)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrian_Vermeule" title="Adrian Vermeule">Vermeule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Evans_Whittaker" title="Charles Evans Whittaker">Whittaker</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #B0161E; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Commentators</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sohrab_Ahmari" title="Sohrab Ahmari">Ahmari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glenn_Beck" title="Glenn Beck">Beck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dan_Bongino" title="Dan Bongino">Bongino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Breitbart" title="Andrew Breitbart">Breitbart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pat_Buchanan" title="Pat Buchanan">Buchanan (Pat)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_F._Buckley_Jr." title="William F. Buckley Jr.">Buckley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Caldwell_(journalist)" title="Christopher Caldwell (journalist)">Caldwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tucker_Carlson" title="Tucker Carlson">Carlson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oren_Cass" title="Oren Cass">Cass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Chodorov" title="Frank Chodorov">Chodorov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ann_Coulter" title="Ann Coulter">Coulter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dinesh_D%27Souza" title="Dinesh D'Souza">D'Souza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Derbyshire" title="John Derbyshire">Derbyshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_DiLorenzo" title="Thomas DiLorenzo">DiLorenzo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ross_Douthat" title="Ross Douthat">Douthat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rod_Dreher" title="Rod Dreher">Dreher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larry_Elder" title="Larry Elder">Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Fleming_(political_writer)" title="Thomas Fleming (political writer)">Fleming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonah_Goldberg" title="Jonah Goldberg">Goldberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Grant_(radio_host)" title="Bob Grant (radio host)">Grant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alyssa_Farah_Griffin" title="Alyssa Farah Griffin">Griffin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_van_den_Haag" title="Ernest van den Haag">Van den Haag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sean_Hannity" title="Sean Hannity">Hannity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Hart" title="Jeffrey Hart">Hart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pete_Hegseth" title="Pete Hegseth">Hegseth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Will_Herberg" title="Will Herberg">Herberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Hoover" title="Margaret Hoover">Hoover (Margaret)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laura_Ingraham" title="Laura Ingraham">Ingraham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alex_Jones" title="Alex Jones">Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megyn_Kelly" title="Megyn Kelly">Kelly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlie_Kirk" title="Charlie Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Knowles_(political_commentator)" title="Michael Knowles (political commentator)">Knowles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Krauthammer" title="Charles Krauthammer">Krauthammer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tomi_Lahren" title="Tomi Lahren">Lahren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Levin" title="Mark Levin">Levin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rush_Limbaugh" title="Rush Limbaugh">Limbaugh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heather_Mac_Donald" title="Heather Mac Donald">Mac Donald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Metaxas" title="Eric Metaxas">Metaxas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_John_Neuhaus" title="Richard John Neuhaus">Neuhaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andy_Ngo" title="Andy Ngo">Ngo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_North" title="Oliver North">North</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Novak" title="Robert Novak">Novak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_O%27Reilly_(political_commentator)" title="Bill O'Reilly (political commentator)">O'Reilly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candace_Owens" title="Candace Owens">Owens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Podhoretz" title="Norman Podhoretz">Podhoretz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tim_Pool" title="Tim Pool">Pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Portnoy" title="David Portnoy">Portnoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dennis_Prager" title="Dennis Prager">Prager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pat_Robertson" title="Pat Robertson">Robertson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ben_Shapiro" title="Ben Shapiro">Shapiro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amity_Shlaes" title="Amity Shlaes">Shlaes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Sullivan" title="Andrew Sullivan">Sullivan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matt_Walsh_(political_commentator)" title="Matt Walsh (political commentator)">Walsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Watters" title="Jesse Watters">Watters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Whittle" title="Bill Whittle">Whittle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Will" title="George Will">Will</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucian_Wintrich" title="Lucian Wintrich">Wintrich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Woods" title="Tom Woods">Woods</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #B0161E; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Activists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Abramoff" title="Jack Abramoff">Abramoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Agostinelli" title="Robert Agostinelli">Agostinelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_Ahmanson_Jr." title="Howard Ahmanson Jr.">Ahmanson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Andreessen" class="mw-redirect" title="Mark Andreessen">Andreessen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee_Atwater" title="Lee Atwater">Atwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steve_Bannon" title="Steve Bannon">Bannon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaitlin_Bennett" title="Kaitlin Bennett">Bennett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuri_Bezmenov" title="Yuri Bezmenov">Bezmenov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L._Brent_Bozell_Jr." title="L. Brent Bozell Jr.">Bozell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Cohn" title="Roy Cohn">Cohn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Coors" title="Joseph Coors">Coors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Dans" title="Paul Dans">Dans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Dobson" title="James Dobson">Dobson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terry_Dolan_(activist)" title="Terry Dolan (activist)">Dolan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matt_Drudge" title="Matt Drudge">Drudge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerry_Falwell" title="Jerry Falwell">Falwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_Feulner" title="Edwin Feulner">Feulner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brigitte_Gabriel" title="Brigitte Gabriel">Gabriel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Horowitz" title="David Horowitz">Horowitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Krikorian_(activist)" title="Mark Krikorian (activist)">Krikorian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlie_Kirk" title="Charlie Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Kristol" title="Bill Kristol">Kristol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tim_LaHaye" title="Tim LaHaye">LaHaye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Lindbergh" title="Charles Lindbergh">Lindbergh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Leo" title="Leonard Leo">Leo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_McEntee_(political_aide)" title="John McEntee (political aide)">McEntee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebekah_Mercer" title="Rebekah Mercer">Mercer (Rebekah)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Mercer" title="Robert Mercer">Mercer (Robert)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Miller_(political_advisor)" title="Stephen Miller (political advisor)">Miller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rupert_Murdoch" title="Rupert Murdoch">Murdoch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elon_Musk" title="Elon Musk">Musk</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Views_of_Elon_Musk" title="Views of Elon Musk">Political views</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_O%27Keefe" title="James O'Keefe">O'Keefe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeonmi_Park" title="Yeonmi Park">Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_Phillips_(activist)" title="Howard Phillips (activist)">Phillips</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dennis_Prager" title="Dennis Prager">Prager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Reed" title="Ralph Reed">Reed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Regnery" title="Henry Regnery">Regnery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kevin_Roberts_(political_strategist)" title="Kevin Roberts (political strategist)">Roberts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Rove" title="Karl Rove">Rove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Rufo" title="Christopher Rufo">Rufo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_A._Rusher" title="William A. Rusher">Rusher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Mellon_Scaife" title="Richard Mellon Scaife">Scaife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Schlafly" title="Andrew Schlafly">Schlafly (Andrew)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phyllis_Schlafly" title="Phyllis Schlafly">Schlafly (Phyllis)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Stone" title="Roger Stone">Stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robby_Starbuck" title="Robby Starbuck">Starbuck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Thiel" title="Peter Thiel">Thiel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Viguerie" title="Richard Viguerie">Viguerie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ginni_Thomas" title="Ginni Thomas">Thomas (Ginni)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington">Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Weyrich" title="Paul Weyrich">Weyrich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Wood" title="Robert E. Wood">Wood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scott_Yenor" title="Scott Yenor">Yenor</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #B0161E; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Literature</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Federalist_Papers" title="The Federalist Papers">The Federalist Papers</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1788)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1835–1840)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Notes_on_Democracy" title="Notes on Democracy">Notes on Democracy</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1926)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Southern_Agrarians#I'll_Take_My_Stand" title="Southern Agrarians">I'll Take My Stand</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1930)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Our_Enemy,_the_State" title="Our Enemy, the State">Our Enemy, the State</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1935)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Managerial_Revolution" title="The Managerial Revolution">The Managerial Revolution</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1941)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ideas_Have_Consequences" title="Ideas Have Consequences">Ideas Have Consequences</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1948)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/God_and_Man_at_Yale" title="God and Man at Yale">God and Man at Yale</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1951)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Conservative_Mind" title="The Conservative Mind">The Conservative Mind</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1953)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Conscience_of_a_Conservative" title="The Conscience of a Conservative">The Conscience of a Conservative</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1960)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Choice_Not_an_Echo" title="A Choice Not an Echo">A Choice Not an Echo</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1964)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Losing_Ground_(book)" title="Losing Ground (book)">Losing Ground</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1984)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Conflict_of_Visions" title="A Conflict of Visions">A Conflict of Visions</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1987)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Closing_of_the_American_Mind" title="The Closing of the American Mind">The Closing of the American Mind</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1987)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Bell_Curve:_Intelligence_and_Class_Structure_in_American_Life" class="mw-redirect" title="The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life">The Bell Curve</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1994)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Revolt_of_the_Elites" title="The Revolt of the Elites">The Revolt of the Elites</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1995)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Death_of_the_West" title="The Death of the West">The Death of the West</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2001)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Black_Rednecks_and_White_Liberals" title="Black Rednecks and White Liberals">Black Rednecks and White Liberals</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2005)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hillbilly_Elegy" title="Hillbilly Elegy">Hillbilly Elegy</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2017)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Benedict_Option" title="The Benedict Option">The Benedict Option</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2017)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Why_Liberalism_Failed" title="Why Liberalism Failed">Why Liberalism Failed</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2018)</span></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #B0161E; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Concerns</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_the_United_States" title="Abortion in the United States">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cancel_culture#American_public_opinion" title="Cancel culture">Cancel Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_war#United_States" title="Culture war">Culture war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_multiculturalism#United_States" title="Criticism of multiculturalism">Multiculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disparate_impact#Controversy" title="Disparate impact">"Disparate impact" controversy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2020s_controversies_around_critical_race_theory" title="2020s controversies around critical race theory">CRT controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diversity,_equity,_and_inclusion#Criticism_and_controversy" title="Diversity, equity, and inclusion">DEI controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Griggs_v._Duke_Power_Co." title="Griggs v. Duke Power Co.">Griggs v. Duke Power Co.</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Higher_education_bubble_in_the_United_States" title="Higher education bubble in the United States">Higher ed. bubble</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Go_woke,_go_broke" title="Go woke, go broke">Go woke, go broke</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental,_social,_and_governance#Criticism" title="Environmental, social, and governance">ESG</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Corporate_sociopolitical_activism#Counter-movement" title="Corporate sociopolitical activism">Woke capitalism</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeschooling#United_States" title="Homeschooling">Homeschooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_reduction_in_the_United_States" title="Immigration reduction in the United States">Immigration reduction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_immigration_to_the_United_States" title="Illegal immigration to the United States">Illegal immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_immigration_to_the_United_States_and_crime" title="Illegal immigration to the United States and crime">Immigration and crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexico%E2%80%93United_States_border_crisis" title="Mexico–United States border crisis">Border crisis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence_and_public_policy" title="Intelligence and public policy">Intelligence and public policy</a></li> <li>Constitutional interpretations <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Originalism" title="Originalism">Originalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Textualism" title="Textualism">Textualism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Managerial_state" title="Managerial state">Managerial state</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mudsill_theory" title="Mudsill theory">Mudsill theory</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms_in_the_United_States" title="Right to keep and bear arms in the United States">Second Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sub-replacement_fertility#United_States" title="Sub-replacement fertility">Sub-replacement fertility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unitary_executive_theory" title="Unitary executive theory">Unitary executive</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #B0161E; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Parties</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><b>Active</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Party_(1969)" title="American Party (1969)">American Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Independent_Party" title="American Independent Party">American Independent Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Party_of_New_York_State" title="Conservative Party of New York State">Conservative Party of New York State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_Party_(United_States)" title="Constitution Party (United States)">Constitution Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republican Party</a></li></ul> <p><b>Defunct</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Masonic_Party" title="Anti-Masonic Party">Anti-Masonic Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Union_Party_(United_States)" title="Constitutional Union Party (United States)">Constitutional Union Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic Party</a> (<i>historically, factions</i>) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boll_weevil_(politics)" title="Boll weevil (politics)">Boll weevils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bourbon_Democrat" title="Bourbon Democrat">Bourbon Democrats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Democrat" title="Conservative Democrat">Conservative Democrats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dixiecrat" title="Dixiecrat">Dixiecrats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reagan_Democrats" class="mw-redirect" title="Reagan Democrats">Reagan Democrats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Democrat" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern Democrat">Southern Democrats</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorr_Rebellion" title="Dorr Rebellion">Rhode Island Suffrage Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalist_Party" title="Federalist Party">Federalist Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Republican_Party" title="National Republican Party">National Republican Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American Party">Native American Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whig_Party_(United_States)" title="Whig Party (United States)">Whig Party</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #B0161E; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Think tanks</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acton_Institute" title="Acton Institute">Acton Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville_Institution" title="Alexis de Tocqueville Institution">AdTI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Enterprise_Institute" title="American Enterprise Institute">AEI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Center_for_Security_Policy" title="Center for Security Policy">CSP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Center_for_the_National_Interest" title="Center for the National Interest">Center for the National Interest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claremont_Institute" title="Claremont Institute">Claremont Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competitive_Enterprise_Institute" title="Competitive Enterprise Institute">CEI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Horowitz_Freedom_Center" title="David Horowitz Freedom Center">CSPC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_and_Public_Policy_Center" title="Ethics and Public Policy Center">EPPC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_Research_Institute" title="Family Research Institute">FRI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gatestone_Institute" title="Gatestone Institute">Gatestone Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heartland_Institute" title="Heartland Institute">Heartland Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Heritage_Foundation" title="The Heritage Foundation">The Heritage Foundation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heritage_Action" title="Heritage Action">Heritage Action</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mandate_for_Leadership" title="Mandate for Leadership">Mandate for Leadership</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_2025" title="Project 2025">Project 2025</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoover_Institution" title="Hoover Institution">Hoover Institution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hudson_Institute" title="Hudson Institute">Hudson Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intercollegiate_Studies_Institute" title="Intercollegiate Studies Institute">ISI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison_Program_in_American_Ideals_and_Institutions" title="James Madison Program in American Ideals and Institutions">James Madison Program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leadership_Institute" title="Leadership Institute">Leadership Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Institute_for_Policy_Research" title="Manhattan Institute for Policy Research">Manhattan Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mises_Institute" title="Mises Institute">Mises Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Research_Institute" title="Pacific Research Institute">PRI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_for_the_New_American_Century" title="Project for the New American Century">Project for the New American Century</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Defunct)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ripon_Society" title="Ripon Society">Ripon Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R_Street_Institute" title="R Street Institute">R Street Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rockford_Institute" title="Rockford Institute">Rockford Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_Policy_Network" title="State Policy Network">SPN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sutherland_Institute" title="Sutherland Institute">Sutherland Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_Foundation" title="Tax Foundation">Tax Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witherspoon_Institute" title="Witherspoon Institute">Witherspoon Institute</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #B0161E; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Media</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <p><b>Newspapers</b> </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Tribune" title="Chicago Tribune">Chicago Tribune</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dallas_Morning_News" class="mw-redirect" title="Dallas Morning News">Dallas Morning News</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Epoch_Times" title="The Epoch Times">The Epoch Times</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/New_Hampshire_Union_Leader" title="New Hampshire Union Leader">New Hampshire Union Leader</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Jewish_Voice" title="The Jewish Voice">The Jewish Voice</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Observer" title="The New York Observer">The New York Observer</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/New_York_Post" title="New York Post">New York Post</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Remnant_(newspaper)" title="The Remnant (newspaper)">The Remnant</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal" title="The Wall Street Journal">The Wall Street Journal</a></i> <a href="/wiki/Editorial_board_at_The_Wall_Street_Journal" title="Editorial board at The Wall Street Journal">(editorial board)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Times" title="The Washington Times">The Washington Times</a></i></li></ul> <p><b>Journals</b> </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/American_Affairs" title="American Affairs">American Affairs</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_American_Conservative" title="The American Conservative">The American Conservative</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_American_Spectator" title="The American Spectator">The American Spectator</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/American_Thinker" title="American Thinker">American Thinker</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/City_Journal" title="City Journal">City Journal</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Claremont_Review_of_Books" title="Claremont Review of Books">Claremont Review of Books</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Commentary_(magazine)" title="Commentary (magazine)">Commentary</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Compact_(American_magazine)" title="Compact (American magazine)">Compact</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Chronicles_(magazine)" title="Chronicles (magazine)">Chronicles</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Dispatch" title="The Dispatch">The Dispatch</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/First_Things" title="First Things">First Things</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Imaginative_Conservative" title="The Imaginative Conservative">The Imaginative Conservative</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jewish_World_Review" title="Jewish World Review">Jewish World Review</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Modern_Age_(periodical)" title="Modern Age (periodical)">Modern Age</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/National_Affairs" title="National Affairs">National Affairs</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_National_Interest" title="The National Interest">The National Interest</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/National_Review" title="National Review">National Review</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_New_American" title="The New American">The New American</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_New_Atlantis_(journal)" title="The New Atlantis (journal)">The New Atlantis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_New_Criterion" title="The New Criterion">The New Criterion</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Policy_Review" title="Policy Review">Policy Review</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(defunct)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Public_Discourse" class="mw-redirect" title="Public Discourse">Public Discourse</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Southern_Partisan" title="Southern Partisan">Southern Partisan</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Spectator_USA" class="mw-redirect" title="Spectator USA">Spectator USA</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tablet_(magazine)" title="Tablet (magazine)">Tablet</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Taki%27s_Magazine" title="Taki's Magazine">Taki's Magazine</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Telos_(journal)" title="Telos (journal)">Telos</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Washington_Examiner" title="Washington Examiner">Washington Examiner</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Weekly_Standard" title="The Weekly Standard">The Weekly Standard</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(defunct)</span></li></ul> <p><b>TV channels</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Broadcasting_Network" title="Christian Broadcasting Network">CBN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fox_Business" title="Fox Business">Fox Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fox_News" title="Fox News">Fox News</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newsmax_TV" title="Newsmax TV">Newsmax TV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One_America_News_Network" title="One America News Network">One America News Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VOZ_(media_company)" title="VOZ (media company)">VOZ</a></li></ul> <p><b>Websites</b> </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Babylon_Bee" title="The Babylon Bee">Babylon Bee</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Breitbart_News" title="Breitbart News">Breitbart News</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Bulwark_(website)" title="The Bulwark (website)">The Bulwark</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Campus_Reform" title="Campus Reform">Campus Reform</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Center_Square" title="The Center Square">The Center Square</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Review" title="Conservative Review">Conservative Review</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Daily_Caller" title="The Daily Caller">Daily Caller</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Daily_Signal" title="The Daily Signal">Daily Signal</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Daily_Wire" title="The Daily Wire">Daily Wire</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Discover_the_Networks" title="Discover the Networks">Discover the Networks</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Federalist_(website)" title="The Federalist (website)">The Federalist</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/FrontPage_Magazine" title="FrontPage Magazine">FrontPage Magazine</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Front_Porch_Republic" title="Front Porch Republic">Front Porch Republic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Gateway_Pundit" title="The Gateway Pundit">Gateway Pundit</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hot_Air" title="Hot Air">Hot Air</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Human_Events" title="Human Events">Human Events</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Independent_Journal_Review" title="Independent Journal Review">Independent Journal Review</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/InfoWars" title="InfoWars">InfoWars</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jihad_Watch" title="Jihad Watch">Jihad Watch</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/LifeZette" title="LifeZette">LifeZette</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/NewsBusters" class="mw-redirect" title="NewsBusters">NewsBusters</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/PJ_Media" title="PJ Media">PJ Media</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rare_(website)" title="Rare (website)">Rare</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/RedState" title="RedState">RedState</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Dispatch" title="The Dispatch">The Dispatch</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Townhall" title="Townhall">Townhall</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Twitchy" title="Twitchy">Twitchy</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Washington_Examiner" title="Washington Examiner">Washington Examiner</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Free_Beacon" title="The Washington Free Beacon">The Washington Free Beacon</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Western_Journal" title="The Western Journal">The Western Journal</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/WorldNetDaily" title="WorldNetDaily">WorldNetDaily</a></i></li></ul> <p><b>Other</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blaze_Media" title="Blaze Media">Blaze Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encounter_Books" title="Encounter Books">Encounter Books</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evie_Magazine" title="Evie Magazine">Evie Magazine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_First_TV" title="The First TV">The First</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Imprimis" title="Imprimis">Imprimis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Political_Cesspool" title="The Political Cesspool">The Political Cesspool</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passage_Publishing" title="Passage Publishing">Passage Publishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PragerU" title="PragerU">PragerU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RealClearPolitics" title="RealClearPolitics">RealClearPolitics</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Red_Scare_(podcast)" title="Red Scare (podcast)">Red Scare</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regnery_Publishing" title="Regnery Publishing">Regnery Publishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_Side_Broadcasting_Network" title="Right Side Broadcasting Network">RSBN</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Rubin_Report" title="The Rubin Report">The Rubin Report</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinclair_Broadcast_Group" title="Sinclair Broadcast Group">Sinclair Broadcast Group</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #B0161E; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Other organizations</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <p><b>Economics</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Americans_for_Tax_Reform" title="Americans for Tax Reform">ATR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Club_for_Growth" title="Club for Growth">Club for Growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FreedomWorks" title="FreedomWorks">FreedomWorks</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(defunct)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Federation_of_Independent_Business" title="National Federation of Independent Business">NFIB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Taxpayers_Union" title="National Taxpayers Union">NTU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tea_Party_Patriots" title="Tea Party Patriots">Tea Party Patriots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Chamber_of_Commerce" title="United States Chamber of Commerce">USCC</a></li></ul> <p><b>Gun rights</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gun_Owners_of_America" title="Gun Owners of America">GOA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Association_for_Gun_Rights" title="National Association for Gun Rights">NAGR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Rifle_Association" title="National Rifle Association">NRA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Amendment_Caucus" title="Second Amendment Caucus">Second Amendment Caucus</a></li></ul> <p><b>Identity politics</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ACT_for_America" title="ACT for America"><i>ACT!