CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Linguistics - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"da3238ad-9549-44c7-9f79-068fd0a16318","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Linguistics","wgTitle":"Linguistics","wgCurRevisionId":1271939865,"wgRevisionId":1271939865,"wgArticleId":22760983,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["All articles with dead external links","Articles with dead external links from March 2022","Articles with permanently dead external links","Articles with short description","Short description matches Wikidata","Use Oxford spelling from August 2016","Use dmy dates from June 2020","All articles lacking reliable references","Articles lacking reliable references from December 2020","All articles with unsourced statements","Articles with unsourced statements from June 2024", "Articles with excerpts","Articles needing additional references from January 2019","All articles needing additional references","Articles needing additional references from February 2024","Articles with unsourced statements from May 2023","Articles containing Arabic-language text","Articles containing German-language text","Articles needing additional references from August 2021","Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets via Module:Annotated link","Webarchive template wayback links","Linguistics","Cognitive science","Communication studies","Language"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Linguistics","wgRelevantArticleId":22760983,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":["autoconfirmed"],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}}, "wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":80000,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q8162","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready", "user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions", "wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.16"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Linguistics - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistics"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistics&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistics"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Linguistics rootpage-Linguistics skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" title="Main menu" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="n-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages"><span>Special pages</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Linguistics" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Linguistics" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Linguistics" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Linguistics" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Major_subdisciplines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Major_subdisciplines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Major subdisciplines</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Major_subdisciplines-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Major subdisciplines subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Major_subdisciplines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Historical_linguistics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical_linguistics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Historical linguistics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historical_linguistics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Syntax" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Syntax"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Syntax</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Syntax-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Morphology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Morphology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Morphology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Morphology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Semantics_and_pragmatics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Semantics_and_pragmatics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Semantics and pragmatics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Semantics_and_pragmatics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phonetics_and_phonology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonetics_and_phonology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Phonetics and phonology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phonetics_and_phonology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Typology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Typology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Typology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Typology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Structures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Structures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Structures</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Structures-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Structures subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Structures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Grammar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grammar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Grammar</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Grammar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Discourse" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Discourse"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Discourse</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Discourse-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lexicon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lexicon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Lexicon</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lexicon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Style" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Style"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Style</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Style-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Approaches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Approaches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Approaches</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Approaches-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Approaches subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Approaches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Humanistic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Humanistic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Humanistic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Humanistic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biological" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biological"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Biological</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biological-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Methodology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Methodology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Methodology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Methodology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Methodology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Methodology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Analysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Analysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Analysis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Analysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nomenclature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nomenclature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Nomenclature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nomenclature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_grammarians" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_grammarians"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Early grammarians</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_grammarians-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Comparative_philology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Comparative_philology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Comparative philology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Comparative_philology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-20th-century_developments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#20th-century_developments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>20th-century developments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-20th-century_developments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Areas_of_research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Areas_of_research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Areas of research</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Areas_of_research-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Areas of research subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Areas_of_research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sociolinguistics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sociolinguistics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Sociolinguistics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sociolinguistics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Developmental_linguistics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Developmental_linguistics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Developmental linguistics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Developmental_linguistics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neurolinguistics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neurolinguistics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Neurolinguistics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neurolinguistics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Applied_linguistics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Applied_linguistics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Applied linguistics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Applied_linguistics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Language_documentation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Language_documentation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span>Language documentation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Language_documentation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Translation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Translation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.6</span> <span>Translation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Translation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Clinical_linguistics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clinical_linguistics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.7</span> <span>Clinical linguistics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Clinical_linguistics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Computational_linguistics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Computational_linguistics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.8</span> <span>Computational linguistics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Computational_linguistics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evolutionary_linguistics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolutionary_linguistics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.9</span> <span>Evolutionary linguistics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evolutionary_linguistics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Forensic_linguistics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Forensic_linguistics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.10</span> <span>Forensic linguistics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Forensic_linguistics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Linguistics</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 202 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-202" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">202 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taalwetenskappe" title="Taalwetenskappe – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Taalwetenskappe" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistik" title="Linguistik – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Linguistik" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8B%A8%E1%89%8B%E1%8A%95%E1%89%8B_%E1%8C%A5%E1%8A%93%E1%89%B5" title="የቋንቋ ጥናት – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="የቋንቋ ጥናት" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-smn mw-list-item"><a href="https://smn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiel%C3%A2tie%C4%91%C3%A2" title="Kielâtieđâ – Inari Sami" lang="smn" hreflang="smn" data-title="Kielâtieđâ" data-language-autonym="Anarâškielâ" data-language-local-name="Inari Sami" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Anarâškielâ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spr%C7%A3ccr%C3%A6ft" title="Sprǣccræft – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Sprǣccræft" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ænglisc</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="لسانيات – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="لسانيات" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ling%C3%BCistica" title="Lingüistica – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Lingüistica" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BC%D5%A5%D5%A6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%AB%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Լեզուաբանութիւն – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Լեզուաբանութիւն" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Արեւմտահայերէն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-roa-rup mw-list-item"><a href="https://roa-rup.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingvistic%C3%A2" title="Lingvisticâ – Aromanian" lang="rup" hreflang="rup" data-title="Lingvisticâ" data-language-autonym="Armãneashti" data-language-local-name="Aromanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Armãneashti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frp mw-list-item"><a href="https://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lengouistica" title="Lengouistica – Arpitan" lang="frp" hreflang="frp" data-title="Lengouistica" data-language-autonym="Arpetan" data-language-local-name="Arpitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Arpetan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="ভাষাবিজ্ঞান – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="ভাষাবিজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lling%C3%BC%C3%ADstica" title="Llingüística – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Llingüística" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%91e%27%E1%BA%BDkuaaty_ha_%C3%91e%27%E1%BA%BDtekuaa" title="Ñe'ẽkuaaty ha Ñe'ẽtekuaa – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Ñe'ẽkuaaty ha Ñe'ẽtekuaa" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dil%C3%A7ilik" title="Dilçilik – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Dilçilik" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%84%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%8C%DA%A9" title="دیلچیلیک – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="دیلچیلیک" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistik" title="Linguistik – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Linguistik" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Bali</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bm mw-list-item"><a href="https://bm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kankalan" title="Kankalan – Bambara" lang="bm" hreflang="bm" data-title="Kankalan" data-language-autonym="Bamanankan" data-language-local-name="Bambara" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bamanankan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="ভাষাবিজ্ঞান – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ভাষাবিজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bjn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bjn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistik" title="Linguistik – Banjar" lang="bjn" hreflang="bjn" data-title="Linguistik" data-language-autonym="Banjar" data-language-local-name="Banjar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Banjar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gi%C3%A2n-g%C3%BA-ha%CC%8Dk" title="Giân-gú-ha̍k – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Giân-gú-ha̍k" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%BB_%D2%93%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5" title="Тел ғилеме – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Тел ғилеме" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%9E%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Мовазнаўства – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Мовазнаўства" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%9E%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Мовазнаўства – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Мовазнаўства" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="भाषा बिज्ञान – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="भाषा बिज्ञान" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linggwistika" title="Linggwistika – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Linggwistika" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Езикознание – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Езикознание" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%A6%E0%BE%90%E0%BD%91%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%96%E0%BD%A2%E0%BE%A1%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BD%B2%E0%BD%82%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%94%E0%BC%8D" title="སྐད་བརྡ་རིག་པ། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="སྐད་བརྡ་རིག་པ།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>བོད་ཡིག</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingvistika" title="Lingvistika – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Lingvistika" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yezhoniezh" title="Yezhoniezh – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Yezhoniezh" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%8D%D0%BB%D1%8D_%D1%88%D1%8D%D0%BD%D0%B6%D1%8D%D0%BB%D1%8D%D0%BB" title="Хэлэ шэнжэлэл – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Хэлэ шэнжэлэл" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Буряад</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ling%C3%BC%C3%ADstica" title="Lingüística – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Lingüística" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Лингвистика – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Лингвистика" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linggwistika" title="Linggwistika – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Linggwistika" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cebuano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingvistika" title="Lingvistika – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Lingvistika" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ururimi" title="Ururimi – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Ururimi" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiShona</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistica" title="Linguistica – Corsican" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="Linguistica" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="Corsican" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Corsu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ieithyddiaeth" title="Ieithyddiaeth – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Ieithyddiaeth" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sprogvidenskab" title="Sprogvidenskab – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Sprogvidenskab" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="لسانيات – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="لسانيات" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>الدارجة</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sprachwissenschaft" title="Sprachwissenschaft – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Sprachwissenschaft" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dv mw-list-item"><a href="https://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%84%DE%A6%DE%80%DE%A6%DE%88%DE%A8%DE%87%DE%B0%DE%94%DE%A7%DE%8C%DE%AA" title="ބަހަވިއްޔާތު – Divehi" lang="dv" hreflang="dv" data-title="ބަހަވިއްޔާތު" data-language-autonym="ދިވެހިބަސް" data-language-local-name="Divehi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ދިވެހިބަސް</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://dsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C4%9Bcyw%C4%9Bda" title="Rěcywěda – Lower Sorbian" lang="dsb" hreflang="dsb" data-title="Rěcywěda" data-language-autonym="Dolnoserbski" data-language-local-name="Lower Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dolnoserbski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keeleteadus" title="Keeleteadus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Keeleteadus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%BB%CF%89%CF%83%CF%83%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Γλωσσολογία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Γλωσσολογία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ling%C3%BC%C3%ADstica" title="Lingüística – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Lingüística" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingvistiko" title="Lingvistiko – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Lingvistiko" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ling%C3%BCistica" title="Lingüistica – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Lingüistica" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Estremeñu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hizkuntzalaritza" title="Hizkuntzalaritza – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Hizkuntzalaritza" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="زبان‌شناسی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زبان‌شناسی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Linguistics" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A1lfr%C3%B8%C3%B0i" title="Málfrøði – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Málfrøði" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Føroyskt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistique" title="Linguistique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Linguistique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taalkunde" title="Taalkunde – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Taalkunde" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenghistiche" title="Lenghistiche – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Lenghistiche" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Furlan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teangeola%C3%ADocht" title="Teangeolaíocht – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Teangeolaíocht" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87hengoaylleeaght" title="Çhengoaylleeaght – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Çhengoaylleeaght" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaelg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A0nanachas" title="Cànanachas – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Cànanachas" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ling%C3%BC%C3%ADstica" title="Lingüística – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Lingüística" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Лингвистика – Ingush" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="Лингвистика" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="Ingush" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ГӀалгӀай</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%96%B8%EC%96%B4%ED%95%99" title="언어학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="언어학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BC%D5%A5%D5%A6%D5%BE%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Լեզվաբանություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Լեզվաբանություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="भाषाविज्ञान – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="भाषाविज्ञान" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C4%9B%C4%8Despyt" title="Rěčespyt – Upper Sorbian" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Rěčespyt" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="Upper Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hornjoserbsce</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jezikoslovlje" title="Jezikoslovlje – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Jezikoslovlje" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistiko" title="Linguistiko – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Linguistiko" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingguistika" title="Lingguistika – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Lingguistika" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistik" title="Linguistik – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Linguistik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistica" title="Linguistica – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Linguistica" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistica" title="Linguistica – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Linguistica" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingue</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-iu mw-list-item"><a href="https://iu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%90%85%E1%96%84%E1%93%AF%E1%93%95%E1%95%86%E1%93%82%E1%96%85" title="ᐅᖄᓯᓕᕆᓂᖅ – Inuktitut" lang="iu" hreflang="iu" data-title="ᐅᖄᓯᓕᕆᓂᖅ" data-language-autonym="ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut" data-language-local-name="Inuktitut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%86%D0%B2%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B4" title="Æвзагзонынад – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Æвзагзонынад" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ирон</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A1lv%C3%ADsindi" title="Málvísindi – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Málvísindi" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistica" title="Linguistica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Linguistica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%9C%D7%A9%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%AA" title="בלשנות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="בלשנות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistik" title="Linguistik – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Linguistik" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AD%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B7%E0%B2%BE_%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%9C%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%9E%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A8" title="ಭಾಷಾ ವಿಜ್ಞಾನ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಭಾಷಾ ವಿಜ್ಞಾನ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam mw-list-item"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingguistika" title="Lingguistika – Pampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Lingguistika" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="Pampanga" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kapampangan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-krc mw-list-item"><a href="https://krc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Лингвистика – Karachay-Balkar" lang="krc" hreflang="krc" data-title="Лингвистика" data-language-autonym="Къарачай-малкъар" data-language-local-name="Karachay-Balkar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Къарачай-малкъар</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%97%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%AA%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%90" title="ენათმეცნიერება – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ენათმეცნიერება" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-csb mw-list-item"><a href="https://csb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingwistika" title="Lingwistika – Kashubian" lang="csb" hreflang="csb" data-title="Lingwistika" data-language-autonym="Kaszëbsczi" data-language-local-name="Kashubian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kaszëbsczi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Лингвистика – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Лингвистика" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sciens_yeth" title="Sciens yeth – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Sciens yeth" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kernowek</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isimu" title="Isimu – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Isimu" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-avk mw-list-item"><a href="https://avk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avopa" title="Avopa – Kotava" lang="avk" hreflang="avk" data-title="Avopa" data-language-autonym="Kotava" data-language-local-name="Kotava" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kotava</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lengwistik" title="Lengwistik – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Lengwistik" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lengwistik" title="Lengwistik – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Lengwistik" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zimannas%C3%AE" title="Zimannasî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Zimannasî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B8%D0%BB_%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8" title="Тил илими – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Тил илими" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistica" title="Linguistica – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Linguistica" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladin</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistika" title="Linguistika – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Linguistika" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladino</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%9E%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%94" title="ພາສາສາດ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ພາສາສາດ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ລາວ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ltg mw-list-item"><a href="https://ltg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vol%C5%ABdzineiba" title="Volūdzineiba – Latgalian" lang="ltg" hreflang="ltg" data-title="Volūdzineiba" data-language-autonym="Latgaļu" data-language-local-name="Latgalian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latgaļu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistica" title="Linguistica – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Linguistica" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valodniec%C4%ABba" title="Valodniecība – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Valodniecība" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sproochw%C3%ABssenschaft" title="Sproochwëssenschaft – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Sproochwëssenschaft" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalbotyra" title="Kalbotyra – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Kalbotyra" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lengo%C3%ACstica" title="Lengoìstica – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Lengoìstica" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ligure</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taalweitesjap" title="Taalweitesjap – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Taalweitesjap" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistica" title="Linguistica – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Linguistica" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/bauske" title="bauske – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="bauske" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="Lojban" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>La .lojban.</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenguistega" title="Lenguistega – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Lenguistega" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyelv%C3%A9szet" title="Nyelvészet – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Nyelvészet" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Лингвистика – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Лингвистика" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haitsikerafiteny" title="Haitsikerafiteny – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Haitsikerafiteny" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AD%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B7%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="ഭാഷാശാസ്ത്രം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഭാഷാശാസ്ത്രം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingwistika" title="Lingwistika – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Lingwistika" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="भाषाशास्त्र – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="भाषाशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%92%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%90" title="ლინგვისტიკა – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ლინგვისტიკა" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D8%BA%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="علم اللغويات – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="علم اللغويات" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistik" title="Linguistik – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Linguistik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mni mw-list-item"><a href="https://mni.