</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concerned_Women_for_America" title="Concerned Women for America">CWA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Conservative_Citizens" title="Council of Conservative Citizens">Council of Conservative Citizens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gays_Against_Groomers" title="Gays Against Groomers">GAG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_Women%27s_Forum" title="Independent Women's Forum">IWF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Log_Cabin_Republicans" title="Log Cabin Republicans">LCR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moms_for_Liberty" title="Moms for Liberty">Moms for Liberty</a></li></ul> <p><b>Nativist</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Center_for_Immigration_Studies" title="Center for Immigration Studies">CIS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federation_for_American_Immigration_Reform" title="Federation for American Immigration Reform">FAIR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_Restriction_League" title="Immigration Restriction League">Immigration Restriction League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NumbersUSA" title="NumbersUSA">NumbersUSA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oath_Keepers" title="Oath Keepers">Oath Keepers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Percenters" title="Three Percenters">Three Percenters</a></li></ul> <p><b>Religion</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alliance_Defending_Freedom" title="Alliance Defending Freedom">ADF</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_court_cases_involving_Alliance_Defending_Freedom" title="List of court cases involving Alliance Defending Freedom">Court cases</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Center_for_Law_%26_Justice" title="American Center for Law & Justice">ACLJ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Family_Association" title="American Family Association">AFA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Society_for_the_Defense_of_Tradition,_Family_and_Property" title="American Society for the Defense of Tradition, Family and Property">The American TFP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalcedon_Foundation" title="Chalcedon Foundation">Chalcedon Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Coalition_of_America" title="Christian Coalition of America">CCA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Voice_(United_States)" title="Christian Voice (United States)">Christian Voice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eagle_Forum" title="Eagle Forum">Eagle Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_Research_Council" title="Family Research Council">FCR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Fellowship_(Christian_organization)" title="The Fellowship (Christian organization)">The Fellowship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_Freedom_Coalition" title="Faith and Freedom Coalition">FFC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Focus_on_the_Family" title="Focus on the Family">Focus on the Family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundation_for_Moral_Law" title="Foundation for Moral Law">Foundation for Moral Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty_Counsel" title="Liberty Counsel">Liberty Counsel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_Majority" title="Moral Majority">Moral Majority</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(defunct)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Organization_for_Marriage" title="National Organization for Marriage">NOM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Right_to_Life_Committee" title="National Right to Life Committee">NRLC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parents_Television_and_Media_Council" title="Parents Television and Media Council">PTMC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_B._Anthony_Pro-Life_America" title="Susan B. Anthony Pro-Life America">Susan B. Anthony Pro-Life America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_More_Law_Center" title="Thomas More Law Center">Thomas More Law Center</a></li></ul> <p><b>Watchdog groups</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accuracy_in_Media" title="Accuracy in Media">AIM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Econ_Journal_Watch" title="Econ Journal Watch">Econ Journal Watch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_News_Foundation" title="Franklin News Foundation">Franklin News Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_Watch" title="Judicial Watch">JW</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_Research_Center" title="Media Research Center">MRC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/O%27Keefe_Media_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="O'Keefe Media Group">O'Keefe Media Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Veritas" title="Project Veritas">Project Veritas</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(defunct)</span></li></ul> <p><b>Youth/student groups</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Journalism_Center" title="National Journalism Center">NJC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turning_Point_USA" title="Turning Point USA">TPUSA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Young_Americans_for_Freedom" title="Young Americans for Freedom">Young Americans for Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Young_America%27s_Foundation" title="Young America's Foundation">Young America's Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Young_Americans_for_Liberty" title="Young Americans for Liberty">YAL</a></li></ul> <p><b>Miscellaneous</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_85_Fund" title="The 85 Fund">The 85 Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton_Institute_for_the_Study_of_Western_Civilization" title="Alexander Hamilton Institute for the Study of Western Civilization">AHI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Conservative_Union" title="American Conservative Union">ACU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bradley_Foundation" title="Bradley Foundation">Bradley Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Conservative_Caucus" title="The Conservative Caucus">TCC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_for_National_Policy" title="Council for National Policy">CNP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Political_Action_Conference" title="Conservative Political Action Conference">CPAC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Caucus" title="Freedom Caucus">Freedom Caucus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hillsdale_College" title="Hillsdale College">Hillsdale College</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idaho_Freedom_Foundation" title="Idaho Freedom Foundation">IFF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Birch_Society" title="John Birch Society">JBS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_M._Olin_Foundation" title="John M. Olin Foundation">John M. Olin Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty_Fund" title="Liberty Fund">Liberty Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty_University" title="Liberty University">LU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Association_of_Scholars" title="National Association of Scholars">NAS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philadelphia_Society" title="Philadelphia Society">Philadelphia Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regent_University" title="Regent University">Regent University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Study_Committee" title="Republican Study Committee">RSC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk_Center_for_Cultural_Renewal" title="Russell Kirk Center for Cultural Renewal">Russell Kirk Center for Cultural Renewal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas_Public_Policy_Foundation" title="Texas Public Policy Foundation">TPPF</a></li></ul> <p><b>Other</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/America_First_Legal" title="America First Legal">AFL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlas_Network" title="Atlas Network">Atlas Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collegiate_Network" title="Collegiate Network">CN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ConservAmerica" title="ConservAmerica">ConservAmerica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donors_Trust" title="Donors Trust">Donors Trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalist_Society" title="Federalist Society">FedSoc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gab_(social_network)" title="Gab (social network)">Gab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gettr" title="Gettr">Gettr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Conservative_Political_Action_Committee" title="National Conservative Political Action Committee">NCPAC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Justice_Institute" title="Pacific Justice Institute">PJI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parler" title="Parler">Parler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Main_Street_Partnership" title="Republican Main Street Partnership">Republican Main Street Partnership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Right_Stuff_(app)" title="The Right Stuff (app)">The Right Stuff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_for_American_Civic_Renewal" title="Society for American Civic Renewal">SACR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Young_Republicans" title="Young Republicans">YRNF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ziklag_(organization)" title="Ziklag (organization)">Ziklag</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #B0161E; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Movements</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asian_American_and_Pacific_Islands_American_conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Asian American and Pacific Islands American conservatism in the United States">Asian and Pacific Islander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Black conservatism in the United States">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_right" title="Christian right">Christian right</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_reconstructionism#Influence_on_the_Christian_right_in_general" title="Christian reconstructionism">Reconstructionism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_education_movement" title="Classical education movement">Classical education movement</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Paideia" title="Paideia">Paideia</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_Enlightenment" title="Dark Enlightenment">Dark Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Women in conservatism in the United States">Female</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_conservatism#United_States" title="Green conservatism">Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hispanic_and_Latino_conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Hispanic and Latino conservatism in the United States">Hispanic and Latino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_conservatism_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT conservatism in the United States">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_Republican" title="Libertarian Republican">Libertarian republicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_militia_movement" title="American militia movement">Militia movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism_in_the_United_States" title="Monarchism in the United States">Monarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Church_of_Jesus_Christ_of_Latter-day_Saints_and_politics_in_the_United_States" title="The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and politics in the United States">Mormon</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/White_Horse_Prophecy" title="White Horse Prophecy">White Horse Prophecy</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Theodemocracy" title="Theodemocracy">Theodemocracy</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parental_rights_movement" title="Parental rights movement">Parental rights movement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fathers%27_rights_movement" title="Fathers' rights movement">Fathers' rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriot_movement" title="Patriot movement">Patriot movement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Patriot_movement" title="Christian Patriot movement">Christian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_right_(United_States)" title="Radical right (United States)">Radical right</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reactionary_feminism" title="Reactionary feminism">Reactionary feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-libertarianism#United_States" title="Right-libertarianism">Right-libertarianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleolibertarianism" title="Paleolibertarianism">Paleolibertarianism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secession_in_the_United_States" title="Secession in the United States">Secessionism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Confederates" title="Neo-Confederates">Neo-Confederates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas_secession_movements" title="Texas secession movements">in Texas</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trumpism" title="Trumpism">Trumpism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Never_Trump_movement" title="Never Trump movement">Never Trump</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #B0161E; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Related</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agenda_47" title="Agenda 47">Agenda 47</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/America_First_(policy)" title="America First (policy)">America First</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Bibliography of conservatism in the United States">Bibliography of US conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_talk_radio" title="Conservative talk radio">Conservative talk radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dunning_School" title="Dunning School">Dunning School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Factions_in_the_Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Factions in the Republican Party (United States)">GOP factions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="History of conservatism in the United States">History of US conservatism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_modern_American_conservatism" title="Timeline of modern American conservatism">Modern timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_American_conservatives" title="List of American conservatives">List of American conservatives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Conservatism_Conference" title="National Conservatism Conference">NatCon</a></li> <li>Colloquialisms <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Barstool_conservatism" title="Barstool conservatism">Barstool conservatism</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Cuckservative" title="Cuckservative">Cuckservative</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Don%27t_immanentize_the_eschaton!" class="mw-redirect" title="Don't immanentize the eschaton!">Don't immanentize the eschaton!</a>"</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Republicans_pounce" title="Republicans pounce">Republicans pounce</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Republican_in_Name_Only" class="mw-redirect" title="Republican in Name Only">RINO</a></i></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/South_Park_Republican" title="South Park Republican"><i>South Park</i> Republican</a>"</li></ul></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below plainlist" style="padding-bottom:0.22em; border-top:1px solid #AAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAA"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg/15px-DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg/22px-DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg/30px-DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="249" data-file-height="268" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Conservatism" title="Portal:Conservatism">Conservatism portal</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/16px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/24px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">United States portal</a></span></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Conservatism_US" title="Template:Conservatism US"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Conservatism_US" title="Template talk:Conservatism US"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Conservatism_US" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Conservatism US"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Slavery">Slavery</h3></div><p> Adams never owned a <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">slave</a> and declined on principle to use slave labor, saying, </p><blockquote><p>I have, through my whole life, held the practice of slavery in such abhorrence, that I have never owned a negro or any other slave, though I have lived for many years in times, when the practice was not disgraceful, when the best men in my vicinity thought it not inconsistent with their character, and when it has cost me thousands of dollars for the labor and subsistence of free men, which I might have saved by the purchase of negroes at times when they were very cheap.<sup id="cite_ref-326" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-326"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>321<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote><p> Before the war, he occasionally represented slaves in suits for their freedom.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling199277_327-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling199277-327"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>322<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adams generally tried to keep the issue out of national politics, because of the anticipated Southern response during a time when unity was needed to achieve independence. He spoke out in 1777 against a bill to emancipate slaves in Massachusetts, saying that the issue was presently too divisive so the legislation should "sleep for a time." He was against use of black soldiers in the Revolution due to opposition from Southerners.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiencek2004215_328-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiencek2004215-328"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>323<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Slavery was abolished in Massachusetts about 1780, when it was forbidden by implication in the Declaration of Rights that John Adams wrote into the Massachusetts Constitution.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoore1866200–203_329-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoore1866200–203-329"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>324<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Abigail Adams vocally opposed slavery.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough200126_330-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough200126-330"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>325<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Monarchism">Monarchism</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gilbert_Stuart_John_Adams.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="An elderly man sits in a red chair with his arms crossed, looking slightly left." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Gilbert_Stuart_John_Adams.jpg/240px-Gilbert_Stuart_John_Adams.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="284" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Gilbert_Stuart_John_Adams.jpg/360px-Gilbert_Stuart_John_Adams.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Gilbert_Stuart_John_Adams.jpg/480px-Gilbert_Stuart_John_Adams.jpg 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="853" /></a><figcaption><i>John Adams</i>, an 1823 portrait by <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Stuart" title="Gilbert Stuart">Gilbert Stuart</a> completed at the request of his son, <a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams" title="John Quincy Adams">John Quincy</a>, was the last portrait of Adams.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001638_331-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001638-331"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>326<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Adams expressed controversial and shifting views regarding the virtues of monarchical and hereditary political institutions.<sup id="cite_ref-Mark_O._Hatfield,_Vice_Pres_332-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mark_O._Hatfield,_Vice_Pres-332"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>327<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At times he conveyed substantial support for these approaches, suggesting for example that "hereditary monarchy or aristocracy" are the "only institutions that can possibly preserve the laws and liberties of the people."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdams189238_333-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdams189238-333"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>328<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At other times he distanced himself from such ideas, calling himself "a mortal and irreconcilable enemy to Monarchy".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001410_149-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001410-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such denials did not assuage his critics, and Adams was often accused of being a monarchist.<sup id="cite_ref-John_&_Abigail_Adams_334-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-John_&_Abigail_Adams-334"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>329<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historian <a href="/wiki/Clinton_Rossiter" title="Clinton Rossiter">Clinton Rossiter</a> portrays Adams as a revolutionary conservative who sought to balance republicanism with the stability of monarchy to create "<a href="/wiki/Ordered_liberty" title="Ordered liberty">ordered liberty</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERossiter1955114_335-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossiter1955114-335"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>330<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His 1790 <i>Discourses on Davila</i> published in the <i><a href="/wiki/Gazette_of_the_United_States" title="Gazette of the United States">Gazette of the United States</a></i> warned once again of the dangers of unbridled democracy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001421_336-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001421-336"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>331<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many attacks on Adams were scurrilous, including suggestions that he was planning to "crown himself king" and "grooming John Quincy as heir to the throne."<sup id="cite_ref-John_&_Abigail_Adams_334-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-John_&_Abigail_Adams-334"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>329<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The allegations were totally false, he told Jefferson—he never wanted an American monarchy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdams2004466_337-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdams2004466-337"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>332<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adams felt that the great danger was that an <a href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">oligarchy</a> of the wealthy would take hold to the detriment of equality. To counter that danger, the power of the wealthy needed to be channeled by institutions, and checked by a strong executive.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMayville201611–14_338-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMayville201611–14-338"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>333<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ralston_324-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ralston-324"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>319<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religious_views">Religious views</h3></div> <p>According to biographer <a href="/wiki/David_McCullough" title="David McCullough">David McCullough</a>, "Adams was both a devout Christian, and an independent thinker, and he saw no conflict in that."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough200118_339-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough200118-339"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>334<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He believed that regular church service was beneficial to man's moral sense.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEverett196649–57_340-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEverett196649–57-340"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>335<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adams was raised in the <a href="/wiki/Congregational_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Congregational church">Congregational church</a>. In Quincy, the <a href="/wiki/Unitarianism" title="Unitarianism">Unitarian faction</a> was dominant and included Adams and his father. It was a new force in the colonies and denied the <a href="/wiki/Trinity" title="Trinity">Trinity</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Divinity_of_Jesus_Christ" class="mw-redirect" title="Divinity of Jesus Christ">divinity of Jesus Christ</a>. It was opposed by the <a href="/wiki/Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinism">Calvinist</a> faction. In 1825, the Unitarians split off as a separate denomination that included John Adams.<sup id="cite_ref-341" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-341"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>336<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-342" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-342"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>337<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Adams' family was descended from <a href="/wiki/Puritans" title="Puritans">Puritans</a>. Strict Puritanism had profoundly shaped New England's culture, laws, and traditions, and Adams praised the historical Puritans as "bearers of freedom, a cause that still had a holy urgency".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrookhiser200213_343-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrookhiser200213-343"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>338<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adams recalled that his parents "held every Species of <a href="/wiki/Libertine" title="Libertine">Libertinage</a> in ... Contempt and horror".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling199211_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling199211-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Fielding argues that Adams's beliefs synthesized Puritan, <a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">deist</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">humanist</a> concepts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFielding194033–46_344-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFielding194033–46-344"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>339<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Frazer notes that while he shared many perspectives with deists and often used deistic terminology, "Adams clearly was not a deist... Adams did believe in miracles, providence, and, to a certain extent, the Bible as revelation."<sup id="cite_ref-345" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-345"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>340<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1796, Adams denounced <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Thomas Paine</a>'s deistic criticisms of Christianity in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Age_of_Reason" title="The Age of Reason">The Age of Reason</a></i>, saying, "The Christian religion is, above all the religions that ever prevailed or existed in ancient or modern times, the religion of wisdom, virtue, equity and humanity, let the Blackguard Paine say what he will."<sup id="cite_ref-346" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-346"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>341<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Gordon_S._Wood" title="Gordon S. Wood">Gordon S. Wood</a> writes, "Although both Jefferson and Adams denied the <a href="/wiki/Miracle" title="Miracle">miracles</a> of the Bible and the divinity of Christ, Adams always retained a respect for the religiosity of people that Jefferson never had".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWood201716_347-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood201716-347"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>342<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his retirement years, Adams moved closer to more mainstream Enlightenment religious ideals. He blamed institutional Christianity and established churches in Britain and France for causing much suffering but insisted that religion was necessary for society.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling1992433–434_348-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling1992433–434-348"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>343<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historical_reputation">Historical reputation</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_John_Adams" title="Bibliography of John Adams">Bibliography of John Adams</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a> summarized what many thought of Adams, saying "He means well for his country, is always an honest man, often a wise one, but sometimes, and in some things, absolutely out of his senses."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChernow2004518_349-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChernow2004518-349"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>344<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adams strongly felt that he would be forgotten and underappreciated by history. These feelings often manifested themselves through envy and verbal attacks on other Founders.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling1992310_162-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling1992310-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChernow2004520_350-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChernow2004520-350"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>345<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Morgan_(historian)" title="Edmund Morgan (historian)">Edmund Morgan</a> argues, "Adams was ridiculously vain, absurdly jealous, embarrassingly hungry for compliments. But no man ever served his country more selflessly."<sup id="cite_ref-351" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-351"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>346<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Historian <a href="/wiki/George_C._Herring" title="George C. Herring">George C. Herring</a> argued that Adams was the most independent minded of the Founders.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerring200889_352-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring200889-352"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>347<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though he formally aligned with the Federalists, he was somewhat a party unto himself, at times disagreeing with the Federalists as much as he did the Republicans.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChernow2004647_353-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChernow2004647-353"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>348<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was often described as prickly, but his tenacity was fed by decisions made in the face of universal opposition.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerring200889_352-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring200889-352"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>347<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adams was often combative, as he admitted: "[As President] I refused to suffer in silence. I sighed, sobbed, and groaned, and sometimes screeched and screamed. And I must confess to my shame and sorrow that I sometimes swore."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllis199357_354-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllis199357-354"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>349<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Stubbornness was seen as one of his defining traits, a fact for which Adams made no apology. "Thanks to God that he gave me stubbornness when I know I am right," he wrote.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001272_355-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCullough2001272-355"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>350<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His resolve to advance peace with France while maintaining a posture of defense reduced his popularity and contributed to his defeat for reelection.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerring200890–91_356-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring200890–91-356"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>351<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most historians applaud him for avoiding an all-out war with France during his presidency. His signing of the Alien and Sedition Acts is almost always condemned.<sup id="cite_ref-357" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-357"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>352<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to Ferling, Adams's political philosophy fell "out of step" with national trends. The country tended further away from Adams's emphasis on order and the rule of law and towards the Jeffersonian vision of liberty and weak central government. In the years following his retirement, as first <a href="/wiki/Jeffersonian_democracy" title="Jeffersonian democracy">Jeffersonianism</a> and then <a href="/wiki/Jacksonian_democracy" title="Jacksonian democracy">Jacksonian democracy</a> grew to dominate American politics, Adams was largely forgotten.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling19924_358-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling19924-358"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>353<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/1840_United_States_presidential_election" title="1840 United States presidential election">1840 presidential election</a>, <a href="/wiki/Whig_Party_(United_States)" title="Whig Party (United States)">Whig</a> candidate <a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Harrison" title="William Henry Harrison">William Henry Harrison</a> was attacked by <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democrats</a> on the false allegation that he had been a supporter of John Adams.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShafer2016128–129_359-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShafer2016128–129-359"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>354<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adams was eventually subject to criticism from <a href="/wiki/States%27_rights" title="States' rights">states' rights</a> advocates. <a href="/wiki/Edward_A._Pollard" title="Edward A. Pollard">Edward A. Pollard</a>, a strong supporter of the <a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America" title="Confederate States of America">Confederacy</a> during the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a>, singled out Adams, writing: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The first President from the North, John Adams, asserted and essayed to put into practice the supremacy of the "National" power over the states and the citizens thereof. He was sustained in his attempted usurpations by all the New England states and by a powerful public sentiment in each of the Middle States. The "<a href="/wiki/Strict_constructionism" title="Strict constructionism">strict constructionists</a>" of the Constitution were not slow in raising the standard of opposition against a pernicious error.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPollard186212_360-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPollard186212-360"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>355<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>In the 21st century, Adams remains less well known than many of the Founders, in accordance with his predictions. McCullough argued that "[t]he problem with Adams is that most Americans know nothing about him." Todd Leopold of <a href="/wiki/CNN" title="CNN">CNN</a> wrote in 2001 that Adams is "remembered as that guy who served a single term as president between Washington and Jefferson."<sup id="cite_ref-CNN_361-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CNN-361"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>356<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He has always been seen, Ferling says, as "honest and dedicated", but despite his lengthy career in public service, is still overshadowed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling19922–3_362-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling19922–3-362"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>357<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Chinard" title="Gilbert Chinard">Gilbert Chinard</a>, in his 1933 biography of Adams, described him as "staunch, honest, stubborn and somewhat narrow."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChinard1933vi_363-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChinard1933vi-363"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>358<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his 1962 biography, <a href="/wiki/Page_Smith" title="Page Smith">Page Smith</a> lauds Adams for his fight against radicals whose promised reforms portended anarchy and misery. Ferling, in his 1992 biography, writes that "Adams was his own worst enemy."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling19923_364-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling19923-364"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>359<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He criticizes him for his "pettiness ... jealousy, and vanity", and faults his frequent separations from his family. He praises Adams for his willingness to acknowledge his deficiencies and for striving to overcome them.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling19923–4_365-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling19923–4-365"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>360<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bilbao_John_Adams_statue.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Bilbao_John_Adams_statue.jpg/220px-Bilbao_John_Adams_statue.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Bilbao_John_Adams_statue.jpg/330px-Bilbao_John_Adams_statue.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Bilbao_John_Adams_statue.jpg/440px-Bilbao_John_Adams_statue.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>John Adams statue in <a href="/wiki/Bilbao" title="Bilbao">Bilbao</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In 2001, McCullough published the biography <i><a href="/wiki/John_Adams_(book)" title="John Adams (book)">John Adams</a></i>, in which he lauds Adams for consistency and honesty, "plays down or explains away" his more controversial actions, and criticizes Jefferson. The book sold very well and was very favorably received and, along with the Ferling biography, contributed to a rapid resurgence in Adams's reputation.<sup id="cite_ref-366" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-366"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>361<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2008, a <a href="/wiki/John_Adams_(miniseries)" title="John Adams (miniseries)">miniseries</a> was released based on the McCullough biography, featuring <a href="/wiki/Paul_Giamatti" title="Paul Giamatti">Paul Giamatti</a> as Adams.<sup id="cite_ref-367" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-367"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>362<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_memoriam">In memoriam</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_memorials_to_John_Adams" title="List of memorials to John Adams">List of memorials to John Adams</a></div> <p>Adams is commemorated as the namesake of various counties, buildings, and other items.<sup id="cite_ref-OLC_249-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OLC-249"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>246<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-368" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-368"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>363<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-369" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-369"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>364<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One example is the <a href="/wiki/John_Adams_Building" title="John Adams Building">John Adams Building</a> of the Library of Congress, an institution whose existence Adams had signed into law.<sup id="cite_ref-OLC_249-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OLC-249"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>246<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Adams is honored on the <a href="/wiki/Memorial_to_the_56_Signers_of_the_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence">Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence</a> in Washington D.C.<sup id="cite_ref-370" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-370"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>365<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He does not have an individual monument dedicated to him in the city,<sup id="cite_ref-371" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-371"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>366<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although a family <a href="/wiki/Adams_Memorial" title="Adams Memorial">Adams Memorial</a> was authorized in 2001. According to McCullough, "Popular symbolism has not been very generous toward Adams. There is no memorial, no statue ... in his honor in our nation's capital, and to me that is absolutely inexcusable. It's long past time when we should recognize what he did, and who he was."<sup id="cite_ref-372" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-372"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>367<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_history_of_John_Adams" title="Electoral history of John Adams">Electoral history of John Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Founders_Online" title="Founders Online">Founders Online</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_abolitionist_forerunners" title="List of abolitionist forerunners">List of abolitionist forerunners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="List of presidents of the United States">List of presidents of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States_by_previous_experience" title="List of presidents of the United States by previous experience">List of presidents of the United States by previous experience</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Explanatory_notes">Explanatory notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Contemporaneous records used the <a href="/wiki/Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates" title="Old Style and New Style dates">Old Style</a> Julian calendar and the <a href="/wiki/New_Year#Historical_European_new_year_dates" title="New Year">Annunciation Style</a> of enumerating years, recording his birth as October 19, 1735. The British <a href="/wiki/Calendar_(New_Style)_Act_1750" title="Calendar (New Style) Act 1750">Calendar (New Style) Act 1750</a> implemented in 1752 altered the official British dating method to the Gregorian calendar with the start of the year on January<span class="nowrap"> </span>1 (it had been March 25). These changes resulted in dates being moved forward 11 days and an advance of one year for those between January<span class="nowrap"> </span>1 and March 25. For a further explanation, see <a href="/wiki/Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates" title="Old Style and New Style dates">Old Style and New Style dates</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The site of the Adams house is now in <a href="/wiki/Quincy,_Massachusetts" title="Quincy, Massachusetts">Quincy, Massachusetts</a>, which was separated from Braintree and organized as a new town in 1792.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-243"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-243">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jefferson, after entering office, approved a negotiated end to the 1778 alliance, freeing the United States of foreign entanglements, while excusing France from paying indemnities.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling1992423_242-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling1992423-242"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>240<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-265"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-265">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ferling attributes Adams's defeat to five factors: the stronger organization of the Republicans; Federalist disunity; the controversy surrounding the Alien and Sedition Acts; the popularity of Jefferson in the South; and the effective politicking of Burr in <a href="/wiki/New_York_(state)" title="New York (state)">New York</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerling1992404–405_263-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerling1992404–405-263"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>260<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adams wrote, "No party that ever existed knew itself so little or so vainly overrated its own influence and popularity as ours. None ever understood so ill the causes of its own power, or so wantonly destroyed them."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith1962b1053_264-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1962b1053-264"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>261<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Stephen G. Kurtz argues that Hamilton and his supporters were primarily responsible for the destruction of the Federalist Party. They viewed the party as a personal tool and played into the hands of the Jeffersonians by building up a large standing army and creating a feud with Adams.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKurtz1957331_223-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKurtz1957331-223"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>221<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chernow writes that Hamilton believed that by eliminating Adams, he could eventually pick up the pieces of the ruined Federalist Party and lead it back to dominance: "Better to purge Adams and let Jefferson govern for a while than to water down the party's ideological purity with compromises."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChernow2004626_262-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChernow2004626-262"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>259<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-298"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-298">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The two men discussed "<a href="/wiki/Natural_aristocracy" title="Natural aristocracy">natural aristocracy</a>". Jefferson said, "The natural aristocracy I consider as the most precious gift of nature for the instruction, the trusts, and government of society. And indeed it would have been inconsistent in creation to have formed man for the social state, and not to have provided virtue and wisdom enough to manage the concerns of society. May we not even say that the form of government is best which provides most effectually for a pure selection of these natural [aristocrats] into the offices of government?"<sup id="cite_ref-296" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-296"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>292<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adams wondered if it ever would be so clear who these people were, "Your distinction between natural and artificial aristocracy does not appear to me well founded. Birth and wealth are conferred on some men as imperiously by nature, as genius, strength, or beauty. ... When aristocracies are established by human laws and honour, wealth, and power are made hereditary by municipal laws and political institutions, then I acknowledge artificial aristocracy to commence." It would always be true, Adams argued, that fate would bestow influence on some men for reasons other than wisdom and virtue. A good government had to account for that reality.<sup id="cite_ref-297" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-297"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>293<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Office_of_the_Historian-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Office_of_the_Historian_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Office_of_the_Historian_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/adams-john">"John Adams (1735–1826)"</a>. 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U.S. Geological Survey<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 29,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Naming+the+Cascade+Range+Volcanoes+Mount+Adams%2C+Washington&rft.pub=U.S.+Geological+Survey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fvolcanoes.usgs.gov%2Fobservatories%2Fcvo%2FHistorical%2Fnaming_mount_adams.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Adams" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-370"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-370">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nps.gov/places/000/56-signers-of-the-declaration-of-independence-memorial.htm">"56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence Memorial"</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 3,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=56+Signers+of+the+Declaration+of+Independence+Memorial&rft.pub=National+Park+Service&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nps.gov%2Fplaces%2F000%2F56-signers-of-the-declaration-of-independence-memorial.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Adams" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-371"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-371">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeffner2011" class="citation news cs1">Heffner, Alexander (July 1, 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/why-doesnt-john-adams-have-a-memorial-in-washington/2011/06/30/AGTvmrtH_story.html">"Why doesn't John Adams have a memorial in Washington?"</a>. <i>The Washington Post</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 7,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Why+doesn%27t+John+Adams+have+a+memorial+in+Washington%3F&rft.date=2011-07-01&rft.aulast=Heffner&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fopinions%2Fwhy-doesnt-john-adams-have-a-memorial-in-washington%2F2011%2F06%2F30%2FAGTvmrtH_story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Adams" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-372"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-372">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCunningham2016" class="citation news cs1">Cunningham, Lillian (January 17, 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/on-leadership/wp/2016/01/17/the-case-of-the-missing-john-adams-monument/">"The case of the missing John Adams monument"</a>. <i>The Washington Post</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 7,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=The+case+of+the+missing+John+Adams+monument&rft.date=2016-01-17&rft.aulast=Cunningham&rft.aufirst=Lillian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fnews%2Fon-leadership%2Fwp%2F2016%2F01%2F17%2Fthe-case-of-the-missing-john-adams-monument%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Adams" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biographies">Biographies</h3></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChinard1933" class="citation book cs1">Chinard, Gilbert (1933). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lsUKAQAAIAAJ"><i>Honest John Adams</i></a>. Boston: Little, Brown, and Co. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/988108386">988108386</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Honest+John+Adams&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=Little%2C+Brown%2C+and+Co.&rft.date=1933&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F988108386&rft.aulast=Chinard&rft.aufirst=Gilbert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlsUKAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Adams" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDiggins2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Patrick_Diggins" title="John Patrick Diggins">Diggins, John P.</a> (2003). <a href="/wiki/Arthur_M._Schlesinger,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr.">Schlesinger, Arthur M. Jr.</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/johnadams00digg"><i>John Adams</i></a>. The American Presidents. New York: Time Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8050-6937-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8050-6937-2"><bdi>978-0-8050-6937-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=John+Adams&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=The+American+Presidents&rft.pub=Time+Books&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-8050-6937-2&rft.aulast=Diggins&rft.aufirst=John+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fjohnadams00digg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Adams" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEllis1993" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Ellis" title="Joseph Ellis">Ellis, Joseph J.</a> (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dFrb8fGNnUEC&pg=PA1"><i>Passionate Sage: The Character and Legacy of John Adams</i></a>. New Yorkpublisher=W.W. Norton & Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-31133-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-31133-4"><bdi>978-0-393-31133-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Passionate+Sage%3A+The+Character+and+Legacy+of+John+Adams&rft.place=New+Yorkpublisher%3DW.W.+Norton+%26+Co.&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-393-31133-4&rft.aulast=Ellis&rft.aufirst=Joseph+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdFrb8fGNnUEC%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Adams" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFerling1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_E._Ferling" title="John E. Ferling">Ferling, John E.</a> (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yQ6NDVYZ7U0C&pg=PR3"><i>John Adams: A Life</i></a>. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87049-730-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87049-730-8"><bdi>978-0-87049-730-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=John+Adams%3A+A+Life&rft.place=Knoxville&rft.pub=University+of+Tennessee+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-87049-730-8&rft.aulast=Ferling&rft.aufirst=John+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyQ6NDVYZ7U0C%26pg%3DPR3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Adams" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCullough2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_McCullough" title="David McCullough">McCullough, David</a> (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=E9TOxypjZY4C&pg=PA144-IA8"><i>John Adams</i></a>. New York: Simon & Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4165-7588-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4165-7588-7"><bdi>978-1-4165-7588-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=John+Adams&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1-4165-7588-7&rft.aulast=McCullough&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DE9TOxypjZY4C%26pg%3DPA144-IA8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Adams" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorse1884" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Torrey_Morse" title="John Torrey Morse">Morse, John Torey</a> (1884). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=q2ASAAAAYAAJ"><i>John Adams</i></a>. Boston: Houghton, Mifflin, and Company. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/926779205">926779205</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=John+Adams&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=Houghton%2C+Mifflin%2C+and+Company&rft.date=1884&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F926779205&rft.aulast=Morse&rft.aufirst=John+Torey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dq2ASAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Adams" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1962a" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a href="/wiki/Page_Smith" title="Page Smith">Smith, Page</a> (1962a). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qcUKAQAAIAAJ"><i>John Adams</i></a>. Vol. I, 1735–1784. New Yorkpublisher=Doubleday & Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780837123486" title="Special:BookSources/9780837123486"><bdi>9780837123486</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/852986601">852986601</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=John+Adams&rft.place=New+Yorkpublisher%3DDoubleday+%26+Co.&rft.date=1962&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F852986601&rft.isbn=9780837123486&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Page&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqcUKAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Adams" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1962b" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Smith, Page (1962b). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lVwqAAAAYAAJ"><i>John Adams</i></a>. Vol. II, 1784–1826. New York: Doubleday & Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8371-2348-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8371-2348-6"><bdi>978-0-8371-2348-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/852986620">852986620</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=John+Adams&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Doubleday+%26+Co.&rft.date=1962&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F852986620&rft.isbn=978-0-8371-2348-6&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Page&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlVwqAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Adams" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Specialized_studies">Specialized studies</h3></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoydGawalt1999" class="citation book cs1">Boyd, Julian Parks; Gawalt, Gerard W. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fAkaAQAAIAAJ"><i>The Declaration of Independence: the evolution of the text</i></a>. Library of Congress in association with the Thomas Jefferson Memorial Foundation. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8444-0980-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8444-0980-1"><bdi>978-0-8444-0980-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Declaration+of+Independence%3A+the+evolution+of+the+text&rft.pub=Library+of+Congress+in+association+with+the+Thomas+Jefferson+Memorial+Foundation&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-8444-0980-1&rft.aulast=Boyd&rft.aufirst=Julian+Parks&rft.au=Gawalt%2C+Gerard+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfAkaAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Adams" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrookhiser2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Brookhiser" title="Richard Brookhiser">Brookhiser, Richard</a> (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nD4DjnAJ96cC"><i>America's First Dynasty: The Adamses, 1735–1918</i></a>. New York: Simon & Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-4209-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-4209-7"><bdi>978-0-7432-4209-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=America%27s+First+Dynasty%3A+The+Adamses%2C+1735%E2%80%931918&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-7432-4209-7&rft.aulast=Brookhiser&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnD4DjnAJ96cC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Adams" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurns2013" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_MacGregor_Burns" title="James MacGregor Burns">Burns, James MacGregor</a> (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oagaz4yvHOEC"><i>Fire and Light: How the Enlightenment Transformed Our World</i></a>. New York: St. Martin's Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-250-02490-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-250-02490-9"><bdi>978-1-250-02490-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fire+and+Light%3A+How+the+Enlightenment+Transformed+Our+World&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=St.+Martin%27s+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-250-02490-9&rft.aulast=Burns&rft.aufirst=James+MacGregor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Doagaz4yvHOEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Adams" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChernow2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ron_Chernow" title="Ron Chernow">Chernow, Ron</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4PeiDwAAQBAJ"><i>Alexander Hamilton</i></a>. London: Penguin Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-101-20085-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-101-20085-8"><bdi>978-1-101-20085-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alexander+Hamilton&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-101-20085-8&rft.aulast=Chernow&rft.aufirst=Ron&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4PeiDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Adams" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElkinsMcKitrick1993" class="citation book cs1">Elkins, Stanley M.; McKitrick, Eric (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9RyG29bER3QC&pg=PP5"><i>The Age of Federalism</i></a>. Oxford, NY: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-506890-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-506890-0"><bdi>978-0-19-506890-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Age+of+Federalism&rft.place=Oxford%2C+NY&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-19-506890-0&rft.aulast=Elkins&rft.aufirst=Stanley+M.&rft.au=McKitrick%2C+Eric&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9RyG29bER3QC%26pg%3DPP5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Adams" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEllis2003" class="citation book cs1">Ellis, Joseph J. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lsPztgGkYYgC"><i>Founding Brothers: The Revolutionary Generation</i></a>. New York: Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4000-7768-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4000-7768-7"><bdi>978-1-4000-7768-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Founding+Brothers%3A+The+Revolutionary+Generation&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Knopf+Doubleday+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-4000-7768-7&rft.aulast=Ellis&rft.aufirst=Joseph+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlsPztgGkYYgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Adams" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEverett1966" class="citation journal cs1">Everett, Robert B. (1966). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dc.statelibrary.sc.gov/bitstream/handle/10827/23289/SCHA_Proceedings_1966.pdf">"The Mature Religious Thought of John Adams"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Proceedings of the South Carolina Historical Association</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0361-6207">0361-6207</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+South+Carolina+Historical+Association&rft.atitle=The+Mature+Religious+Thought+of+John+Adams&rft.date=1966&rft.issn=0361-6207&rft.aulast=Everett&rft.aufirst=Robert+B.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdc.statelibrary.sc.gov%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F10827%2F23289%2FSCHA_Proceedings_1966.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Adams" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Fea, John. "John Adams and religion." in <i>A Companion to John Adams and John Quincy Adams</i> (2013) pp. 184–198 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TikDDQAAQBAJ&dq=GOFF++%22JOHN+ADAMS%22&pg=PA184">online</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFerling2009" class="citation book cs1">Ferling, John (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1_8MAQAAMAAJ"><i>The Ascent of George Washington: The Hidden Political Genius of an American Icon</i></a>. New York: Bloomsbury Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59691-465-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59691-465-0"><bdi>978-1-59691-465-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ascent+of+George+Washington%3A+The+Hidden+Political+Genius+of+an+American+Icon&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-59691-465-0&rft.aulast=Ferling&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1_8MAQAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Adams" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFielding1940" class="citation journal cs1">Fielding, Howard (1940). "John Adams: Puritan, Deist, Humanist". <i>Journal of Religion</i>. <b>20</b> (1): 33–46. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F482479">10.1086/482479</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-4189">0022-4189</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1198647">1198647</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:170183234">170183234</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Religion&rft.atitle=John+Adams%3A+Puritan%2C+Deist%2C+Humanist&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=33-46&rft.date=1940&rft.issn=0022-4189&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A170183234%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1198647%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F482479&rft.aulast=Fielding&rft.aufirst=Howard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Adams" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFlexner1974" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_Thomas_Flexner" title="James Thomas Flexner">Flexner, James Thomas</a> (1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kTfWDQAAQBAJ"><i>Washington: The Indispensable Man</i></a>. Boston: Little, Brown. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-316-28605-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-316-28605-3"><bdi>978-0-316-28605-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Washington%3A+The+Indispensable+Man&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=Little%2C+Brown&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=978-0-316-28605-3&rft.aulast=Flexner&rft.aufirst=James+Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkTfWDQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Adams" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Georgini, Sara. <i>Household Gods: The Religious Lives of the Adams Family</i> (Oxford University Press, 2019) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Household-Gods-Religious-Lives-Family/dp/0190882581/">excerpt</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGimbel1956" class="citation book cs1">Gimbel, Richard (1956). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Lg4aAAAAMAAJ"><i>A Bibliographical Check List of Common Sense, With an Account of Its Publication</i></a>. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Bibliographical+Check+List+of+Common+Sense%2C+With+an+Account+of+Its+Publication&rft.place=New+Haven%2C+CT&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1956&rft.aulast=Gimbel&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLg4aAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Adams" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerring2008" class="citation book cs1">Herring, George C. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fODT-qOVoiIC&pg=PA150"><i>From colony to superpower: U.S. foreign relations since 1776</i></a>. Oxford, NY: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-974377-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-974377-3"><bdi>978-0-19-974377-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+colony+to+superpower%3A+U.S.+foreign+relations+since+1776&rft.place=Oxford%2C+NY&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-19-974377-3&rft.aulast=Herring&rft.aufirst=George+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfODT-qOVoiIC%26pg%3DPA150&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Adams" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoadley1986" class="citation book cs1">Hoadley, John F. (1986). <i>Origins of American Political Parties: 1789–1803</i>. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8131-5320-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8131-5320-9"><bdi>978-0-8131-5320-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Origins+of+American+Political+Parties%3A+1789%E2%80%931803&rft.place=Lexington&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Kentucky&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-8131-5320-9&rft.aulast=Hoadley&rft.aufirst=John+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Adams" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Holdzkom, Marianne. <i>Remembering John Adams: The Second President in History, Memory and Popular Culture</i> (McFarland, 2023) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gZS1EAAAQBAJ&dq=diplomacy+%22john+adams%22+&pg=PP1">online</a>.</li> <li>Holmes, David L. <i>The Faiths of the Founding Fathers</i> (Oxford University Press, 2006) ch 7, "The Religious Views of John Adams," pp 73–108; also pp 117–121 on Abigail Adams.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolton2010" class="citation book cs1">Holton, Woody (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-4fk5FIvGKoC&dq=%22bird%2C%20Savage%20%26%20Bird%22%20%3B%20%22John%20Adams%22&pg=PA340"><i>Abigail Adams: A Life</i></a>. New York: Atria. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781451607369" title="Special:BookSources/9781451607369"><bdi>9781451607369</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Abigail+Adams%3A+A+Life&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Atria&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9781451607369&rft.aulast=Holton&rft.aufirst=Woody&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-4fk5FIvGKoC%26dq%3D%2522bird%252C%2520Savage%2520%2526%2520Bird%2522%2520%253B%2520%2522John%2520Adams%2522%26pg%3DPA340&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Adams" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHutson1968" class="citation journal cs1">Hutson, James H. (1968). "John Adams' Title Campaign (March 1968)". <i>The New England Quarterly</i>. <b>41</b> (1): 30–39. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F363331">10.2307/363331</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/363331">363331</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+England+Quarterly&rft.atitle=John+Adams%27+Title+Campaign+%28March+1968%29&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=30-39&rft.date=1968&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F363331&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F363331%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Hutson&rft.aufirst=James+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Adams" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKirtley1910" class="citation book cs1">Kirtley, James Samuel (1910). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=d2wx0GfFMaoC&pg=PP76"><i>Half Hour Talks on Character Building: By Self-made Men and Women</i></a>. A. Hamming. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/13927429">13927429</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Half+Hour+Talks+on+Character+Building%3A+By+Self-made+Men+and+Women&rft.pub=A.+Hamming&rft.date=1910&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F13927429&rft.aulast=Kirtley&rft.aufirst=James+Samuel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dd2wx0GfFMaoC%26pg%3DPP76&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Adams" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKurtz1957" class="citation book cs1">Kurtz, Stephen G. (1957). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2xZ3AAAAMAAJ"><i>The Presidency of John Adams: The Collapse of Federalism, 1795–1800</i></a>. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-7101-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-7101-0"><bdi>978-0-8122-7101-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/979781538">979781538</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Presidency+of+John+Adams%3A+The+Collapse+of+Federalism%2C+1795%E2%80%931800&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=1957&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F979781538&rft.isbn=978-0-8122-7101-0&rft.aulast=Kurtz&rft.aufirst=Stephen+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2xZ3AAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Adams" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaier1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Pauline_Maier" title="Pauline Maier">Maier, Pauline</a> (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nm4rAQAAIAAJ"><i>American Scripture: Making the Declaration of Independence</i></a>. New York: Vintage Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-679-77908-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-679-77908-7"><bdi>978-0-679-77908-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Scripture%3A+Making+the+Declaration+of+Independence&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Vintage+Books&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-679-77908-7&rft.aulast=Maier&rft.aufirst=Pauline&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dnm4rAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Adams" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMayville2016" class="citation book cs1">Mayville, Luke (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tIn8CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA11"><i>John Adams and the Fear of American Oligarchy</i></a>. Princeton: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-8369-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-8369-1"><bdi>978-1-4008-8369-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=John+Adams+and+the+Fear+of+American+Oligarchy&rft.place=Princeton&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-4008-8369-1&rft.aulast=Mayville&rft.aufirst=Luke&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtIn8CwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Adams" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcDonald1974" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Forrest_McDonald" title="Forrest McDonald">McDonald, Forrest</a> (1974). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EFB2AAAAMAAJ"><i>The Presidency of George Washington</i></a></span>. American Presidency. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7006-0359-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7006-0359-6"><bdi>978-0-7006-0359-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Presidency+of+George+Washington&rft.place=Lawrence&rft.series=American+Presidency&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Kansas&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=978-0-7006-0359-6&rft.aulast=McDonald&rft.aufirst=Forrest&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEFB2AAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Adams" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiller1997" class="citation book cs1">Miller, Nathan (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PZZWBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA9"><i>The U.S. Navy: A History</i></a> (3rd ed.). Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61251-892-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61251-892-3"><bdi>978-1-61251-892-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+U.S.+Navy%3A+A+History&rft.place=Annapolis%2C+MD&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Naval+Institute+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-1-61251-892-3&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=Nathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPZZWBgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Adams" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoore1866" class="citation book cs1">Moore, George (1866). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ohsEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA201"><i>Notes on the history of slavery in Massachusetts</i></a>. New York: D. Appleton & Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-608-41018-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-608-41018-0"><bdi>978-0-608-41018-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/419266287">419266287</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Notes+on+the+history+of+slavery+in+Massachusetts&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=D.+Appleton+%26+Co.&rft.date=1866&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F419266287&rft.isbn=978-0-608-41018-0&rft.aulast=Moore&rft.aufirst=George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DohsEAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPA201&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Adams" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerry1986" class="citation journal cs1">Perry, James R. (1986). "Supreme Court Appointments, 1789–1801: Criteria, Presidential Style, and the Press of Events". <i>Journal of the Early Republic</i>. <b>6</b> (4): 371–410. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3122645">10.2307/3122645</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3122645">3122645</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Early+Republic&rft.atitle=Supreme+Court+Appointments%2C+1789%E2%80%931801%3A+Criteria%2C+Presidential+Style%2C+and+the+Press+of+Events&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=371-410&rft.date=1986&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3122645&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3122645%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Perry&rft.aufirst=James+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Adams" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPollard1862" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_A._Pollard" title="Edward A. Pollard">Pollard, Edward A.</a> (1862). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZGZGktMxyFYC"><i>The First Year of the War</i></a>. Richmond, VA: West & Johnson. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/79953002">79953002</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+First+Year+of+the+War&rft.place=Richmond%2C+VA&rft.pub=West+%26+Johnson&rft.date=1862&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F79953002&rft.aulast=Pollard&rft.aufirst=Edward+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZGZGktMxyFYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Adams" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRossiter1955" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Clinton_Rossiter" title="Clinton Rossiter">Rossiter, Clinton</a> (1955). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4Vs0AAAAIAAJ"><i>Conservatism in America</i></a>. New York: Knopf. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/440025153">440025153</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Conservatism+in+America&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Knopf&rft.date=1955&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F440025153&rft.aulast=Rossiter&rft.aufirst=Clinton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4Vs0AAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Adams" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Scherr, Arthur (2018). <i>John Adams, Slavery, and Race: Ideas, Politics, and Diplomacy in an Age of Crisis.</i> Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShafer2016" class="citation book cs1">Shafer, Ronald G. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SAxmDAAAQBAJ"><i>Carnival Campaign: How the Rollicking 1840 Campaign of "Tippecanoe and Tyler Too" Changed Presidential Politics Forever</i></a>. Chicago: Review Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61373-543-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61373-543-5"><bdi>978-1-61373-543-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Carnival+Campaign%3A+How+the+Rollicking+1840+Campaign+of+%22Tippecanoe+and+Tyler+Too%22+Changed+Presidential+Politics+Forever&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=Review+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-61373-543-5&rft.aulast=Shafer&rft.aufirst=Ronald+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSAxmDAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Adams" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThompson1998" class="citation book cs1">Thompson, C. Bradley (1998). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DayGAAAAMAAJ"><i>John Adams and the Spirit of Liberty</i></a></span>. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7006-0915-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7006-0915-4"><bdi>978-0-7006-0915-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=John+Adams+and+the+Spirit+of+Liberty&rft.place=Lawrence&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Kansas&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-7006-0915-4&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=C.+Bradley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDayGAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Adams" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWiencek2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Henry_Wiencek" title="Henry Wiencek">Wiencek, Henry</a> (2004). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Nwe82sFg96UC&pg=PA215"><i>An Imperfect God: George Washington, His Slaves, and the Creation of America</i></a></span>. Waterville, ME: Thorndike Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/imperfectgodgeor00wien_0/page/215">215</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7862-6129-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7862-6129-1"><bdi>978-0-7862-6129-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Imperfect+God%3A+George+Washington%2C+His+Slaves%2C+and+the+Creation+of+America&rft.place=Waterville%2C+ME&rft.pages=215&rft.pub=Thorndike+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-7862-6129-1&rft.aulast=Wiencek&rft.aufirst=Henry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNwe82sFg96UC%26pg%3DPA215&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Adams" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWood2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gordon_S._Wood" title="Gordon S. Wood">Wood, Gordon S.</a> (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uOovRxek5AIC&pg=PA54"><i>Revolutionary Characters: What Made the Founders Different</i></a>. London: Penguin Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59420-093-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59420-093-9"><bdi>978-1-59420-093-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Revolutionary+Characters%3A+What+Made+the+Founders+Different&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-59420-093-9&rft.aulast=Wood&rft.aufirst=Gordon+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuOovRxek5AIC%26pg%3DPA54&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Adams" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWood2009" class="citation book cs1">Wood, Gordon S. (2009). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AWI8fmyhN5IC"><i>Empire of Liberty: A history of the Early Republic, 1789–1815</i></a></span>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-974109-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-974109-0"><bdi>978-0-19-974109-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Empire+of+Liberty%3A+A+history+of+the+Early+Republic%2C+1789%E2%80%931815&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-19-974109-0&rft.aulast=Wood&rft.aufirst=Gordon+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAWI8fmyhN5IC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Adams" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWood2017" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gordon_S._Wood" title="Gordon S. Wood">Wood, Gordon S.</a> (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5d8hAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA38"><i>Friends Divided: John Adams and Thomas Jefferson</i></a>. New York: Penguin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7352-2473-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7352-2473-5"><bdi>978-0-7352-2473-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Friends+Divided%3A+John+Adams+and+Thomas+Jefferson&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-7352-2473-5&rft.aulast=Wood&rft.aufirst=Gordon+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5d8hAAAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA38&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Adams" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h3></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdamsAdams1851" class="citation book cs1">Adams, John; <a href="/wiki/Charles_Francis_Adams_Sr." title="Charles Francis Adams Sr.">Adams, Charles Francis</a> (1851). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lWcsAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA392"><i>The Works of John Adams, Second President of the United States: Autobiography, continued. Diary. Essays and controversial papers of the Revolution</i></a>. Vol. 3. Little, Brown.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Works+of+John+Adams%2C+Second+President+of+the+United+States%3A+Autobiography%2C+continued.+Diary.+Essays+and+controversial+papers+of+the+Revolution&rft.pub=Little%2C+Brown&rft.date=1851&rft.aulast=Adams&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Adams%2C+Charles+Francis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlWcsAAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA392&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Adams" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdams1892" class="citation book cs1">Adams, John (1892). Biddle, Alexander (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/oldfamilyletter00rushgoog"><i>Old Family Letters</i></a>. Philadelphia, PA: Press of J.B. Lippincott Co. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/oldfamilyletter00rushgoog/page/n44">38</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Old+Family+Letters&rft.place=Philadelphia%2C+PA&rft.pages=38&rft.pub=Press+of+J.B.+Lippincott+Co.&rft.date=1892&rft.aulast=Adams&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foldfamilyletter00rushgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Adams" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdams2001" class="citation book cs1">Adams, John (2001). Carey, George Wescott (ed.). <i>The Political Writings of John Adams</i>. Washington, D.C.: Gateway Editions.