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%AF%82%EA%AF%A4%EA%AF%89%EA%AF%AD%EA%AF%92%EA%AF%A8%EA%AF%8F%EA%AF%81%EA%AF%AD%EA%AF%87%EA%AF%A4%EA%AF%9B" title="ꯂꯤꯉ꯭ꯒꯨꯏꯁ꯭ꯇꯤꯛ – Manipuri" lang="mni" hreflang="mni" data-title="ꯂꯤꯉ꯭ꯒꯨꯏꯁ꯭ꯇꯤꯛ" data-language-autonym="ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-local-name="Manipuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistik" title="Linguistik – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Linguistik" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ng%E1%B9%B3%CC%84-ngi%C3%B2ng-h%C5%8Fk" title="Ngṳ̄-ngiòng-hŏk – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Ngṳ̄-ngiòng-hŏk" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mdf mw-list-item"><a href="https://mdf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%8F%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BB%D1%83%D0%B2%D0%BA%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Кяльлувкссодама – Moksha" lang="mdf" hreflang="mdf" data-title="Кяльлувкссодама" data-language-autonym="Мокшень" data-language-local-name="Moksha" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Мокшень</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%8D%D0%BB_%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B6%D0%BB%D1%8D%D0%BB" title="Хэл шинжлэл – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Хэл шинжлэл" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%98%E1%80%AC%E1%80%9E%E1%80%AC%E1%80%97%E1%80%B1%E1%80%92" title="ဘာသာဗေဒ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဘာသာဗေဒ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nah mw-list-item"><a href="https://nah.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tlahtolmatiliztli" title="Tlahtolmatiliztli – Nahuatl" lang="nah" hreflang="nah" data-title="Tlahtolmatiliztli" data-language-autonym="Nāhuatl" data-language-local-name="Nahuatl" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nāhuatl</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fj mw-list-item"><a href="https://fj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics – Fijian" lang="fj" hreflang="fj" data-title="Linguistics" data-language-autonym="Na Vosa Vakaviti" data-language-local-name="Fijian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Na Vosa Vakaviti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taalkunde" title="Taalkunde – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Taalkunde" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sproaklear" title="Sproaklear – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Sproaklear" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nedersaksies</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="भाषाविज्ञान – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="भाषाविज्ञान" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A8%80%E8%AA%9E%E5%AD%A6" title="言語学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="言語学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nqo mw-list-item"><a href="https://nqo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DF%9E%DF%8A%DF%B2%DF%9F%DF%90%DF%B2%DF%98%DF%90%DF%A6%DF%8A" title="ߞߊ߲ߟߐ߲ߘߐߦߊ – N’Ko" lang="nqo" hreflang="nqo" data-title="ߞߊ߲ߟߐ߲ߘߐߦߊ" data-language-autonym="ߒߞߏ" data-language-local-name="N’Ko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ߒߞߏ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Лингвистика – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Лингвистика" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portaal:Spr%C3%A4kewaasenschap" title="Portaal:Spräkewaasenschap – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Portaal:Spräkewaasenschap" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pih mw-list-item"><a href="https://pih.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistiks" title="Linguistiks – Pitcairn-Norfolk" lang="pih" hreflang="pih" data-title="Linguistiks" data-language-autonym="Norfuk / Pitkern" data-language-local-name="Pitcairn-Norfolk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norfuk / Pitkern</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingvistikk" title="Lingvistikk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Lingvistikk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingvistikk" title="Lingvistikk – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Lingvistikk" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm mw-list-item"><a href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%AEndgistique" title="Lîndgistique – Norman" lang="nrf" hreflang="nrf" data-title="Lîndgistique" data-language-autonym="Nouormand" data-language-local-name="Norman" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nouormand</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistike" title="Linguistike – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Linguistike" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Novial</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ling%C3%BCistica" title="Lingüistica – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Lingüistica" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%99%D1%8B%D0%BB%D0%BC%D1%8B%D1%88%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%87%D0%B5" title="Йылмышанче – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Йылмышанче" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Олык марий</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%AD%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%B7%E0%AC%BE_%E0%AC%AC%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%9C%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%9E%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%A8" title="ଭାଷା ବିଜ୍ଞାନ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ଭାଷା ବିଜ୍ଞାନ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ଓଡ଼ିଆ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tilshunoslik" title="Tilshunoslik – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Tilshunoslik" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AD%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%BE_%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%A8" title="ਭਾਸ਼ਾ ਵਿਗਿਆਨ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਭਾਸ਼ਾ ਵਿਗਿਆਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="لسانیات – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="لسانیات" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-blk mw-list-item"><a href="https://blk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%98%E1%80%AC%E1%82%8F%E1%80%9E%E1%80%AC%E1%82%8F%E1%80%97%E1%80%B1%E1%82%8F%E1%80%92" title="ဘာႏသာႏဗေႏဒ – Pa'O" lang="blk" hreflang="blk" data-title="ဘာႏသာႏဗေႏဒ" data-language-autonym="ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ" data-language-local-name="Pa'O" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistica" title="Linguistica – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Linguistica" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Papiamentu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%98%D8%A8%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" title="ژبپوهنه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="ژبپوهنه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%97%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%8F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A" title="ភាសាសាស្ត្រ – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="ភាសាសាស្ត្រ" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lengh%C3%ACstica" title="Lenghìstica – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Lenghìstica" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tpi mw-list-item"><a href="https://tpi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stadi_bilong_pasin_bilong_ol_tokples" title="Stadi bilong pasin bilong ol tokples – Tok Pisin" lang="tpi" hreflang="tpi" data-title="Stadi bilong pasin bilong ol tokples" data-language-autonym="Tok Pisin" data-language-local-name="Tok Pisin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tok Pisin</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spraakwetenschop" title="Spraakwetenschop – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Spraakwetenschop" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C4%99zykoznawstwo" title="Językoznawstwo – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Językoznawstwo" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%BB%CF%89%CF%83%CF%83%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Γλωσσολογία – Pontic" lang="pnt" hreflang="pnt" data-title="Γλωσσολογία" data-language-autonym="Ποντιακά" data-language-local-name="Pontic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ποντιακά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingu%C3%ADstica" title="Linguística – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Linguística" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingvistic%C4%83" title="Lingvistică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Lingvistică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rmy mw-list-item"><a href="https://rmy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chhibavipen" title="Chhibavipen – Vlax Romani" lang="rmy" hreflang="rmy" data-title="Chhibavipen" data-language-autonym="Romani čhib" data-language-local-name="Vlax Romani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Romani čhib</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simi_yachay" title="Simi yachay – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Simi yachay" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D1%96%D0%BD%D2%91%D0%B2%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Лінґвістіка – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Лінґвістіка" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Лингвистика – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Лингвистика" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%8B%D0%BB_%D2%AF%D3%A9%D1%80%D1%8D%D2%95%D1%8D" title="Тыл үөрэҕэ – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Тыл үөрэҕэ" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D" title="भाषाविज्ञानम् – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="भाषाविज्ञानम्" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%AF%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%B9%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%A5%E1%B1%A4_%E1%B1%A5%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%AC%E1%B1%AE%E1%B1%A5" title="ᱯᱟᱹᱨᱥᱤ ᱥᱟᱬᱮᱥ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱯᱟᱹᱨᱥᱤ ᱥᱟᱬᱮᱥ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingu%C3%ACstica" title="Linguìstica – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Linguìstica" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingueestics" title="Lingueestics – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Lingueestics" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-trv mw-list-item"><a href="https://trv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knklaan_krkari" title="Knklaan krkari – Taroko" lang="trv" hreflang="trv" data-title="Knklaan krkari" data-language-autonym="Seediq" data-language-local-name="Taroko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Seediq</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sproakwietenskup" title="Sproakwietenskup – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Sproakwietenskup" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Seeltersk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gjuh%C3%ABsia" title="Gjuhësia – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Gjuhësia" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingu%C3%ACstica" title="Linguìstica – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Linguìstica" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%9C%E0%B7%8A_%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80" title="වාග් විද්‍යාව – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="වාග් විද්‍යාව" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Linguistics" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="لسانيات – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="لسانيات" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jazykoveda" title="Jazykoveda – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Jazykoveda" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jezikoslovje" title="Jezikoslovje – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Jezikoslovje" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cu mw-list-item"><a href="https://cu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D1%A8%EA%99%81%EA%99%91%D0%BA%D0%BE%EA%99%81%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%A5" title="Ѩꙁꙑкоꙁнаниѥ – Church Slavic" lang="cu" hreflang="cu" data-title="Ѩꙁꙑкоꙁнаниѥ" data-language-autonym="Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ" data-language-local-name="Church Slavic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%95%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C" title="زمانەوانی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="زمانەوانی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Лингвистика – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Лингвистика" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingvistika" title="Lingvistika – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Lingvistika" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistik" title="Linguistik – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Linguistik" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kielitiede" title="Kielitiede – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kielitiede" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spr%C3%A5kvetenskap" title="Språkvetenskap – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Språkvetenskap" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingguwistika" title="Lingguwistika – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Lingguwistika" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="மொழியியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மொழியியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tasnilest_tamatut" title="Tasnilest tamatut – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Tasnilest tamatut" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taqbaylit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tel_beleme" title="Tel beleme – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Tel beleme" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C" title="ภาษาศาสตร์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ภาษาศาสตร์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-din mw-list-item"><a href="https://din.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pi%C3%B6%C3%B6c%C3%ABthook" title="Piööcëthook – Dinka" lang="din" hreflang="din" data-title="Piööcëthook" data-language-autonym="Thuɔŋjäŋ" data-language-local-name="Dinka" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Thuɔŋjäŋ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D3%A3" title="Забоншиносӣ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Забоншиносӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dilbilim" title="Dilbilim – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Dilbilim" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kcg mw-list-item"><a href="https://kcg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyenlilyem" title="Lyenlilyem – Tyap" lang="kcg" hreflang="kcg" data-title="Lyenlilyem" data-language-autonym="Tyap" data-language-local-name="Tyap" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tyap</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Мовознавство – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Мовознавство" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="لسانیات – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="لسانیات" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%89%D9%84%D8%B4%DB%87%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84%D9%89%D9%82" title="تىلشۇناسلىق – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="تىلشۇناسلىق" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lengu%C3%ACstega" title="Lenguìstega – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Lenguìstega" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelentedo" title="Kelentedo – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Kelentedo" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vepsän kel’</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ng%C3%B4n_ng%E1%BB%AF_h%E1%BB%8Dc" title="Ngôn ngữ học – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Ngôn ngữ học" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keeletiid%C3%BCs" title="Keeletiidüs – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Keeletiidüs" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Võro</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linwince" title="Linwince – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Linwince" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Walon</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-guc mw-list-item"><a href="https://guc.wikipedia.org/wiki/An%C3%BCikii" title="Anüikii – Wayuu" lang="guc" hreflang="guc" data-title="Anüikii" data-language-autonym="Wayuunaiki" data-language-local-name="Wayuu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Wayuunaiki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80%E5%AD%B8" title="語言學 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="語言學" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingguwistika" title="Lingguwistika – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Lingguwistika" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E5%AD%A6" title="语言学 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="语言学" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%92%D7%95%D7%95%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%99%D7%A7" title="לינגוויסטיק – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="לינגוויסטיק" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80%E5%AD%B8" title="語言學 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="語言學" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z%C4%B1wan%C5%9F%C4%B1nasiye" title="Zıwanşınasiye – Dimli" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Zıwanşınasiye" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Dimli" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zea mw-list-item"><a href="https://zea.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taelkunde" title="Taelkunde – Zeelandic" lang="zea" hreflang="zea" data-title="Taelkunde" data-language-autonym="Zeêuws" data-language-local-name="Zeelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zeêuws</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalbuot%C4%ABra" title="Kalbuotīra – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Kalbuotīra" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Žemaitėška</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E5%AD%A6" title="语言学 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="语言学" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-btm mw-list-item"><a href="https://btm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistik" title="Linguistik – Batak Mandailing" lang="btm" hreflang="btm" data-title="Linguistik" data-language-autonym="Batak Mandailing" data-language-local-name="Batak Mandailing" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Batak Mandailing</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rsk mw-list-item"><a href="https://rsk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%BD%D2%91%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Линґвистика – Pannonian Rusyn" lang="rsk" hreflang="rsk" data-title="Линґвистика" data-language-autonym="Руски" data-language-local-name="Pannonian Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Руски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zgh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zgh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E2%B5%9C%E2%B4%B0%E2%B5%99%E2%B5%8F%E2%B5%89%E2%B5%8D%E2%B5%99%E2%B5%9C" title="ⵜⴰⵙⵏⵉⵍⵙⵜ – Standard Moroccan Tamazight" lang="zgh" hreflang="zgh" data-title="ⵜⴰⵙⵏⵉⵍⵙⵜ" data-language-autonym="ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ" data-language-local-name="Standard Moroccan Tamazight" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q8162#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Linguistics" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Linguistics"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistics&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistics&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Linguistics"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistics&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistics&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Linguistics" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Linguistics" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistics&oldid=1271939865" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistics&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Linguistics&id=1271939865&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FLinguistics"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FLinguistics"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Linguistics&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistics&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Linguistics" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibooks mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Linguistics" hreflang="en"><span>Wikibooks</span></a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikiquote mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Linguistics" hreflang="en"><span>Wikiquote</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q8162" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Scientific study of language</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the field of study. For publications, see <a href="/wiki/Linguistics_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Linguistics (disambiguation)">Linguistics (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Linguist" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Linguist_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Linguist (disambiguation)">Linguist (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1234201967">.mw-parser-output .linguistics-body{max-width:20em}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks linguistics-body"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Linguistics" title="Category:Linguistics">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Linguistics</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_linguistics" title="Outline of linguistics">Outline</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_linguistics" title="History of linguistics">History</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_linguistics_articles" title="Index of linguistics articles">Index</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">General linguistics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">Diachronic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lexicography" title="Lexicography">Lexicography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">Morphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">Phonology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatics" title="Pragmatics">Pragmatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantics" title="Semantics">Semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">Syntax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syntax%E2%80%93semantics_interface" title="Syntax–semantics interface">Syntax–semantics interface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_typology" title="Linguistic typology">Typology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Applied linguistics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Language_acquisition" title="Language acquisition">Acquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropological_linguistics" title="Anthropological linguistics">Anthropological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_linguistics" title="Applied linguistics">Applied</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_linguistics" title="Computational linguistics">Computational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversation_analysis" title="Conversation analysis">Conversation analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corpus_linguistics" title="Corpus linguistics">Corpus linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_analysis" title="Discourse analysis">Discourse analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_distance" title="Linguistic distance">Distance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_documentation" title="Language documentation">Documentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnography_of_communication" title="Ethnography of communication">Ethnography of communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnomethodology" title="Ethnomethodology">Ethnomethodology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_linguistics" title="Forensic linguistics">Forensic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_linguistics" title="History of linguistics">History of linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interlinguistics" title="Interlinguistics">Interlinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurolinguistics" title="Neurolinguistics">Neurolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philology" title="Philology">Philology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonetics" title="Phonetics">Phonetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psycholinguistics" title="Psycholinguistics">Psycholinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociolinguistics" title="Sociolinguistics">Sociolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Text_linguistics" title="Text linguistics">Text</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Translation_studies" title="Translation studies">Translating</a> and <a href="/wiki/Language_interpretation" title="Language interpretation">interpreting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing systems</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Theoretical frameworks</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Formalism_(linguistics)" title="Formalism (linguistics)">Formalist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phrase_structure_grammar" title="Phrase structure grammar">Constituency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dependency_grammar" title="Dependency grammar">Dependency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributionalism" title="Distributionalism">Distributionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generative_grammar" title="Generative grammar">Generative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossematics" title="Glossematics">Glossematics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_linguistics" title="Functional linguistics">Functional</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_grammar" title="Cognitive grammar">Cognitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_grammar" title="Construction grammar">Construction grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_discourse_grammar" title="Functional discourse grammar">Functional discourse grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grammaticalization" title="Grammaticalization">Grammaticalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interactional_linguistics" title="Interactional linguistics">Interactional linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prague_linguistic_circle" title="Prague linguistic circle">Prague circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemic_functional_linguistics" title="Systemic functional linguistics">Systemic functional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usage-based_models_of_language" title="Usage-based models of language">Usage-based</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_linguistics" title="Structural linguistics">Structuralism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autonomy_of_syntax" title="Autonomy of syntax">Autonomy of syntax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_compositionality" title="Principle of compositionality">Compositionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_and_innovative_language" title="Conservative and innovative language">Conservative and innovative language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_description" title="Linguistic description">Descriptivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etymology" title="Etymology">Etymology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iconicity" title="Iconicity">Iconicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internationalism_(linguistics)" title="Internationalism (linguistics)">Internationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_linguistics" title="Internet linguistics">Internet linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_linguistics" title="LGBTQ linguistics">LGBTQ linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_language" title="Origin of language">Origin of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orismology" title="Orismology">Orismology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthography" title="Orthography">Orthography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_linguistics" title="Philosophy of linguistics">Philosophy of linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_prescription" title="Linguistic prescription">Prescriptivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-language_acquisition" title="Second-language acquisition">Second-language acquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_language" title="Theory of language">Theory of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terminology" title="Terminology">Terminology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Linguistics" title="Portal:Linguistics">Portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Linguistics" title="Template:Linguistics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Linguistics" title="Template talk:Linguistics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Linguistics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Linguistics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Linguistics</b> is the scientific study of <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">language</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The areas of linguistic analysis are <a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">syntax</a> (rules governing the structure of sentences), <a href="/wiki/Semantics" title="Semantics">semantics</a> (meaning), <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphology</a> (structure of words), <a href="/wiki/Phonetics" title="Phonetics">phonetics</a> (speech sounds and equivalent gestures in <a href="/wiki/Sign_language" title="Sign language">sign languages</a>), <a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">phonology</a> (the abstract sound system of a particular language, and analogous systems of sign languages), and <a href="/wiki/Pragmatics" title="Pragmatics">pragmatics</a> (how the context of use contributes to meaning).<sup id="cite_ref-akmajian_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-akmajian-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Subdisciplines such as <a href="/wiki/Biolinguistics" title="Biolinguistics">biolinguistics</a> (the study of the biological variables and evolution of language) and <a href="/wiki/Psycholinguistics" title="Psycholinguistics">psycholinguistics</a> (the study of psychological factors in human language) bridge many of these divisions.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Linguistics encompasses <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_linguistics" title="Outline of linguistics">many branches and subfields</a> that span both theoretical and practical applications.<sup id="cite_ref-linguisticsociety.org_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-linguisticsociety.org-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Theoretical_linguistics" title="Theoretical linguistics">Theoretical linguistics</a> is concerned with understanding the <a href="/wiki/Universal_grammar" title="Universal grammar">universal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language#Nature_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">fundamental nature</a> of language and developing a general theoretical framework for describing it. <a href="/wiki/Applied_linguistics" title="Applied linguistics">Applied linguistics</a> seeks to utilize the scientific findings of the study of language for practical purposes, such as developing methods of improving language education and literacy. </p><p>Linguistic features may be studied through a variety of perspectives: <a href="/wiki/Synchronic_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Synchronic analysis">synchronically</a> (by describing the structure of a language at a specific point in time) or <a href="/wiki/Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">diachronically</a> (through the historical development of a language over a period of time), in <a href="/wiki/Monolingualism" title="Monolingualism">monolinguals</a> or in <a href="/wiki/Multilingualism" title="Multilingualism">multilinguals</a>, among children or among adults, in terms of how it is being learnt or how it was acquired, as abstract objects or as cognitive structures, through written texts or through oral elicitation, and finally through mechanical data collection or practical fieldwork.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Linguistics emerged from the field of <a href="/wiki/Philology" title="Philology">philology</a>, of which some branches are more qualitative and holistic in approach.<sup id="cite_ref-Crystal-1981_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Crystal-1981-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Today, philology and linguistics are variably described as related fields, subdisciplines, or separate fields of language study but, by and large, linguistics can be seen as an umbrella term.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Linguistics is also related to the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">philosophy of language</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stylistics" title="Stylistics">stylistics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">rhetoric</a>, <a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">semiotics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lexicography" title="Lexicography">lexicography</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Translation" title="Translation">translation</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Major_subdisciplines">Major subdisciplines</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistics&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Major subdisciplines"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Citation_de_Ferdinand_de_Saussure.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Citation_de_Ferdinand_de_Saussure.jpg/220px-Citation_de_Ferdinand_de_Saussure.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Citation_de_Ferdinand_de_Saussure.jpg/330px-Citation_de_Ferdinand_de_Saussure.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Citation_de_Ferdinand_de_Saussure.jpg/440px-Citation_de_Ferdinand_de_Saussure.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption>Swiss linguist <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_de_Saussure" title="Ferdinand de Saussure">Ferdinand de Saussure</a> is regarded as the creator of <a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">semiotics</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historical_linguistics">Historical linguistics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistics&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Historical linguistics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">Historical linguistics</a></div> <p>Historical linguistics is the study of how language changes over history, particularly with regard to a specific language or a group of languages. <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western trends</a> in historical linguistics date back to roughly the late 18th century, when the discipline grew out of <a href="/wiki/Philology" title="Philology">philology</a>, the study of ancient texts and oral traditions.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Historical linguistics emerged as one of the first few sub-disciplines in the field, and was most widely practised during the late 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite a shift in focus in the 20th century towards <a href="/wiki/Formalism_(linguistics)" title="Formalism (linguistics)">formalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Generative_grammar" title="Generative grammar">generative grammar</a>, which studies the <a href="/wiki/Universal_grammar" title="Universal grammar">universal</a> properties of language, historical research today still remains a significant field of linguistic inquiry. Subfields of the discipline include <a href="/wiki/Language_change" title="Language change">language change</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grammaticalization" title="Grammaticalization">grammaticalization</a>. </p><p>Historical linguistics studies language change either diachronically (through a comparison of different time periods in the past and present) or in a <a href="/wiki/Synchronic_linguistics" class="mw-redirect" title="Synchronic linguistics">synchronic</a> manner (by observing developments between different variations that exist within the current linguistic stage of a language).<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At first, historical linguistics was the cornerstone of <a href="/wiki/Comparative_linguistics" title="Comparative linguistics">comparative linguistics</a>, which involves a study of the relationship between different languages.<sup id="cite_ref-Routledge_introduction_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Routledge_introduction-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At that time, scholars of historical linguistics were only concerned with creating different categories of <a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">language families</a>, and reconstructing <a href="/wiki/Prehistory" title="Prehistory">prehistoric</a> proto-languages by using both the <a href="/wiki/Comparative_method" title="Comparative method">comparative method</a> and the method of <a href="/wiki/Internal_reconstruction" title="Internal reconstruction">internal reconstruction</a>. Internal reconstruction is the method by which an element that contains a certain meaning is re-used in different contexts or environments where there is a variation in either sound or analogy.<sup id="cite_ref-Routledge_introduction_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Routledge_introduction-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This claim needs references to better sources. (December 2020)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The reason for this had been to describe well-known <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European languages</a>, many of which had detailed documentation and long written histories. Scholars of historical linguistics also studied <a href="/wiki/Uralic_languages" title="Uralic languages">Uralic languages</a>, another European language family for which very little written material existed back then. After that, there also followed significant work on the <a href="/wiki/Text_corpus" title="Text corpus">corpora</a> of other languages, such as the <a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian languages</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Native_American_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American language">Native American language families</a>. </p><p>In historical work, the <a href="/wiki/Uniformitarian_Principle_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Uniformitarian Principle (linguistics)">uniformitarian principle</a> is generally the underlying working hypothesis, occasionally also clearly expressed.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The principle was expressed early by <a href="/wiki/William_Dwight_Whitney" title="William Dwight Whitney">William Dwight Whitney</a>, who considered it imperative, a "must", of historical linguistics to "look to find the same principle operative also in the very outset of that [language] history."<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The above approach of comparativism in linguistics is now, however, only a small part of the much broader discipline called historical linguistics. The comparative study of specific Indo-European languages is considered a highly specialized field today, while comparative research is carried out over the subsequent internal developments in a language: in particular, over the development of modern standard varieties of languages, and over the development of a language from its standardized form to its varieties.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>For instance, some scholars also tried to establish <a href="/wiki/Macrofamily" title="Macrofamily">super-families</a>, linking, for example, Indo-European, Uralic, and other language families to a hypothetical <a href="/wiki/Nostratic_languages" title="Nostratic languages">Nostratic language group</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While these attempts are still not widely accepted as credible methods, they provide necessary information to establish relatedness in language change. This is generally hard to find for events long ago, due to the occurrence of chance word resemblances and variations between language groups. A limit of around 10,000 years is often assumed for the functional purpose of conducting research.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is also hard to date various proto-languages. Even though several methods are available, these languages can be dated only approximately.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In modern historical linguistics, we examine how languages change over time, focusing on the relationships between dialects within a specific period. This includes studying morphological, syntactical, and phonetic shifts. Connections between dialects in the past and present are also explored.<sup id="cite_ref-Acadmia_Morphology_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Acadmia_Morphology-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Syntax">Syntax</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistics&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Syntax"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">Syntax</a></div> <p>Syntax is the study of how words and <a href="/wiki/Morpheme" title="Morpheme">morphemes</a> combine to form larger units such as <a href="/wiki/Phrase" title="Phrase">phrases</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sentence_(linguistics)" title="Sentence (linguistics)">sentences</a>. Central concerns of syntax include <a href="/wiki/Word_order" title="Word order">word order</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Grammatical relations">grammatical relations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Constituent_(linguistics)" title="Constituent (linguistics)">constituency</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Agreement_(linguistics)" title="Agreement (linguistics)">agreement</a>, the nature of crosslinguistic variation, and the relationship between form and meaning. There are numerous approaches to syntax that differ in their central assumptions and goals. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Morphology">Morphology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistics&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Morphology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">Morphology (linguistics)</a></div> <p>Morphology is the study of <a href="/wiki/Word" title="Word">words</a>, including the principles by which they are formed, and how they relate to one another within a language.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most approaches to morphology investigate the structure of words in terms of <i><a href="/wiki/Morpheme" title="Morpheme">morphemes</a></i>, which are the smallest units in a language with some independent <a href="/wiki/Meaning_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Meaning (linguistics)">meaning</a>. Morphemes include <a href="/wiki/Root_(linguistics)" title="Root (linguistics)">roots</a> that can exist as words by themselves, but also categories such as <a href="/wiki/Affix" title="Affix">affixes</a> that can only appear as part of a larger word. For example, in English the root <i>catch</i> and the suffix <i>-ing</i> are both morphemes; <i>catch</i> may appear as its own word, or it may be combined with <i>-ing</i> to form the new word <i>catching</i>. Morphology also analyzes how words behave as <a href="/wiki/Parts_of_speech" class="mw-redirect" title="Parts of speech">parts of speech</a>, and how they may be <a href="/wiki/Inflected" class="mw-redirect" title="Inflected">inflected</a> to express <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_categories" class="mw-redirect" title="Grammatical categories">grammatical categories</a> including <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_number" title="Grammatical number">number</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_tense" title="Grammatical tense">tense</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_aspect" title="Grammatical aspect">aspect</a>. Concepts such as <a href="/wiki/Productivity_(linguistics)" title="Productivity (linguistics)">productivity</a> are concerned with how speakers create words in specific contexts, which evolves over the history of a language. </p><p>The discipline that deals specifically with the sound changes occurring within morphemes is <a href="/wiki/Morphophonology" title="Morphophonology">morphophonology</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Semantics_and_pragmatics">Semantics and pragmatics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistics&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Semantics and pragmatics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Semantics" title="Semantics">Semantics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pragmatics" title="Pragmatics">Pragmatics</a></div> <p>Semantics and pragmatics are branches of linguistics concerned with meaning. These subfields have traditionally been divided according to aspects of meaning: "semantics" refers to grammatical and lexical meanings, while "pragmatics" is concerned with meaning in context. Within linguistics, the subfield of <a href="/wiki/Formal_semantics_(natural_language)" title="Formal semantics (natural language)">formal semantics</a> studies the <a href="/wiki/Denotation" title="Denotation">denotations</a> of sentences and how they are <a href="/wiki/Compositionality" class="mw-redirect" title="Compositionality">composed</a> from the meanings of their constituent expressions. Formal semantics draws heavily on <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">philosophy of language</a> and uses formal tools from logic and <a href="/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">computer science</a>. On the other hand, <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_semantics" title="Cognitive semantics">cognitive semantics</a> explains linguistic meaning via aspects of general cognition, drawing on ideas from cognitive science such as <a href="/wiki/Prototype_theory" title="Prototype theory">prototype theory</a>. </p><p>Pragmatics focuses on phenomena such as <a href="/wiki/Speech_act" title="Speech act">speech acts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Implicature" title="Implicature">implicature</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Conversation_analysis" title="Conversation analysis">talk in interaction</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Mey_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mey-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike semantics, which examines meaning that is conventional or "coded" in a given language, pragmatics studies how the transmission of meaning depends not only on the structural and linguistic knowledge (grammar, lexicon, etc.) of the speaker and listener, but also on the context of the utterance,<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> any pre-existing knowledge about those involved, the inferred intent of the speaker, and other factors.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Phonetics_and_phonology">Phonetics and phonology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistics&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Phonetics and phonology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Phonetics" title="Phonetics">Phonetics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">Phonology</a></div> <p>Phonetics and phonology are branches of linguistics concerned with sounds (or the equivalent aspects of sign languages). Phonetics is largely concerned with the physical aspects of sounds such as their <a href="/wiki/Articulatory_phonetics" title="Articulatory phonetics">articulation</a>, acoustics, production, and perception. <a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">Phonology</a> is concerned with the linguistic abstractions and categorizations of sounds, and it tells us what sounds are in a language, how they do and can combine into words, and explains why certain phonetic features are important to identifying a word.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Typology">Typology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistics&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Typology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This paragraph is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_typology" title="Linguistic typology">Linguistic typology</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_typology&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_typology" title="Linguistic typology">Linguistic typology</a> (or language typology) is a field of linguistics that studies and classifies languages according to their structural features to allow their comparison. Its aim is to describe and explain the structural diversity and the common properties of the world's languages.<sup id="cite_ref-Linguistic_typology_:12_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Linguistic_typology_:12-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its subdisciplines include, but are not limited to phonological typology, which deals with sound features; syntactic typology, which deals with word order and form; lexical typology, which deals with language vocabulary; and theoretical typology, which aims to explain the universal tendencies.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Structures">Structures</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistics&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Structures"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Linguistics" title="Special:EditPage/Linguistics">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 2019</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Linguistic structures are pairings of meaning and form. Any particular pairing of meaning and form is a <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_de_Saussure" title="Ferdinand de Saussure">Saussurean</a> <a href="/wiki/Sign_(semiotics)" title="Sign (semiotics)">linguistic sign</a>. For instance, the meaning "cat" is represented worldwide with a wide variety of different sound patterns (in oral languages), movements of the hands and face (in <a href="/wiki/Sign_language" title="Sign language">sign languages</a>), and written symbols (in written languages). Linguistic patterns have proven their importance for the <a href="/wiki/Knowledge_engineering" title="Knowledge engineering">knowledge engineering</a> field especially with the ever-increasing amount of available data. </p><p>Linguists focusing on structure attempt to understand the rules regarding language use that native speakers know (not always consciously). All linguistic structures can be broken down into component parts that are combined according to (sub)conscious rules, over multiple levels of analysis. For instance, consider the structure of the word "tenth" on two different levels of analysis. On the level of internal word structure (known as morphology), the word "tenth" is made up of one linguistic form indicating a number and another form indicating ordinality. The rule governing the combination of these forms ensures that the ordinality marker "th" follows the number "ten." On the level of sound structure (known as phonology), structural analysis shows that the "n" sound in "tenth" is made differently from the "n" sound in "ten" spoken alone. Although most speakers of English are consciously aware of the rules governing internal structure of the word pieces of "tenth", they are less often aware of the rule governing its sound structure. Linguists focused on structure find and analyze rules such as these, which govern how native speakers use language. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Grammar">Grammar</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistics&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Grammar"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Grammar is a system of rules which governs the production and use of utterances in a given language. These rules apply to sound<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as meaning, and include componential subsets of rules, such as those pertaining to <a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">phonology</a> (the organization of phonetic sound systems), <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphology</a> (the formation and composition of words), and <a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">syntax</a> (the formation and composition of phrases and sentences).<sup id="cite_ref-akmajian_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-akmajian-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Modern <a href="/wiki/Grammar#Theoretical_frameworks" title="Grammar">frameworks that deal with the principles of grammar</a> include <a href="/wiki/Structural_linguistics" title="Structural linguistics">structural</a> and <a href="/wiki/Functional_linguistics" title="Functional linguistics">functional linguistics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Generative_linguistics" class="mw-redirect" title="Generative linguistics">generative linguistics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sub-fields that focus on a grammatical study of language include the following: </p> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Phonetics" title="Phonetics">Phonetics</a></b>, the study of the physical properties of speech sound production and perception, and delves into their acoustic and <a href="/wiki/Articulatory_phonetics" title="Articulatory phonetics">articulatory</a> properties</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">Phonology</a></b>, the study of sounds as abstract elements in the speaker's mind that distinguish meaning (<a href="/wiki/Phonemes" class="mw-redirect" title="Phonemes">phonemes</a>)</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">Morphology</a></b>, the study of morphemes, or the internal structures of words and how they can be modified</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">Syntax</a></b>, the study of how words combine to form grammatical phrases and <a href="/wiki/Sentence_(linguistics)" title="Sentence (linguistics)">sentences</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Semantics" title="Semantics">Semantics</a></b>, the study of lexical and grammatical aspects of meaning<sup id="cite_ref-Meaning_and_Grammar:_An_Introductio_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Meaning_and_Grammar:_An_Introductio-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Pragmatics" title="Pragmatics">Pragmatics</a></b>, the study of how <a href="/wiki/Utterance" title="Utterance">utterances</a> are used in <a href="/wiki/Speech_acts" class="mw-redirect" title="Speech acts">communicative acts</a>, and the role played by situational context and non-linguistic knowledge in the transmission of meaning<sup id="cite_ref-Meaning_and_Grammar:_An_Introductio_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Meaning_and_Grammar:_An_Introductio-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Discourse_analysis" title="Discourse analysis">Discourse analysis</a></b>, the analysis of language use in <a href="/wiki/Text_(literary_theory)" title="Text (literary theory)">texts</a> (spoken, written, or signed)</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Stylistics_(field_of_study)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stylistics (field of study)">Stylistics</a></b>, the study of linguistic factors (rhetoric, diction, stress) that place a discourse in context</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">Semiotics</a></b>, the study of signs and sign processes (semiosis), indication, designation, likeness, analogy, metaphor, symbolism, signification, and communication</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Discourse">Discourse</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistics&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Discourse"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Discourse is language as social practice (Baynham, 1995) and is a multilayered concept. As a social practice, discourse embodies different ideologies through written and spoken texts. Discourse analysis can examine or expose these ideologies. Discourse not only influences genre, which is selected based on specific contexts but also, at a micro level, shapes language as text (spoken or written) down to the phonological and lexico-grammatical levels. Grammar and discourse are linked as parts of a system.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A particular discourse becomes a language variety when it is used in this way for a particular purpose, and is referred to as a <a href="/wiki/Register_(sociolinguistics)" title="Register (sociolinguistics)">register</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There may be certain lexical additions (new words) that are brought into play because of the expertise of the community of people within a certain domain of specialization. Thus, registers and discourses distinguish themselves not only through specialized vocabulary but also, in some cases, through distinct stylistic choices. People in the medical fraternity, for example, may use some medical terminology in their communication that is specialized to the field of medicine. This is often referred to as being part of the "medical discourse", and so on. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lexicon">Lexicon</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistics&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Lexicon"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The lexicon is a catalogue of words and terms that are stored in a speaker's mind. The lexicon consists of words and <a href="/wiki/Bound_morphemes" class="mw-redirect" title="Bound morphemes">bound morphemes</a>, which are parts of words that can not stand alone, like <a href="/wiki/Affixes" class="mw-redirect" title="Affixes">affixes</a>. In some analyses, compound words and certain classes of idiomatic expressions and other collocations are also considered to be part of the lexicon. Dictionaries represent attempts at listing, in alphabetical order, the lexicon of a given language; usually, however, bound morphemes are not included. <a href="/wiki/Lexicography" title="Lexicography">Lexicography</a>, closely linked with the domain of semantics, is the science of mapping the words into an encyclopedia or a dictionary. The creation and addition of new words (into the lexicon) is called coining or <a href="/wiki/Neologization" class="mw-redirect" title="Neologization">neologization</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the new words are called <a href="/wiki/Neologism" title="Neologism">neologisms</a>. </p><p>It is often believed that a speaker's capacity for language lies in the quantity of words stored in the lexicon. However, this is often considered a myth by linguists. The capacity for the use of language is considered by many linguists to lie primarily in the domain of grammar, and to be linked with <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_competence" title="Linguistic competence">competence</a>, rather than with the growth of vocabulary. Even a very small lexicon is theoretically capable of producing an infinite number of sentences. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Style">Style</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistics&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Style"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Stylistics_(field_of_study)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stylistics (field of study)">Stylistics</a> also involves the study of written, signed, or spoken discourse through varying speech communities, genres, and editorial or narrative formats in the mass media.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It involves the study and interpretation of texts for aspects of their linguistic and tonal style. Stylistic analysis entails the analysis of description of particular <a href="/wiki/Dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Dialects">dialects</a> and <a href="/wiki/Register_(sociolinguistics)" title="Register (sociolinguistics)">registers</a> used by speech communities. Stylistic features include <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">rhetoric</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> diction, stress, satire, <a href="/wiki/Irony" title="Irony">irony</a>, dialogue, and other forms of phonetic variations. Stylistic analysis can also include the study of language in canonical works of literature, popular fiction, news, advertisements, and other forms of communication in popular culture as well. It is usually seen as a variation in communication that changes from speaker to speaker and community to community. In short, Stylistics is the interpretation of text. </p><p>In the 1960s, <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Derrida" title="Jacques Derrida">Jacques Derrida</a>, for instance, further distinguished between speech and writing, by proposing that written language be studied as a linguistic medium of communication in itself.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Palaeography" title="Palaeography">Palaeography</a> is therefore the discipline that studies the evolution of written scripts (as signs and symbols) in language.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The formal study of language also led to the growth of fields like <a href="/wiki/Psycholinguistics" title="Psycholinguistics">psycholinguistics</a>, which explores the representation and function of language in the mind; <a href="/wiki/Neurolinguistics" title="Neurolinguistics">neurolinguistics</a>, which studies language processing in the brain; <a href="/wiki/Biolinguistics" title="Biolinguistics">biolinguistics</a>, which studies the biology and evolution of language; and <a href="/wiki/Language_acquisition" title="Language acquisition">language acquisition</a>, which investigates how children and adults acquire the knowledge of one or more languages. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Approaches">Approaches</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistics&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Approaches"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_language" title="Theory of language">Theory of language</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Humanistic">Humanistic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistics&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Humanistic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The fundamental principle of humanistic linguistics, especially rational and <a href="/wiki/Logical_grammar" title="Logical grammar">logical grammar</a>, is that language is an invention created by people. A semiotic tradition of linguistic research considers language a <a href="/wiki/Sign_system" title="Sign system">sign system</a> which arises from the interaction of meaning and form.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The organization of linguistic levels is considered computational.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Linguistics is essentially seen as relating to <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">social</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">cultural studies</a> because different languages are shaped in <a href="/wiki/Social_interaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Social interaction">social interaction</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Speech_community" title="Speech community">speech community</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Frameworks representing the <a href="/wiki/Humanistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Humanistic">humanistic</a> view of language include <a href="/wiki/Structural_linguistics" title="Structural linguistics">structural linguistics</a>, among others.<sup id="cite_ref-humanistic_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-humanistic-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Structural analysis means dissecting each linguistic level: phonetic, morphological, syntactic, and discourse, to the smallest units. These are collected into inventories (e.g. phoneme, morpheme, lexical classes, phrase types) to study their interconnectedness within a hierarchy of structures and layers.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Functional analysis adds to structural analysis the assignment of semantic and other functional roles that each unit may have. For example, a noun phrase may function as the subject or object of the sentence; or the <a href="/wiki/Agent_(grammar)" title="Agent (grammar)">agent</a> or <a href="/wiki/Patient_(grammar)" title="Patient (grammar)">patient</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Functional_linguistics" title="Functional linguistics">Functional linguistics</a>, or functional grammar, is a branch of structural linguistics. In the humanistic reference, the terms <a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">structuralism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Structural_functionalism" title="Structural functionalism">functionalism</a> are related to their meaning in other <a href="/wiki/Human_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Human sciences">human sciences</a>. The difference between formal and functional structuralism lies in the way that the two approaches explain why languages have the properties they have. Functional <a href="/wiki/Explanation" title="Explanation">explanation</a> entails the idea that language is a tool for communication, or that communication is the primary function of language. Linguistic forms are consequently explained by an appeal to their functional value, or usefulness. Other structuralist approaches take the perspective that form follows from the inner mechanisms of the bilateral and multilayered language system.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biological">Biological</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistics&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Biological"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Biolinguistics" title="Biolinguistics">Biolinguistics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biosemiotics" title="Biosemiotics">Biosemiotics</a></div> <p>Approaches such as <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_linguistics" title="Cognitive linguistics">cognitive linguistics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Generative_grammar" title="Generative grammar">generative grammar</a> study linguistic <a href="/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">cognition</a> with a view towards uncovering the <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biological</a> underpinnings of language. In <a href="/wiki/Generative_Grammar" class="mw-redirect" title="Generative Grammar">Generative Grammar</a>, these underpinning are understood as including <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_nativism" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic nativism">innate</a> <a href="/wiki/Domain-specific" class="mw-redirect" title="Domain-specific">domain-specific</a> grammatical knowledge. Thus, one of the central concerns of the approach is to discover what aspects of linguistic knowledge are innate and which are not.