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Political+Writings+of+John+Adams&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pub=Gateway+Editions&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Adams&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Adams" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdams2004" class="citation book cs1">Adams, John (2004). Diggins, John Patrick (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BWdGUN6KPCcC&pg=PA466"><i>The Portable John Adams</i></a>. London: Penguin Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-243778-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-243778-0"><bdi>978-0-14-243778-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Portable+John+Adams&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-14-243778-0&rft.aulast=Adams&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBWdGUN6KPCcC%26pg%3DPA466&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Adams" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdams1954" class="citation book cs1">Adams, John (1954). Peek, George A. Jr. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5jrvsRgk5vwC&pg=PR17"><i>The Political Writings of John Adams: Representative Selections</i></a>. New York: Liberal Arts Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87220-699-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87220-699-1"><bdi>978-0-87220-699-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/52727656">52727656</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Political+Writings+of+John+Adams%3A+Representative+Selections&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Liberal+Arts+Press&rft.date=1954&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F52727656&rft.isbn=978-0-87220-699-1&rft.aulast=Adams&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5jrvsRgk5vwC%26pg%3DPR17&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Adams" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdamsRush1966" class="citation book cs1">Adams, John; Rush, Benjamin (1966). Schutz, John A.; Adair, Douglass (eds.). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/spuroffamedialog0000adam"><i>Spur of Fame, The Dialogues of John Adams and Benjamin Rush, 1805–1813</i></a></span>. Santa Marino, CA: Huntington Library. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86597-287-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-86597-287-2"><bdi>978-0-86597-287-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spur+of+Fame%2C+The+Dialogues+of+John+Adams+and+Benjamin+Rush%2C+1805%E2%80%931813&rft.place=Santa+Marino%2C+CA&rft.pub=Huntington+Library&rft.date=1966&rft.isbn=978-0-86597-287-2&rft.aulast=Adams&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Rush%2C+Benjamin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fspuroffamedialog0000adam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Adams" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdamsTudor1819" class="citation book cs1">Adams, John; <a href="/wiki/William_Tudor" title="William Tudor">Tudor, William</a> (1819). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=slw9AAAAYAAJ"><i>Novanglus, and Massachusettensis: Or, Political Essays, Published in the Years 1774 and 1775, on the Principal Points of Controversy, Between Great Britain and Her Colonies</i></a>. Princeton, NJ: Hews & Gloss. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/33610833">33610833</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Novanglus%2C+and+Massachusettensis%3A+Or%2C+Political+Essays%2C+Published+in+the+Years+1774+and+1775%2C+on+the+Principal+Points+of+Controversy%2C+Between+Great+Britain+and+Her+Colonies&rft.place=Princeton%2C+NJ&rft.pub=Hews+%26+Gloss&rft.date=1819&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F33610833&rft.aulast=Adams&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Tudor%2C+William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dslw9AAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Adams" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdams1965" class="citation book cs1">Adams, John (1965). Wroth, L. Kinvin; Zobel, Hiller B. (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674522503"><i>The Legal Papers of John Adams</i></a>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-52250-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-52250-3"><bdi>978-0-674-52250-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Legal+Papers+of+John+Adams&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1965&rft.isbn=978-0-674-52250-3&rft.aulast=Adams&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hup.harvard.edu%2Fcatalog.php%3Fisbn%3D9780674522503&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Adams" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Butterfield, L. H., et al., eds., <i>The Adams Papers</i> (1961– ). Multivolume letterpress edition of all letters to and from major members of the Adams family, plus their diaries; still incomplete. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.masshist.org/adams_editorial">"The Adams Family Papers Editorial Project"</a>. Masshist.org<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 2,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Adams+Family+Papers+Editorial+Project&rft.pub=Masshist.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.masshist.org%2Fadams_editorial&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Adams" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Butterfield, L. H., ed. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hup.harvard.edu/results-list.php?collection=1165"><i>Adams Family Correspondence.</i></a> Cambridge: Harvard University Press</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCappon,_Lester_J.1959" class="citation book cs1">Cappon, Lester J., ed. (1959). <i>The Adams–Jefferson Letters: The Complete Correspondence Between Thomas Jefferson and Abigail and John Adams</i>. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-4230-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-4230-0"><bdi>978-0-8078-4230-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Adams%E2%80%93Jefferson+Letters%3A+The+Complete+Correspondence+Between+Thomas+Jefferson+and+Abigail+and+John+Adams&rft.place=Chapel+Hill&rft.pub=The+University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=1959&rft.isbn=978-0-8078-4230-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Adams" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFootKramnick1987" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Foot" title="Michael Foot">Foot, Michael</a>; <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Kramnick" title="Isaac Kramnick">Kramnick, Isaac</a>, eds. (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GDRt70vGw9YC"><i>The Thomas Paine Reader</i></a>. Penguin Classics. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-044496-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-044496-4"><bdi>978-0-14-044496-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Thomas+Paine+Reader&rft.pub=Penguin+Classics&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-14-044496-4&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGDRt70vGw9YC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Adams" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Hogan, Margaret; Taylor, C. James, eds. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674057050"><i>My Dearest Friend: Letters of Abigail and John Adams.</i></a> Cambridge: Harvard University Press.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichardson1897" class="citation book cs1">Richardson, James Daniel, ed. (1897). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EUMPAAAAYAAJ"><i>A Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents</i></a>. Vol. 1. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/3144460227">3144460227</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Compilation+of+the+Messages+and+Papers+of+the+Presidents&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=Harvard+University&rft.date=1897&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F3144460227&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEUMPAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Adams" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Taylor, Robert J. et al., eds. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hup.harvard.edu/results-list.php?collection=1340"><i>Papers of John Adams.</i></a> Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_John_Adams" title="Bibliography of John Adams">Bibliography of John Adams</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235611614">.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);margin:0.5em 0;padding:0.2em;line-height:1.5em;font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia-header{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia-listen-to{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia-files{text-align:center;margin-top:10px;margin-bottom:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia-icon{float:left;margin-left:5px;margin-top:10px}.mw-parser-output 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from a revision of this article dated 23 February 2019<span style="display:none"> (<span class="bday dtstart published updated itvstart">2019-02-23</span>)</span>, and does not reflect subsequent edits.</div><div class="spoken-wikipedia-footer">(<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Media_help" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Media help">Audio help</a> · <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Spoken_articles" title="Wikipedia:Spoken articles">More spoken articles</a>)</div></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://founders.archives.gov/about/Adams">The Papers of John Adams</a>, subset of <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://founders.archives.gov/">Founders Online</a> from the <a href="/wiki/National_Archives_and_Records_Administration" title="National Archives and Records Administration">National Archives</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/presidents/adams/">John Adams: A Resource Guide</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080727101213/http://johnadamslibrary.org/">The John Adams Library</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Boston_Public_Library" title="Boston Public Library">Boston Public Library</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.masshist.org/digitaladams/archive/">Adams Family Papers: An Electronic Archive</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Historical_Society" title="Massachusetts Historical Society">Massachusetts Historical Society</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/4660">Works by John Adams</a> at <a href="/wiki/Project_Gutenberg" title="Project Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Adams%2C%20John%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22John%20Adams%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Adams%2C%20John%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22John%20Adams%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Adams%2C%20J%2E%22%20OR%20title%3A%22John%20Adams%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Adams%2C%20John%22%20OR%20description%3A%22John%20Adams%22%29%20OR%20%28%221735-1826%22%20AND%20Adams%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29">Works by or about John Adams</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://librivox.org/author/356">Works by John Adams</a> at <a href="/wiki/LibriVox" title="LibriVox">LibriVox</a> (public domain audiobooks) <span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/15px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" 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.navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="John_Adams" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:John_Adams" title="Template:John Adams"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:John_Adams" title="Template talk:John Adams"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:John_Adams" title="Special:EditPage/Template:John Adams"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="John_Adams" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">John Adams</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="List of presidents of the United States">2nd</a> <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a> (1797–1801)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_vice_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="List of vice presidents of the United States">1st</a> <a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States" title="Vice President of the United States">Vice President of the United States</a> (1789–1797)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_ambassadors_of_the_United_States_to_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of ambassadors of the United States to the United Kingdom">U.S. Minister to the United Kingdom</a> (1785–1788)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_ambassadors_of_the_United_States_to_the_Netherlands" title="List of ambassadors of the United States to the Netherlands">U.S. Minister to the Netherlands</a> (1782–1788)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_delegates_to_the_Continental_Congress" title="List of delegates to the Continental Congress">Delegate</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Second_Continental_Congress" title="Second Continental Congress">Second Continental Congress</a> (1775–1778)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_delegates_to_the_Continental_Congress" title="List of delegates to the Continental Congress">Delegate</a> to the <a href="/wiki/First_Continental_Congress" title="First Continental Congress">First Continental Congress</a> (1774)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Founding of the<br />United States</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Braintree_Instructions" title="Braintree Instructions">Braintree Instructions (1765)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boston_Massacre#Trials" title="Boston Massacre">Boston Massacre defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Association" title="Continental Association">Continental Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petition_to_the_King" title="Petition to the King">Petition to the King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Colonies" title="United Colonies">United Colonies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thoughts_on_Government" title="Thoughts on Government"><i>Thoughts on Government</i> (1776)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee_Resolution" title="Lee Resolution">Lee Resolution (seconded)</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Independence">Declaration of Independence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence#May_15_preamble" title="United States Declaration of Independence">May 15 preamble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Five" title="Committee of Five">Committee of Five</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Model_Treaty" title="Model Treaty">Model Treaty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Amity_and_Commerce_(France%E2%80%93United_States)" title="Treaty of Amity and Commerce (France–United States)">Treaty of Amity and Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Alliance_(1778)" title="Treaty of Alliance (1778)">Treaty of Alliance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Board_of_War" title="Board of War">Board of War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Navy#Secretaries_of_the_Navy" title="United States Secretary of the Navy">Chairman of the Marine Committee, 1775-1779</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Navy" title="Continental Navy">Continental Navy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Staten_Island_Peace_Conference" title="Staten Island Peace Conference">Staten Island Peace Conference</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conference_House" title="Conference House">Conference House</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Massachusetts" title="Constitution of Massachusetts">Constitution of Massachusetts (1780)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1783)" title="Treaty of Paris (1783)">Treaty of Paris, 1783</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplomacy_of_John_Adams" title="Diplomacy of John Adams">Diplomacy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Elections</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1788%E2%80%9389_United_States_presidential_election" title="1788–89 United States presidential election">United States presidential election 1788–1789</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1792_United_States_presidential_election" title="1792 United States presidential election">1792</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1796_United_States_presidential_election" title="1796 United States presidential election">1796</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1800_United_States_presidential_election" title="1800 United States presidential election">1800</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_John_Adams" title="Presidency of John Adams">Presidency</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inauguration_of_John_Adams" title="Inauguration of John Adams">Inauguration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quasi-War" title="Quasi-War">Quasi War with France</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/XYZ_Affair" title="XYZ Affair">XYZ Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_the_Navy" title="United States Department of the Navy">United States Department of the Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/An_Act_further_to_protect_the_commerce_of_the_United_States" title="An Act further to protect the commerce of the United States">Commerce Protection Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps" title="United States Marine Corps">United States Marine Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_of_1800" title="Convention of 1800">Convention of 1800</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Territory" title="Mississippi Territory">Mississippi Organic Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alien_and_Sedition_Acts" title="Alien and Sedition Acts">Alien and Sedition Acts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Naturalization_Act_of_1798" title="Naturalization Act of 1798">Naturalization Act of 1798</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/An_Act_for_the_relief_of_sick_and_disabled_seamen" title="An Act for the relief of sick and disabled seamen">Sick and Disabled Seamen Relief Act</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_Hospital_Service" title="Marine Hospital Service">Marine Hospital Service</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bankruptcy_Act_of_1800" title="Bankruptcy Act of 1800">Bankruptcy Act of 1800</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indiana_Territory" title="Indiana Territory">Indiana Organic Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Trade_Act_of_1800" title="Slave Trade Act of 1800">Slave Trade Act of 1800</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia_Organic_Act_of_1801" title="District of Columbia Organic Act of 1801">District of Columbia Organic Act of 1801</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navy_Department_Library" title="Navy Department Library">Navy Department Library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tellico" title="Treaty of Tellico">Treaty of Tellico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tripoli" title="Treaty of Tripoli">Treaty of Tripoli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midnight_Judges_Act" title="Midnight Judges Act">Midnight Judges Act</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Marbury_v._Madison" title="Marbury v. Madison">Marbury v. Madison</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1797_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1797 State of the Union Address">State of the Union Address (1797</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1798_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1798 State of the Union Address">1798</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1799_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1799 State of the Union Address">1799</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1800_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1800 State of the Union Address">1800)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidential_transition_of_Thomas_Jefferson" class="mw-redirect" title="Presidential transition of Thomas Jefferson">Presidential transition of Thomas Jefferson</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Administration_and_cabinet">Cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_John_Adams" title="List of federal judges appointed by John Adams">Federal judiciary appointments</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other writings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Historical_Society#Collections" title="Massachusetts Historical Society">Massachusetts Historical Society holdings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adams_Papers_Editorial_Project" title="Adams Papers Editorial Project">Adams Papers Editorial Project</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Defence_of_the_Constitutions_of_Government_of_the_United_States_of_America" title="A Defence of the Constitutions of Government of the United States of America">A Defence of the Constitutions of Government of the United States of America</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Letters_of_Mrs._Adams,_the_Wife_of_John_Adams" title="Letters of Mrs. Adams, the Wife of John Adams">Letters of Mrs. Adams, the Wife of John Adams</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Founders_Online" title="Founders Online">Founders Online</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gray_v._Pitts" title="Gray v. Pitts">Gray v. Pitts</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Life and<br />homes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Early_life_and_education">Early life and education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adams_National_Historical_Park" title="Adams National Historical Park">Adams National Historical Park</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Adams_Birthplace" title="John Adams Birthplace">John Adams Birthplace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams_Birthplace" title="John Quincy Adams Birthplace">Family home and John Quincy Adams birthplace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peacefield" title="Peacefield">Peacefield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adams_National_Historical_Park#Stone_Library" title="Adams National Historical Park">Stone Library</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Hall_(Harvard_University)" title="Massachusetts Hall (Harvard University)">Massachusetts Hall, Harvard University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President%27s_House_(Philadelphia)" title="President's House (Philadelphia)">Presidents House, Philadelphia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences" title="American Academy of Arts and Sciences">Co-founder and second president, American Academy of Arts and Sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_First_Parish_Church" title="United First Parish Church">United First Parish Church and gravesite</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_John_Adams" title="Bibliography of John Adams">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_memorials_to_John_Adams" title="List of memorials to John Adams">List of memorials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adams_Memorial" title="Adams Memorial">Adams Memorial</a> (proposed)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Adams_Building" title="John Adams Building">John Adams Building</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffolk_County_Courthouse" title="Suffolk County Courthouse">John Adams Courthouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jefferson_Memorial#Exterior" title="Jefferson Memorial">Jefferson Memorial pediment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidents_of_the_United_States_on_U.S._postage_stamps#John_Adams" title="Presidents of the United States on U.S. postage stamps">U.S. Postage stamps</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(painting)" title="Treaty of Paris (painting)">Treaty of Paris</a></i> (1783 painting)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_Adams_(1799)" title="USS Adams (1799)">USS <i>Adams</i></a> (1799)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_John_Adams_(1799)" title="USS John Adams (1799)">USS <i>John Adams</i></a> (1799)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_Adams_(1874)" title="USS Adams (1874)">USS <i>Adams</i></a> (1874)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_President_Adams_(APA-19)" class="mw-redirect" title="USS President Adams (APA-19)">USS <i>President Adams</i></a> (1941)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_John_Adams_(SSBN-620)" title="USS John Adams (SSBN-620)">USS <i>John Adams</i></a> (1963)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adams_House_(Harvard_College)" title="Adams House (Harvard College)">Adams House at Harvard University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Adams_(New_Hampshire)" title="Mount Adams (New Hampshire)">Mount Adams (New Hampshire,</a> <a href="/wiki/Mount_Adams_(Washington)" title="Mount Adams (Washington)">Washington)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memorial_to_the_56_Signers_of_the_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence">Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Popular culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Profiles_in_Courage_(TV_series)" title="Profiles in Courage (TV series)"><i>Profiles in Courage</i> (1964 series)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Primitive" title="American Primitive"><i>American Primitive</i> (1969 play)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1776_(musical)" title="1776 (musical)"><i>1776</i> (1969 musical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1776_(film)" title="1776 (film)">1972 film)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Adams_Chronicles" title="The Adams Chronicles"><i>The Adams Chronicles</i> (1976 miniseries)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty!" title="Liberty!"><i>Liberty!</i> (1997 documentary series)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty%27s_Kids" title="Liberty's Kids"><i>Liberty's Kids</i> (2002 animated series)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Adams_(book)" title="John Adams (book)"><i>John Adams</i> (2001 book</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Adams_(miniseries)" title="John Adams (miniseries)">2008 miniseries)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_and_Abigail_Adams" title="John and Abigail Adams"><i>John and Abigail Adams</i> (2006 documentary film)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sons_of_Liberty_(miniseries)" title="Sons of Liberty (miniseries)"><i>Sons of Liberty</i> (2015 miniseries)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_(miniseries)" title="Franklin (miniseries)"><i>Franklin</i> (2024 miniseries)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adams_and_Liberty" title="Adams and Liberty">"Adams and Liberty" campaign song</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boston_Public_Library#Overview" title="Boston Public Library">Adams' personal library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Enlightenment" title="American Enlightenment">American Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_Hall" title="Congress Hall">Congress Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalist_Party" title="Federalist Party">Federalist Party</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Federalist_Era" title="Federalist Era">Federalist Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Party_System" title="First Party System">First Party System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_States" title="Republicanism in the United States">republicanism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Philosophical_Society" title="American Philosophical Society">American Philosophical Society</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gazette_of_the_United_States" title="Gazette of the United States">Gazette of the United States</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_American_Museum_(magazine)" title="The American Museum (magazine)">The American Museum</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patriot_(American_Revolution)" title="Patriot (American Revolution)">patriots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Founding Fathers</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Adams_political_family" title="Adams political family">Adams political family</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abigail_Adams" title="Abigail Adams">Abigail Adams</a> <ul><li>wife</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quincy_political_family" title="Quincy political family">Quincy political family</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abigail_Adams_Smith" title="Abigail Adams Smith">Abigail Adams Smith</a> (daughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams" title="John Quincy Adams">John Quincy Adams</a> <ul><li>son</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_John_Quincy_Adams" title="Presidency of John Quincy Adams">presidency</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Adams_(1770%E2%80%931800)" title="Charles Adams (1770–1800)">Charles Adams</a> (son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Boylston_Adams_(1772%E2%80%931832)" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Boylston Adams (1772–1832)">Thomas Boylston Adams</a> (son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_Adams" title="George Washington Adams">George Washington Adams</a> (grandson)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Francis_Adams_Sr." title="Charles Francis Adams Sr.">Charles Francis Adams Sr.</a> (grandson)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Adams_II" title="John Adams II">John Adams II</a> (grandson)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams_II" title="John Quincy Adams II">John Quincy Adams II</a> (great-grandson)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Adams" title="Henry Adams">Henry Adams</a> (great-grandson)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brooks_Adams" title="Brooks Adams">Brooks Adams</a> (great-grandson)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Adams_Sr." title="John Adams Sr.">John Adams Sr.</a> (father)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susanna_Boylston" title="Susanna Boylston">Susanna Boylston</a> (mother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Adams" title="Samuel Adams">Samuel Adams</a> (second cousin)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisa_Adams" title="Louisa Adams">Louisa Adams</a> (daughter-in-law, <a href="/wiki/List_of_first_ladies_of_the_United_States" title="List of first ladies of the United States">first lady</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">← George Washington</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson →</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li>Thomas Jefferson →</li></ul> <ul><li><b><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:John_Adams" title="Category:John Adams">Category</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Continental_Association" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Continental_Association" title="Template:Continental Association"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Continental_Association" title="Template talk:Continental Association"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Continental_Association" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Continental Association"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Continental_Association" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Continental_Association" title="Continental Association">Continental Association</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Signatories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">President of Congress</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peyton_Randolph" title="Peyton Randolph">Peyton Randolph</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New Hampshire</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Sullivan_(general)" title="John Sullivan (general)">John Sullivan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Folsom" title="Nathaniel Folsom">Nathaniel Folsom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Massachusetts Bay</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cushing" title="Thomas Cushing">Thomas Cushing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Adams" title="Samuel Adams">Samuel Adams</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">John Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Treat_Paine" title="Robert Treat Paine">Robert Treat Paine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Rhode Island</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hopkins_(politician)" title="Stephen Hopkins (politician)">Stephen Hopkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Ward_(Rhode_Island_politician)" title="Samuel Ward (Rhode Island politician)">Samuel Ward</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Connecticut</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eliphalet_Dyer" title="Eliphalet Dyer">Eliphalet Dyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Sherman" title="Roger Sherman">Roger Sherman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silas_Deane" title="Silas Deane">Silas Deane</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New York</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Low" title="Isaac Low">Isaac Low</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Alsop" title="John Alsop">John Alsop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Jay" title="John Jay">John Jay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Duane" title="James Duane">James Duane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Livingston" title="Philip Livingston">Philip Livingston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Floyd" title="William Floyd">William Floyd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Wisner" title="Henry Wisner">Henry Wisner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simon_Boerum" title="Simon Boerum">Simon Boerum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New Jersey</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_Kinsey" title="James Kinsey">James Kinsey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Livingston" title="William Livingston">William Livingston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Crane_(Continental_Congress)" title="Stephen Crane (Continental Congress)">Stephen Crane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Smith_(Continental_Congress)" title="Richard Smith (Continental Congress)">Richard Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_De_Hart" title="John De Hart">John De Hart</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pennsylvania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Galloway" title="Joseph Galloway">Joseph Galloway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dickinson" title="John Dickinson">John Dickinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Humphreys" title="Charles Humphreys">Charles Humphreys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Mifflin" title="Thomas Mifflin">Thomas Mifflin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Biddle" title="Edward Biddle">Edward Biddle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Morton_(American_politician)" title="John Morton (American politician)">John Morton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Ross_(American_politician)" title="George Ross (American politician)">George Ross</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">The Lower Counties</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caesar_Rodney" title="Caesar Rodney">Caesar Rodney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_McKean" title="Thomas McKean">Thomas McKean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Read_(American_politician,_born_1733)" title="George Read (American politician, born 1733)">George Read</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Maryland</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Tilghman" title="Matthew Tilghman">Matthew Tilghman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Johnson_(jurist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Johnson (jurist)">Thomas Johnson, Junr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Paca" title="William Paca">William Paca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Chase" title="Samuel Chase">Samuel Chase</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Virginia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Henry_Lee" title="Richard Henry Lee">Richard Henry Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Henry" title="Patrick Henry">Patrick Henry, Junr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Bland" title="Richard Bland">Richard Bland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Harrison_V" title="Benjamin Harrison V">Benjamin Harrison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Pendleton" title="Edmund Pendleton">Edmund Pendleton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North Carolina</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Hooper" title="William Hooper">William Hooper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Hewes" title="Joseph Hewes">Joseph Hewes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Caswell" title="Richard Caswell">Richard Caswell</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South Carolina</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Middleton" title="Henry Middleton">Henry Middleton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Lynch_(statesman)" title="Thomas Lynch (statesman)">Thomas Lynch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Gadsden" title="Christopher Gadsden">Christopher Gadsden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rutledge" title="John Rutledge">John Rutledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Rutledge" title="Edward Rutledge">Edward Rutledge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Association" title="Virginia Association">Virginia Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fairfax_Resolves" title="Fairfax Resolves">Fairfax Resolves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffolk_Resolves" title="Suffolk Resolves">Suffolk Resolves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Continental_Congress" title="First Continental Congress">First Continental Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declaration_and_Resolves_of_the_First_Continental_Congress" title="Declaration and Resolves of the First Continental Congress">Declaration and Resolves of the First Continental Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Thomson" title="Charles Thomson">Charles Thomson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journals_of_the_Continental_Congress" title="Journals of the Continental Congress">Journals of the Continental Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carpenters%27_Hall" title="Carpenters' Hall">Carpenters' Hall</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Display</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Archives_Building" title="National Archives Building">National Archives</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charters_of_Freedom" title="Charters of Freedom">Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Template:United States Declaration of Independence"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Template talk:United States Declaration of Independence"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Special:EditPage/Template:United States Declaration of Independence"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">United States Declaration of Independence</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Physical_history_of_the_United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Physical history of the United States Declaration of Independence">Physical history of the Declaration of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memorial_to_the_56_Signers_of_the_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence">Memorial to the 56 Signers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Founding Fathers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syng_inkstand" title="Syng inkstand">Syng inkstand</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Primary author</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Signing_of_the_United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Signing of the United States Declaration of Independence">Signatories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_Continental_Congress" title="President of the Continental Congress">President of Congress</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Hancock" title="John Hancock">John Hancock</a> (Massachusetts)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New Hampshire</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Bartlett" title="Josiah Bartlett">Josiah Bartlett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Whipple" title="William Whipple">William Whipple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Thornton" title="Matthew Thornton">Matthew Thornton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Massachusetts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Adams" title="Samuel Adams">Samuel Adams</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">John Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Treat_Paine" title="Robert Treat Paine">Robert Treat Paine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elbridge_Gerry" title="Elbridge Gerry">Elbridge Gerry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Rhode