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_linguistics" title="Cognitive linguistics">Cognitive linguistics</a>, in contrast, rejects the notion of innate grammar, and studies how the human mind creates linguistic <a href="/wiki/Construction_grammar" title="Construction grammar">constructions</a> from event <a href="/wiki/Schema_(psychology)" title="Schema (psychology)">schemas</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Arbib_2015_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Arbib_2015-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the impact of cognitive constraints and <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_bias" title="Cognitive bias">biases</a> on human language.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In cognitive linguistics, language is approached via the <a href="/wiki/Sense" title="Sense">senses</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ibarretxe-Antuñano_2002_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ibarretxe-Antuñano_2002-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gibbs&Colston_1995_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gibbs&Colston_1995-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A closely related approach is <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_linguistics" title="Evolutionary linguistics">evolutionary linguistics</a><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which includes the study of linguistic units as <a href="/wiki/Memetics" title="Memetics">cultural replicators</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is possible to study how language <a href="/wiki/Self-replication" title="Self-replication">replicates</a> and <a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">adapts</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">mind</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Individual" title="Individual">individual</a> or the speech community.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Construction_grammar" title="Construction grammar">Construction grammar</a> is a framework which applies the <a href="/wiki/Meme" title="Meme">meme</a> concept to the study of syntax.<sup id="cite_ref-Dahl_2001_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dahl_2001-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kirby_2013_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kirby_2013-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Zehentner_2019_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zehentner_2019-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-MacWhinney_2015_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MacWhinney_2015-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The generative versus evolutionary approach are sometimes called <a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(biology)" title="Structuralism (biology)">formalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Adaptationism" title="Adaptationism">functionalism</a>, respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This reference is however different from the use of the terms in <a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">human sciences</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Methodology">Methodology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistics&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Methodology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Linguistics" title="Special:EditPage/Linguistics">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">February 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Modern linguistics is primarily <a href="/wiki/Descriptive_linguistics" class="mw-redirect" title="Descriptive linguistics">descriptive</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Martinet_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Martinet-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Linguists describe and explain features of language without making subjective judgments on whether a particular feature or usage is "good" or "bad". This is analogous to practice in other sciences: a <a href="/wiki/Zoologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoologist">zoologist</a> studies the animal kingdom without making subjective judgments on whether a particular species is "better" or "worse" than another. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_prescription" title="Linguistic prescription">Prescription</a>, on the other hand, is an attempt to promote particular linguistic usages over others, often favoring a particular dialect or "<a href="/wiki/Acrolect" class="mw-redirect" title="Acrolect">acrolect</a>". This may have the aim of establishing a <a href="/wiki/Standard_language" title="Standard language">linguistic standard</a>, which can aid communication over large geographical areas. It may also, however, be an attempt by speakers of one language or dialect to exert influence over speakers of other languages or dialects (see <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_imperialism" title="Linguistic imperialism">Linguistic imperialism</a>). An extreme version of prescriptivism can be found among <a href="/wiki/Censorship" title="Censorship">censors</a>, who attempt to eradicate words and structures that they consider to be destructive to society. Prescription, however, may be practised appropriately in <a href="/wiki/Language_education" title="Language education">language instruction</a>, like in <a href="/wiki/English_language_teaching" class="mw-redirect" title="English language teaching">ELT</a>, where certain fundamental grammatical rules and lexical items need to be introduced to a second-language speaker who is attempting to <a href="/wiki/Language_acquisition" title="Language acquisition">acquire</a> the language.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistics&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Most contemporary linguists work under the assumption that <a href="/wiki/Spoken_language" title="Spoken language">spoken data</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sign_language" title="Sign language">signed data</a> are more fundamental than <a href="/wiki/Written_language" title="Written language">written data</a>. This is because </p> <ul><li>Speech appears to be universal to all human beings capable of producing and perceiving it, while there have been many cultures and speech communities that lack written communication;</li> <li>Features appear in speech which are not always recorded in writing, including <a href="/wiki/Phonological_rule" title="Phonological rule">phonological rules</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sound_change" title="Sound change">sound changes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Speech_error" title="Speech error">speech errors</a>;</li> <li>All natural writing systems reflect a spoken language (or potentially a signed one), even with <a href="/wiki/Pictographic" class="mw-redirect" title="Pictographic">pictographic</a> scripts like <a href="/wiki/Dongba" title="Dongba">Dongba</a> writing <a href="/wiki/Naxi_language" title="Naxi language">Naxi</a> <a href="/wiki/Homophone" title="Homophone">homophones</a> with the same pictogram, and text in writing systems used for two languages changing to fit the spoken language being recorded;</li> <li>Speech evolved before human beings invented writing;</li> <li>Individuals learn to speak and process spoken language more easily and earlier than they do with writing.</li></ul> <p>Nonetheless, linguists agree that the study of written language can be worthwhile and valuable. For research that relies on <a href="/wiki/Corpus_linguistics" title="Corpus linguistics">corpus linguistics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Computational_linguistics" title="Computational linguistics">computational linguistics</a>, written language is often much more convenient for processing large amounts of linguistic data. Large corpora of spoken language are difficult to create and hard to find, and are typically <a href="/wiki/Transcription_(linguistics)" title="Transcription (linguistics)">transcribed</a> and written. In addition, linguists have turned to text-based discourse occurring in various formats of <a href="/wiki/Computer-mediated_communication" title="Computer-mediated communication">computer-mediated communication</a> as a viable site for linguistic inquiry. </p><p>The study of writing systems themselves, graphemics, is, in any case, considered a branch of linguistics. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Analysis">Analysis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistics&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Analysis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Before the 20th century, linguists analysed language on a <a href="/wiki/Diachronic_linguistics" class="mw-redirect" title="Diachronic linguistics">diachronic</a> plane, which was historical in focus. This meant that they would compare linguistic features and try to analyse language from the point of view of how it had changed between then and later. However, with the rise of Saussurean linguistics in the 20th century, the focus shifted to a more <a href="/wiki/Synchronic_linguistics" class="mw-redirect" title="Synchronic linguistics">synchronic</a> approach, where the study was geared towards analysis and comparison between different language variations, which existed at the same given point of time. </p><p>At another level, the <a href="/wiki/Syntagmatic_analysis" title="Syntagmatic analysis">syntagmatic</a> plane of linguistic analysis entails the comparison between the way words are sequenced, within the syntax of a sentence. For example, the article "the" is followed by a noun, because of the syntagmatic relation between the words. The <a href="/wiki/Paradigmatic_analysis" title="Paradigmatic analysis">paradigmatic</a> plane, on the other hand, focuses on an analysis that is based on the paradigms or concepts that are embedded in a given text. In this case, words of the same type or class may be replaced in the text with each other to achieve the same conceptual understanding. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistics&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_linguistics" title="History of linguistics">History of linguistics</a></div> <p>The earliest activities in the <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_description" title="Linguistic description">description of language</a> have been attributed to the <a href="/wiki/6th_century_BC" title="6th century BC">6th-century-BC</a> Indian grammarian <a href="/wiki/P%C4%81%E1%B9%87ini" title="Pāṇini">Pāṇini</a><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who wrote a <a href="/wiki/Formal_grammar" title="Formal grammar">formal description</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit language</a> in his <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Aṣṭādhyāyī</i></span></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Today, modern-day theories on <a href="/wiki/Generative_grammar" title="Generative grammar">grammar</a> employ many of the principles that were laid down then.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nomenclature">Nomenclature</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistics&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Nomenclature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Before the 20th century, the term <i><a href="/wiki/Philology" title="Philology">philology</a></i>, first attested in 1716,<sup id="cite_ref-Etymonline_Definition_of_Philology_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Etymonline_Definition_of_Philology-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was commonly used to refer to the study of language, which was then predominantly historical in focus.<sup id="cite_ref-Nichols_65-1_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nichols_65-1-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Understanding_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Understanding-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_de_Saussure" title="Ferdinand de Saussure">Ferdinand de Saussure</a>'s insistence on the importance of <a href="/wiki/Synchronic_analysis_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Synchronic analysis (linguistics)">synchronic analysis</a>, however, this focus has shifted<sup id="cite_ref-Understanding_71-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Understanding-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the term <i>philology</i> is now generally used for the "study of a language's grammar, history, and literary tradition", especially in the United States<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (where philology has never been very popularly considered as the "science of language").<sup id="cite_ref-Etymonline_Definition_of_Philology_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Etymonline_Definition_of_Philology-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although the term <i>linguist</i> in the sense of "a student of language" dates from 1641,<sup id="cite_ref-etymonline_linguist_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-etymonline_linguist-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the term <i>linguistics</i> is first attested in 1847.<sup id="cite_ref-etymonline_linguist_73-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-etymonline_linguist-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is now the usual term in English for the scientific study of language,<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though <i>linguistic science</i> is sometimes used. </p><p>Linguistics is a <a href="/wiki/Interdisciplinarity" title="Interdisciplinarity">multi-disciplinary</a> field of research that combines tools from natural sciences, social sciences, <a href="/wiki/Formal_science" title="Formal science">formal sciences</a>, and the humanities.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many linguists, such as David Crystal, conceptualize the field as being primarily scientific.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term <i>linguist</i> applies to someone who studies language or is a researcher within the field, or to someone who uses the tools of the discipline to describe and analyse specific languages.<sup id="cite_ref-American_Heritage_2000_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-American_Heritage_2000-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_grammarians">Early grammarians</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistics&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Early grammarians"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Philology" title="Philology">Philology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grammarian_(Greco-Roman)" title="Grammarian (Greco-Roman)">Grammarian (Greco-Roman)</a></div> <p>An early formal study of language was in India with <a href="/wiki/P%C4%81%E1%B9%87ini" title="Pāṇini">Pāṇini</a>, the 6th century BC grammarian who formulated 3,959 rules of Sanskrit <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphology</a>. Pāṇini's systematic classification of the sounds of <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> into consonants and vowels, and word classes, such as nouns and verbs, was the first known instance of its kind. In the Middle East, <a href="/wiki/Sibawayh" title="Sibawayh">Sibawayh</a>, a Persian, made a detailed description of Arabic in AD 760 in his monumental work, <i>Al-kitab fii an-naħw</i> (<span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">الكتاب في النحو</span></span>, <i>The Book on Grammar</i>), the first known author to distinguish between <a href="/wiki/Phonetics" title="Phonetics">sounds</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">phonemes (sounds as units of a linguistic system)</a>. Western interest in the study of languages began somewhat later than in the East,<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but the grammarians of the classical languages did not use the same methods or reach the same conclusions as their contemporaries in the Indic world. Early interest in language in the West was a part of philosophy, not of grammatical description. The first insights into semantic theory were made by <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> in his <a href="/wiki/Cratylus_(dialogue)" title="Cratylus (dialogue)"><i>Cratylus</i> dialogue</a>, where he argues that words denote concepts that are eternal and exist in the world of ideas. This work is the first to use the word etymology to describe the history of a word's meaning. Around 280 BC, one of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>'s successors founded a university (see <a href="/wiki/Musaeum" class="mw-redirect" title="Musaeum">Musaeum</a>) in <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a>, where a school of philologists studied the ancient texts in Greek, and taught Greek to speakers of other languages. While this school was the first to use the word "grammar" in its modern sense, Plato had used the word in its original meaning as "<a href="/wiki/Art_of_Grammar" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Grammar">téchnē grammatikḗ</a>" (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1180947483">.mw-parser-output .polytonic{font-family:"SBL BibLit","SBL Greek","New Athena Unicode","EB Garamond","EB Garamond 12","Foulis Greek","Garamond Libre","Noto Sans","Noto Serif","Cardo","Gentium Plus","Gentium Book Plus","Garamond","Palatino Linotype","DejaVu Sans","DejaVu Serif","FreeSerif","FreeSans","Arial Unicode MS","Lucida Sans Unicode","Lucida Grande","Code2000",sans-serif}</style><span class="polytonic">Τέχνη Γραμματική</span>), the "art of writing", which is also the title of one of the most important works of the Alexandrine school by <a href="/wiki/Dionysius_Thrax" title="Dionysius Thrax">Dionysius Thrax</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Throughout the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, the study of language was subsumed under the topic of philology, the study of ancient languages and texts, practised by such educators as <a href="/wiki/Roger_Ascham" title="Roger Ascham">Roger Ascham</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Ratke" title="Wolfgang Ratke">Wolfgang Ratke</a>, and <a href="/wiki/John_Amos_Comenius" title="John Amos Comenius">John Amos Comenius</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Comparative_philology">Comparative philology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistics&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Comparative philology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the 18th century, the first use of the <a href="/wiki/Comparative_method" title="Comparative method">comparative method</a> by <a href="/wiki/William_Jones_(philologist)" title="William Jones (philologist)">William Jones</a> sparked the rise of <a href="/wiki/Comparative_linguistics" title="Comparative linguistics">comparative linguistics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bloomfield attributes "the first great scientific linguistic work of the world" to <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Grimm" title="Jacob Grimm">Jacob Grimm</a>, who wrote <i>Deutsche Grammatik</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bloomfield_1914_311_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bloomfield_1914_311-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was soon followed by other authors writing similar comparative studies on other language groups of Europe. The study of language was broadened from <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a> to language in general by <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_von_Humboldt" title="Wilhelm von Humboldt">Wilhelm von Humboldt</a>, of whom Bloomfield asserts:<sup id="cite_ref-Bloomfield_1914_311_86-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bloomfield_1914_311-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>This study received its foundation at the hands of the Prussian statesman and scholar Wilhelm von Humboldt (1767–1835), especially in the first volume of his work on Kavi, the literary language of Java, entitled <i><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Über die Verschiedenheit des menschlichen Sprachbaues und ihren Einfluß auf die geistige Entwickelung des Menschengeschlechts</i></span></i> (<i>On the Variety of the Structure of Human Language and its Influence upon the Mental Development of the Human Race</i>).</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="20th-century_developments">20th-century developments</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistics&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: 20th-century developments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There was a shift of focus from historical and comparative linguistics to synchronic analysis in early 20th century. Structural analysis was improved by <a href="/wiki/Leonard_Bloomfield" title="Leonard Bloomfield">Leonard Bloomfield</a>, <a href="/wiki/Louis_Hjelmslev" title="Louis Hjelmslev">Louis Hjelmslev</a>; and <a href="/wiki/Zellig_Harris" title="Zellig Harris">Zellig Harris</a> who also developed methods of <a href="/wiki/Discourse_analysis" title="Discourse analysis">discourse analysis</a>. Functional analysis was developed by the <a href="/wiki/Prague_linguistic_circle" title="Prague linguistic circle">Prague linguistic circle</a> and <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Martinet" title="André Martinet">André Martinet</a>. As sound recording devices became commonplace in the 1960s, dialectal recordings were made and archived, and the <a href="/wiki/Audio-lingual_method" title="Audio-lingual method">audio-lingual method</a> provided a technological solution to foreign language learning. The 1960s also saw a new rise of comparative linguistics: the study of <a href="/wiki/Language_universals" class="mw-redirect" title="Language universals">language universals</a> in <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_typology" title="Linguistic typology">linguistic typology</a>. Towards the end of the century the field of linguistics became divided into further areas of interest with the advent of <a href="/wiki/Language_technology" title="Language technology">language technology</a> and digitalized <a href="/wiki/Corpus_linguistics" title="Corpus linguistics">corpora</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Areas_of_research">Areas of research</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistics&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Areas of research"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Linguistics" title="Special:EditPage/Linguistics">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Linguistics%22">"Linguistics"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Linguistics%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Linguistics%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Linguistics%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Linguistics%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Linguistics%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">August 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sociolinguistics">Sociolinguistics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistics&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Sociolinguistics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sociolinguistics" title="Sociolinguistics">Sociolinguistics</a></div> <p>Sociolinguistics is the study of how language is shaped by social factors. This sub-discipline focuses on the synchronic approach of linguistics, and looks at how a language in general, or a set of languages, display variation and varieties at a given point in time. The study of language variation and the different varieties of language through dialects, registers, and idiolects can be tackled through a study of style, as well as through analysis of discourse. Sociolinguists research both style and discourse in language, as well as the theoretical factors that are at play between language and society. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Developmental_linguistics">Developmental linguistics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistics&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Developmental linguistics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Developmental_linguistics" title="Developmental linguistics">Developmental linguistics</a></div> <p>Developmental linguistics is the study of the development of linguistic ability in individuals, particularly <a href="/wiki/Language_acquisition" title="Language acquisition">the acquisition of language</a> in childhood. Some of the questions that developmental linguistics looks into are how children acquire different languages, how adults can acquire a second language, and what the process of language acquisition is.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neurolinguistics">Neurolinguistics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistics&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Neurolinguistics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Neurolinguistics" title="Neurolinguistics">Neurolinguistics</a></div> <p>Neurolinguistics is the study of the structures in the human brain that underlie grammar and communication. Researchers are drawn to the field from a variety of backgrounds, bringing along a variety of experimental techniques as well as widely varying theoretical perspectives. Much work in neurolinguistics is informed by models in <a href="/wiki/Psycholinguistics" title="Psycholinguistics">psycholinguistics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Theoretical_linguistics" title="Theoretical linguistics">theoretical linguistics</a>, and is focused on investigating how the brain can implement the processes that theoretical and psycholinguistics propose are necessary in producing and comprehending language. Neurolinguists study the physiological mechanisms by which the brain processes information related to language, and evaluate linguistic and psycholinguistic theories, using <a href="/wiki/Aphasiology" title="Aphasiology">aphasiology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brain_imaging" class="mw-redirect" title="Brain imaging">brain imaging</a>, electrophysiology, and computer modelling. Amongst the structures of the brain involved in the mechanisms of neurolinguistics, the cerebellum which contains the highest numbers of neurons has a major role in terms of predictions required to produce language.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Applied_linguistics">Applied linguistics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistics&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Applied linguistics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Applied_linguistics" title="Applied linguistics">Applied linguistics</a></div> <p>Linguists are largely concerned with finding and <a href="/wiki/Descriptive_linguistics" class="mw-redirect" title="Descriptive linguistics">describing</a> the generalities and varieties both within particular languages and among all languages. <a href="/wiki/Applied_linguistics" title="Applied linguistics">Applied linguistics</a> takes the results of those findings and "applies" them to other areas. Linguistic research is commonly applied to areas such as <a href="/wiki/Language_education" title="Language education">language education</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lexicography" title="Lexicography">lexicography</a>, translation, <a href="/wiki/Language_planning" title="Language planning">language planning</a>, which involves governmental policy implementation related to language use, and <a href="/wiki/Natural_language_processing" title="Natural language processing">natural language processing</a>. "Applied linguistics" has been argued to be something of a misnomer.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Applied linguists actually focus on making sense of and engineering solutions for real-world linguistic problems, and not literally "applying" existing technical knowledge from linguistics. Moreover, they commonly apply technical knowledge from multiple sources, such as sociology (e.g., conversation analysis) and anthropology. (<a href="/wiki/Constructed_language" title="Constructed language">Constructed language</a> fits under Applied linguistics.) </p><p>Today, computers are widely used in many areas of applied linguistics. <a href="/wiki/Speech_synthesis" title="Speech synthesis">Speech synthesis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Speech_recognition" title="Speech recognition">speech recognition</a> use phonetic and phonemic knowledge to provide <a href="/wiki/Voice_interface" class="mw-redirect" title="Voice interface">voice interfaces</a> to computers. Applications of <a href="/wiki/Computational_linguistics" title="Computational linguistics">computational linguistics</a> in <a href="/wiki/Machine_translation" title="Machine translation">machine translation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Computer-assisted_translation" title="Computer-assisted translation">computer-assisted translation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Natural_language_processing" title="Natural language processing">natural language processing</a> are areas of applied linguistics that have come to the forefront. Their influence has had an effect on theories of syntax and semantics, as modelling syntactic and semantic theories on computers constraints. </p><p>Linguistic analysis is a sub-discipline of applied linguistics used by many governments to verify the claimed nationality of people seeking asylum who do not hold the necessary documentation to prove their claim.<sup id="cite_ref-Linguistic_Analysis_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Linguistic_Analysis-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This often takes the form of an interview by personnel in an immigration department. Depending on the country, this interview is conducted either in the asylum seeker's <a href="/wiki/Native_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Native language">native language</a> through an <a href="/wiki/Language_interpretation" title="Language interpretation">interpreter</a> or in an international <i><a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a></i> like English.<sup id="cite_ref-Linguistic_Analysis_93-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Linguistic_Analysis-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Australia uses the former method, while Germany employs the latter; the Netherlands uses either method depending on the languages involved.<sup id="cite_ref-Linguistic_Analysis_93-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Linguistic_Analysis-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tape recordings of the interview then undergo language analysis, which can be done either by private contractors or within a department of the government. In this analysis, linguistic features of the asylum seeker are used by analysts to make a determination about the speaker's nationality. The reported findings of the linguistic analysis can play a critical role in the government's decision on the refugee status of the asylum seeker.<sup id="cite_ref-Linguistic_Analysis_93-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Linguistic_Analysis-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Language_documentation">Language documentation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistics&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Language documentation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Language_documentation" title="Language documentation">Language documentation</a> combines anthropological inquiry (into the history and culture of language) with linguistic inquiry, in order to describe languages and their grammars. <a href="/wiki/Lexicography" title="Lexicography">Lexicography</a> involves the documentation of words that form a vocabulary. Such a documentation of a linguistic vocabulary from a particular language is usually compiled in a <a href="/wiki/Dictionary" title="Dictionary">dictionary</a>. <a href="/wiki/Computational_linguistics" title="Computational linguistics">Computational linguistics</a> is concerned with the statistical or rule-based modeling of natural language from a computational perspective. Specific knowledge of language is applied by speakers during the act of translation and <a href="/wiki/Language_interpretation" title="Language interpretation">interpretation</a>, as well as in <a href="/wiki/Language_education" title="Language education">language education</a> – the teaching of a second or <a href="/wiki/Foreign_language" title="Foreign language">foreign language</a>. Policy makers work with governments to implement new plans in education and teaching which are based on linguistic research. </p><p>Since the inception of the discipline of linguistics, linguists have been concerned with describing and analysing previously <a href="/wiki/Language_documentation" title="Language documentation">undocumented languages</a>. Starting with <a href="/wiki/Franz_Boas" title="Franz Boas">Franz Boas</a> in the early 1900s, this became the main focus of American linguistics until the rise of <a href="/wiki/Formal_linguistics" title="Formal linguistics">formal linguistics</a> in the mid-20th century. This focus on language documentation was partly motivated by a concern to document the rapidly <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">disappearing</a> languages of indigenous peoples. The ethnographic dimension of the Boasian approach to language description played a role in the development of disciplines such as <a href="/wiki/Sociolinguistics" title="Sociolinguistics">sociolinguistics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anthropological_linguistics" title="Anthropological linguistics">anthropological linguistics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_anthropology" title="Linguistic anthropology">linguistic anthropology</a>, which investigate the relations between language, culture, and society. </p><p>The emphasis on linguistic description and documentation has also gained prominence outside North America, with the documentation of rapidly dying indigenous languages becoming a focus in some university programs in linguistics. Language description is a work-intensive endeavour, usually requiring years of field work in the language concerned, so as to equip the linguist to write a sufficiently accurate reference grammar. Further, the task of documentation requires the linguist to collect a substantial corpus in the language in question, consisting of texts and recordings, both sound and video, which can be stored in an accessible format within open repositories, and used for further research.