Island</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hopkins_(politician)" title="Stephen Hopkins (politician)">Stephen Hopkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Ellery" title="William Ellery">William Ellery</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Connecticut</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Sherman" title="Roger Sherman">Roger Sherman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Huntington_(Connecticut_politician)" title="Samuel Huntington (Connecticut politician)">Samuel Huntington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Williams_(Connecticut_politician)" title="William Williams (Connecticut politician)">William Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Wolcott" title="Oliver Wolcott">Oliver Wolcott</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New York</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Floyd" title="William Floyd">William Floyd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Livingston" title="Philip Livingston">Philip Livingston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Lewis" title="Francis Lewis">Francis Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewis_Morris" title="Lewis Morris">Lewis Morris</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New Jersey</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Stockton_(Continental_Congressman)" title="Richard Stockton (Continental Congressman)">Richard Stockton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Witherspoon" title="John Witherspoon">John Witherspoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Hopkinson" title="Francis Hopkinson">Francis Hopkinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hart_(New_Jersey_politician)" title="John Hart (New Jersey politician)">John Hart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Clark" title="Abraham Clark">Abraham Clark</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pennsylvania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Morris_(financier)" title="Robert Morris (financier)">Robert Morris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Rush" title="Benjamin Rush">Benjamin Rush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Morton_(American_politician)" title="John Morton (American politician)">John Morton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Clymer" title="George Clymer">George Clymer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Smith_(Pennsylvania_politician)" title="James Smith (Pennsylvania politician)">James Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Taylor_(Pennsylvania_politician)" title="George Taylor (Pennsylvania politician)">George Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Wilson_(Founding_Father)" title="James Wilson (Founding Father)">James Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Ross_(American_politician)" title="George Ross (American politician)">George Ross</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Delaware</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Read_(American_politician,_born_1733)" title="George Read (American politician, born 1733)">George Read</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesar_Rodney" title="Caesar Rodney">Caesar Rodney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_McKean" title="Thomas McKean">Thomas McKean</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Maryland</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Chase" title="Samuel Chase">Samuel Chase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Paca" title="William Paca">William Paca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Stone" title="Thomas Stone">Thomas Stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Carroll_of_Carrollton" title="Charles Carroll of Carrollton">Charles Carroll of Carrollton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Virginia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Wythe" title="George Wythe">George Wythe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Henry_Lee" title="Richard Henry Lee">Richard Henry Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Harrison_V" title="Benjamin Harrison V">Benjamin Harrison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nelson_Jr." title="Thomas Nelson Jr.">Thomas Nelson Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Lightfoot_Lee" title="Francis Lightfoot Lee">Francis Lightfoot Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carter_Braxton" title="Carter Braxton">Carter Braxton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North Carolina</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Hooper" title="William Hooper">William Hooper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Hewes" title="Joseph Hewes">Joseph Hewes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Penn_(North_Carolina_politician)" title="John Penn (North Carolina politician)">John Penn</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South Carolina</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Rutledge" title="Edward Rutledge">Edward Rutledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Heyward_Jr." title="Thomas Heyward Jr.">Thomas Heyward Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Lynch_Jr." title="Thomas Lynch Jr.">Thomas Lynch Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Middleton" title="Arthur Middleton">Arthur Middleton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Georgia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Button_Gwinnett" title="Button Gwinnett">Button Gwinett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyman_Hall" title="Lyman Hall">Lyman Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Walton" title="George Walton">George Walton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Delegates voting<br />for Independence<br />(did not sign)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><b>New York</b>: <a href="/wiki/Robert_R._Livingston" title="Robert R. Livingston">Robert R. Livingston</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henry_Wisner" title="Henry Wisner">Henry Wisner</a><br /> <b>Maryland</b>: <a href="/wiki/John_Rogers_(Continental_Congress)" title="John Rogers (Continental Congress)">John Rogers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Matthew_Tilghman" title="Matthew Tilghman">Matthew Tilghman</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Halifax_Resolves" title="Halifax Resolves">Halifax Resolves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Declaration_of_Rights" title="Virginia Declaration of Rights">Virginia Declaration of Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Continental_Congress" title="Second Continental Congress">Second Continental Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee_Resolution" title="Lee Resolution">Lee Resolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Five" title="Committee of Five">Committee of Five</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/All_men_are_created_equal" title="All men are created equal">All men are created equal</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Life,_Liberty_and_the_pursuit_of_Happiness" title="Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness">Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">Consent of the governed</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grievances_of_the_United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Grievances of the United States Declaration of Independence">27 grievances</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_history_of_the_United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Physical history of the United States Declaration of Independence">Document's history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Signing_of_the_United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Signing of the United States Declaration of Independence">signing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Thomson" title="Charles Thomson">Charles Thomson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Matlack" title="Timothy Matlack">Timothy Matlack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journals_of_the_Continental_Congress" title="Journals of the Continental Congress">Journals of the Continental Congress</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Colonies" title="United Colonies">United Colonies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independence_Hall" title="Independence Hall">Independence Hall</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syng_inkstand" title="Syng inkstand">Syng inkstand</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Display<br />and legacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Archives_Building" title="National Archives Building">National Archives</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charters_of_Freedom" title="Charters of Freedom">Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independence_Day_(United_States)" title="Independence Day (United States)">Independence Day</a></li> <li>Anniversaries <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centennial_Exposition" title="Centennial Exposition">Centennial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sesquicentennial_Exposition" title="Sesquicentennial Exposition">Sesquicentennial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Bicentennial" title="United States Bicentennial">Bicentennial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Semiquincentennial" title="United States Semiquincentennial">Semiquincentennial</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memorial_to_the_56_Signers_of_the_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence">Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence</a> (Washington, D.C.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signers_Monument" title="Signers Monument">Signers Monument (Georgia)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_Voting_Independence" title="Congress Voting Independence">Pine portrait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_Independence_(painting)" title="Declaration of Independence (painting)">Trumbull portrait</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Presidents_of_the_United_States" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:US_presidents" title="Template:US presidents"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:US_presidents" title="Template talk:US presidents"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:US_presidents" title="Special:EditPage/Template:US presidents"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Presidents_of_the_United_States" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">Presidents of the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Presidents and<br />presidencies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div style="display:flex"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;flex:1;text-align:left;white-space:nowrap"> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_George_Washington" title="Presidency of George Washington">1789–1797</a>)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">John Adams</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_John_Adams" title="Presidency of John Adams">1797–1801</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Thomas_Jefferson" title="Presidency of Thomas Jefferson">1801–1809</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_James_Madison" title="Presidency of James Madison">1809–1817</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Monroe" title="James Monroe">James Monroe</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_James_Monroe" title="Presidency of James Monroe">1817–1825</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams" title="John Quincy Adams">John Quincy Adams</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_John_Quincy_Adams" title="Presidency of John Quincy Adams">1825–1829</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson" title="Andrew Jackson">Andrew Jackson</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Andrew_Jackson" title="Presidency of Andrew Jackson">1829–1837</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Van_Buren" title="Martin Van Buren">Martin Van Buren</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Martin_Van_Buren" title="Presidency of Martin Van Buren">1837–1841</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Harrison" title="William Henry Harrison">William Henry Harrison</a> (<a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Harrison#Presidency_(1841)" title="William Henry Harrison">1841</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Tyler" title="John Tyler">John Tyler</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_John_Tyler" title="Presidency of John Tyler">1841–1845</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_K._Polk" title="James K. Polk">James K. Polk</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_James_K._Polk" title="Presidency of James K. Polk">1845–1849</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zachary_Taylor" title="Zachary Taylor">Zachary Taylor</a> (<a href="/wiki/Zachary_Taylor#Presidency_(1849–1850)" title="Zachary Taylor">1849–1850</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Millard_Fillmore" title="Millard Fillmore">Millard Fillmore</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Millard_Fillmore" title="Presidency of Millard Fillmore">1850–1853</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_Pierce" title="Franklin Pierce">Franklin Pierce</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Franklin_Pierce" title="Presidency of Franklin Pierce">1853–1857</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Buchanan" title="James Buchanan">James Buchanan</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_James_Buchanan" title="Presidency of James Buchanan">1857–1861</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Abraham_Lincoln" title="Presidency of Abraham Lincoln">1861–1865</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Johnson" title="Andrew Johnson">Andrew Johnson</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Andrew_Johnson" title="Presidency of Andrew Johnson">1865–1869</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Ulysses S. Grant">Ulysses S. Grant</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Presidency of Ulysses S. Grant">1869–1877</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rutherford_B._Hayes" title="Rutherford B. Hayes">Rutherford B. Hayes</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Rutherford_B._Hayes" title="Presidency of Rutherford B. Hayes">1877–1881</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_A._Garfield" title="James A. Garfield">James A. Garfield</a> (<a href="/wiki/James_A._Garfield#Presidency_(1881)" title="James A. Garfield">1881</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chester_A._Arthur" title="Chester A. Arthur">Chester A. Arthur</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Chester_A._Arthur" title="Presidency of Chester A. Arthur">1881–1885</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland" title="Grover Cleveland">Grover Cleveland</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidencies_of_Grover_Cleveland#First_presidency_(1885–1889)" title="Presidencies of Grover Cleveland">1885–1889</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Harrison" title="Benjamin Harrison">Benjamin Harrison</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Benjamin_Harrison" title="Presidency of Benjamin Harrison">1889–1893</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland" title="Grover Cleveland">Grover Cleveland</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidencies_of_Grover_Cleveland#Second_presidency_(1893–1897)" title="Presidencies of Grover Cleveland">1893–1897</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_McKinley" title="William McKinley">William McKinley</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_William_McKinley" title="Presidency of William McKinley">1897–1901</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt">1901–1909</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Howard_Taft" title="William Howard Taft">William Howard Taft</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_William_Howard_Taft" title="Presidency of William Howard Taft">1909–1913</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Woodrow_Wilson" title="Presidency of Woodrow Wilson">1913–1921</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warren_G._Harding" title="Warren G. Harding">Warren G. Harding</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Warren_G._Harding" title="Presidency of Warren G. Harding">1921–1923</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calvin_Coolidge" title="Calvin Coolidge">Calvin Coolidge</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Calvin_Coolidge" title="Presidency of Calvin Coolidge">1923–1929</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Hoover" title="Herbert Hoover">Herbert Hoover</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Herbert_Hoover" title="Presidency of Herbert Hoover">1929–1933</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt">1933–1945</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Harry S. Truman</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Harry_S._Truman" title="Presidency of Harry S. Truman">1945–1953</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower">1953–1961</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="Presidency of John F. Kennedy">1961–1963</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Lyndon B. Johnson</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Presidency of Lyndon B. Johnson">1963–1969</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Richard_Nixon" title="Presidency of Richard Nixon">1969–1974</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerald_Ford" title="Gerald Ford">Gerald Ford</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Gerald_Ford" title="Presidency of Gerald Ford">1974–1977</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jimmy_Carter" title="Jimmy Carter">Jimmy Carter</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Jimmy_Carter" title="Presidency of Jimmy Carter">1977–1981</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Ronald_Reagan" title="Presidency of Ronald Reagan">1981–1989</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">George H. W. Bush</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_George_H._W._Bush" title="Presidency of George H. W. Bush">1989–1993</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Bill_Clinton" title="Presidency of Bill Clinton">1993–2001</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_George_W._Bush" title="Presidency of George W. Bush">2001–2009</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Barack_Obama" title="Presidency of Barack Obama">2009–2017</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Donald Trump</a> (<a href="/wiki/First_presidency_of_Donald_Trump" title="First presidency of Donald Trump">2017–2021</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joe_Biden" title="Joe Biden">Joe Biden</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Joe_Biden" title="Presidency of Joe Biden">2021–present</a>)</li></ol> </div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Presidency<br />timelines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_George_Washington_presidency" title="Timeline of the George Washington presidency">Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_William_McKinley_presidency" title="Timeline of the William McKinley presidency">McKinley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Theodore_Roosevelt_presidency" title="Timeline of the Theodore Roosevelt presidency">T. Roosevelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_William_Howard_Taft_presidency" title="Timeline of the William Howard Taft presidency">Taft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Woodrow_Wilson_presidency" title="Timeline of the Woodrow Wilson presidency">Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Warren_G._Harding_presidency" title="Timeline of the Warren G. Harding presidency">Harding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Calvin_Coolidge_presidency" title="Timeline of the Calvin Coolidge presidency">Coolidge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Herbert_Hoover_presidency" title="Timeline of the Herbert Hoover presidency">Hoover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Franklin_D._Roosevelt_presidency" title="Timeline of the Franklin D. Roosevelt presidency">F. D. Roosevelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Harry_S._Truman_presidency" title="Timeline of the Harry S. Truman presidency">Truman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Dwight_D._Eisenhower_presidency" title="Timeline of the Dwight D. Eisenhower presidency">Eisenhower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_John_F._Kennedy_presidency" title="Timeline of the John F. Kennedy presidency">Kennedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Lyndon_B._Johnson_presidency" title="Timeline of the Lyndon B. Johnson presidency">L. B. Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Richard_Nixon_presidency" title="Timeline of the Richard Nixon presidency">Nixon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Gerald_Ford_presidency" title="Timeline of the Gerald Ford presidency">Ford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Jimmy_Carter_presidency" title="Timeline of the Jimmy Carter presidency">Carter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Ronald_Reagan_presidency" title="Timeline of the Ronald Reagan presidency">Reagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_George_H._W._Bush_presidency" title="Timeline of the George H. W. Bush presidency">G. H. W. Bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Bill_Clinton_presidency" title="Timeline of the Bill Clinton presidency">Clinton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_George_W._Bush_presidency" title="Timeline of the George W. Bush presidency">G. W. Bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Barack_Obama_presidency" title="Timeline of the Barack Obama presidency">Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Donald_Trump_presidencies" title="Timeline of the Donald Trump presidencies">Trump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Joe_Biden_presidency" title="Timeline of the Joe Biden presidency">Biden</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Presidents_of_the_United_States" title="Category:Presidents of the United States">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="List-Class article"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="List of presidents of the United States">List</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Offices_and_distinctions" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#e8e8ff;"><div id="Offices_and_distinctions" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Offices and distinctions</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-size:114%"><div style="padding:0px"> <table class="wikitable succession-box noprint" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:small;clear:both;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #ccccff;">Political offices </th></tr> <tr> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="3"><b>Office established </b> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"><b> Delegate from <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts" title="Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Continental_Congress" title="Continental Congress">Continental Congress</a> </b><br />1774–1777 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Holten" title="Samuel Holten">Samuel Holten</a></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"><b> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Navy" title="United States Secretary of the Navy">Chairman of the Marine Committee</a> </b><br />1775–1779 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Francis_Lewis" title="Francis Lewis">Francis Lewis</a> (Continental Board of Admiralty)</div> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"><b> <a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States" title="Vice President of the United States">Vice President of the United States</a> </b><br />1789–1797 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a></div> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"><b> <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a> </b><br />1797–1801 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a></div> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #FACEFF;">Diplomatic posts </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Silas_Deane" title="Silas Deane">Silas Deane</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"><b> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Ambassador_to_France" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Ambassador to France">United States Envoy to France</a> </b><br />1777–1779 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="2"><b>Office established </b> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"><b> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Ambassador_to_the_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Ambassador to the Netherlands">United States Minister to the Netherlands</a> </b><br />1782–1788 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Charles_W._F._Dumas" title="Charles W. F. Dumas">Charles W. F. Dumas</a> (acting)</div> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"><b> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Ambassador_to_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Ambassador to the United Kingdom">United States Minister to the United Kingdom</a> </b><br />1785–1788 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Pinckney" title="Thomas Pinckney">Thomas Pinckney</a></div> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #FFBF00;">Party political offices </th></tr> <tr> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"><b>New political party</b> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"><b> <a href="/wiki/Federalist_Party" title="Federalist Party">Federalist</a> nominee for President of the United States </b><br /><a href="/wiki/1796_United_States_presidential_election" title="1796 United States presidential election">1796</a>, <a href="/wiki/1800_United_States_presidential_election" title="1800 United States presidential election">1800</a> </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Cotesworth_Pinckney" title="Charles Cotesworth Pinckney">Charles Cotesworth Pinckney</a></div> </td></tr> </tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Links_to_related_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#e8e8ff;"><div id="Links_to_related_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Links to related articles</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-size:114%"><div style="padding:0px"> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Vice_presidents_of_the_United_States" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:US_vice_presidents" title="Template:US vice presidents"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:US_vice_presidents" title="Template talk:US vice presidents"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:US_vice_presidents" title="Special:EditPage/Template:US vice presidents"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Vice_presidents_of_the_United_States" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States" title="Vice President of the United States">Vice presidents of the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;text-align:left; white-space:nowrap; padding-top:.3em; padding-bottom:.6em;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 18em;"> <ol><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">John Adams</a> (1789–1797)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a> (1797–1801)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aaron_Burr" title="Aaron Burr">Aaron Burr</a> (1801–1805)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Clinton_(vice_president)" title="George Clinton (vice president)">George Clinton</a> (1805–1812)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elbridge_Gerry" title="Elbridge Gerry">Elbridge Gerry</a> (1813–1814)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_D._Tompkins" title="Daniel D. Tompkins">Daniel D. Tompkins</a> (1817–1825)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_C._Calhoun" title="John C. Calhoun">John C. Calhoun</a> (1825–1832)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Van_Buren" title="Martin Van Buren">Martin Van Buren</a> (1833–1837)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Mentor_Johnson" title="Richard Mentor Johnson">Richard M. Johnson</a> (1837–1841)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Tyler" title="John Tyler">John Tyler</a> (1841)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_M._Dallas" title="George M. Dallas">George M. Dallas</a> (1845–1849)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Millard_Fillmore" title="Millard Fillmore">Millard Fillmore</a> (1849–1850)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_R._King" title="William R. King">William R. King</a> (1853)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_C._Breckinridge" title="John C. Breckinridge">John C. Breckinridge</a> (1857–1861)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannibal_Hamlin" title="Hannibal Hamlin">Hannibal Hamlin</a> (1861–1865)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Johnson" title="Andrew Johnson">Andrew Johnson</a> (1865)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schuyler_Colfax" title="Schuyler Colfax">Schuyler Colfax</a> (1869–1873)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Wilson" title="Henry Wilson">Henry Wilson</a> (1873–1875)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_A._Wheeler" title="William A. Wheeler">William A. Wheeler</a> (1877–1881)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chester_A._Arthur" title="Chester A. Arthur">Chester A. Arthur</a> (1881)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_A._Hendricks" title="Thomas A. Hendricks">Thomas A. Hendricks</a> (1885)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levi_P._Morton" title="Levi P. Morton">Levi P. Morton</a> (1889–1893)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adlai_Stevenson_I" title="Adlai Stevenson I">Adlai Stevenson</a> (1893–1897)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garret_Hobart" title="Garret Hobart">Garret Hobart</a> (1897–1899)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</a> (1901)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_W._Fairbanks" title="Charles W. Fairbanks">Charles W. Fairbanks</a> (1905–1909)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_S._Sherman" title="James S. Sherman">James S. Sherman</a> (1909–1912)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_R._Marshall" title="Thomas R. Marshall">Thomas R. Marshall</a> (1913–1921)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calvin_Coolidge" title="Calvin Coolidge">Calvin Coolidge</a> (1921–1923)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_G._Dawes" title="Charles G. Dawes">Charles G. Dawes</a> (1925–1929)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Curtis" title="Charles Curtis">Charles Curtis</a> (1929–1933)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Nance_Garner" title="John Nance Garner">John N. Garner</a> (1933–1941)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_A._Wallace" title="Henry A. Wallace">Henry A. Wallace</a> (1941–1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Harry S. Truman</a> (1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alben_W._Barkley" title="Alben W. Barkley">Alben W. Barkley</a> (1949–1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a> (1953–1961)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Lyndon B. Johnson</a> (1961–1963)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hubert_Humphrey" title="Hubert Humphrey">Hubert Humphrey</a> (1965–1969)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiro_Agnew" title="Spiro Agnew">Spiro Agnew</a> (1969–1973)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerald_Ford" title="Gerald Ford">Gerald Ford</a> (1973–1974)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nelson_Rockefeller" title="Nelson Rockefeller">Nelson Rockefeller</a> (1974–1977)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Mondale" title="Walter Mondale">Walter Mondale</a> (1977–1981)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">George H. W. Bush</a> (1981–1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dan_Quayle" title="Dan Quayle">Dan Quayle</a> (1989–1993)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al_Gore" title="Al Gore">Al Gore</a> (<a href="/wiki/Vice_presidency_of_Al_Gore" title="Vice presidency of Al Gore">1993–2001</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dick_Cheney" title="Dick Cheney">Dick Cheney</a> (2001–2009)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joe_Biden" title="Joe Biden">Joe Biden</a> (2009–2017)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mike_Pence" title="Mike Pence">Mike Pence</a> (2017–2021)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamala_Harris" title="Kamala Harris">Kamala Harris</a> (2021–present)</li></ol> </div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Vice_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="Category:Vice presidents of the United States">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="List-Class article"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/List_of_vice_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="List of vice presidents of the United States">List</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="(←_1792)_1796_United_States_presidential_election_(1800_→)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:1796_United_States_presidential_election" title="Template:1796 United States presidential election"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:1796_United_States_presidential_election" title="Template talk:1796 United States presidential election"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:1796_United_States_presidential_election" title="Special:EditPage/Template:1796 United States presidential election"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="(←_1792)_1796_United_States_presidential_election_(1800_→)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">(<a href="/wiki/1792_United_States_presidential_election" title="1792 United States presidential election">← 1792</a>) <a href="/wiki/1796_United_States_presidential_election" title="1796 United States presidential election">1796 United States presidential election</a> (<a href="/wiki/1800_United_States_presidential_election" title="1800 United States presidential election">1800 →</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:right;font-weight:normal;;box-shadow: inset -5px 0 0 0 #EA9978;"><b><a href="/wiki/Federalist_Party" title="Federalist Party">Federalist Party</a></b></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nominees</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b>President: <a class="mw-selflink selflink">John Adams</a></b></li> <li><b>Vice President: <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Pinckney" title="Thomas Pinckney">Thomas Pinckney</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other candidates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Ellsworth" title="Oliver Ellsworth">Oliver Ellsworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Jay" title="John Jay">John Jay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Iredell" title="James Iredell">James Iredell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Johnston" title="Samuel Johnston">Samuel Johnston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Cotesworth_Pinckney" title="Charles Cotesworth Pinckney">Charles Cotesworth Pinckney</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:right;font-weight:normal;;box-shadow: inset -5px 0 0 0 #008000;"><b><a href="/wiki/Democratic-Republican_Party" title="Democratic-Republican Party">Democratic-Republican Party</a></b></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nominees</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b>President: <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a></b> (elected Vice President)</li> <li><b>Vice President: <a href="/wiki/Aaron_Burr" title="Aaron Burr">Aaron Burr</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other candidates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Adams" title="Samuel Adams">Samuel Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Clinton_(vice_president)" title="George Clinton (vice president)">George Clinton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b>Other 1796 elections</b>: <a href="/wiki/1796_and_1797_United_States_House_of_Representatives_elections" class="mw-redirect" title="1796 and 1797 United States House of Representatives elections">House</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1796_and_1797_United_States_Senate_elections" class="mw-redirect" title="1796 and 1797 United States Senate elections">Senate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="(←_1796)_1800_United_States_presidential_election_(1804_→)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:1800_United_States_presidential_election" title="Template:1800 United States presidential election"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:1800_United_States_presidential_election" title="Template talk:1800 United States presidential election"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:1800_United_States_presidential_election" title="Special:EditPage/Template:1800 United States presidential election"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="(←_1796)_1800_United_States_presidential_election_(1804_→)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">(<a href="/wiki/1796_United_States_presidential_election" title="1796 United States presidential election">← 1796</a>) <a href="/wiki/1800_United_States_presidential_election" title="1800 United States presidential election">1800 United States presidential election</a> (<a href="/wiki/1804_United_States_presidential_election" title="1804 United States presidential election">1804 →</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:right;font-weight:normal;;box-shadow: inset -5px 0 0 0 #008000;"><b><a href="/wiki/Democratic-Republican_Party" title="Democratic-Republican Party">Democratic-Republican Party</a></b></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Nominees" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nominees</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b>President: <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a></b></li> <li><b>Vice President: <a href="/wiki/Aaron_Burr" title="Aaron Burr">Aaron Burr</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:right;font-weight:normal;;box-shadow: inset -5px 0 0 0 #EA9978;"><b><a href="/wiki/Federalist_Party" title="Federalist Party">Federalist Party</a></b></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Nominees" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nominees</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b>President: <a class="mw-selflink selflink">John Adams</a></b> (incumbent)</li> <li><b>Vice President: <a href="/wiki/Charles_Cotesworth_Pinckney" title="Charles Cotesworth Pinckney">Charles Cotesworth Pinckney</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b>Other 1800 elections</b>: <a href="/wiki/1800_and_1801_United_States_House_of_Representatives_elections" class="mw-redirect" title="1800 and 1801 United States House of Representatives elections">House</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1800_and_1801_United_States_Senate_elections" class="mw-redirect" title="1800 and 1801 United States Senate elections">Senate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Federalist_Party" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Federalist_Party" title="Template:Federalist Party"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Federalist_Party" title="Template talk:Federalist Party"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Federalist_Party" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Federalist Party"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Federalist_Party" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Federalist_Party" title="Federalist Party">Federalist Party</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Federalist_Era" title="Federalist Era">Federalist Era</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/American_School_(economics)" title="American School (economics)">American School</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/First_Party_System" title="First Party System">First Party System</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_George_Washington" title="Presidency of George Washington">Presidency of George Washington</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_John_Adams" title="Presidency of John Adams">Presidency of John Adams</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Federalist_Party#Presidential_elections" title="Federalist Party">Presidential<br />tickets</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1796_United_States_presidential_election" title="1796 United States presidential election">1796</a>: <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Adams</a>/<a href="/wiki/Thomas_Pinckney" title="Thomas Pinckney">T. Pinckney</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1800_United_States_presidential_election" title="1800 United States presidential election">1800</a>: <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Adams</a>/<a href="/wiki/Charles_Cotesworth_Pinckney" title="Charles Cotesworth Pinckney">C. Pinckney</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1804_United_States_presidential_election" title="1804 United States presidential election">1804</a>: <a href="/wiki/Charles_Cotesworth_Pinckney" title="Charles Cotesworth Pinckney">C. Pinckney</a>/<a href="/wiki/Rufus_King" title="Rufus King">King</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1808_United_States_presidential_election" title="1808 United States presidential election">1808</a>: <a href="/wiki/Charles_Cotesworth_Pinckney" title="Charles Cotesworth Pinckney">C. Pinckney</a>/<a href="/wiki/Rufus_King" title="Rufus King">King</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1812_United_States_presidential_election" title="1812 United States presidential election">1812</a>: <a href="/wiki/DeWitt_Clinton" title="DeWitt Clinton">Clinton</a>/<a href="/wiki/Jared_Ingersoll" title="Jared Ingersoll">Ingersoll</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1816_United_States_presidential_election" title="1816 United States presidential election">1816</a>: <a href="/wiki/Rufus_King" title="Rufus King">King</a>/<a href="/wiki/John_Eager_Howard" title="John Eager Howard">Howard</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Speaker_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Speaker of the United States House of Representatives">U.S. House<br />speakers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Muhlenberg" title="Frederick Muhlenberg">Frederick Muhlenberg</a> (1789–1791)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Trumbull_Jr." title="Jonathan Trumbull Jr.">Jonathan Trumbull Jr.</a> (1791–1793)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Dayton" title="Jonathan Dayton">Jonathan Dayton</a> (1795–1799)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Sedgwick" title="Theodore Sedgwick">Theodore Sedgwick</a> (1799–1801)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_the_United_States" title="Cabinet of the United States">U.S. Cabinet</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_State" title="United States Secretary of State">State</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/John_Jay" title="John Jay">John Jay</a> (1789–1790)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Randolph" title="Edmund Randolph">Edmund Randolph</a> (1794–1795)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Pickering" title="Timothy Pickering">Timothy Pickering</a> (1795–1800)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Lee_(Attorney_General)" title="Charles Lee (Attorney General)">Charles Lee</a> (1800)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/John_Marshall" title="John Marshall">John Marshall</a> (1800–1801)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Rush" title="Richard Rush">Richard Rush</a> (1817)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Treasury" title="United States Secretary of the Treasury">Treasury</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</a> (1789–1795)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Wolcott_Jr." title="Oliver Wolcott Jr.">Oliver Wolcott Jr.</a> (1795–1801)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Dexter" title="Samuel Dexter">Samuel Dexter</a> (1801)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_War" title="United States Secretary of War">War</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Henry_Knox" title="Henry Knox">Henry Knox</a> (1789–1795)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Pickering" title="Timothy Pickering">Timothy Pickering</a> (1795)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/James_McHenry" title="James McHenry">James McHenry</a> (1796–1800)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Dexter" title="Samuel Dexter">Samuel Dexter</a> (1800–1801)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Attorney_General" title="United States Attorney General">Attorney General</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Randolph" title="Edmund Randolph">Edmund Randolph</a> (1789–1794)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/William_Bradford_(Attorney_General)" title="William Bradford (Attorney General)">William Bradford</a> (1794–1795)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Lee_(Attorney_General)" title="Charles Lee (Attorney General)">Charles Lee</a> (1795–1801)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Rush" title="Richard Rush">Richard Rush</a> (1814–1817)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Navy" title="United States Secretary of the Navy">Navy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Stoddert" title="Benjamin Stoddert">Benjamin Stoddert</a> (1798–1801)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Conservatism" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Conservatism_navbox" title="Template:Conservatism navbox"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Conservatism_navbox" title="Template talk:Conservatism navbox"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Conservatism_navbox" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Conservatism navbox"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Conservatism" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Schools<br />by region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarian_conservatism" title="Authoritarian conservatism">Authoritarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_corporatism" title="Conservative corporatism">Corporatist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_conservatism" title="Cultural conservatism">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiscal_conservatism" title="Fiscal conservatism">Fiscal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_conservatism" title="Green conservatism">Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_conservatism" title="Liberal conservatism">Liberal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moderate_conservatism" title="Moderate conservatism">Moderate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_conservatism" title="National conservatism">National</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paternalistic_conservatism" title="Paternalistic conservatism">Paternalistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-wing_populism" title="Right-wing populism">Populist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatic_conservatism" title="Pragmatic conservatism">Pragmatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_conservatism" title="Progressive conservatism">Progressive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reactionism" class="mw-redirect" title="Reactionism">Reactionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_conservatism" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious conservatism">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_conservatism" title="Social conservatism">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditionalist_conservatism" title="Traditionalist conservatism">Traditionalist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultraconservatism" title="Ultraconservatism">Ultra</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Asia" title="Conservatism">Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#China" title="Conservatism">China</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chiangism" title="Chiangism">Chiangism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism#Mainland_New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoauthoritarianism_(China)" title="Neoauthoritarianism (China)">Neoauthoritarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Iran" title="Conservatism">Iran</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khomeinism" title="Khomeinism">Khomeinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism_in_Iran" title="Monarchism in Iran">Monarchist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principlists" class="mw-redirect" title="Principlists">Principlist</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Israel" title="Conservatism in Israel">Israel</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_fundamentalism" title="Jewish fundamentalism">Fundamentalist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_conservatism" title="Jewish conservatism">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kahanism" title="Kahanism">Kahanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Zionism" title="Neo-Zionism">Neo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_Zionism" title="Religious Zionism">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revisionist_Zionism" title="Revisionist Zionism">Revisionist</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Japan" title="Conservatism in Japan">Japan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Minzoku" class="mw-redirect" title="Minzoku">Minzoku</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoconservatism_in_Japan" title="Neoconservatism in Japan">Neo</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nippon_Kaigi" title="Nippon Kaigi">Nippon Kaigi</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statism_in_Sh%C5%8Dwa_Japan" title="Statism in Shōwa Japan">Shōwa Statism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_Shinto" title="State Shinto">State Shinto</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_South_Korea" title="Conservatism in South Korea">South Korea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ilminism" title="Ilminism">Ilminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Right_(South_Korea)" title="New Right (South Korea)">New Right</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Turkey" title="Conservatism in Turkey">Turkey</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_democracy" title="Conservative democracy">Democratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erdo%C4%9Fanism" title="Erdoğanism">Erdoğanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Ottomanism" title="Neo-Ottomanism">Neo-Ottomanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Bangladesh" title="Conservatism in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Hong_Kong" title="Conservatism in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_India" title="Conservatism in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Malaysia" title="Conservatism in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Pakistan" title="Conservatism in Pakistan">Pakistan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ziaism" title="Ziaism">Ziaism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Singapore" title="Conservatism">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Taiwan" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservatism in Taiwan">Taiwan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chiangism" title="Chiangism">Chiangism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Europe" title="Conservatism">Europe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_France" title="Conservatism in France">France</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Action_Fran%C3%A7aise" title="Action Française">Action Française</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bonapartism" title="Bonapartism">Bonapartism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaullism" title="Gaullism">Gaullism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integral_nationalism" title="Integral nationalism">Integral nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legitimists" title="Legitimists">Legitimism</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Maurrassisme" title="Maurrassisme">Maurrassisme</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Nouvelle_Droite" title="Nouvelle Droite">Nouvelle Droite</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orl%C3%A9anist" title="Orléanist">Orléanism</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9volution_nationale" title="Révolution nationale">Révolution nationale</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarkozysm" title="Sarkozysm">Sarkozysm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultra-royalist" title="Ultra-royalist">Ultra-royalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Germany" title="Conservatism in Germany">Germany</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agrarian_conservatism_in_Germany" title="Agrarian conservatism in Germany">Agrarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_Hegelians" title="Right Hegelians">Hegelian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_historical_school" title="German historical school">Historical School</a></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Neue_Rechte" title="Neue Rechte">Neue Rechte</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordoliberalism" title="Ordoliberalism">Ordoliberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prussianism" title="Prussianism">Prussianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prussian_cameralism" class="mw-redirect" title="Prussian cameralism">Cameralistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prussian_socialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Prussian socialism">Socialist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Revolution" title="Conservative Revolution">Revolutionary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Revolution#Young_conservatives" title="Conservative Revolution">Young</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ritter_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Ritter School">Ritter School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Romanticism" title="German Romanticism">Romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_Socialism_(Germany)" title="State Socialism (Germany)">State Socialism</a></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/V%C3%B6lkisch_nationalism" title="Völkisch nationalism">Völkisch</a></i></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Italy" title="Conservatism in Italy">Italy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Berlusconism" title="Berlusconism">Berlusconism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Right" title="Historical Right">Historical Right</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_school_of_elitism" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian school of elitism">Italian school of elitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Bourbonism" title="Neo-Bourbonism">Neo-Bourbonism</a></li> <li><span title="Italian-language text"><i lang="it"><a href="/wiki/Sanfedismo" title="Sanfedismo">Sanfedismo</a></i></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Poland" title="Conservatism">Poland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Liberty" title="Golden Liberty">Golden Liberty</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kaczyzm" title="Kaczyzm">Kaczyzm</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Democracy_(Poland)" title="National Democracy (Poland)">National Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarmatism" title="Sarmatism">Sarmatism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Russia" title="Conservatism in Russia">Russia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duginism" class="mw-redirect" title="Duginism">Duginism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurasianism" title="Eurasianism">Eurasianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism_in_Russia" title="Monarchism in Russia">Monarchist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Hundreds" title="Black Hundreds">Black-hundredism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsarist_autocracy" title="Tsarist autocracy">Tsarism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Putinism" title="Putinism">Putinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavophilia" title="Slavophilia">Slavophilia</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Pochvennichestvo" title="Pochvennichestvo">Pochvennichestvo</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Traditionalism_(Spain)" title="Traditionalism (Spain)">Spain</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alfonsism" title="Alfonsism">Alfonsism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carlism" title="Carlism">Carlism</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Carloctavismo" title="Carloctavismo">Carloctavismo</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carlo-francoism" title="Carlo-francoism">Carlo-francoism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francoism" class="mw-redirect" title="Francoism">Francoism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Catholicism" title="National Catholicism">National Catholicism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrism_(Spain)" title="Integrism (Spain)">Integrism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mellismo" title="Mellismo">Mellismo</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurism" title="Maurism">Maurism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neocat%C3%B3licos" title="Neocatólicos">Neocatholicism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Noucentisme" title="Noucentisme">Noucentisme</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Conservatism in the United Kingdom">United<br />Kingdom</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_positions_of_David_Cameron" title="Political positions of David Cameron">Cameronism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civic_conservatism" class="mw-redirect" title="Civic conservatism">Civic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compassionate_conservatism" title="Compassionate conservatism">Compassionate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muscular_liberalism" title="Muscular liberalism">Muscular liberalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacobitism" title="Jacobitism">Jacobitism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Jacobite_Revival" title="Neo-Jacobite Revival">Neo-Jacobite Revival</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_neoconservatism" title="British neoconservatism">Neo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-nation_conservatism" title="One-nation conservatism">One-nationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Powellism" title="Powellism">Powellism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thatcherism" title="Thatcherism">Thatcherism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tory" title="Tory">Toryism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/High_Tory" title="High Tory">High</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Tory" title="Red Tory">Red</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tory_socialism" title="Tory socialism">Social</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Austria" title="Conservatism">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Belgium" title="Conservatism">Belgium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rexist_Party" title="Rexist Party">Rexism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Denmark" title="Conservatism">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Finland" title="Conservatism">Finland</a></li> <li>Georgia <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism_in_Georgia" title="Monarchism in Georgia">Monarchist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Greece" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservatism in Greece">Greece</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metaxism" title="Metaxism">Metaxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-wing_populism#Greece" title="Right-wing populism">Populist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Hungary" title="Conservatism">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Iceland" title="Conservatism">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Luxembourg" title="Conservatism">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Netherlands" title="Conservatism">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Norway" title="Conservatism">Norway</a></li> <li>Portugal <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Miguelist" title="Miguelist">Miguelist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integralismo_Lusitano" title="Integralismo Lusitano">Integralismo Lusitano</a></li></ul></li> <li>Romania <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism_in_Romania" title="Monarchism in Romania">Monarchist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Serbia" title="Conservatism in Serbia">Serbia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism_in_Serbia" title="Monarchism in Serbia">Monarchist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Sweden" title="Conservatism in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Switzerland" title="Conservatism">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Ukraine" title="Conservatism">Ukraine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_conservatism_in_Latin_America" title="Liberalism and conservatism in Latin America">Latin America</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Argentina</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Peronism" title="Federal Peronism">Federal Peronism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Maurrassisme_in_Argentina" title="Maurrassisme in Argentina">Maurrasismo</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menemism" title="Menemism">Menemism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nacionalismo" title="Nacionalismo">Nacionalismo</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Peronism" title="Orthodox Peronism">Orthodox Peronism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Brazil" title="Conservatism in Brazil">Brazil</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bolsonarism" title="Bolsonarism">Bolsonarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coronelism" title="Coronelism">Coronelism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brazilian_Integralism" title="Brazilian Integralism">Integralism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Janismo" title="Janismo">Janismo</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism_in_Brazil" title="Monarchism in Brazil">Monarchist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patrianovism" title="Patrianovism">Patrianovism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-wing_populism#Brazil" title="Right-wing populism">Populism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Chile" title="Conservatism">Chile</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Gremialismo" title="Gremialismo">Gremialismo</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinochetism" title="Pinochetism">Pinochetism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_North_America#Belize" title="Conservatism in North America">Belize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Colombia" title="Conservatism in Colombia">Colombia</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Gustavo_Rojas_Pinilla#Ideology" title="Gustavo Rojas Pinilla">Rojismo</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uribism" class="mw-redirect" title="Uribism">Uribism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_North_America#Cuba" title="Conservatism in North America">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_North_America#Guatemala" title="Conservatism in North America">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_North_America#Mexico" title="Conservatism in North America">Mexico</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cristero" class="mw-redirect" title="Cristero">Cristero</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_North_America#Panama" title="Conservatism in North America">Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Peru" title="Conservatism in Peru">Peru</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fujimorism" title="Fujimorism">Fujimorism</a></li> <li> <i><a href="/wiki/Manuel_A._Odr%C3%ADa#1948_Peruvian_coup_d’etat_and_Presidency" title="Manuel A. Odría">Odriismo</a></i></li></ul></li> <li>Uruguay <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Herrerism" title="Herrerism">Herrerism</a></li></ul></li> <li>Venezuela <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Marcos_P%C3%A9rez_Jim%C3%A9nez#Legacy" title="Marcos Pérez Jiménez">Perezjimenismo</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_North_America" title="Conservatism in North America">North America</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Canada" title="Conservatism in Canada">Canada</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Populism_in_Canada" title="Populism in Canada">Populism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trumpism_in_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Trumpism in Canada">Trumpism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clerico-nationalism" title="Clerico-nationalism">Clerico-nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_conservatism_in_Canada" title="Social conservatism in Canada">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tory" title="Tory">Toryism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue_Tory" title="Blue Tory">Blue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Tory" title="Red Tory">Red</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toryism" class="mw-redirect" title="Toryism">Pink</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Conservatism in the United States">United<br />States</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compassionate_conservatism" title="Compassionate conservatism">Compassionate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_conservatism" title="Libertarian conservatism">Libertarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fusionism" title="Fusionism">Fusionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleolibertarianism" title="Paleolibertarianism">Paleo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tea_Party_movement" title="Tea Party movement">Tea Party</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Movement_conservatism" title="Movement conservatism">Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoconservatism" title="Neoconservatism">Neo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Right_(United_States)" title="Old Right (United States)">Old Right</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoconservatism" title="Paleoconservatism">Paleo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reaganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Reaganism">Reaganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Social conservatism in the United States">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditionalist_conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Traditionalist conservatism in the United States">Traditionalist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trumpism" title="Trumpism">Trumpism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Oceania" title="Conservatism">Oceania</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Australia" title="Conservatism in Australia">Australia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centre_Right_(Liberal_Party_of_Australia)" title="Centre Right (Liberal Party of Australia)">Centre Right</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Right_(Liberal_Party_of_Australia)" title="National Right (Liberal Party of Australia)">National Right</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historic_conservatism_in_New_Zealand" title="Historic conservatism in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Principles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Veneration_of_the_dead" title="Veneration of the dead">Ancestral worship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">Authority</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_authority" title="Traditional authority">Traditional</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_collaboration" title="Class collaboration">Class collaboration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consociationalism" title="Consociationalism">Consociationalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clericalism" title="Clericalism">Clericalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_identity" title="Collective identity">Collective identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confessionalism_(politics)" title="Confessionalism (politics)">Confessionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation" title="Cultural assimilation">Cultural assimilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_heritage" title="Cultural heritage">Cultural heritage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics_and_social_sciences)#Cultural_values" class="mw-redirect" title="Value (ethics and social sciences)">Cultural values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_life" title="Culture of life">Culture of life</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-abortion_movements" title="Anti-abortion movements">Pro-Life</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discipline" title="Discipline">Discipline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">Duty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">Aristocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">Meritocracy</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Noblesse_oblige" title="Noblesse oblige">Noblesse oblige</a></i></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sittlichkeit" title="Sittlichkeit">Ethical order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Familialism" title="Familialism">Familialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_values" title="Family values">Family values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamentalism" title="Fundamentalism">Fundamentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_role" title="Gender role">Gender role</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Complementarianism" title="Complementarianism">Complementarianism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honour" title="Honour">Honour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyalty" title="Loyalty">Loyalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism" title="Monarchism">Monarchism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Royalist" title="Royalist">Royalist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_monarchy" title="Traditional monarchy">Traditionalist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_order_(philosophy)" title="Natural order (philosophy)">Natural Order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_norm" title="Social norm">Norms</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Convention_(norm)" title="Convention (norm)">Conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Customary_law" title="Customary law">Customs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mores" title="Mores">Mores</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordered_liberty" title="Ordered liberty">Ordered liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organicism#In_politics_and_sociology" title="Organicism">Organicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organized_religion" title="Organized religion">Organized religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthodoxy" title="Orthodoxy">Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriotism" title="Patriotism">Patriotism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personalism" title="Personalism">Personalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Philosophical realism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Moral realism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_property" title="Private property">Private property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protectionism" title="Protectionism">Protectionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_morality" title="Public morality">Public morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stratification" title="Social stratification">Social hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institution" title="Institution">Social institutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_order" title="Social order">Social order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solidarity" title="Solidarity">Solidarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">Sovereignty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">State religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stewardship_(theology)" title="Stewardship (theology)">Stewardship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsidiarity" title="Subsidiarity">Subsidiarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tradition" title="Tradition">Tradition</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Intellectuals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Bainville" title="Jacques Bainville">Bainville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustin_Barruel" title="Augustin Barruel">Barruel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilaire_Belloc" title="Hilaire Belloc">Belloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Bonald" title="Louis de Bonald">Bonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_F._Buckley_Jr." title="William F. Buckley Jr.">Buckley Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Burnham" title="James Burnham">Burnham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Ren%C3%A9_de_Chateaubriand" title="François-René de Chateaubriand">Chateaubriand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._K._Chesterton" title="G. K. Chesterton">Chesterton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge" title="Samuel Taylor Coleridge">Coleridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Donoso_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Juan Donoso Cortés">Cortés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicol%C3%A1s_G%C3%B3mez_D%C3%A1vila" title="Nicolás Gómez Dávila">Dávila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fyodor_Dostoevsky" title="Fyodor Dostoevsky">Dostoevsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T._S._Eliot" title="T. S. Eliot">Eliot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Evola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Fardid" title="Ahmad Fardid">Fardid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_von_Gentz" title="Friedrich von Gentz">Gentz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Ludwig_von_Haller" title="Karl Ludwig von Haller">Haller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Hitchens" title="Peter Hitchens">Hitchens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolae_Iorga" title="Nicolae Iorga">Iorga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Johnson" title="Samuel Johnson">Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_J%C3%BCnger" title="Ernst Jünger">Jünger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Karamzin" title="Nikolay Karamzin">Karamzin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk" title="Russell Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erik_von_Kuehnelt-Leddihn" title="Erik von Kuehnelt-Leddihn">Kuehnelt-Leddihn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9licit%C3%A9_de_La_Mennais" title="Félicité de La Mennais">La Mennais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Guillaume_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_le_Play" title="Pierre Guillaume Frédéric le Play">Le Play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Leontiev" title="Konstantin Leontiev">Leontiev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._S._Lewis" title="C. S. Lewis">Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Maistre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Mansfield" title="Harvey Mansfield">Mansfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Maurras" title="Charles Maurras">Maurras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcelino_Men%C3%A9ndez_y_Pelayo" title="Marcelino Menéndez y Pelayo">Menéndez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_More" title="Hannah More">More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_M%C3%BCller" title="Adam Müller">Müller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Henry_Newman" title="John Henry Newman">Newman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nisbet" title="Robert Nisbet">Nisbet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novalis" title="Novalis">Novalis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Oakeshott" title="Michael Oakeshott">Oakeshott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plinio_Corr%C3%AAa_de_Oliveira" title="Plinio Corrêa de Oliveira">Corrêa de Oliveira</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordan_Peterson" title="Jordan Peterson">Peterson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leopold_von_Ranke" title="Leopold von Ranke">Ranke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan">Renan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_de_Rivarol" title="Antoine de Rivarol">Rivarol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">Santayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Carl_von_Savigny" title="Friedrich Carl von Savigny">Savigny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schlegel" title="Friedrich Schlegel">Schlegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Schmitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Solzhenitsyn" title="Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn">Solzhenitsyn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sowell" title="Thomas Sowell">Sowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Othmar_Spann" title="Othmar Spann">Spann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Julius_Stahl" title="Friedrich Julius Stahl">Stahl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss">Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Taine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergey_Uvarov" title="Sergey Uvarov">Uvarov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Politics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_conservative_parties" class="mw-redirect" title="List of conservative parties">Organisations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_Conservatives_and_Reformists_Party" title="European Conservatives and Reformists Party">European Conservatives and Reformists Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_People%27s_Party" title="European People's Party">European People's Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_and_Democracy" title="Identity and Democracy">Identity and Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Democrat_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="International Democrat Union">International Democrat Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Monarchist_League" title="International Monarchist League">International Monarchist League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_Brotherhood" title="Muslim Brotherhood">Muslim Brotherhood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tradition,_Family,_Property" title="Tradition, Family, Property">Tradition, Family, Property</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Politicians</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shinzo_Abe" title="Shinzo Abe">Abe</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konrad_Adenauer" title="Konrad Adenauer">Adenauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giulio_Andreotti" title="Giulio Andreotti">Andreotti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silvio_Berlusconi" title="Silvio Berlusconi">Berlusconi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck" title="Otto von Bismarck">Bismarck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jair_Bolsonaro" title="Jair Bolsonaro">Bolsonaro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">GW Bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Canning" title="George Canning">Canning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek" title="Chiang Kai-shek">Chiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Churchill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Diefenbaker" title="John Diefenbaker">Diefenbaker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Disraeli" title="Benjamin Disraeli">Disraeli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Dmowski" title="Roman Dmowski">Dmowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engelbert_Dollfuss" title="Engelbert Dollfuss">Dollfuss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recep_Tayyip_Erdo%C4%9Fan" title="Recep Tayyip Erdoğan">Erdoğan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Franco" title="Francisco Franco">Franco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alberto_Fujimori" title="Alberto Fujimori">Fujimori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle" title="Charles de Gaulle">de Gaulle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Harper" title="Stephen Harper">Harper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikl%C3%B3s_Horthy" title="Miklós Horthy">Horthy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Paul_II" class="mw-redirect" title="John Paul II">John Paul II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaros%C5%82aw_Kaczy%C5%84ski" title="Jarosław Kaczyński">Kaczyński</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Khamenei" title="Ali Khamenei">Khamenei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruhollah_Khomeini" title="Ruhollah Khomeini">Khomeini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helmut_Kohl" title="Helmut Kohl">Kohl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_Le_Pen" title="Marine Le Pen">Le Pen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee_Kuan_Yew" title="Lee Kuan Yew">Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_A._Macdonald" title="John A. Macdonald">Macdonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Gustaf_Emil_Mannerheim" title="Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim">Mannerheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Marcos" title="Ferdinand Marcos">Marcos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Maurras" title="Charles Maurras">Maurras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Menzies" title="Robert Menzies">Menzies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ioannis_Metaxas" title="Ioannis Metaxas">Metaxas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klemens_von_Metternich" title="Klemens von