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Translation">Translation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistics&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Translation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Translation" title="Translation">Translation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Translation_studies" title="Translation studies">Translation studies</a></div> <p>The sub-field of translation includes the translation of written and spoken texts across media, from digital to print and spoken. To translate literally means to transmute the meaning from one language into another. Translators are often employed by organizations such as travel agencies and governmental embassies to facilitate communication between two speakers who do not know each other's language. Translators are also employed to work within <a href="/wiki/Computational_linguistics" title="Computational linguistics">computational linguistics</a> setups like <a href="/wiki/Google_Translate" title="Google Translate">Google Translate</a>, which is an automated program to translate words and phrases between any two or more given languages. Translation is also conducted by publishing houses, which convert works of writing from one language to another in order to reach varied audiences. Cross-national and cross-cultural <a href="/wiki/Survey_methodology" title="Survey methodology">survey research</a> studies employ translation to collect comparable data among multilingual populations.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Academic translators specialize in or are familiar with various other disciplines such as technology, science, law, economics, etc. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Clinical_linguistics">Clinical linguistics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistics&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Clinical linguistics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Clinical_linguistics" title="Clinical linguistics">Clinical linguistics</a></div> <p>Clinical linguistics is the application of linguistic theory to the field of <a href="/wiki/Speech-language_pathology" class="mw-redirect" title="Speech-language pathology">speech-language pathology</a>. Speech language pathologists work on corrective measures to treat <a href="/wiki/Communication_disorders" class="mw-redirect" title="Communication disorders">communication</a> and swallowing disorders. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Computational_linguistics">Computational linguistics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistics&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Computational linguistics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Computational_linguistics" title="Computational linguistics">Computational linguistics</a></div> <p>Computational linguistics is the study of linguistic issues in a way that is "computationally responsible", i.e., taking careful note of computational consideration of algorithmic specification and computational complexity, so that the linguistic theories devised can be shown to exhibit certain desirable computational properties and their implementations. Computational linguists also work on computer language and software development. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evolutionary_linguistics">Evolutionary linguistics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistics&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Evolutionary linguistics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_linguistics" title="Evolutionary linguistics">Evolutionary linguistics</a></div> <p>Evolutionary linguistics is a <a href="/wiki/Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology">sociobiological</a> approach to analyzing the emergence of the language faculty through human evolution, and also the application of evolutionary theory to the study of cultural evolution among different languages. It is also a study of the dispersal of various languages across the globe, through movements among ancient communities.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Forensic_linguistics">Forensic linguistics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistics&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Forensic linguistics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Forensic_linguistics" title="Forensic linguistics">Forensic linguistics</a></div> <p>Forensic linguistics is the application of linguistic analysis to forensics. Forensic analysis investigates the style, language, lexical use, and other linguistic and grammatical features used in the legal context to provide evidence in courts of law. Forensic linguists have also used their expertise in the framework of criminal cases.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistics&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Noun-linguistics.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Noun-linguistics.svg/25px-Noun-linguistics.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Noun-linguistics.svg/38px-Noun-linguistics.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Noun-linguistics.svg/51px-Noun-linguistics.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="29" data-file-height="32" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Linguistics" title="Portal:Linguistics">Linguistics portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Globe_of_letters.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Globe_of_letters.svg/28px-Globe_of_letters.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Globe_of_letters.svg/42px-Globe_of_letters.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Globe_of_letters.svg/56px-Globe_of_letters.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Language" title="Portal:Language">Language portal</a></span></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Articulatory_phonetics" title="Articulatory phonetics">Articulatory phonetics</a> – A branch of linguistics studying how humans make sounds</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Articulatory_synthesis" title="Articulatory synthesis">Articulatory synthesis</a> – Computational techniques for speech synthesis</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiom_of_categoricity" title="Axiom of categoricity">Axiom of categoricity</a> – Controversial tenet of linguistic theory</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_discourse_analysis" title="Critical discourse analysis">Critical discourse analysis</a> – Interdisciplinary approach to study discourse</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptanalysis" title="Cryptanalysis">Cryptanalysis</a> – Study of analyzing information systems in order to discover their hidden aspects</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decipherment" title="Decipherment">Decipherment</a> – Rediscovery of a language or script's meaning</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_language_system" title="Global language system">Global language system</a> – Connections between language groups</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a> – Theory and methodology of text interpretation</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrational_linguistics" title="Integrational linguistics">Integrational linguistics</a> – Theory of language</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrationism" title="Integrationism">Integrationism</a> – Approach in the theory of communication</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interlinguistics" title="Interlinguistics">Interlinguistics</a> – Subfield of linguistics</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_engineering" title="Language engineering">Language engineering</a> – Creation of language processing systems</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_geography" title="Language geography">Language geography</a> – Study of the geographic distribution of languages</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_rights" title="Linguistic rights">Linguistic rights</a> – Right to choose one's own language</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metalinguistics" title="Metalinguistics">Metalinguistics</a> – Study of relationship between language and culture</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metacommunicative_competence" class="mw-redirect" title="Metacommunicative competence">Metacommunicative competence</a> – Communication about how information is meant to be interpreted<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microlinguistics" title="Microlinguistics">Microlinguistics</a> – Branch of linguistics</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onomastics" title="Onomastics">Onomastics</a> – Study of proper names</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reading" title="Reading">Reading</a> – Taking in the meaning of letters or symbols</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech_processing" title="Speech processing">Speech processing</a> – Study of speech signals and the processing methods of these signals</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stratificational_linguistics" class="mw-redirect" title="Stratificational linguistics">Stratificational linguistics</a> – Theory of language usage and production<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_linguistics" title="Outline of linguistics">Outline</a> and lists <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_linguistics_articles" title="Index of linguistics articles">Index of linguistics articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_departments_of_linguistics" title="List of departments of linguistics">List of departments of linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_summer_schools_of_linguistics" title="List of summer schools of linguistics">List of summer schools of linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_schools_of_linguistics" title="List of schools of linguistics">List of schools of linguistics</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistics&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFTrask2007" class="citation book cs1">Trask, Robert Lawrence (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PHt-gNzagikC&q=linguistics"><i>Language and Linguistics: The Key Concepts</i></a>. Taylor & Francis. p. 156. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-41359-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-41359-6"><bdi>978-0-415-41359-6</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 September</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Language+and+Linguistics%3A+The+Key+Concepts&rft.pages=156&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-415-41359-6&rft.aulast=Trask&rft.aufirst=Robert+Lawrence&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPHt-gNzagikC%26q%3Dlinguistics&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHallidayJonathan_Webster2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Halliday" title="Michael Halliday">Halliday, Michael A. K.</a>; Jonathan Webster (2006). <i>On Language and Linguistics</i>. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. vii. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8264-8824-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8264-8824-4"><bdi>978-0-8264-8824-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+Language+and+Linguistics&rft.pages=vii&rft.pub=Continuum+International+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-8264-8824-4&rft.aulast=Halliday&rft.aufirst=Michael+A.+K.&rft.au=Jonathan+Webster&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.linguisticsociety.org/what-linguistics">"What is Linguistics? | Linguistic Society of America"</a>. <i>www.linguisticsociety.org</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220208131649/https://www.linguisticsociety.org/what-linguistics">Archived</a> from the original on 8 February 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 February</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.linguisticsociety.org&rft.atitle=What+is+Linguistics%3F+%7C+Linguistic+Society+of+America&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.linguisticsociety.org%2Fwhat-linguistics&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-akmajian-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-akmajian_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-akmajian_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAkmajian,_AdrianRichard_A._DemersAnn_K._FarmerRobert_M._Harnish2010" class="citation book cs1">Akmajian, Adrian; Richard A. Demers; Ann K. Farmer; Robert M. Harnish (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20121214215844/http://mitpress.mit.edu/catalog/item/examrequest.asp?ttype=2&tid=12240"><i>Linguistics</i></a> (6th ed.). The MIT Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-51370-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-51370-8"><bdi>978-0-262-51370-8</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mitpress.mit.edu/catalog/item/examrequest.asp?ttype=2&tid=12240">the original</a> on 14 December 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 July</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Linguistics&rft.edition=6th&rft.pub=The+MIT+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-262-51370-8&rft.au=Akmajian%2C+Adrian&rft.au=Richard+A.+Demers&rft.au=Ann+K.+Farmer&rft.au=Robert+M.+Harnish&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmitpress.mit.edu%2Fcatalog%2Fitem%2Fexamrequest.asp%3Fttype%3D2%26tid%3D12240&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sc.edu/study/colleges_schools/artsandsciences/linguistics/">"Linguistics Program – Linguistics Program | University of South Carolina"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220606230152/https://www.sc.edu/study/colleges_schools/artsandsciences/linguistics/">Archived</a> from the original on 6 June 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 June</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Linguistics+Program+%E2%80%93+Linguistics+Program+%26%23124%3B+University+of+South+Carolina&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsc.edu%2Fstudy%2Fcolleges_schools%2Fartsandsciences%2Flinguistics%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-linguisticsociety.org-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-linguisticsociety.org_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/studying-linguistics">"Studying Linguistics | Linguistic Society of America"</a>. <i>www.linguisticsociety.org</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220308052138/https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/studying-linguistics">Archived</a> from the original on 8 March 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 April</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.linguisticsociety.org&rft.atitle=Studying+Linguistics+%7C+Linguistic+Society+of+America&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.linguisticsociety.org%2Fresource%2Fstudying-linguistics&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrancis2013" class="citation book cs1">Francis, Alexandre (27 September 2013). <i>Theory in Social and Cultural Anthropology: An Encyclopedia</i>. SAGE Publishing. pp. <span class="nowrap">184–</span>187. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1412999632" title="Special:BookSources/978-1412999632"><bdi>978-1412999632</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theory+in+Social+and+Cultural+Anthropology%3A+An+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E184-%3C%2Fspan%3E187&rft.pub=SAGE+Publishing&rft.date=2013-09-27&rft.isbn=978-1412999632&rft.aulast=Francis&rft.aufirst=Alexandre&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Crystal-1981-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Crystal-1981_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrystal1981" class="citation book cs1">Crystal, David (1981). <i>Clinical linguistics</i>. Wien: Springer-Verlag. p. 3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-7091-4001-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-7091-4001-7"><bdi>978-3-7091-4001-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/610496980">610496980</a>. <q>What are the implications of the term "science" encountered in the definition on p. 1? Four aims of the scientific approach to language, often cited in introductory works on the subject, are comprehensiveness, objectivity, systematicness and precision. The contrast is usually drawn with the essentially non-scientific approach of traditional language studies—by which is meant the whole history of ideas about language from Plato and Aristotle down to the nineteenth century study of language history (comparative philology).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Clinical+linguistics&rft.place=Wien&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=Springer-Verlag&rft.date=1981&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F610496980&rft.isbn=978-3-7091-4001-7&rft.aulast=Crystal&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/linguistics/">"Philosophy of Linguistics"</a>. <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 2022. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221214225442/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/linguistics/">Archived</a> from the original on 14 December 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 June</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Philosophy+of+Linguistics&rft.btitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Lab%2C+Stanford+University&rft.date=2022&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Flinguistics%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCampbell1998" class="citation book cs1">Campbell, Lyle (1998). <i>Historical Linguistics: An Introduction</i>. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. p. 391. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7486-4601-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7486-4601-2"><bdi>978-0-7486-4601-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Linguistics%3A+An+Introduction&rft.place=Edinburgh&rft.pages=391&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-7486-4601-2&rft.aulast=Campbell&rft.aufirst=Lyle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"The Idea System of the Early Comparative Grammarians." <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmsterdamska1987" class="citation book cs1">Amsterdamska, Olga (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-94-009-3759-8_2">"The Idea System of the Early Comparative Grammarians"</a>. <i>Schools of Thought: The Development of Linguistics from Bopp to Saussure</i>. Springer, Dordrecht. pp. <span class="nowrap">32–</span>62. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-94-009-3759-8_2">10.1007/978-94-009-3759-8_2</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-009-3759-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-94-009-3759-8"><bdi>978-94-009-3759-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210415012142/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-94-009-3759-8_2">Archived</a> from the original on 15 April 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 December</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Idea+System+of+the+Early+Comparative+Grammarians&rft.btitle=Schools+of+Thought%3A+The+Development+of+Linguistics+from+Bopp+to+Saussure&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E32-%3C%2Fspan%3E62&rft.pub=Springer%2C+Dordrecht&rft.date=1987&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-94-009-3759-8_2&rft.isbn=978-94-009-3759-8&rft.aulast=Amsterdamska&rft.aufirst=Olga&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Fchapter%2F10.1007%252F978-94-009-3759-8_2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaussure" class="citation book cs1">Saussure, Ferdinand. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://simondlevy.academic.wlu.edu/files/courses/anth252f2006/saussure.pdf"><i>Course in General Linguistics</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (Third ed.). p. 101<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 October</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Course+in+General+Linguistics&rft.pages=101&rft.edition=Third&rft.aulast=Saussure&rft.aufirst=Ferdinand&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsimondlevy.academic.wlu.edu%2Ffiles%2Fcourses%2Fanth252f2006%2Fsaussure.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Routledge_introduction-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Routledge_introduction_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Routledge_introduction_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">"Editors' Introduction: Foundations of the new historical linguistics." In: <i>The Routledge Handbook of Historical Linguistics</i> Routledge p. 25.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLabov1994" class="citation book cs1">Labov, William (1994). <i>Principles of Linguistic Change, Volume 1: Internal Factors</i>. Malden, MA: Blackwell. pp. <span class="nowrap">21–</span>23.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Linguistic+Change%2C+Volume+1%3A+Internal+Factors&rft.place=Malden%2C+MA&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E21-%3C%2Fspan%3E23&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Labov&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhitney1867" class="citation book cs1">Whitney, William Dwight (1867). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LOANAAAAYAAJ&q=Continuous"><i>Language and the Study of Language</i></a>. Scribener. p. 428.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Language+and+the+Study+of+Language&rft.pages=428&rft.pub=Scribener&rft.date=1867&rft.aulast=Whitney&rft.aufirst=William+Dwight&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLOANAAAAYAAJ%26q%3DContinuous&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFQuiles2019" class="citation web cs1">Quiles, Carlos (29 December 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://indo-european.eu/2019/12/early-uralic-indo-european-contacts-within-europe/">"Early Uralic – Indo-European contacts within Europe"</a>. <i>Indo-European.eu</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220707073955/https://indo-european.eu/2019/12/early-uralic-indo-european-contacts-within-europe/">Archived</a> from the original on 7 July 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 June</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Indo-European.eu&rft.atitle=Early+Uralic+%E2%80%93+Indo-European+contacts+within+Europe&rft.date=2019-12-29&rft.aulast=Quiles&rft.aufirst=Carlos&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Findo-european.eu%2F2019%2F12%2Fearly-uralic-indo-european-contacts-within-europe%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaldi2012" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Philip_Baldi" title="Philip Baldi">Baldi, Philip</a> (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220717020630/http://www.personal.psu.edu/ped10/Giuli_Dussias/Publications/External/Baldi_Dussias_Rhesis_2012_GD_09_13_2012.pdf">"Historical Linguistics and Cognitive Science"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Rheis, International Journal of Linguistics, Philology and Literature</i>. <b>3</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">5–</span>27. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.personal.psu.edu/ped10/Giuli_Dussias/Publications/External/Baldi_Dussias_Rhesis_2012_GD_09_13_2012.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 17 July 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Rheis%2C+International+Journal+of+Linguistics%2C+Philology+and+Literature&rft.atitle=Historical+Linguistics+and+Cognitive+Science&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E5-%3C%2Fspan%3E27&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Baldi&rft.aufirst=Philip&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.personal.psu.edu%2Fped10%2FGiuli_Dussias%2FPublications%2FExternal%2FBaldi_Dussias_Rhesis_2012_GD_09_13_2012.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span> p. 11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBenj2019" class="citation news cs1">Benj (11 August 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://benjaminbarber.org/history-of-historical-linguistics">"History of Historical Linguistics Essay on History, Linguistics"</a>. <i>Essay Examples</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221002042131/https://benjaminbarber.org/history-of-historical-linguistics/">Archived</a> from the original on 2 October 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 June</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Essay+Examples&rft.atitle=History+of+Historical+Linguistics+Essay+on+History%2C+Linguistics&rft.date=2019-08-11&rft.au=Benj&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbenjaminbarber.org%2Fhistory-of-historical-linguistics&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Acadmia_Morphology-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Acadmia_Morphology_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFábregas2005" class="citation journal cs1">Fábregas, Antonio (January 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/529248">"The definition of the grammatical category in a syntactically oriented morphology"</a>. <i>Unpublished Ph. D. Dissertation. Madrid: Universidad Autónoma</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230210114350/https://www.academia.edu/529248">Archived</a> from the original on 10 February 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 June</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Unpublished+Ph.+D.+Dissertation.+Madrid%3A+Universidad+Aut%C3%B3noma&rft.atitle=The+definition+of+the+grammatical+category+in+a+syntactically+oriented+morphology&rft.date=2005-01&rft.aulast=F%C3%A1bregas&rft.aufirst=Antonio&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F529248&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLuuk2015" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Luuk, Erkki (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/304194021">"Syntax–Semantics Interface"</a>. In Wright, James D. (ed.). <i>International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences</i> (2nd ed.). Amsterdam: Elsevier. pp. <span class="nowrap">900–</span>905. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fb978-0-08-097086-8.57035-4">10.1016/b978-0-08-097086-8.57035-4</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-097087-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-097087-5"><bdi>978-0-08-097087-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Syntax%E2%80%93Semantics+Interface&rft.btitle=International+Encyclopedia+of+the+Social+%26+Behavioral+Sciences&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E900-%3C%2Fspan%3E905&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fb978-0-08-097086-8.57035-4&rft.isbn=978-0-08-097087-5&rft.aulast=Luuk&rft.aufirst=Erkki&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F304194021&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndersonn.d." class="citation book cs1">Anderson, Stephen R. (n.d.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cowgill.ling.yale.edu/sra/morphology_ecs.htm">"Morphology"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science</i>. Macmillan Reference, Ltd., Yale University<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 July</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Morphology&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Cognitive+Science&rft.pub=Macmillan+Reference%2C+Ltd.%2C+Yale+University&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=Stephen+R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcowgill.ling.yale.edu%2Fsra%2Fmorphology_ecs.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAronoffFudemann.d." class="citation book cs1">Aronoff, Mark; Fudeman, Kirsten (n.d.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200227235159/https://www.ucd.ie/artspgs/introling/Aronoffmorphology.pdf">"Morphology and Morphological Analysis"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>What is Morphology?</i>. Blackwell Publishing. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ucd.ie/artspgs/introling/Aronoffmorphology.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 27 February 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 July</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Morphology+and+Morphological+Analysis&rft.btitle=What+is+Morphology%3F&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishing&rft.aulast=Aronoff&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft.au=Fudeman%2C+Kirsten&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ucd.ie%2Fartspgs%2Fintroling%2FAronoffmorphology.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mey-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mey_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mey, Jacob L. (1993). <i>Pragmatics: An Introduction</i>. Oxford: Blackwell (2nd ed. 2001).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/meaning-semantics-and-pragmatics">"Meaning (Semantics and Pragmatics) | Linguistic Society of America"</a>. <i>www.linguisticsociety.org</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170924233822/https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/meaning-semantics-and-pragmatics">Archived</a> from the original on 24 September 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 August</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.linguisticsociety.org&rft.atitle=Meaning+%28Semantics+and+Pragmatics%29+%7C+Linguistic+Society+of+America&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.linguisticsociety.org%2Fresource%2Fmeaning-semantics-and-pragmatics&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShaozhong" class="citation web cs1">Shaozhong, Liu. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090307222541/http://www.gxnu.edu.cn/Personal/szliu/definition.html">"What is pragmatics?"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gxnu.edu.cn/Personal/szliu/definition.html">the original</a> on 7 March 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 March</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+is+pragmatics%3F&rft.aulast=Shaozhong&rft.aufirst=Liu&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gxnu.edu.cn%2FPersonal%2Fszliu%2Fdefinition.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSzczegielniak" class="citation cs2">Szczegielniak, Adam, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/adam/files/phonology.ppt.pdf"><i>Introduction to Linguistic Theory – Phonology: The Sound Patterns of Language</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, Harvard University, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230322153405/https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/adam/files/phonology.ppt.pdf">archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 22 March 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 May</span> 2023</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Linguistic+Theory+%E2%80%93+Phonology%3A+The+Sound+Patterns+of+Language&rft.pub=Harvard+University&rft.aulast=Szczegielniak&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholar.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Fadam%2Ffiles%2Fphonology.ppt.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Linguistic_typology_:12-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Linguistic_typology_:12_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFerguson1959" class="citation journal cs1">Ferguson, Charles A. (1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00437956.1959.11659702">"Diglossia"</a>. <i>WORD (Worcester)</i>. <b>15</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">325–</span>340. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00437956.1959.11659702">10.1080/00437956.1959.11659702</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0043-7956">0043-7956</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:239352211">239352211</a> – via Tandfonline-com.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=WORD+%28Worcester%29&rft.atitle=Diglossia&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E325-%3C%2Fspan%3E340&rft.date=1959&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A239352211%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0043-7956&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00437956.1959.11659702&rft.aulast=Ferguson&rft.aufirst=Charles+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tandfonline.com%2Fdoi%2Ffull%2F10.1080%2F00437956.1959.11659702&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Plungyan, V. A. (2011). Modern linguistic typology. <i>Herald of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 81</i>(2), 101-113. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1134%2FS1019331611020158">10.1134/S1019331611020158</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">All references in this article to the study of sound should be taken to include the manual and non-manual signs used in sign languages.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Syntax: A Generative Introduction</i> (2nd ed.), 2013. Andrew Carnie. Blackwell Publishing.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Meaning_and_Grammar:_An_Introductio-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Meaning_and_Grammar:_An_Introductio_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Meaning_and_Grammar:_An_Introductio_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChierchia,_GennaroSally_McConnell-Ginet2000" class="citation book cs1">Chierchia, Gennaro & Sally McConnell-Ginet (2000). <i>Meaning and Grammar: An Introduction to Semantics</i>. MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-53164-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-53164-1"><bdi>978-0-262-53164-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Meaning+and+Grammar%3A+An+Introduction+to+Semantics&rft.pub=MIT+Press%2C+Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-262-53164-1&rft.au=Chierchia%2C+Gennaro&rft.au=Sally+McConnell-Ginet&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAriel2009" class="citation journal cs1">Ariel, Mira (2009). "Discourse, grammar, discourse". <i>Discourse Studies</i>. <b>11</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">5–</span>36. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1461445608098496">10.1177/1461445608098496</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24049745">24049745</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:62686879">62686879</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Discourse+Studies&rft.atitle=Discourse%2C+grammar%2C+discourse&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E5-%3C%2Fspan%3E36&rft.date=2009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A62686879%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24049745%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F1461445608098496&rft.aulast=Ariel&rft.aufirst=Mira&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Leckie-Tarry, Helen (1995). <i>Language and Context: a Functional Linguistic Theory of Register</i>, Continuum International Publishing Group, p. 6. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85567-272-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-85567-272-3">1-85567-272-3</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZuckermann2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ghil%27ad_Zuckermann" title="Ghil'ad Zuckermann">Zuckermann, Ghil'ad</a> (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.palgrave.com/gb/book/9781403917232"><i>Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew</i></a>. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 2ff. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4039-1723-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4039-1723-2"><bdi>978-1-4039-1723-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160827112758/http://www.palgrave.com/gb/book/9781403917232">Archived</a> from the original on 27 August 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 August</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Language+Contact+and+Lexical+Enrichment+in+Israeli+Hebrew&rft.pages=2ff&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-4039-1723-2&rft.aulast=Zuckermann&rft.aufirst=Ghil%27ad&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.palgrave.com%2Fgb%2Fbook%2F9781403917232&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131004220434/http://www.uni-giessen.de/anglistik/ling/Staff/mukherjee/pdfs/Stylistics.pdf">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Stylistics" by Joybrato Mukherjee. Chapter 49. <i>Encyclopedia of Linguistics</i>"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uni-giessen.de/anglistik/ling/Staff/mukherjee/pdfs/Stylistics.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 4 October 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 October</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%22Stylistics%22+by+Joybrato+Mukherjee.+Chapter+49.+Encyclopedia+of+Linguistics.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uni-giessen.de%2Fanglistik%2Fling%2FStaff%2Fmukherjee%2Fpdfs%2FStylistics.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichards,_I._A.1965" class="citation book cs1">Richards, I. A. (1965). <i>The Philosophy of Rhetoric</i>. Oxford University Press (New York).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Philosophy+of+Rhetoric&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press+%28New+York%29&rft.date=1965&rft.au=Richards%2C+I.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Derrida, Jacques (1967). <i><a href="/wiki/Writing_and_Difference" title="Writing and Difference">Writing and Difference</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Of_Grammatology" title="Of Grammatology">Of Grammatology</a></i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chapter 1, section 1.1 in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAntonsen,_Elmer_H.2002" class="citation book cs1">Antonsen, Elmer H. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gvSi3JVNRFQC"><i>Trends in Linguistics: Runes and Germanic Linguistics</i></a> (6th ed.). Mouton de Gruyter. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-017462-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-017462-5"><bdi>978-3-11-017462-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Trends+in+Linguistics%3A+Runes+and+Germanic+Linguistics&rft.edition=6th&rft.pub=Mouton+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-3-11-017462-5&rft.au=Antonsen%2C+Elmer+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgvSi3JVNRFQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNöth1990" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Winfried_N%C3%B6th" title="Winfried Nöth">Nöth, Winfried</a> (1990). <i>Handbook of Semiotics</i>. Indiana University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-20959-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-253-20959-7"><bdi>978-0-253-20959-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Semiotics&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-253-20959-7&rft.aulast=N%C3%B6th&rft.aufirst=Winfried&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHjelmslev1969" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Louis_Hjelmslev" title="Louis Hjelmslev">Hjelmslev, Louis</a> (1969) [First published 1943]. <i>Prolegomena to a Theory of Language</i>. University of Wisconsin Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-299-02470-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-299-02470-9"><bdi>0-299-02470-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Prolegomena+to+a+Theory+of+Language&rft.pub=University+of+Wisconsin+Press&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=0-299-02470-9&rft.aulast=Hjelmslev&rft.aufirst=Louis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Saussure1959" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_de_Saussure" title="Ferdinand de Saussure">de Saussure, Ferdinand</a> (1959) [First published 1916]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190808231716/https://monoskop.org/images/0/0b/Saussure_Ferdinand_de_Course_in_General_Linguistics_1959.pdf"><i>Course in General Linguistics</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. New York: The Philosophical Library, Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-15727-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-15727-8"><bdi>978-0-231-15727-8</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://monoskop.org/images/0/0b/Saussure_Ferdinand_de_Course_in_General_Linguistics_1959.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 8 August 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Course+in+General+Linguistics&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=The+Philosophical+Library%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1959&rft.isbn=978-0-231-15727-8&rft.aulast=de+Saussure&rft.aufirst=Ferdinand&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmonoskop.org%2Fimages%2F0%2F0b%2FSaussure_Ferdinand_de_Course_in_General_Linguistics_1959.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-humanistic-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-humanistic_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAustin2021" class="citation journal cs1">Austin, Patrik (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs43545-021-00085-x">"Theory of language: a taxonomy"</a>. <i>SN Social Sciences</i>. <b>1</b> (3). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs43545-021-00085-x">10.1007/s43545-021-00085-x</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10138%2F349772">10138/349772</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=SN+Social+Sciences&rft.atitle=Theory+of+language%3A+a+taxonomy&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=3&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10138%2F349772&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs43545-021-00085-x&rft.aulast=Austin&rft.aufirst=Patrik&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%252Fs43545-021-00085-x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchäfer2016" class="citation book cs1">Schäfer, Roland (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oapen.org/download?type=document&docid=620310"><i>Einführung in die grammatische Beschreibung des Deutschen (2nd ed.)</i></a>. Berlin: Language Science Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-537504-95-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-537504-95-7"><bdi>978-1-537504-95-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170728232919/http://oapen.org/download?type=document&docid=620310">Archived</a> from the original on 28 July 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 January</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Einf%C3%BChrung+in+die+grammatische+Beschreibung+des+Deutschen+%282nd+ed.%29&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pub=Language+Science+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-537504-95-7&rft.aulast=Sch%C3%A4fer&rft.aufirst=Roland&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oapen.org%2Fdownload%3Ftype%3Ddocument%26docid%3D620310&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHallidayMatthiessen2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/M._A._K._Halliday" class="mw-redirect" title="M. A. K. Halliday">Halliday, M. A. K.</a>; Matthiessen, Christian M. I. M. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uel.br/projetos/ppcat/pages/arquivos/RESOURCES/2004_HALLIDAY_MATTHIESSEN_An_Introduction_to_Functional_Grammar.pdf"><i>An Introduction to Functional Grammar (3rd ed.)</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. London: Hodder. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-340-76167-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-340-76167-9"><bdi>0-340-76167-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210303145809/http://www.uel.br/projetos/ppcat/pages/arquivos/RESOURCES/2004_HALLIDAY_MATTHIESSEN_An_Introduction_to_Functional_Grammar.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 3 March 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 January</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Functional+Grammar+%283rd+ed.%29&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Hodder&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-340-76167-9&rft.aulast=Halliday&rft.aufirst=M.+A.+K.&rft.au=Matthiessen%2C+Christian+M.+I.+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uel.br%2Fprojetos%2Fppcat%2Fpages%2Farquivos%2FRESOURCES%2F2004_HALLIDAY_MATTHIESSEN_An_Introduction_to_Functional_Grammar.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaneš1987" class="citation book cs1">Daneš, František (1987). "On Prague school functionalism in linguistics". In Dirven, R.; Fried, V. (eds.). <i>Functionalism in Linguistics</i>. John Benjamins. pp. <span class="nowrap">3–</span>38. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-272-1524-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-272-1524-6"><bdi>978-90-272-1524-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=On+Prague+school+functionalism+in+linguistics&rft.btitle=Functionalism+in+Linguistics&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E3-%3C%2Fspan%3E38&rft.pub=John+Benjamins&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-90-272-1524-6&rft.aulast=Dane%C5%A1&rft.aufirst=Franti%C5%A1ek&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEveraertHuybregtsChomskyBerwick2015" class="citation journal cs1">Everaert, Martin; Huybregts, Marinus A. C.; Chomsky, Noam; Berwick, Robert C.; Bolhuis, Johan J. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/283666865">"Structures, not strings: linguistics as part of the cognitive sciences"</a>. <i>Trends in Cognitive Sciences</i>. <b>19</b> (12): <span class="nowrap">729–</span>743. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tics.2015.09.008">10.1016/j.tics.2015.09.008</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1874%2F329610">1874/329610</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26564247">26564247</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:3648651">3648651</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210426220054/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/283666865">Archived</a> from the original on 26 April 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 January</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trends+in+Cognitive+Sciences&rft.atitle=Structures%2C+not+strings%3A+linguistics+as+part+of+the+cognitive+sciences&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E729-%3C%2Fspan%3E743&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1874%2F329610&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A3648651%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26564247&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.tics.2015.09.008&rft.aulast=Everaert&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft.au=Huybregts%2C+Marinus+A.+C.&rft.au=Chomsky%2C+Noam&rft.au=Berwick%2C+Robert+C.&rft.au=Bolhuis%2C+Johan+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F283666865&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChomsky2015" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky, Noam</a> (2015). <i>The Minimalist Program (2nd ed.)</i>. MIT Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-52734-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-52734-7"><bdi>978-0-262-52734-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Minimalist+Program+%282nd+ed.%29&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-262-52734-7&rft.aulast=Chomsky&rft.aufirst=Noam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Arbib_2015-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Arbib_2015_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArbib2015" class="citation book cs1">Arbib, Michael A. (2015). "Language evolution – an emergentist perspective". In MacWhinney and O'Grady (ed.). <i>Handbook of Language Emergence</i>. Wiley. pp. <span class="nowrap">81–</span>109. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-34613-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-118-34613-6"><bdi>978-1-118-34613-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Language+evolution+%E2%80%93+an+emergentist+perspective&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Language+Emergence&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E81-%3C%2Fspan%3E109&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-118-34613-6&rft.aulast=Arbib&rft.aufirst=Michael+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTobin2014" class="citation book cs1">Tobin, Vera (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.academia.edu/download/37200544/WhereDoCognitiveBiases.pdf">"Where do cognitive biases fit into cognitive linguistics?"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. In Borkent (ed.). <i>Language and the Creative Mind</i>. Chicago University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">347–</span>363. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-272-8643-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-272-8643-7"><bdi>978-90-272-8643-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Where+do+cognitive+biases+fit+into+cognitive+linguistics%3F&rft.btitle=Language+and+the+Creative+Mind&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E347-%3C%2Fspan%3E363&rft.pub=Chicago+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-90-272-8643-7&rft.aulast=Tobin&rft.aufirst=Vera&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2Fdownload%2F37200544%2FWhereDoCognitiveBiases.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged March 2022">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ibarretxe-Antuñano_2002-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ibarretxe-Antuñano_2002_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIbarretxe-Antuñano2002" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Iraide_Ibarretxe-Antu%C3%B1ano" title="Iraide Ibarretxe-Antuñano">Ibarretxe-Antuñano, Iraide</a> (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/272507067">"MIND-AS-BODY as a Cross-linguistic Conceptual Metaphor"</a>. <i>Miscelánea</i>. <b>25</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">93–</span>119. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.26754%2Fojs_misc%2Fmj.200210526">10.26754/ojs_misc/mj.200210526</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210427042118/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/272507067_MIND-AS-BODY_as_a_Cross-linguistic_Conceptual_Metaphor">Archived</a> from the original on 27 April 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 July</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Miscel%C3%A1nea&rft.atitle=MIND-AS-BODY+as+a+Cross-linguistic+Conceptual+Metaphor&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E93-%3C%2Fspan%3E119&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.26754%2Fojs_misc%2Fmj.200210526&rft.aulast=Ibarretxe-Antu%C3%B1ano&rft.aufirst=Iraide&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F272507067&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gibbs&Colston_1995-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gibbs&Colston_1995_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGibbsColston1995" class="citation journal cs1">Gibbs, R. W.; Colston, H. (1995). "The cognitive psychological reality of image schemas and their transformations". <i>Cognitive Linguistics</i>. <b>6</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">347–</span>378. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fcogl.1995.6.4.347">10.1515/cogl.1995.6.4.347</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144424435">144424435</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cognitive+Linguistics&rft.atitle=The+cognitive+psychological+reality+of+image+schemas+and+their+transformations&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E347-%3C%2Fspan%3E378&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2Fcogl.1995.6.4.347&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144424435%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Gibbs&rft.aufirst=R.+W.&rft.au=Colston%2C+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPleyerWinters2014" class="citation journal cs1">Pleyer, Michael; Winters, James (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apcz.umk.pl/czasopisma/index.php/THS/article/viewFile/ths-2014-002/4967">"Integrating cognitive linguistics and language evolution research"</a>. <i>Theoria et Historia Scientiarum</i>. <b>11</b>: <span class="nowrap">19–</span>44. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.12775%2Fths-2014-002">10.12775/ths-2014-002</a></span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210309004449/https://apcz.umk.pl/czasopisma/index.php/THS/article/viewFile/ths-2014-002/4967">Archived</a> from the original on 9 March 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 January</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Theoria+et+Historia+Scientiarum&rft.atitle=Integrating+cognitive+linguistics+and+language+evolution+research&rft.volume=11&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E19-%3C%2Fspan%3E44&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.12775%2Fths-2014-002&rft.aulast=Pleyer&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft.au=Winters%2C+James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapcz.umk.pl%2Fczasopisma%2Findex.php%2FTHS%2Farticle%2FviewFile%2Fths-2014-002%2F4967&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEvansGreen2006" class="citation book cs1">Evans, Vyvyan; Green, Melanie (2006). <i>Cognitive Linguistics. An Introduction</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7486-1831-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-7486-1831-7"><bdi>0-7486-1831-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cognitive+Linguistics.+An+Introduction&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-7486-1831-7&rft.aulast=Evans&rft.aufirst=Vyvyan&rft.au=Green%2C+Melanie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCroft2008" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_Croft" title="William Croft">Croft, William</a> (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.afhalifax.ca/magazine/wp-content/sciences/LaLoiDeGrimm/annurev.anthro.37.081407.pdf">"Evolutionary linguistics"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Annual Review of Anthropology</i>. <b>37</b>: <span class="nowrap">219–</span>234. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.anthro.37.081407.085156">10.1146/annurev.anthro.37.081407.085156</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210225122332/http://www.afhalifax.ca/magazine/wp-content/sciences/LaLoiDeGrimm/annurev.anthro.37.081407.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 25 February 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 January</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Anthropology&rft.atitle=Evolutionary+linguistics&rft.volume=37&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E219-%3C%2Fspan%3E234&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.anthro.37.081407.085156&rft.aulast=Croft&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.afhalifax.ca%2Fmagazine%2Fwp-content%2Fsciences%2FLaLoiDeGrimm%2Fannurev.anthro.37.081407.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCornishTamarizKirby2009" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Simon_Kirby" title="Simon Kirby">Cornish, Hanna</a>; Tamariz, Monica; Kirby, Simon (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.research.ed.ac.uk/portal/files/8777212/complex_adaptive_systems.pdf">"Complex adaptive systems and the origins of adaptive structure: what experiments can tell us"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Language Learning</i>. <b>59</b>: <span class="nowrap">187–</span>205. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-9922.2009.00540.x">10.1111/j.1467-9922.2009.00540.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:56199987">56199987</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201112190847/https://www.research.ed.ac.uk/portal/files/8777212/complex_adaptive_systems.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 12 November 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 January</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Language+Learning&rft.atitle=Complex+adaptive+systems+and+the+origins+of+adaptive+structure%3A+what+experiments+can+tell+us&rft.volume=59&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E187-%3C%2Fspan%3E205&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1467-9922.2009.00540.x&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A56199987%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Cornish&rft.aufirst=Hanna&rft.au=Tamariz%2C+Monica&rft.au=Kirby%2C+Simon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.research.ed.ac.uk%2Fportal%2Ffiles%2F8777212%2Fcomplex_adaptive_systems.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSinnemäkiDi_Garbo2018" class="citation journal cs1">Sinnemäki, Kaius; Di Garbo, Francesca (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6102949">"Language Structures May Adapt to the Sociolinguistic Environment, but It Matters What and How You Count: A Typological Study of Verbal and Nominal Complexity"</a>. <i>Frontiers in Psychology</i>. <b>9</b>: <span class="nowrap">187–</span>205. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffpsyg.2018.01141">10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01141</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6102949">6102949</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30154738">30154738</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Psychology&rft.atitle=Language+Structures+May+Adapt+to+the+Sociolinguistic+Environment%2C+but+It+Matters+What+and+How+You+Count%3A+A+Typological+Study+of+Verbal+and+Nominal+Complexity&rft.volume=9&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E187-%3C%2Fspan%3E205&rft.date=2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6102949%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30154738&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3389%2Ffpsyg.2018.01141&rft.aulast=Sinnem%C3%A4ki&rft.aufirst=Kaius&rft.au=Di+Garbo%2C+Francesca&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6102949&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dahl_2001-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Dahl_2001_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDahl2001" class="citation journal cs1">Dahl, Östen (2001). "Grammaticalization and the life cycles of constructions". <i>RASK – Internationalt Tidsskrift for Sprog og Kommunikation</i>. <b>14</b>: <span class="nowrap">91–</span>134.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=RASK+%E2%80%93+Internationalt+Tidsskrift+for+Sprog+og+Kommunikation&rft.atitle=Grammaticalization+and+the+life+cycles+of+constructions&rft.volume=14&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E91-%3C%2Fspan%3E134&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Dahl&rft.aufirst=%C3%96sten&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kirby_2013-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kirby_2013_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKirby2013" class="citation book cs1">Kirby, Simon (2013). "Transitions: The Evolution of Linguistic Replicators". In Binder; Smith (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.labex-whoami.fr/images/documents/kirby_Labex_JC_paper.pdf"><i>The Language Phenomenon</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. The Frontiers Collection. Springer. pp. <span class="nowrap">121–</span>138. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-642-36086-2_6">10.1007/978-3-642-36086-2_6</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-642-36085-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-642-36085-5"><bdi>978-3-642-36085-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210626142916/http://www.labex-whoami.fr/images/documents/kirby_Labex_JC_paper.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 26 June 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 March</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Transitions%3A+The+Evolution+of+Linguistic+Replicators&rft.btitle=The+Language+Phenomenon&rft.series=The+Frontiers+Collection&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E121-%3C%2Fspan%3E138&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-642-36086-2_6&rft.isbn=978-3-642-36085-5&rft.aulast=Kirby&rft.aufirst=Simon&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.labex-whoami.fr%2Fimages%2Fdocuments%2Fkirby_Labex_JC_paper.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Zehentner_2019-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Zehentner_2019_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZehentner2019" class="citation book cs1">Zehentner, Eva (2019). <i>Competition in Language Change: the Rise of the English Dative Alternation</i>. De Gruyter Mouton. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-063385-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-063385-6"><bdi>978-3-11-063385-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Competition+in+Language+Change%3A+the+Rise+of+the+English+Dative+Alternation&rft.pub=De+Gruyter+Mouton&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-3-11-063385-6&rft.aulast=Zehentner&rft.aufirst=Eva&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MacWhinney_2015-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-MacWhinney_2015_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacWhinney2015" class="citation book cs1">MacWhinney, Brian (2015). "Introduction – language emergence". In MacWhinney, Brian; O'Grady, William (eds.). <i>Handbook of Language Emergence</i>. Wiley. pp. <span class="nowrap">1–</span>31. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-34613-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-118-34613-6"><bdi>978-1-118-34613-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction+%E2%80%93+language+emergence&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Language+Emergence&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E31&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-118-34613-6&rft.aulast=MacWhinney&rft.aufirst=Brian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNettle1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Nettle" title="Daniel Nettle">Nettle, Daniel</a> (1999). "Functionalism and its difficulties in biology and linguistics". In Darnell (ed.). <i>Functionalism and Formalism in linguistics, 1</i>. Studies in Language Companion Series. Vol. 41. John Benjamins. pp. <span class="nowrap">445–</span>468. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1075%2Fslcs.41.21net">10.1075/slcs.41.21net</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55619-927-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55619-927-1"><bdi>978-1-55619-927-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Functionalism+and+its+difficulties+in+biology+and+linguistics&rft.btitle=Functionalism+and+Formalism+in+linguistics%2C+1&rft.series=Studies+in+Language+Companion+Series&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E445-%3C%2Fspan%3E468&rft.pub=John+Benjamins&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1075%2Fslcs.41.21net&rft.isbn=978-1-55619-927-1&rft.aulast=Nettle&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCroft2015" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_Croft" title="William Croft">Croft, William</a> (2015). "Functional Approaches to Grammar". <i>International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences</i>. Vol. 9 (2nd ed.). Elsevier. pp. <span class="nowrap">6323–</span>6330. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-0-08-097086-8.53009-8">10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.53009-8</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-097087-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-097087-5"><bdi>978-0-08-097087-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Functional+Approaches+to+Grammar&rft.btitle=International+Encyclopedia+of+the+Social+and+Behavioral+Sciences&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E6323-%3C%2Fspan%3E6330&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FB978-0-08-097086-8.53009-8&rft.isbn=978-0-08-097087-5&rft.aulast=Croft&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Martinet-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Martinet_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartinet1960" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Martinet" title="André Martinet">Martinet, André</a> (1960). <i>Elements of General Linguistics</i>. Studies in General Linguistics, vol. i. Translated by Elisabeth Palmer Rubbert. London: Faber. p. 15.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Elements+of+General+Linguistics&rft.place=London&rft.series=Studies+in+General+Linguistics%2C+vol.+i.&rft.pages=15&rft.pub=Faber&rft.date=1960&rft.aulast=Martinet&rft.aufirst=Andr%C3%A9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRens_Bod2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Rens_Bod" title="Rens Bod">Rens Bod</a> (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KaOcAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA14"><i>A New History of the Humanities: The Search for Principles and Patterns from Antiquity to the Present</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-966521-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-966521-1"><bdi>978-0-19-966521-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+New+History+of+the+Humanities%3A+The+Search+for+Principles+and+Patterns+from+Antiquity+to+the+Present&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-19-966521-1&rft.au=Rens+Bod&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKaOcAQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA14&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/imperialgazette02hunt">"Chapter VI: Sanskrit Literature"</a>. <i>The Imperial Gazetteer of India</i>. Vol. 2. 1908. p. 263.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+VI%3A+Sanskrit+Literature&rft.btitle=The+Imperial+Gazetteer+of+India&rft.pages=263&rft.date=1908&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fimperialgazette02hunt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://panini.phil.hhu.de/panini/panini/">"Aṣṭādhyāyī 2.0"</a>. <i>panini.phil.hhu.de</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210415005527/http://panini.phil.hhu.de/panini/panini/">Archived</a> from the original on 15 April 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 February</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=panini.phil.hhu.de&rft.atitle=A%E1%B9%A3%E1%B9%AD%C4%81dhy%C4%81y%C4%AB+2.0&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpanini.phil.hhu.de%2Fpanini%2Fpanini%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFS.C._Vasu_(Tr.)1996" class="citation book cs1">S.C. Vasu (Tr.) (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vedicbooks.net/ashtadhyayi-panini-vols-p-2313.html"><i>The Ashtadhyayi of Panini (2 Vols.)</i></a>. Vedic Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0409-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0409-8"><bdi>978-81-208-0409-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140327172935/http://www.vedicbooks.net/ashtadhyayi-panini-vols-p-2313.html">Archived</a> from the original on 27 March 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 September</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ashtadhyayi+of+Panini+%282+Vols.%29&rft.pub=Vedic+Books&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-81-208-0409-8&rft.au=S.C.+Vasu+%28Tr.%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.vedicbooks.net%2Fashtadhyayi-panini-vols-p-2313.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPennKiparski" class="citation journal cs1">Penn, Gerald; Kiparski, Paul. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210415005455/https://www.aclweb.org/anthology/C12-2092.pdf">"On Panini and the Generative Capacity of Contextualised Replacement Systems"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Proceedings of COLING 2012</i>: <span class="nowrap">943–</span>950. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aclweb.org/anthology/C12-2092.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 15 April 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+COLING+2012&rft.atitle=On+Panini+and+the+Generative+Capacity+of+Contextualised+Replacement+Systems&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E943-%3C%2Fspan%3E950&rft.aulast=Penn&rft.aufirst=Gerald&rft.au=Kiparski%2C+Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aclweb.org%2Fanthology%2FC12-2092.