Metternich">Metternich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko" title="Mobutu Sese Seko">Mobutu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narendra_Modi" title="Narendra Modi">Modi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Netanyahu" title="Benjamin Netanyahu">Netanyahu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viktor_Orb%C3%A1n" title="Viktor Orbán">Orbán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Park_Chung_Hee" title="Park Chung Hee">Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcos_P%C3%A9rez_Jim%C3%A9nez" title="Marcos Pérez Jiménez">Pérez Jiménez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augusto_Pinochet" title="Augusto Pinochet">Pinochet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Pitt_the_Younger" title="William Pitt the Younger">Pitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enoch_Powell" title="Enoch Powell">Powell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enric_Prat_de_la_Riba" title="Enric Prat de la Riba">Prat de la Riba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Putin" title="Vladimir Putin">Putin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Reagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_de_Oliveira_Salazar" title="António de Oliveira Salazar">Salazar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Gascoyne-Cecil,_3rd_Marquess_of_Salisbury" title="Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury">Salisbury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ian_Smith" title="Ian Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Stolypin" title="Pyotr Stolypin">Stolypin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suharto" title="Suharto">Suharto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Thatcher" title="Margaret Thatcher">Thatcher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rafael_Trujillo" title="Rafael Trujillo">Trujillo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Trump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atal_Bihari_Vajpayee" title="Atal Bihari Vajpayee">Vajpayee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89amon_de_Valera" title="Éamon de Valera">de Valera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Zia-ul-Haq" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq">Zia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89ric_Zemmour" title="Éric Zemmour">Zemmour</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Religious_conservatism" title="Conservatism">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_democracy" title="Christian democracy">Christian democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_politics#Conservatism" title="Christianity and politics">Christian politics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theonomy" title="Theonomy">Theonomy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_right" title="Christian right">Christian right</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theoconservatism" class="mw-redirect" title="Theoconservatism">Theoconservatism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindutva" title="Hindutva">Hindutva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_conservatism" title="Jewish conservatism">Jewish conservatism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_Zionism" title="Religious Zionism">Religious Zionism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_economics" title="Islamic economics">Islamic economics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravada</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_economics" title="Buddhist economics">Buddhist economics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditionalist_Catholicism" title="Traditionalist Catholicism">Traditionalist Catholicism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_social_teaching" title="Catholic social teaching">Catholic social teaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integralism" title="Integralism">Integralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultramontanism" title="Ultramontanism">Ultramontanism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditionalist_School_(perennialism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Traditionalist School (perennialism)">Traditionalist School</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical<br />background</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ancien_r%C3%A9gime" title="Ancien régime">Ancien régime</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bourbon_Restoration_in_France" title="Bourbon Restoration in France">Bourbon Restauration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna" title="Congress of Vienna">Congress of Vienna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concert_of_Europe" title="Concert of Europe">Concert of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Order" title="Conservative Order">Conservative Order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Enlightenment" title="Counter-Enlightenment">Counter-Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Romanticism" title="German Romanticism">German Romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Alliance" title="Holy Alliance">Holy Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultra-royalist" title="Ultra-royalist">Ultra-royalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Ideologies" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ideologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agrarianism" title="Agrarianism">Agrarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clerical_fascism" title="Clerical fascism">Clerical fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_liberalism" title="Conservative liberalism">Conservative liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporatism" title="Corporatism">Corporatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Localism_(politics)" title="Localism (politics)">Localism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-communism" title="Anti-communism">Anti-communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-gender_movement" title="Anti-gender movement">Anti-gender movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Masonry" title="Anti-Masonry">Anti-Masonry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">Aristocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_conservatism" title="Black conservatism">Black conservatism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Black conservatism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desecularization" title="Desecularization">Desecularization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Postsecularism" title="Postsecularism">Postsecularism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_conservative_feminisms" class="mw-redirect" title="List of conservative feminisms">Conservative feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_wave" title="Conservative wave">Conservative wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-revolutionary" title="Counter-revolutionary">Counter-revolutionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite_theory" title="Elite theory">Elite theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnopluralism" title="Ethnopluralism">Ethnopluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hispanic_and_Latino_conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Hispanic and Latino conservatism in the United States">Hispanic and Latino conservatism in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_conservatism" title="LGBTQ conservatism">LGBTQ conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-feudalism" title="Neo-feudalism">Neo-feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-medievalism" title="Neo-medievalism">Neo-medievalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Para-fascism" title="Para-fascism">Para-fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_influence_of_Evangelicalism_in_Latin_America" title="Political influence of Evangelicalism in Latin America">Political Evangelicalism in Latin America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_theology" title="Political theology">Political theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Far-right_politics" title="Far-right politics">Radical right</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radical_right_(Europe)" title="Radical right (Europe)">Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_right_(United_States)" title="Radical right (United States)">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reactionary" title="Reactionary">Reactionary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dark_Enlightenment" title="Dark Enlightenment">Neo-</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_realism" title="Right realism">Right realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-wing_politics" title="Right-wing politics">Right-wing politics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Right-wing_authoritarianism" title="Right-wing authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Right" title="New Right">New</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_New_Right" title="European New Right">European</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small-c_conservative" title="Small-c conservative">Small-c conservatives</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Conservatism" title="Portal:Conservatism">Conservatism portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Unsuccessful_major_party_candidates_for_President_of_the_United_States" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Unsuccessful_major_party_pres_candidates" title="Template:Unsuccessful major party pres candidates"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Unsuccessful_major_party_pres_candidates" title="Template talk:Unsuccessful major party pres candidates"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Unsuccessful_major_party_pres_candidates" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Unsuccessful major party pres candidates"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Unsuccessful_major_party_candidates_for_President_of_the_United_States" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_unsuccessful_major_party_candidates_for_President_of_the_United_States" title="List of unsuccessful major party candidates for President of the United States">Unsuccessful major party candidates for President of the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;text-align:left; white-space:nowrap; padding-top:.3em; padding-bottom:.6em;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 18em;"> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a> (<a href="/wiki/1796_United_States_presidential_election" title="1796 United States presidential election">1796</a>)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">John Adams</a> (<a href="/wiki/1800_United_States_presidential_election" title="1800 United States presidential election">1800</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Cotesworth_Pinckney" title="Charles Cotesworth Pinckney">Charles C. Pinckney</a> (<a href="/wiki/1804_United_States_presidential_election" title="1804 United States presidential election">1804</a>, <a href="/wiki/1808_United_States_presidential_election" title="1808 United States presidential election">1808</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/DeWitt_Clinton" title="DeWitt Clinton">DeWitt Clinton</a> (<a href="/wiki/1812_United_States_presidential_election" title="1812 United States presidential election">1812</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rufus_King" title="Rufus King">Rufus King</a> (<a href="/wiki/1816_United_States_presidential_election" title="1816 United States presidential election">1816</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson" title="Andrew Jackson">Andrew Jackson</a> (<a href="/wiki/1824_United_States_presidential_election" title="1824 United States presidential election">1824</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_H._Crawford" title="William H. Crawford">William H. Crawford</a> (<a href="/wiki/1824_United_States_presidential_election" title="1824 United States presidential election">1824</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Clay" title="Henry Clay">Henry Clay</a> (<a href="/wiki/1824_United_States_presidential_election" title="1824 United States presidential election">1824</a>, <a href="/wiki/1832_United_States_presidential_election" title="1832 United States presidential election">1832</a>, <a href="/wiki/1844_United_States_presidential_election" title="1844 United States presidential election">1844</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams" title="John Quincy Adams">John Quincy Adams</a> (<a href="/wiki/1828_United_States_presidential_election" title="1828 United States presidential election">1828</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Harrison" title="William Henry Harrison">William Henry Harrison</a> (<a href="/wiki/1836_United_States_presidential_election" title="1836 United States presidential election">1836</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Lawson_White" title="Hugh Lawson White">Hugh Lawson White</a> (<a href="/wiki/1836_United_States_presidential_election" title="1836 United States presidential election">1836</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Van_Buren" title="Martin Van Buren">Martin Van Buren</a> (<a href="/wiki/1840_United_States_presidential_election" title="1840 United States presidential election">1840</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewis_Cass" title="Lewis Cass">Lewis Cass</a> (<a href="/wiki/1848_United_States_presidential_election" title="1848 United States presidential election">1848</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winfield_Scott" title="Winfield Scott">Winfield Scott</a> (<a href="/wiki/1852_United_States_presidential_election" title="1852 United States presidential election">1852</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_C._Fr%C3%A9mont" title="John C. Frémont">John C. Frémont</a> (<a href="/wiki/1856_United_States_presidential_election" title="1856 United States presidential election">1856</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_A._Douglas" title="Stephen A. Douglas">Stephen A. Douglas</a> (<a href="/wiki/1860_United_States_presidential_election" title="1860 United States presidential election">1860</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_B._McClellan" title="George B. McClellan">George B. McClellan</a> (<a href="/wiki/George_McClellan_1864_presidential_campaign" title="George McClellan 1864 presidential campaign">1864</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horatio_Seymour" title="Horatio Seymour">Horatio Seymour</a> (<a href="/wiki/Horatio_Seymour_1868_presidential_campaign" title="Horatio Seymour 1868 presidential campaign">1868</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horace_Greeley" title="Horace Greeley">Horace Greeley</a> (<a href="/wiki/Horace_Greeley_1872_presidential_campaign" title="Horace Greeley 1872 presidential campaign">1872</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_J._Tilden" title="Samuel J. Tilden">Samuel J. Tilden</a> (<a href="/wiki/Samuel_Tilden_1876_presidential_campaign" title="Samuel Tilden 1876 presidential campaign">1876</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winfield_Scott_Hancock" title="Winfield Scott Hancock">Winfield Scott Hancock</a> (<a href="/wiki/Winfield_Scott_Hancock_1880_presidential_campaign" title="Winfield Scott Hancock 1880 presidential campaign">1880</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_G._Blaine" title="James G. Blaine">James G. Blaine</a> (<a href="/wiki/1884_United_States_presidential_election" title="1884 United States presidential election">1884</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland" title="Grover Cleveland">Grover Cleveland</a> (<a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland_1888_presidential_campaign" title="Grover Cleveland 1888 presidential campaign">1888</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Harrison" title="Benjamin Harrison">Benjamin Harrison</a> (<a href="/wiki/1892_United_States_presidential_election" title="1892 United States presidential election">1892</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Jennings_Bryan" title="William Jennings Bryan">William J. Bryan</a> (<a href="/wiki/William_Jennings_Bryan_1896_presidential_campaign" title="William Jennings Bryan 1896 presidential campaign">1896</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Jennings_Bryan_1900_presidential_campaign" title="William Jennings Bryan 1900 presidential campaign">1900</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Jennings_Bryan_1908_presidential_campaign" title="William Jennings Bryan 1908 presidential campaign">1908</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alton_B._Parker" title="Alton B. Parker">Alton B. Parker</a> (<a href="/wiki/Alton_B._Parker_1904_presidential_campaign" title="Alton B. Parker 1904 presidential campaign">1904</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Howard_Taft" title="William Howard Taft">William Howard Taft</a> (<a href="/wiki/1912_United_States_presidential_election" title="1912 United States presidential election">1912</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Evans_Hughes" title="Charles Evans Hughes">Charles Evans Hughes</a> (<a href="/wiki/1916_United_States_presidential_election" title="1916 United States presidential election">1916</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_M._Cox" title="James M. Cox">James M. Cox</a> (<a href="/wiki/1920_United_States_presidential_election" title="1920 United States presidential election">1920</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_W._Davis" title="John W. Davis">John W. Davis</a> (<a href="/wiki/1924_United_States_presidential_election" title="1924 United States presidential election">1924</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al_Smith" title="Al Smith">Al Smith</a> (<a href="/wiki/Al_Smith_1928_presidential_campaign" title="Al Smith 1928 presidential campaign">1928</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Hoover" title="Herbert Hoover">Herbert Hoover</a> (<a href="/wiki/1932_United_States_presidential_election" title="1932 United States presidential election">1932</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alf_Landon" title="Alf Landon">Alf Landon</a> (<a href="/wiki/1936_United_States_presidential_election" title="1936 United States presidential election">1936</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wendell_Willkie" title="Wendell Willkie">Wendell Willkie</a> (<a href="/wiki/1940_United_States_presidential_election" title="1940 United States presidential election">1940</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_E._Dewey" title="Thomas E. Dewey">Thomas E. Dewey</a> (<a href="/wiki/1944_United_States_presidential_election" title="1944 United States presidential election">1944</a>, <a href="/wiki/1948_United_States_presidential_election" title="1948 United States presidential election">1948</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adlai_Stevenson_II" title="Adlai Stevenson II">Adlai Stevenson</a> (<a href="/wiki/1952_United_States_presidential_election" title="1952 United States presidential election">1952</a>, <a href="/wiki/1956_United_States_presidential_election" title="1956 United States presidential election">1956</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a> (<a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon_1960_presidential_campaign" title="Richard Nixon 1960 presidential campaign">1960</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barry_Goldwater" title="Barry Goldwater">Barry Goldwater</a> (<a href="/wiki/Barry_Goldwater_1964_presidential_campaign" title="Barry Goldwater 1964 presidential campaign">1964</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hubert_Humphrey" title="Hubert Humphrey">Hubert Humphrey</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hubert_Humphrey_1968_presidential_campaign" title="Hubert Humphrey 1968 presidential campaign">1968</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_McGovern" title="George McGovern">George McGovern</a> (<a href="/wiki/George_McGovern_1972_presidential_campaign" title="George McGovern 1972 presidential campaign">1972</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerald_Ford" title="Gerald Ford">Gerald Ford</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gerald_Ford_1976_presidential_campaign" title="Gerald Ford 1976 presidential campaign">1976</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jimmy_Carter" title="Jimmy Carter">Jimmy Carter</a> (<a href="/wiki/Jimmy_Carter_1980_presidential_campaign" title="Jimmy Carter 1980 presidential campaign">1980</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Mondale" title="Walter Mondale">Walter Mondale</a> (<a href="/wiki/Walter_Mondale_1984_presidential_campaign" title="Walter Mondale 1984 presidential campaign">1984</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Dukakis" title="Michael Dukakis">Michael Dukakis</a> (<a href="/wiki/Michael_Dukakis_1988_presidential_campaign" title="Michael Dukakis 1988 presidential campaign">1988</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">George H. W. Bush</a> (<a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush_1992_presidential_campaign" title="George H. W. Bush 1992 presidential campaign">1992</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Dole" title="Bob Dole">Bob Dole</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bob_Dole_1996_presidential_campaign" title="Bob Dole 1996 presidential campaign">1996</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al_Gore" title="Al Gore">Al Gore</a> (<a href="/wiki/Al_Gore_2000_presidential_campaign" title="Al Gore 2000 presidential campaign">2000</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Kerry" title="John Kerry">John Kerry</a> (<a href="/wiki/John_Kerry_2004_presidential_campaign" title="John Kerry 2004 presidential campaign">2004</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_McCain" title="John McCain">John McCain</a> (<a href="/wiki/John_McCain_2008_presidential_campaign" title="John McCain 2008 presidential campaign">2008</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitt_Romney" title="Mitt Romney">Mitt Romney</a> (<a href="/wiki/Mitt_Romney_2012_presidential_campaign" title="Mitt Romney 2012 presidential campaign">2012</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hillary_Clinton" title="Hillary Clinton">Hillary Clinton</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hillary_Clinton_2016_presidential_campaign" title="Hillary Clinton 2016 presidential campaign">2016</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Donald Trump</a> (<a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump_2020_presidential_campaign" title="Donald Trump 2020 presidential campaign">2020</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamala_Harris" title="Kamala Harris">Kamala Harris</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kamala_Harris_2024_presidential_campaign" title="Kamala Harris 2024 presidential campaign">2024</a>)</li></ol></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:United_States_presidential_candidates_by_year" title="Category:United States presidential candidates by year">All presidential candidates</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="List-Class article"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" 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to the UK"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:US_Ambassadors_to_the_UK" title="Special:EditPage/Template:US Ambassadors to the UK"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ambassadors_of_the_United_States_of_America_to_the_Court_of_St._James&#039;s" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_ambassadors_of_the_United_States_to_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of ambassadors of the United States to the United Kingdom">Ambassadors of the United States of America to the Court of St. James's</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ministers Plenipotentiary to<br />the Court of St. James's<br />(1785–1811)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">J. Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Pinckney" title="Thomas Pinckney">Pickney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rufus_King" title="Rufus King">King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Monroe" title="James Monroe">Monroe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Pinkney" title="William Pinkney">Pinkney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Russell" title="Jonathan Russell">Russell</a> (<i>chargé d'affaires</i>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Envoys Extraordinary and <br />Ministers Plenipotentiary to<br />the Court of St. James's<br />(1815–1893)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams" title="John Quincy Adams">J. Q. Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Rush" title="Richard Rush">Rush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rufus_King" title="Rufus King">King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Gallatin" title="Albert Gallatin">Gallatin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Beach_Lawrence" title="William Beach Lawrence">Lawrence</a> (<i>chargé d'affaires</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Barbour" title="James Barbour">Barbour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_McLane" title="Louis McLane">McLane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Van_Buren" title="Martin Van Buren">Van Buren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aaron_Vail" title="Aaron Vail">Vail</a> (<i>chargé d'affaires</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Stevenson" title="Andrew Stevenson">Stevenson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Everett" title="Edward Everett">Everett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_McLane" title="Louis McLane">McLane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Bancroft" title="George Bancroft">Bancroft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbott_Lawrence" title="Abbott Lawrence">Lawrence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Reed_Ingersoll" title="Joseph Reed Ingersoll">Ingersoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Buchanan" title="James Buchanan">Buchanan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_M._Dallas" title="George M. Dallas">Dallas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Francis_Adams_Sr." title="Charles Francis Adams Sr.">C. Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverdy_Johnson" title="Reverdy Johnson">R. Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lothrop_Motley" title="John Lothrop Motley">Motley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_C._Schenck" title="Robert C. Schenck">Schenck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwards_Pierrepont" title="Edwards Pierrepont">Pierrepont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Welsh_(diplomat)" title="John Welsh (diplomat)">Welsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Russell_Lowell" title="James Russell Lowell">Lowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_John_Phelps" title="Edward John Phelps">Phelps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Todd_Lincoln" title="Robert Todd Lincoln">Lincoln</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ambassadors Extraordinary<br />and Plenipotentiary to <br />the Court of St. James's<br />(1893–present)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_F._Bayard" title="Thomas F. Bayard">Bayard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hay" title="John Hay">Hay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Hodges_Choate" title="Joseph Hodges Choate">Choate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whitelaw_Reid" title="Whitelaw Reid">Reid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Hines_Page" title="Walter Hines Page">Page</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_W._Davis" title="John W. Davis">Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Brinton_McClellan_Harvey" title="George Brinton McClellan Harvey">Harvey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_B._Kellogg" title="Frank B. Kellogg">Kellogg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alanson_B._Houghton" title="Alanson B. Houghton">Houghton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_G._Dawes" title="Charles G. Dawes">Dawes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Mellon" title="Andrew Mellon">Mellon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Worth_Bingham" title="Robert Worth Bingham">Bingham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_P._Kennedy_Sr." title="Joseph P. Kennedy Sr.">Kennedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Gilbert_Winant" title="John Gilbert Winant">Winant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._Averell_Harriman" title="W. Averell Harriman">Harriman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewis_Williams_Douglas" title="Lewis Williams Douglas">Douglas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Sherman_Gifford" title="Walter Sherman Gifford">Gifford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winthrop_W._Aldrich" title="Winthrop W. Aldrich">Aldrich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hay_Whitney" title="John Hay Whitney">Whitney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_K._E._Bruce" title="David K. E. Bruce">Bruce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Annenberg" title="Walter Annenberg">Annenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elliot_Richardson" title="Elliot Richardson">Richardson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Armstrong" class="mw-redirect" title="Anne Armstrong">Armstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingman_Brewster_Jr." title="Kingman Brewster Jr.">Brewster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_J._Louis_Jr." title="John J. Louis Jr.">Louis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_H._Price_II" title="Charles H. Price II">Price</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_E._Catto_Jr." title="Henry E. Catto Jr.">Catto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_G._H._Seitz" title="Raymond G. H. Seitz">Seitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_J._Crowe" title="William J. Crowe">Crowe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Lader" title="Philip Lader">Lader</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Stamps_Farish_III" title="William Stamps Farish III">Farish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Tuttle" title="Robert H. Tuttle">Tuttle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Susman" title="Louis Susman">Susman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Barzun" title="Matthew Barzun">Barzun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woody_Johnson" title="Woody Johnson">W. Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jane_D._Hartley" title="Jane D. Hartley">Hartley</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=&#124;link=_United_States_ambassadors_to_the_Netherlands_23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Netherlands&#124;link=Netherlands" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:US_Ambassadors_to_the_Netherlands" title="Template:US Ambassadors to the Netherlands"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:US_Ambassadors_to_the_Netherlands" title="Template talk:US Ambassadors to the Netherlands"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:US_Ambassadors_to_the_Netherlands" title="Special:EditPage/Template:US Ambassadors to the Netherlands"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=&#124;link=_United_States_ambassadors_to_the_Netherlands_23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Netherlands&#124;link=Netherlands" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/List_of_ambassadors_of_the_United_States_to_the_Netherlands" title="List of ambassadors of the United States to the Netherlands">United States ambassadors to the Netherlands</a> <span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands"><img alt="Netherlands" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">J. Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Short_(American_ambassador)" title="William Short (American ambassador)">Short</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams" title="John Quincy Adams">J. Q. Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Vans_Murray" title="William Vans Murray">Vans Murray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Eustis" title="William Eustis">Eustis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hill_Everett" title="Alexander Hill Everett">Everett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Hughes_(diplomat)" title="Christopher Hughes (diplomat)">Hughes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Pitt_Preble" title="William Pitt Preble">Preble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Davezac" title="Auguste Davezac">Davezac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harmanus_Bleecker" title="Harmanus Bleecker">Bleecker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Hughes_(diplomat)" title="Christopher Hughes (diplomat)">Hughes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Davezac" title="Auguste Davezac">Davezac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Folsom" title="George Folsom">Folsom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/August_Belmont" title="August Belmont">Belmont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_C._Murphy" title="Henry C. Murphy">Murphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Shepherd_Pike" title="James Shepherd Pike">Pike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Rhodes_(diplomat)" title="Albert Rhodes (diplomat)">Rhodes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Boyle_Ewing" title="Hugh Boyle Ewing">Ewing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_T._Gorham" title="Charles T. Gorham">Gorham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_M._Birney" title="James M. Birney">Birney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lewis_Dayton_Jr." title="William Lewis Dayton Jr.">Dayton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Bell_Jr." title="Isaac Bell Jr.">Bell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Roosevelt" title="Robert Roosevelt">Roosevelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_R._Thayer" title="Samuel R. Thayer">Thayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_E._Quinby" title="William E. Quinby">Quinby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Newel" title="Stanford Newel">Newel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Jayne_Hill" title="David Jayne Hill">Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_M._Beaupre" title="Arthur M. Beaupre">Beaupre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lloyd_Bryce" title="Lloyd Bryce">Bryce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_van_Dyke_Jr." title="Henry van Dyke Jr.">Van Dyke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_W._Garrett_(diplomat)" title="John W. Garrett (diplomat)">Garrett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Phillips_(diplomat)" title="William Phillips (diplomat)">Phillips</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_M._Tobin" title="Richard M. Tobin">Tobin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerrit_J._Diekema" title="Gerrit J. Diekema">Diekema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laurits_S._Swenson" title="Laurits S. Swenson">Swenson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grenville_T._Emmet" title="Grenville T. Emmet">Emmet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_A._Gordon" title="George A. Gordon">Gordon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Joseph_Drexel_Biddle_Jr." title="Anthony Joseph Drexel Biddle Jr.">Biddle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Hornbeck" title="Stanley Hornbeck">Hornbeck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herman_B._Baruch" title="Herman B. Baruch">Baruch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selden_Chapin" title="Selden Chapin">Chapin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H._Freeman_Matthews" title="H. Freeman Matthews">Matthews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Young_(ambassador)" title="Philip Young (ambassador)">Young</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_S._Rice" title="John S. Rice">Rice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_R._Tyler" title="William R. Tyler">Tyler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._William_Middendorf" title="J. William Middendorf">Middendorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdon_Gould_Jr." title="Kingdon Gould Jr.">Gould</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_J._McCloskey" title="Robert J. McCloskey">McCloskey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geri_M._Joseph" title="Geri M. Joseph">Joseph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_J._Dyess" title="William J. Dyess">Dyess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Bremer" title="Paul Bremer">Bremer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_S.R._Shad" class="mw-redirect" title="John S.R. Shad">Shad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._Howard_Wilkins_Jr." title="C. Howard Wilkins Jr.">Wilkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K._Terry_Dornbush" title="K. Terry Dornbush">Dornbush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynthia_P._Schneider" title="Cynthia P. Schneider">Schneider</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clifford_M._Sobel" title="Clifford M. Sobel">Sobel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roland_Arnall" class="mw-redirect" title="Roland Arnall">Arnall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Culbertson" class="mw-redirect" title="James Culbertson">Culbertson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fay_Hartog-Levin" title="Fay Hartog-Levin">Hartog-Levin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tim_Broas" title="Tim Broas">Broas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pete_Hoekstra" title="Pete Hoekstra">Hoekstra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shefali_Razdan_Duggal" title="Shefali Razdan Duggal">Duggal</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:U.S._Department_of_State_official_seal.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Seal of the US Department of State"><img alt="Seal of the US Department of State" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/U.S._Department_of_State_official_seal.svg/70px-U.S._Department_of_State_official_seal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="70" height="70" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/U.S._Department_of_State_official_seal.svg/105px-U.S._Department_of_State_official_seal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/U.S._Department_of_State_official_seal.svg/140px-U.S._Department_of_State_official_seal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Cabinet_of_President_John_Adams_(1797–1801)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:J_Adams_cabinet" title="Template:J Adams cabinet"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:J_Adams_cabinet" title="Template talk:J Adams cabinet"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:J_Adams_cabinet" title="Special:EditPage/Template:J Adams cabinet"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Cabinet_of_President_John_Adams_(1797–1801)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_the_United_States" title="Cabinet of the United States">Cabinet</a> of <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President</a> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">John Adams</a> (1797–1801)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_State" title="United States Secretary of State">Secretary of State</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Pickering" title="Timothy Pickering">Timothy Pickering</a> (1797–1800)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Marshall" title="John Marshall">John Marshall</a> (1800–1801)</li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Gilbert_Stuart%2C_John_Adams%2C_c._1800-1815%2C_NGA_42933.jpg/100px-Gilbert_Stuart%2C_John_Adams%2C_c._1800-1815%2C_NGA_42933.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Gilbert_Stuart%2C_John_Adams%2C_c._1800-1815%2C_NGA_42933.jpg/150px-Gilbert_Stuart%2C_John_Adams%2C_c._1800-1815%2C_NGA_42933.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Gilbert_Stuart%2C_John_Adams%2C_c._1800-1815%2C_NGA_42933.jpg/200px-Gilbert_Stuart%2C_John_Adams%2C_c._1800-1815%2C_NGA_42933.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3299" data-file-height="4000" /></span></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Treasury" title="United States Secretary of the Treasury">Secretary of the Treasury</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Wolcott_Jr." title="Oliver Wolcott Jr.">Oliver Wolcott Jr.