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Etymonline_Definition_of_Philology-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Etymonline_Definition_of_Philology_69-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Etymonline_Definition_of_Philology_69-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarper" class="citation web cs1">Harper, Douglas. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.etymonline.com/?term=philology">"philology"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Online_Etymology_Dictionary" title="Online Etymology Dictionary">Online Etymology Dictionary</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 March</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Online+Etymology+Dictionary&rft.atitle=philology&rft.aulast=Harper&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2F%3Fterm%3Dphilology&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nichols_65-1-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Nichols_65-1_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNichols1990" class="citation journal cs1">Nichols, Stephen G. (1990). "Introduction: Philology in a Manuscript Culture". <i>Speculum</i>. <b>65</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">1–</span>10. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2864468">10.2307/2864468</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2864468">2864468</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154631850">154631850</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Speculum&rft.atitle=Introduction%3A+Philology+in+a+Manuscript+Culture&rft.volume=65&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E10&rft.date=1990&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154631850%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2864468%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2864468&rft.aulast=Nichols&rft.aufirst=Stephen+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Understanding-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Understanding_71-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Understanding_71-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcMahon1994" class="citation book cs1">McMahon, A.M.S. (1994). <i>Understanding Language Change</i>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 9, 19. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-44665-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-44665-5"><bdi>978-0-521-44665-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Understanding+Language+Change&rft.pages=9%2C+19&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-521-44665-5&rft.aulast=McMahon&rft.aufirst=A.M.S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorpurgo_Davies1998" class="citation book cs1">Morpurgo Davies, A. (1998). <i>Nineteenth-Century Linguistics</i>. History of Linguistics. Vol. 4.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nineteenth-Century+Linguistics&rft.series=History+of+Linguistics&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Morpurgo+Davies&rft.aufirst=A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-etymonline_linguist-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-etymonline_linguist_73-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-etymonline_linguist_73-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarper" class="citation web cs1">Harper, Douglas. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.etymonline.com/?term=linguist">"linguist"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Online_Etymology_Dictionary" title="Online Etymology Dictionary">Online Etymology Dictionary</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 March</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Online+Etymology+Dictionary&rft.atitle=linguist&rft.aulast=Harper&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2F%3Fterm%3Dlinguist&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShahhoseiny2013" class="citation web cs1">Shahhoseiny, Hajar (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/tpls/vol03/12/12.pdf">"Differences between Language and Linguistic in the ELT Classroom"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Theory and Practice in Language Studies<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 December</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Differences+between+Language+and+Linguistic+in+the+ELT+Classroom&rft.pub=Theory+and+Practice+in+Language+Studies&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Shahhoseiny&rft.aufirst=Hajar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academypublication.com%2Fissues%2Fpast%2Ftpls%2Fvol03%2F12%2F12.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bcu.ac.uk/english/news/blog/what-is-linguistics">"What is Linguistics?"</a>. <i>Birmingham City University</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 December</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Birmingham+City+University&rft.atitle=What+is+Linguistics%3F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bcu.ac.uk%2Fenglish%2Fnews%2Fblog%2Fwhat-is-linguistics&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpolskyHult2010" class="citation book cs1">Spolsky, Bernard; Hult, Francis M. (February 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8nc6nRRbMSQC&pg=PA13"><i>The Handbook of Educational Linguistics</i></a>. John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-3104-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-3104-2"><bdi>978-1-4443-3104-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Handbook+of+Educational+Linguistics&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2010-02&rft.isbn=978-1-4443-3104-2&rft.aulast=Spolsky&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rft.au=Hult%2C+Francis+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8nc6nRRbMSQC%26pg%3DPA13&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerns2010" class="citation book cs1">Berns, Margie (20 March 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EUMqGSbeEXAC&pg=PA23"><i>Concise Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics</i></a>. Elsevier. pp. <span class="nowrap">23–</span>25. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-096503-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-096503-1"><bdi>978-0-08-096503-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Concise+Encyclopedia+of+Applied+Linguistics&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E23-%3C%2Fspan%3E25&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2010-03-20&rft.isbn=978-0-08-096503-1&rft.aulast=Berns&rft.aufirst=Margie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEUMqGSbeEXAC%26pg%3DPA23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/science-linguistics">"The Science of Linguistics"</a>. <i>Linguistic Society of America</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180417192211/https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/science-linguistics">Archived</a> from the original on 17 April 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 April</span> 2018</span>. <q>Modern linguists approach their work with a scientific perspective, although they use methods that used to be thought of as solely an academic discipline of the humanities. Contrary to previous belief, linguistics is multidisciplinary. It overlaps each of the human sciences including psychology, neurology, anthropology, and sociology. Linguists conduct formal studies of sound structure, grammar and meaning, but they also investigate the history of language families, and research language acquisition.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Linguistic+Society+of+America&rft.atitle=The+Science+of+Linguistics&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.linguisticsociety.org%2Fresource%2Fscience-linguistics&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Behme, Christina; Neef, Martin. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philarchive.org/rec/PITWKO">Essays on Linguistic Realism</a></i> (2018). Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. pp. 7–20</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrystal1990" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Crystal" title="David Crystal">Crystal, David</a> (1990). <i>Linguistics</i>. Penguin Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-013531-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-013531-2"><bdi>978-0-14-013531-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Linguistics&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-14-013531-2&rft.aulast=Crystal&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-American_Heritage_2000-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-American_Heritage_2000_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/americanheritage0000unse_a1o7">"Linguist"</a>. <i>The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language</i>. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. 2000. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-395-82517-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-395-82517-4"><bdi>978-0-395-82517-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Linguist&rft.btitle=The+American+Heritage+Dictionary+of+the+English+Language&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin+Harcourt&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-395-82517-4&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Famericanheritage0000unse_a1o7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBloomfield1983">Bloomfield 1983</a>, p. 307.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeuren,_Pieter_A._M.1998" class="citation book cs1">Seuren, Pieter A. M. (1998). <i>Western linguistics: An historical introduction</i>. Wiley-Blackwell. pp. <span class="nowrap">2–</span>24. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-20891-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-20891-4"><bdi>978-0-631-20891-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Western+linguistics%3A+An+historical+introduction&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E2-%3C%2Fspan%3E24&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-631-20891-4&rft.au=Seuren%2C+Pieter+A.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBloomfield1983">Bloomfield 1983</a>, p. 308.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBloomfield1983">Bloomfield 1983</a>, p. 310.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bloomfield_1914_311-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bloomfield_1914_311_86-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bloomfield_1914_311_86-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBloomfield1983">Bloomfield 1983</a>, p. 311.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJensen2014" class="citation journal cs1">Jensen, Kim Ebensgaard (19 December 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://tidsskrift.dk/mediekultur/article/view/15968">"Linguistics in the digital humanities: (computational) corpus linguistics"</a>. <i>Mediekultur: Journal of Media and Communication Research</i>. <b>30</b> (57). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7146%2Fmediekultur.v30i57.15968">10.7146/mediekultur.v30i57.15968</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 December</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mediekultur%3A+Journal+of+Media+and+Communication+Research&rft.atitle=Linguistics+in+the+digital+humanities%3A+%28computational%29+corpus+linguistics&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=57&rft.date=2014-12-19&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7146%2Fmediekultur.v30i57.15968&rft.aulast=Jensen&rft.aufirst=Kim+Ebensgaard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftidsskrift.dk%2Fmediekultur%2Farticle%2Fview%2F15968&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcEnery2019" class="citation journal cs1">McEnery, Tony (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0267190519000096">"Corpus Linguistics, Learner Corpora, and SLA: Employing Technology to Analyze Language Use"</a>. <i>Annual Review of Applied Linguistics</i>. <b>39</b>. Cambridge University Press: <span class="nowrap">74–</span>92. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0267190519000096">10.1017/S0267190519000096</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Applied+Linguistics&rft.atitle=Corpus+Linguistics%2C+Learner+Corpora%2C+and+SLA%3A+Employing+Technology+to+Analyze+Language+Use&rft.volume=39&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E74-%3C%2Fspan%3E92&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0267190519000096&rft.aulast=McEnery&rft.aufirst=Tony&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1017%252FS0267190519000096&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHunston2006" class="citation cs2">Hunston, S. (1 January 2006), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080448542009445">"Corpus Linguistics"</a>, in Brown, Keith (ed.), <i>Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics (Second Edition)</i>, Oxford: Elsevier, pp. <span class="nowrap">234–</span>248, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fb0-08-044854-2%2F00944-5">10.1016/b0-08-044854-2/00944-5</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-044854-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-044854-1"><bdi>978-0-08-044854-1</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 October</span> 2023</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Corpus+Linguistics&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Language+%26+Linguistics+%28Second+Edition%29&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E234-%3C%2Fspan%3E248&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2006-01-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fb0-08-044854-2%2F00944-5&rft.isbn=978-0-08-044854-1&rft.aulast=Hunston&rft.aufirst=S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FB0080448542009445&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBailey1981" class="citation journal cs1">Bailey, Charles-James N. (1 January 1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/flin.1981.15.1-2.29/html">"Developmental Linguistics"</a>. <i>Folia Linguistica</i>. <b>15</b> (<span class="nowrap">1–</span>2): <span class="nowrap">29–</span>38. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fflin.1981.15.1-2.29">10.1515/flin.1981.15.1-2.29</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1614-7308">1614-7308</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Folia+Linguistica&rft.atitle=Developmental+Linguistics&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E29-%3C%2Fspan%3E38&rft.date=1981-01-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2Fflin.1981.15.1-2.29&rft.issn=1614-7308&rft.aulast=Bailey&rft.aufirst=Charles-James+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.degruyter.com%2Fdocument%2Fdoi%2F10.1515%2Fflin.1981.15.1-2.29%2Fhtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMariënManto2017" class="citation journal cs1">Mariën, Peter; Manto, Mario (25 October 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs12311-017-0894-1">"Cerebellum as a Master-Piece for Linguistic Predictability"</a>. <i>Cerebellum (London, England)</i>. <b>17</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">101–</span>03. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs12311-017-0894-1">10.1007/s12311-017-0894-1</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1473-4230">1473-4230</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29071518">29071518</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cerebellum+%28London%2C+England%29&rft.atitle=Cerebellum+as+a+Master-Piece+for+Linguistic+Predictability&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E101-%3C%2Fspan%3E03&rft.date=2017-10-25&rft.issn=1473-4230&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29071518&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs12311-017-0894-1&rft.aulast=Mari%C3%ABn&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft.au=Manto%2C+Mario&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%252Fs12311-017-0894-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarbara_Seidlhofer2003" class="citation book cs1">Barbara Seidlhofer (2003). <i>Controversies in Applied Linguistics (pp. 288)</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-437444-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-437444-6"><bdi>978-0-19-437444-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Controversies+in+Applied+Linguistics+%28pp.+288%29&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-19-437444-6&rft.au=Barbara+Seidlhofer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Linguistic_Analysis-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Linguistic_Analysis_93-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Linguistic_Analysis_93-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Linguistic_Analysis_93-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Linguistic_Analysis_93-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEades2005" class="citation journal cs1">Eades, Diana (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090327083553/http://songchau.googlepages.com/503.pdf">"Applied Linguistics and Language Analysis in Asylum Seeker Cases"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Applied Linguistics</i>. <b>26</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">503–</span>26. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fapplin%2Fami021">10.1093/applin/ami021</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://songchau.googlepages.com/503.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 27 March 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 January</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Applied+Linguistics&rft.atitle=Applied+Linguistics+and+Language+Analysis+in+Asylum+Seeker+Cases&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E503-%3C%2Fspan%3E26&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fapplin%2Fami021&rft.aulast=Eades&rft.aufirst=Diana&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsongchau.googlepages.com%2F503.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Himmelman, Nikolaus "Language documentation: What is it and what is it good for?" in P. Gippert, Jost, Nikolaus P Himmelmann & Ulrike Mosel. (2006) <i>Essentials of Language documentation</i>. Mouton de Gruyter, Berlin & New York.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBehrSha2018" class="citation journal cs1">Behr, Dorothée; Sha, Mandy (25 July 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.trans-int.org/index.php/transint/article/view/937">"Introduction: Translation of questionnaires in cross-national and cross-cultural research"</a>. <i>Translation & Interpreting</i>. <b>10</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">1–</span>4. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.12807%2Fti.110202.2018.a01">10.12807/ti.110202.2018.a01</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1836-9324">1836-9324</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Translation+%26+Interpreting&rft.atitle=Introduction%3A+Translation+of+questionnaires+in+cross-national+and+cross-cultural+research&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E4&rft.date=2018-07-25&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.12807%2Fti.110202.2018.a01&rft.issn=1836-9324&rft.aulast=Behr&rft.aufirst=Doroth%C3%A9e&rft.au=Sha%2C+Mandy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.trans-int.org%2Findex.php%2Ftransint%2Farticle%2Fview%2F937&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPanSha2019" class="citation book cs1">Pan, Yuling; Sha, Mandy (9 July 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9780429294914/sociolinguistics-survey-translation-yuling-pan-mandy-sha-hyunjoo-park"><i>The Sociolinguistics of Survey Translation</i></a>. London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9780429294914">10.4324/9780429294914</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-429-29491-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-429-29491-4"><bdi>978-0-429-29491-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:198632812">198632812</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sociolinguistics+of+Survey+Translation&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2019-07-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A198632812%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9780429294914&rft.isbn=978-0-429-29491-4&rft.aulast=Pan&rft.aufirst=Yuling&rft.au=Sha%2C+Mandy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.taylorfrancis.com%2Fbooks%2Fmono%2F10.4324%2F9780429294914%2Fsociolinguistics-survey-translation-yuling-pan-mandy-sha-hyunjoo-park&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCroft2008" class="citation journal cs1">Croft, William (October 2008). "Evolutionary Linguistics". <i>Annual Review of Anthropology</i>. <b>37</b>: <span class="nowrap">219–</span>34. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.anthro.37.081407.085156">10.1146/annurev.anthro.37.081407.085156</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Anthropology&rft.atitle=Evolutionary+Linguistics&rft.volume=37&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E219-%3C%2Fspan%3E34&rft.date=2008-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.anthro.37.081407.085156&rft.aulast=Croft&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Olsson, John. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thetext.co.uk/what_is.pdf">What is Forensic Linguistics?</a>" (PDF). <i>Forensic Linguistics Intelligence</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100927010829/http://www.forensiclinguistics.net/cfl_fl.html">"what is forensic linguistics?"</a>. <i>CFL at Aston University</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.forensiclinguistics.net/cfl_fl.html">the original</a> on 27 September 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 February</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CFL+at+Aston+University&rft.atitle=what+is+forensic+linguistics%3F&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.forensiclinguistics.net%2Fcfl_fl.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistics&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAkmajian,_AdrianDemers,_RichardFarmer,_AnnHarnish,_Robert2010" class="citation book cs1">Akmajian, Adrian; Demers, Richard; Farmer, Ann; Harnish, Robert (2010). <i>Linguistics: An Introduction to Language and Communication</i>. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-51370-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-51370-8"><bdi>978-0-262-51370-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Linguistics%3A+An+Introduction+to+Language+and+Communication&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=The+MIT+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-262-51370-8&rft.au=Akmajian%2C+Adrian&rft.au=Demers%2C+Richard&rft.au=Farmer%2C+Ann&rft.au=Harnish%2C+Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAronoff,_MarkRees-Miller,_Janie2000" class="citation book cs1">Aronoff, Mark; Rees-Miller, Janie, eds. (2000). <i>The handbook of linguistics</i>. Oxford: Blackwell.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+handbook+of+linguistics&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=2000&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBloomfield1983" class="citation book cs1">Bloomfield, Leonard (1983) [1914]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-MN3YkwOgNYC&pg=PA307"><i>An Introduction to the Study of Language</i></a> (New ed.). Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-272-8047-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-272-8047-3"><bdi>978-90-272-8047-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+the+Study+of+Language&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.edition=New&rft.pub=John+Benjamins+Publishing&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-90-272-8047-3&rft.aulast=Bloomfield&rft.aufirst=Leonard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-MN3YkwOgNYC%26pg%3DPA307&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChomsky1998" class="citation book cs1">Chomsky, Noam (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/onlanguagechomsk00chom"><i>On Language</i></a>. The New Press, New York. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56584-475-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56584-475-9"><bdi>978-1-56584-475-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+Language&rft.pub=The+New+Press%2C+New+York&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-1-56584-475-9&rft.aulast=Chomsky&rft.aufirst=Noam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fonlanguagechomsk00chom&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrystal1990" class="citation book cs1">Crystal, David (1990). <i>Linguistics</i>. Penguin Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-013531-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-013531-2"><bdi>978-0-14-013531-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Linguistics&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-14-013531-2&rft.aulast=Crystal&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDerrida1967" class="citation book cs1">Derrida, Jacques (1967). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ofgrammatology00derr"><i>Of Grammatology</i></a>. The Johns Hopkins University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-5830-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-5830-7"><bdi>978-0-8018-5830-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Of+Grammatology&rft.pub=The+Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=1967&rft.isbn=978-0-8018-5830-7&rft.aulast=Derrida&rft.aufirst=Jacques&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fofgrammatology00derr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHall2005" class="citation book cs1">Hall, Christopher (2005). <i>An Introduction to Language and Linguistics: Breaking the Language Spell</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8264-8734-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8264-8734-6"><bdi>978-0-8264-8734-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Language+and+Linguistics%3A+Breaking+the+Language+Spell&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-8264-8734-6&rft.aulast=Hall&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIsacCharles_Reiss2013" class="citation book cs1">Isac, Daniela; Charles Reiss (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110706173454/http://linguistics.concordia.ca/i-language/"><i>I-language: An Introduction to Linguistics as Cognitive Science</i></a> (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-966017-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-966017-9"><bdi>978-0-19-966017-9</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://linguistics.concordia.ca/i-language/">the original</a> on 6 July 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 May</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=I-language%3A+An+Introduction+to+Linguistics+as+Cognitive+Science&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-19-966017-9&rft.aulast=Isac&rft.aufirst=Daniela&rft.au=Charles+Reiss&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flinguistics.concordia.ca%2Fi-language%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcShaneNirenburg2021" class="citation book cs1">McShane, Marjorie; Nirenburg, Sergei (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://direct.mit.edu/books/oa-monograph/5042/Linguistics-for-the-Age-of-AI"><i>Linguistics for the Age of AI</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/MIT_Press" title="MIT Press">MIT Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780262363136" title="Special:BookSources/9780262363136"><bdi>9780262363136</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Linguistics+for+the+Age+of+AI&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=9780262363136&rft.aulast=McShane&rft.aufirst=Marjorie&rft.au=Nirenburg%2C+Sergei&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdirect.mit.edu%2Fbooks%2Foa-monograph%2F5042%2FLinguistics-for-the-Age-of-AI&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistics&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br /> <b>Linguistics</b> <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=linguistics">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=linguistics&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://linguistlist.org/">The Linguist List</a>, a global online linguistics community with news and information updated daily</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/index.htm">Glossary of linguistic terms</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130210081627/http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/index.htm">Archived</a> 10 February 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> by <a href="/wiki/SIL_International" class="mw-redirect" title="SIL International">SIL International</a> (last updated 2004)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.glottopedia.org">Glottopedia</a>, MediaWiki-based encyclopedia of linguistics, under construction</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071126121113/http://www.lsadc.org/info/ling-fields.cfm">Linguistic sub-fields</a> – according to the Linguistic Society of America</li> <li>Linguistics and language-related <a href="/wiki/Wiki" title="Wiki">wiki</a> articles on <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Language">Scholarpedia</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Linguistics">Citizendium</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://personal.unizar.es/garciala/bibliography.html">"Linguistics" section</a> – A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism and Philology, ed. J.A. García Landa (University of Zaragoza, Spain)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIsacCharles_Reiss2013" class="citation book cs1">Isac, Daniela; Charles Reiss (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ilanguageintrodu00dani"><i>I-language: An Introduction to Linguistics as Cognitive Science</i></a> (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-953420-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-953420-3"><bdi>978-0-19-953420-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=I-language%3A+An+Introduction+to+Linguistics+as+Cognitive+Science&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-19-953420-3&rft.aulast=Isac&rft.aufirst=Daniela&rft.au=Charles+Reiss&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Filanguageintrodu00dani&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophy_of_language338" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_of_language" title="Template:Philosophy of language"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_of_language" title="Template talk:Philosophy of language"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_of_language" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy of language"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Philosophy_of_language338" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Index_of_language_articles" title="Index of language articles">Index of language articles</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_language" title="List of philosophers of language">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorgias" title="Gorgias">Gorgias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cratylus" title="Cratylus">Cratylus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eubulides" title="Eubulides">Eubulides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Cronus" title="Diodorus Cronus">Diodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chrysippus" title="Chrysippus">Chrysippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhuang_Zhou" title="Zhuang Zhou">Zhuangzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xunzi_(philosopher)" title="Xunzi (philosopher)">Xunzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Wilkins" title="John Wilkins">Wilkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Arnauld" title="Antoine Arnauld">Arnauld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Lancelot" title="Claude Lancelot">Lancelot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_von_Humboldt" title="Wilhelm von Humboldt">von Humboldt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fritz_Mauthner" title="Fritz Mauthner">Mauthner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Ric%C5%93ur" title="Paul Ricœur">Ricœur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_de_Saussure" title="Ferdinand de Saussure">de Saussure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottlob_Frege" title="Gottlob Frege">Frege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Boas" title="Franz Boas">Boas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tillich" title="Paul Tillich">Tillich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Sapir" title="Edward Sapir">Sapir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Bloomfield" title="Leonard Bloomfield">Bloomfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Bergson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lev_Vygotsky" title="Lev Vygotsky">Vygotsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Carnap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Derrida" title="Jacques Derrida">Derrida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Lee_Whorf" title="Benjamin Lee Whorf">Whorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Austin" title="J. L. Austin">Austin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Georg_Gadamer" title="Hans-Georg Gadamer">Gadamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Kripke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._J._Ayer" title="A. J. Ayer">Ayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">Anscombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaakko_Hintikka" title="Jaakko Hintikka">Hintikka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Dummett" title="Michael Dummett">Dummett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Davidson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Grice" title="Paul Grice">Grice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Ryle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">Strawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Putnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Searle" title="John Searle">Searle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Watzlawick" title="Paul Watzlawick">Watzlawick</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Theories_of_language" title="Category:Theories