</a> (1797–1800)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Dexter" title="Samuel Dexter">Samuel Dexter</a> (1801)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_War" title="United States Secretary of War">Secretary of War</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_McHenry" title="James McHenry">James McHenry</a> (1797–1800)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Dexter" title="Samuel Dexter">Samuel Dexter</a> (1800–1801)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Attorney_General" title="United States Attorney General">Attorney General</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Lee_(Attorney_General)" title="Charles Lee (Attorney General)">Charles Lee</a> (1797–1801)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Navy" title="United States Secretary of the Navy">Secretary of the Navy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Stoddert" title="Benjamin Stoddert">Benjamin Stoddert</a> (1798–1801)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Hall_of_Fame_for_Great_Americans_inductees" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Hall_of_Fame_for_Great_Americans" title="Template:Hall of Fame for Great Americans"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Hall_of_Fame_for_Great_Americans" title="Template talk:Hall of Fame for Great Americans"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Hall_of_Fame_for_Great_Americans" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Hall of Fame for Great Americans"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Hall_of_Fame_for_Great_Americans_inductees" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Hall_of_Fame_for_Great_Americans" title="Hall of Fame for Great Americans">Hall of Fame for Great Americans</a> inductees</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">John Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams" title="John Quincy Adams">John Quincy Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jane_Addams" title="Jane Addams">Jane Addams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Agassiz" title="Louis Agassiz">Louis Agassiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_B._Anthony" title="Susan B. Anthony">Susan B. Anthony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_James_Audubon" title="John James Audubon">John James Audubon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Bancroft" title="George Bancroft">George Bancroft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clara_Barton" title="Clara Barton">Clara Barton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Ward_Beecher" title="Henry Ward Beecher">Henry Ward Beecher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Graham_Bell" title="Alexander Graham Bell">Alexander Graham Bell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Boone" title="Daniel Boone">Daniel Boone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_Booth" title="Edwin Booth">Edwin Booth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Brandeis" title="Louis Brandeis">Louis Brandeis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phillips_Brooks" title="Phillips Brooks">Phillips Brooks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Cullen_Bryant" title="William Cullen Bryant">William Cullen Bryant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luther_Burbank" title="Luther Burbank">Luther Burbank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Carnegie" title="Andrew Carnegie">Andrew Carnegie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_Carver" title="George Washington Carver">George Washington Carver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Ellery_Channing" title="William Ellery Channing">William Ellery Channing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rufus_Choate" title="Rufus Choate">Rufus Choate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Clay" title="Henry Clay">Henry Clay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland" title="Grover Cleveland">Grover Cleveland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Fenimore_Cooper" title="James Fenimore Cooper">James Fenimore Cooper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Cooper" title="Peter Cooper">Peter Cooper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlotte_Cushman" title="Charlotte Cushman">Charlotte Cushman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Buchanan_Eads" title="James Buchanan Eads">James Buchanan Eads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Edison" title="Thomas Edison">Thomas Alva Edison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Edwards_(theologian)" title="Jonathan Edwards (theologian)">Jonathan Edwards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Ralph Waldo Emerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Farragut" title="David Farragut">David Farragut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Foster" title="Stephen Foster">Stephen Foster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Fulton" title="Robert Fulton">Robert Fulton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Willard_Gibbs" title="Josiah Willard Gibbs">Josiah W. Gibbs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_C._Gorgas" title="William C. Gorgas">William C. Gorgas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Ulysses S. Grant">Ulysses S. Grant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asa_Gray" title="Asa Gray">Asa Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Hawthorne" title="Nathaniel Hawthorne">Nathaniel Hawthorne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Henry" title="Joseph Henry">Joseph Henry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Henry" title="Patrick Henry">Patrick Henry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Wendell_Holmes_Sr." title="Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr.">Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Wendell_Holmes_Jr." title="Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.">Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Hopkins_(educator)" title="Mark Hopkins (educator)">Mark Hopkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elias_Howe" title="Elias Howe">Elias Howe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington_Irving" title="Washington Irving">Washington Irving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson" title="Andrew Jackson">Andrew Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stonewall_Jackson" title="Stonewall Jackson">Thomas J. Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Paul_Jones" title="John Paul Jones">John Paul Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Kent_(jurist)" title="James Kent (jurist)">James Kent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidney_Lanier" title="Sidney Lanier">Sidney Lanier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Lee" title="Robert E. Lee">Robert E. Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Wadsworth_Longfellow" title="Henry Wadsworth Longfellow">Henry Wadsworth Longfellow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Russell_Lowell" title="James Russell Lowell">James Russell Lowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Lyon" title="Mary Lyon">Mary Lyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_MacDowell" title="Edward MacDowell">Edward MacDowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horace_Mann" title="Horace Mann">Horace Mann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Marshall" title="John Marshall">John Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Fontaine_Maury" title="Matthew Fontaine Maury">Matthew Fontaine Maury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_A._Michelson" title="Albert A. Michelson">Albert A. Michelson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Mitchell" title="Maria Mitchell">Maria Mitchell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Monroe" title="James Monroe">James Monroe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Morse" title="Samuel Morse">Samuel F. B. Morse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_T._G._Morton" title="William T. G. Morton">William T. G. Morton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lothrop_Motley" title="John Lothrop Motley">John Lothrop Motley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simon_Newcomb" title="Simon Newcomb">Simon Newcomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Thomas Paine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alice_Freeman_Palmer" title="Alice Freeman Palmer">Alice Freeman Palmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Parkman" title="Francis Parkman">Francis Parkman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Peabody" title="George Peabody">George Peabody</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Penn" title="William Penn">William Penn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edgar_Allan_Poe" title="Edgar Allan Poe">Edgar Allan Poe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Reed" title="Walter Reed">Walter Reed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustus_Saint-Gaudens" title="Augustus Saint-Gaudens">Augustus Saint-Gaudens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Tecumseh_Sherman" title="William Tecumseh Sherman">William Tecumseh Sherman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Philip_Sousa" title="John Philip Sousa">John Philip Sousa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Story" title="Joseph Story">Joseph Story</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Beecher_Stowe" title="Harriet Beecher Stowe">Harriet Beecher Stowe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Stuart" title="Gilbert Stuart">Gilbert Stuart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylvanus_Thayer" title="Sylvanus Thayer">Sylvanus Thayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Henry David Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Twain" title="Mark Twain">Mark Twain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lillian_Wald" title="Lillian Wald">Lillian Wald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington">Booker T. Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Webster" title="Daniel Webster">Daniel Webster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Westinghouse" title="George Westinghouse">George Westinghouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_McNeill_Whistler" title="James McNeill Whistler">James McNeill Whistler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walt_Whitman" title="Walt Whitman">Walt Whitman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eli_Whitney" title="Eli Whitney">Eli Whitney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Greenleaf_Whittier" title="John Greenleaf Whittier">John Greenleaf Whittier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emma_Willard" title="Emma Willard">Emma Willard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frances_Willard" title="Frances Willard">Frances Willard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Williams" title="Roger Williams">Roger Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wright_brothers" title="Wright brothers">Orville Wright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wright_brothers" title="Wright brothers">Wilbur Wright</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="John_Quincy_Adams" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:John_Quincy_Adams" title="Template:John Quincy Adams"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:John_Quincy_Adams" title="Template talk:John Quincy Adams"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:John_Quincy_Adams" title="Special:EditPage/Template:John Quincy Adams"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="John_Quincy_Adams" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams" title="John Quincy Adams">John Quincy Adams</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_representatives_from_Massachusetts" title="List of United States representatives from Massachusetts">U.S. Representative</a> for <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts%27s_8th_congressional_district" title="Massachusetts's 8th congressional district">MA–8</a> (1843–1848)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_representatives_from_Massachusetts" title="List of United States representatives from Massachusetts">U.S. Representative</a> for <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts%27s_12th_congressional_district" title="Massachusetts's 12th congressional district">MA–12</a> (1833–1843)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_representatives_from_Massachusetts" title="List of United States representatives from Massachusetts">U.S. Representative</a> for <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts%27s_11th_congressional_district" title="Massachusetts's 11th congressional district">MA–11</a> (1831–1833)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="List of presidents of the United States">6th</a> <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a> (1825–1829)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_secretaries_of_state_of_the_United_States" title="List of secretaries of state of the United States">8th</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_State" title="United States Secretary of State">United States Secretary of State</a> (1817–1825)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_ambassadors_of_the_United_States_to_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of ambassadors of the United States to the United Kingdom">U.S. Minister to the United Kingdom</a> (1814–1817)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_ambassadors_of_the_United_States_to_Russia" title="List of ambassadors of the United States to Russia">U.S. Minister to Russia</a> (1809–1814)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_senators_from_Massachusetts" title="List of United States senators from Massachusetts">U.S. Senator from Massachusetts</a> (1803–1808)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_ambassadors_of_the_United_States_to_Germany" title="List of ambassadors of the United States to Germany">U.S. Minister to Prussia</a> (1797–1801)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_ambassadors_of_the_United_States_to_the_Netherlands" title="List of ambassadors of the United States to the Netherlands">U.S. Minister to the Netherlands</a> (1794–1797)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams#Presidency_(1825–1829)" title="John Quincy Adams">Presidency</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inauguration_of_John_Quincy_Adams" title="Inauguration of John Quincy Adams">Inauguration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_System_(economic_plan)" title="American System (economic plan)">American System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_improvements" title="Internal improvements">Internal improvements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tariff_of_Abominations" title="Tariff of Abominations">Tariff of 1828</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Treaty_of_Prairie_du_Chien" title="First Treaty of Prairie du Chien">First Treaty of Prairie du Chien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Fond_du_Lac#1826_Treaty_of_Fond_du_Lac" title="Treaty of Fond du Lac">Treaty of Fond du Lac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Limits_(Mexico%E2%80%93United_States)" title="Treaty of Limits (Mexico–United States)">Treaty of Limits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Naval_Observatory#History" title="United States Naval Observatory">United States Naval Observatory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1825_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1825 State of the Union Address">State of the Union Address, 1825</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1827_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1827 State of the Union Address">1827</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1828_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1828 State of the Union Address">1828</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_John_Quincy_Adams" title="List of federal judges appointed by John Quincy Adams">Federal judiciary appointments</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other<br />events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monroe_Doctrine" title="Monroe Doctrine">Monroe Doctrine, author</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Ghent" title="Treaty of Ghent">Treaty of Ghent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adams%E2%80%93On%C3%ADs_Treaty" title="Adams–Onís Treaty">Adams–Onís Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_1818" title="Treaty of 1818">Treaty of 1818</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tariff_of_1832" title="Tariff of 1832">Tariff of 1832</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smithsonian_Institution#Founding" title="Smithsonian Institution">Smithsonian Institution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._The_Amistad" title="United States v. The Amistad"><i>United States v. The Amistad</i></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mendi_Bible" title="Mendi Bible">Mendi Bible</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences" title="American Academy of Arts and Sciences">President, American Academy of Arts and Sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbian_Institute_for_the_Promotion_of_Arts_and_Sciences" title="Columbian Institute for the Promotion of Arts and Sciences">President, Columbian Institute for the Promotion of Arts and Sciences</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Writings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams#Diaries" title="John Quincy Adams">Lifelong diary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Historical_Society#Collections" title="Massachusetts Historical Society">Massachusetts Historical Society holdings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adams_Papers_Editorial_Project" title="Adams Papers Editorial Project">Adams Papers Editorial Project</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Life and<br />homes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams#Early_life,_education,_and_early_career" title="John Quincy Adams">Early life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abigail_Adams_Cairn" title="Abigail Adams Cairn">Abigail Adams Cairn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams_and_abolitionism" title="John Quincy Adams and abolitionism">John Quincy Adams and abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adams_National_Historical_Park" title="Adams National Historical Park">Adams National Historical Park</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams_Birthplace" title="John Quincy Adams Birthplace">Birthplace and family home</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peacefield" title="Peacefield">Peacefield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adams_National_Historical_Park#Stone_Library" title="Adams National Historical Park">Stone Library</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_First_Parish_Church" title="United First Parish Church">United First Parish Church and gravesite</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Electoral_history_of_John_Quincy_Adams" title="Electoral history of John Quincy Adams">Electoral history</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Senate <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1803_United_States_Senate_election_in_Massachusetts" title="1803 United States Senate election in Massachusetts">1803</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1808_United_States_Senate_election_in_Massachusetts" title="1808 United States Senate election in Massachusetts">1808</a></li></ul></li> <li>Presidential runs <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1824_United_States_presidential_election" title="1824 United States presidential election">1824</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corrupt_Bargain#Election_of_1824" class="mw-redirect" title="Corrupt Bargain">Corrupt Bargain</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1828_United_States_presidential_election" title="1828 United States presidential election">1828</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_John_Quincy_Adams" title="Bibliography of John Quincy Adams">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adams_Memorial" title="Adams Memorial">Adams Memorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adams_House_(Harvard_College)" title="Adams House (Harvard College)">Adams House at Harvard University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidents_of_the_United_States_on_U.S._postage_stamps#John_Quincy_Adams" title="Presidents of the United States on U.S. postage stamps">U.S. Postage stamps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monroe_Doctrine_Centennial_half_dollar" title="Monroe Doctrine Centennial half dollar">Monroe Doctrine Centennial half dollar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Quincy_Adams_(Fairweather_Range)" title="Mount Quincy Adams (Fairweather Range)">Mount Quincy Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_President_Adams_(APA-19)" class="mw-redirect" title="USS President Adams (APA-19)">USS <i>President Adams</i></a> (1941)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_John_Adams_(SSBN-620)" title="USS John Adams (SSBN-620)">USS <i>John Adams</i></a> (1963)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oyster-Adams_Bilingual_School" title="Oyster-Adams Bilingual School">Oyster-Adams Bilingual School</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Popular<br />culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Profiles_in_Courage" title="Profiles in Courage"><i>Profiles in Courage</i> (1957 book)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Profiles_in_Courage_(TV_series)" title="Profiles in Courage (TV series)">1965 television series)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Adams_Chronicles" title="The Adams Chronicles"><i>The Adams Chronicles</i> (1976 miniseries)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutiny_on_the_Amistad" title="Mutiny on the Amistad"><i>Mutiny on the Amistad</i> (1987 book)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amistad_(film)" title="Amistad (film)"><i>Amistad</i> (1997 film) </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Adams_(book)" title="John Adams (book)"><i>John Adams</i> (2001 book</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Adams_(miniseries)" title="John Adams (miniseries)">2008 miniseries)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Adams_political_family" title="Adams political family">Adams political family</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Quincy_political_family" title="Quincy political family">Quincy family</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Louisa_Adams" title="Louisa Adams">Louisa Adams</a> (wife)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_Adams" title="George Washington Adams">George Washington Adams</a> (son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Francis_Adams_Sr." title="Charles Francis Adams Sr.">Charles Francis Adams Sr.</a> (son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Adams_II" title="John Adams II">John Adams II</a> (son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Adams" title="Henry Adams">Henry Adams</a> (grandson)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brooks_Adams" title="Brooks Adams">Brooks Adams</a> (grandson)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams_II" title="John Quincy Adams II">John Quincy Adams II</a> (grandson)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">John Adams</a> <ul><li>father</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_John_Adams" title="Presidency of John Adams">presidency</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abigail_Adams" title="Abigail Adams">Abigail Adams</a> <ul><li>mother</li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Lady_of_the_United_States" title="First Lady of the United States">First Lady</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quincy_political_family" title="Quincy political family">Quincy political family</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abigail_Adams_Smith" title="Abigail Adams Smith">Abigail Adams Smith</a> (sister)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Adams_(1770%E2%80%931800)" title="Charles Adams (1770–1800)">Charles Adams</a> (brother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Boylston_Adams_(1772%E2%80%931832)" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Boylston Adams (1772–1832)">Thomas Boylston Adams</a> (brother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Adams_Sr." title="John Adams Sr.">John Adams Sr.</a> (grandfather)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susanna_Boylston" title="Susanna Boylston">Susanna Boylston</a> (grandmother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Quincy" title="John Quincy">John Quincy</a> (great-grandfather)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Republican_Party" title="National Republican Party">National Republican Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_States" title="Republicanism in the United States">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Patriot_Ledger" title="The Patriot Ledger"><i>Quincy Patriot</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams_(Bingham)" title="John Quincy Adams (Bingham)"><i>John Quincy Adams</i> (Bingham)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/James_Monroe" title="James Monroe">← James Monroe</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson" title="Andrew Jackson">Andrew Jackson →</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><b><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:John_Quincy_Adams" title="Category:John Quincy Adams">Category</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><span class="portal-bar-header"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:</span><ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/19px-P_vip.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/28px-P_vip.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/37px-P_vip.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1911" data-file-height="1944" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Biography" title="Portal:Biography">Biography</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg/18px-DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg/27px-DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg/35px-DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="249" data-file-height="268" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Conservatism" title="Portal:Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Balance,_by_David.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/21px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/32px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/41px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="606" data-file-height="558" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Law" title="Portal:Law">Law</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/19px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/29px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/38px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Massachusetts.svg/21px-Flag_of_Massachusetts.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Massachusetts.svg/32px-Flag_of_Massachusetts.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Massachusetts.svg/42px-Flag_of_Massachusetts.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="900" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Massachusetts" title="Portal:Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/21px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/42px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">United States</a></li></ul></div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236088147">.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline;font-size:88%;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em 0 0;padding:0 2em}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;padding:0.2em 0;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px;line-height:22px}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;align-items:baseline;padding:0.2em 0;column-gap:1em;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{display:flex;align-items:baseline;margin:0.15em 0;min-height:24px;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-logo{width:22px;line-height:22px;margin:0 0.2em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-link{margin:0 0.2em;text-align:left}@media screen and (max-width:960px){.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{flex-flow:column wrap;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{flex:0 1}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{flex:1;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{flex:0 0 20em;min-width:20em}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.portal-bar{margin-top:-1px}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="noprint metadata sister-bar" role="navigation" aria-label="sister-projects"><div class="sister-bar-header"><b>John Adams</b> at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects"><span id="sister-projects" style="white-space:nowrap;">sister projects</span></a>:</div><ul class="sister-bar-content"><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/14px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/21px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/28px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" class="extiw" title="c:John Adams">Media</a></b> from Commons</span></li><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/16px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/24px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/32px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/John_Adams" class="extiw" title="q:John Adams">Quotations</a></b> from Wikiquote</span></li><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/21px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/32px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/42px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="590" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11806" class="extiw" title="d:Q11806">Data</a></b> from Wikidata</span></li></ul></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11806#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11806#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11806#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000121442412">ISNI</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/95296943">VIAF</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/42531/">FAST</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJy8kV768GRQRkTJpkkJjC">WorldCat</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/118500597">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n79105675">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12186797v">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12186797v">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/01133474">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Adams, John <1735-1826>"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.sbn.it/nome/MILV178632">Italy</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an35001112">Australia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=jn20000720003&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://aleph.rsl.ru/F?func=find-b&find_code=SYS&adjacent=Y&local_base=RSL11&request=000025438&CON_LNG=ENG">Russia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX1699071">Spain</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.bnportugal.gov.pt/aut/catbnp/146157">Portugal</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p068420692">Netherlands</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/90845244">Norway</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000185560&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://katalog.nsk.hr/F/?func=direct&doc_number=000057592&local_base=nsk10">Croatia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bncatalogo.cl/F?func=direct&local_base=red10&doc_number=000146016">Chile</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.nlg.gr/cgi-bin/koha/opac-authoritiesdetail.pl?authid=213012">Greece</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810557245605606">Poland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a class="external text" href="https://wikidata-externalid-url.toolforge.org/?p=8034&url_prefix=https://opac.vatlib.it/auth/detail/&id=495/70109">Vatican</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007257459805171">Israel</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cantic.bnc.cat/registre/981058507497506706">Catalonia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.kbr.be/LIBRARY/doc/AUTHORITY/14356245">Belgium</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA01679342?l=en">CiNii</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.getty.edu/vow/ULANFullDisplay?find=&role=&nation=&subjectid=500353261">ULAN</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="John Adams"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://musicbrainz.org/artist/7af20cf3-e43f-40c6-bd02-15426dd7f647">MusicBrainz</a></span></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biografischportaal.nl/en/persoon/57767253">Netherlands</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=A000039">US Congress</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/784797">Trove</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd118500597.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/person/gnd/118500597">DDB</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/02737470X">IdRef</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10580812">NARA</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w61h1b9v">SNAC</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rism.online/people/30086429">RISM</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=desktop" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John_Adams&oldid=1260003811">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John_Adams&oldid=1260003811</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:John_Adams" title="Category:John Adams">John Adams</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1735_births" title="Category:1735 births">1735 births</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1826_deaths" title="Category:1826 deaths">1826 deaths</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1790s_in_the_United_States" title="Category:1790s in the United States">1790s in the United States</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1800s_in_the_United_States" title="Category:1800s in the United States">1800s in 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6.30% 208.739 17 Template:Infobox_officeholder/office"," 6.07% 201.279 47 Template:Cite_book"," 4.94% 163.918 1 Template:Republicanism_sidebar"," 4.88% 161.693 1 Template:Politics_series_sidebar"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.853","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":23731534,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAdams1770\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAdams1892\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAdams1954\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAdams1965\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAdams2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAdams2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAdamsAdams1851\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAdamsRush1966\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAdamsTudor1819\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAmar2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBalcerski2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBomboy2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBoydGawalt1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrookhiser2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurns2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCappon,_Lester_J.1959\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChernow2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChinard1933\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCunningham2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFD\u0026#039;Angelo2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDiggins2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFElkinsMcKitrick1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEllis1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEllis2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFElrod2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEtehad2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEverett1966\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFerling1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFerling2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFerling2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFielding1940\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFlexner1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFootKramnick1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGimbel1956\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHamilton\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHatfield1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeffner2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHerring2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoadley1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHolton2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHutson1968\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKirtley1910\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKurtz1957\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeopold2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLevinson\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLieberman2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMadison\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaier1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaier2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMayhew1750\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMayville2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcCullough2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcDonald1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMiller1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoore1866\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorse1884\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPerry1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPollard1862\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRalston\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRichardson1897\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRossiter1955\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShafer2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith1962a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith1962b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaylor2016\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFThompson1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWiencek2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWood2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWood2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWood2017\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"1796 United States presidential election\"] = 1,\n [\"1800 United States presidential election\"] = 1,\n [\"About\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Awrap\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 2,\n [\"CSS image crop\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 4,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 47,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 5,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 6,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 50,\n [\"Conservatism\"] = 1,\n [\"Conservatism US\"] = 1,\n [\"Cvt\"] = 1,\n [\"DEFAULTSORT:Adams, John\"] = 1,\n [\"Death date and age\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 5,\n [\"External media\"] = 1,\n [\"Featured article\"] = 1,\n [\"Federalist Party\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 3,\n [\"Gutenberg author\"] = 1,\n [\"Hall of Fame for Great Americans\"] = 1,\n [\"Hlist\"] = 1,\n [\"Include-USGov\"] = 2,\n [\"Infobox SCOTUS Appointments\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox U.S. Cabinet\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox officeholder\"] = 1,\n [\"Internet Archive author\"] = 1,\n [\"J Adams cabinet\"] = 1,\n [\"John Adams\"] = 1,\n [\"John Quincy Adams\"] = 1,\n [\"Librivox author\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 11,\n [\"Marriage\"] = 1,\n [\"Multiple image\"] = 1,\n [\"Navboxes\"] = 2,\n [\"Nbsp\"] = 2,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"OldStyleDateDY\"] = 1,\n [\"Plainlist\"] = 2,\n [\"Pp-move\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-semi-indef\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Republicanism sidebar\"] = 1,\n [\"S-aft\"] = 8,\n [\"S-bef\"] = 2,\n [\"S-break\"] = 1,\n [\"S-dip\"] = 1,\n [\"S-end\"] = 1,\n [\"S-new\"] = 1,\n [\"S-non\"] = 2,\n [\"S-off\"] = 1,\n [\"S-ppo\"] = 1,\n [\"S-start\"] = 1,\n [\"S-ttl\"] = 8,\n [\"See also\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 325,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Sic\"] = 2,\n [\"Signers of the Continental Association\"] = 1,\n [\"Spoken Wikipedia\"] = 1,\n [\"Subject bar\"] = 1,\n [\"US Ambassadors to the Netherlands\"] = 1,\n [\"US Ambassadors to the UK\"] = 1,\n [\"US Presidents\"] = 1,\n [\"US Vice Presidents\"] = 1,\n [\"USDecOfIndSig\"] = 1,\n [\"Unsuccessful major party pres candidates\"] = 1,\n [\"Use American English\"] = 1,\n [\"Use mdy dates\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n}\n\"\"\n3\n3\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"nowrap\"] = \"yes\",\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"nowrap\"] = \"yes\",\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","500","25.3"],["?","400","20.2"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","180","9.1"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getAllExpandedArguments","160","8.1"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::sub","100","5.1"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getEntityStatements","80","4.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::formatDate","40","2.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::plain","40","2.0"],["makeMessage 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Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-10-13T22:34:35Z","dateModified":"2024-11-28T08:07:02Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/d\/df\/Official_Presidential_portrait_of_John_Adams_%28by_John_Trumbull%2C_circa_1792%29.jpg","headline":"president of the United States from 1797 to 1801"}</script> </body> </html>