of language">Theories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causal_theory_of_reference" title="Causal theory of reference">Causal theory of reference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contrastivism" title="Contrastivism">Contrast theory of meaning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contrastivism" title="Contrastivism">Contrastivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conventionalism" title="Conventionalism">Conventionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cratylism" title="Cratylism">Cratylism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptivist_theory_of_names" title="Descriptivist theory of names">Descriptivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_reference_theory" title="Direct reference theory">Direct reference theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dramatism" title="Dramatism">Dramatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_semantics" title="Dynamic semantics">Dynamic semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressivism" title="Expressivism">Expressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquisitive_semantics" title="Inquisitive semantics">Inquisitive semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_determinism" title="Linguistic determinism">Linguistic determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediated_reference_theory" title="Mediated reference theory">Mediated reference theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-cognitivism" title="Non-cognitivism">Non-cognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phallogocentrism" title="Phallogocentrism">Phallogocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relevance_theory" title="Relevance theory">Relevance theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_externalism" title="Semantic externalism">Semantic externalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_holism" title="Semantic holism">Semantic holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Situation_semantics" title="Situation semantics">Situation semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supposition_theory" title="Supposition theory">Supposition theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbiosism" title="Symbiosism">Symbiosism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theological_noncognitivism" title="Theological noncognitivism">Theological noncognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_descriptions" title="Theory of descriptions">Theory of descriptions</a> (<a href="/wiki/Definite_description" title="Definite description">Definite description</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_language" title="Theory of language">Theory of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unilalianism" title="Unilalianism">Unilalianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verification theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ambiguity" title="Ambiguity">Ambiguity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cant_(language)" title="Cant (language)">Cant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_(philosophy)" title="Class (philosophy)">Class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">Concept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Categorization" class="mw-redirect" title="Categorization">Categories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_resemblance" title="Family resemblance">Family resemblance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intension" title="Intension">Intension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_relativity" title="Linguistic relativity">Linguistic relativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_form" title="Logical form">Logical form</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_representation" title="Mental representation">Mental representation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metalanguage" title="Metalanguage">Metalanguage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modality_(natural_language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Modality (natural language)">Modality (natural language)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presupposition" title="Presupposition">Presupposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_compositionality" title="Principle of compositionality">Principle of compositionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_(philosophy)" title="Property (philosophy)">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proposition" title="Proposition">Proposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sense_and_reference" title="Sense and reference">Sense and reference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentence_(linguistics)" title="Sentence (linguistics)">Sentence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Set_(mathematics)" title="Set (mathematics)">Set</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sign_(semiotics)" title="Sign (semiotics)">Sign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech_act" title="Speech act">Speech act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statement_(logic)" title="Statement (logic)">Statement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbol" title="Symbol">Symbol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth-bearer" title="Truth-bearer">Truth-bearer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Use%E2%80%93mention_distinction" title="Use–mention distinction">Use–mention distinction</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_language_articles" title="Index of philosophy of language articles">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Cratylus_(dialogue)" title="Cratylus (dialogue)">Cratylus</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(n.d.)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Port-Royal_Grammar" title="Port-Royal Grammar">Port-Royal Grammar</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1660)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_Arte_Combinatoria" title="De Arte Combinatoria">De Arte Combinatoria</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1666)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/An_Essay_Towards_a_Real_Character,_and_a_Philosophical_Language" title="An Essay Towards a Real Character, and a Philosophical Language">An Essay Towards a Real Character, and a Philosophical Language</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1668)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Alciphron_(book)" title="Alciphron (book)">Alciphron</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1732)</span></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/On_Denoting" title="On Denoting">On Denoting</a>" <span style="font-size:85%;">(1905)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tractatus_Logico-Philosophicus" title="Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus">Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1921)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Language,_Truth,_and_Logic" title="Language, Truth, and Logic">Language, Truth, and Logic</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1936)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Two_Dogmas_of_Empiricism" title="Two Dogmas of Empiricism">Two Dogmas of Empiricism</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1951)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_Investigations" title="Philosophical Investigations">Philosophical Investigations</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1953)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Of_Grammatology" title="Of Grammatology">Of Grammatology</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1967)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Naming_and_Necessity" title="Naming and Necessity">Naming and Necessity</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1980)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wittgenstein_on_Rules_and_Private_Language" title="Wittgenstein on Rules and Private Language">Wittgenstein on Rules and Private Language</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1982)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Limited_Inc" title="Limited Inc">Limited Inc</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1988)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">Philosophy of information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_logic" title="Philosophical logic">Philosophical logic</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatics" title="Pragmatics">Pragmatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">Rhetoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">School of Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantics_(natural_language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Semantics (natural language)">Semantics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Formal_semantics_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Formal semantics (linguistics)">Formal semantics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">Semiotics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_language" title="Category:Philosophy of language">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Philosophy/Language" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Philosophy/Language">Task Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia_talk:WikiProject_Philosophy" title="Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Philosophy">Discussion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Communication_studies358" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Communication_studies" title="Template:Communication studies"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Communication_studies" title="Template talk:Communication studies"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Communication_studies" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Communication studies"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Communication_studies358" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Communication_studies" title="Communication studies">Communication studies</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_communication_studies" title="History of communication studies">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_communication" title="Outline of communication">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Topics and<br /> terminology</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biocommunication_(science)" title="Biocommunication (science)">Biocommunication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broadcasting" title="Broadcasting">Broadcasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communication" title="Communication">Communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer-mediated_communication" title="Computer-mediated communication">Computer-mediated communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversation" title="Conversation">Conversation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_communication" title="History of communication">History of communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information" title="Information">Information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intercultural_communication" title="Intercultural communication">Intercultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interpersonal_communication" title="Interpersonal communication">Interpersonal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intrapersonal_communication" title="Intrapersonal communication">Intrapersonal </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journalism" title="Journalism">Journalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literacy" title="Literacy">Literacy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reading" title="Reading">Reading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Writing" title="Writing">Writing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media" title="Mass media">Mass media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_(philosophy_of_language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Meaning (philosophy of language)">Meaning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_(communication)" title="Media (communication)">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_ecology" title="Media ecology">Media ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-communication" title="Meta-communication">Meta-communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Models_of_communication" title="Models of communication">Models of communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_media" title="New media">New media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonverbal_communication" title="Nonverbal communication">Nonverbal communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonviolent_communication" class="mw-redirect" title="Nonviolent communication">Nonviolent communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_relations" title="Public relations">Public relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech" title="Speech">Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbol" title="Symbol">Symbol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_symbols" title="List of symbols">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications" title="Telecommunications">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Text_and_conversation_theory" title="Text and conversation theory">Text and conversation theory</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Encoding_communication.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Encoding communication"><img alt="Encoding communication" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Encoding_communication.jpg/120px-Encoding_communication.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="104" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Encoding_communication.jpg/180px-Encoding_communication.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Encoding_communication.jpg/240px-Encoding_communication.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="345" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Subfields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Closed-loop_communication" title="Closed-loop communication">Closed-loop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communication_design" title="Communication design">Communication design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communication_theory" title="Communication theory">Communication theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communicology" title="Communicology">Communicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisis_communication" title="Crisis communication">Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_communication" title="Climate communication">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_communication" title="Cross-cultural communication">Cross-cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_communication" title="Development communication">Developmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_analysis" title="Discourse analysis">Discourse analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_communication" title="Environmental communication">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Study_of_global_communication" title="Study of global communication">Global</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_communication" title="Health communication">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_communication" title="International communication">International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_communication" title="Mass communication">Mass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_studies" title="Media studies">Media studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediated_cross-border_communication" title="Mediated cross-border communication">Mediated cross-border</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_communication" title="Organizational communication">Organizational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_communication" title="Political communication">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Risk_communication" title="Risk communication">Risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_communication" title="Science communication">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_communication" title="Technical communication">Technical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_communication" title="Visual communication">Visual</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scholars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roland_Barthes" title="Roland Barthes">Barthes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregory_Bateson" title="Gregory Bateson">Bateson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Benjamin" title="Walter Benjamin">Benjamin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Burke" title="Kenneth Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuel_Castells" title="Manuel Castells">Castells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_T._Craig" title="Robert T. Craig">Craig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Ellul" title="Jacques Ellul">Ellul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Fisher_(professor)" title="Walter Fisher (professor)">Fisher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vil%C3%A9m_Flusser" title="Vilém Flusser">Flusser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Gasset</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Gerbner" title="George Gerbner">Gerbner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erving_Goffman" title="Erving Goffman">Goffman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Horkheimer" title="Max Horkheimer">Horkheimer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aldous_Huxley" title="Aldous Huxley">Huxley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Innis" title="Harold Innis">Innis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Jakobson" title="Roman Jakobson">Jakobson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irving_Janis" title="Irving Janis">Janis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wendell_Johnson" title="Wendell Johnson">Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D._Lawrence_Kincaid" title="D. Lawrence Kincaid">Kincaid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Lippmann" title="Walter Lippmann">Lippman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann">Luhmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_McLuhan" title="Marshall McLuhan">McLuhan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Herbert_Mead" title="George Herbert Mead">Mead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nick_Morgan" title="Nick Morgan">Morgan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_J._Ong" title="Walter J. Ong">Ong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vance_Packard" title="Vance Packard">Packard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Peirce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neil_Postman" title="Neil Postman">Postman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nora_C._Quebral" title="Nora C. Quebral">Quebral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I._A._Richards" title="I. A. Richards">Richards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Everett_Rogers" title="Everett Rogers">Rogers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilbur_Schramm" title="Wilbur Schramm">Schramm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Shannon" title="Claude Shannon">Shannon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_W._Tankard_Jr." title="James W. Tankard Jr.">Tankard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deborah_Tannen" title="Deborah Tannen">Tannen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Wertheimer" title="Max Wertheimer">Wertheimer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Communication_studies" title="Category:Communication studies">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Social_sciences710" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Social_sciences" title="Template:Social sciences"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Social_sciences" title="Template talk:Social sciences"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Social_sciences" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Social sciences"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Social_sciences710" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social sciences</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_social_science" title="Outline of social science">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_social_sciences" title="History of the social sciences">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_sociology_articles" title="Index of sociology articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Primary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_anthropology" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical anthropology">physical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">Economics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microeconomics" title="Microeconomics">microeconomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroeconomics" title="Macroeconomics">macroeconomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Econometrics" title="Econometrics">econometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_economics" title="Mathematical economics">mathematical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">Geography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Physical_geography" title="Physical geography">physical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_geography" title="Human geography">human</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_geography" title="Technical geography">technical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_geography" title="Integrated geography">integrated</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_history" title="Cultural history">cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_sciences_of_history" title="Auxiliary sciences of history">auxiliary sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history" title="Economic history">economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_history_(field)" title="World history (field)">human</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history" title="Military history">military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history" title="Political history">political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_history" title="Social history">social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_history" title="Legal history">legal history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_legal_systems" title="List of national legal systems">legal systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_law" title="Public law">public law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_law" title="Private law">private law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Linguistics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">semiotics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">Political science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_relations" title="International relations">international relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_politics" title="Comparative politics">comparative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_policy" title="Public policy">public policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_administration" title="Public administration">public administration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">Psychology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abnormal_psychology" title="Abnormal psychology">abnormal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">cognitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_psychology" title="Developmental psychology">developmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personality_psychology" title="Personality psychology">personality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_Internet" title="Sociology of the Internet">internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_sociology" title="Rural sociology">rural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_sociology" title="Urban sociology">urban</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Interdisciplinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Administration <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Business_administration" title="Business administration">business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_administration" title="Public administration">public</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthrozoology" title="Anthrozoology">Anthrozoology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Area_studies" title="Area studies">Area studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_studies" title="Business studies">Business studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">Cognitive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communication_studies" title="Communication studies">Communication studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_studies" title="Community studies">Community studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">Criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_studies" title="Cultural studies">Cultural studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_studies" title="Development studies">Development studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">Education</a></li> <li>Environmental <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_social_science" title="Environmental social science">social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_studies" title="Environmental studies">studies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_studies" title="Food studies">Food studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_studies" title="Gender studies">Gender studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_studies" title="Global studies">Global studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_sociology" title="Historical sociology">Historical sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">History of technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_ecology" title="Human ecology">Human ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_science" title="Information science">Information science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_relations" title="International relations">International studies</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Management" title="Management">Management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_studies" title="Media studies">Media studies</a></li> <li>Philosophies <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_and_economics" title="Philosophy and economics"> economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">social science</a></li></ul></li> <li>Planning <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land-use_planning" title="Land-use planning">land use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_planning" title="Regional planning">regional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning" title="Urban planning">urban</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ecology" title="Political ecology">Political ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_economy" title="Political economy">Political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_sociology" title="Political sociology">Political sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">Public health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_science" title="Regional science">Regional science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies" title="Science and technology studies">Science and technology studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_studies" title="Science studies">Science studies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_social_science" title="Quantum social science">Quantum social science</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_work" title="Social work">Social work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegan_studies" title="Vegan studies">Vegan studies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">List</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_social_science_journals" title="List of social science journals">List of social science journals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other categorizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Behavioral sciences">Behavioral sciences</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Geisteswissenschaft" title="Geisteswissenschaft">Geisteswissenschaft</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_science" title="Human science">Human science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">Humanities</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Social_sciences" title="Category:Social sciences">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Social_sciences" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Social sciences">Commons</a></b></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Social_sciences.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/32px-Social_sciences.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/48px-Social_sciences.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/64px-Social_sciences.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="139" data-file-height="122" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Society" title="Portal:Society">Society portal</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Wikiversity page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/16px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/24px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/32px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <b><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Portal:Social_Sciences" class="extiw" title="wikiversity:Portal:Social Sciences">Wikiversity</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Nonverbal_communication97" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nonverbal_communication" title="Template:Nonverbal communication"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nonverbal_communication" title="Template talk:Nonverbal communication"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nonverbal_communication" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nonverbal communication"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Nonverbal_communication97" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Nonverbal_communication" title="Nonverbal communication">Nonverbal communication</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Modalities97" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Modality_(semiotics)" title="Modality (semiotics)">Modalities</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Physical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blushing" title="Blushing">Blushing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_language" title="Body language">Body language</a> / <a href="/wiki/Kinesics" title="Kinesics">Kinesics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body-to-body_communication" title="Body-to-body communication">Body-to-body communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facial_expression" title="Facial expression">Facial expression</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Facial_Action_Coding_System" title="Facial Action Coding System">Facial Action Coding System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microexpression" title="Microexpression">Microexpression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subtle_expression" title="Subtle expression">Subtle expression</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gesture" title="Gesture">Gesture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_gestures" title="List of gestures">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech-independent_gestures" class="mw-redirect" title="Speech-independent gestures">Speech-independent gestures</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haptic_communication" title="Haptic communication">Haptic communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imitation" title="Imitation">Imitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synchronization#Human_movement" title="Synchronization">Interpersonal synchrony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laughter" title="Laughter">Laughter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oculesics" title="Oculesics">Oculesics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eye_contact" title="Eye contact">Eye contact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pupillary_response" title="Pupillary response">Pupil dilation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olfactic_communication" title="Olfactic communication">Olfaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posture_(psychology)" title="Posture (psychology)">Posture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proxemics" title="Proxemics">Proxemics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Speech" title="Speech">Speech</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affect_(linguistics)" title="Affect (linguistics)">Affect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_prosody" title="Emotional prosody">Emotional prosody</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paralanguage" title="Paralanguage">Paralanguage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intonation_(linguistics)" title="Intonation (linguistics)">Intonation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loudness" title="Loudness">Loudness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosody_(linguistics)" title="Prosody (linguistics)">Prosody</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhythm" title="Rhythm">Rhythm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stress_(linguistics)" title="Stress (linguistics)">Stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tone_(linguistics)" title="Tone (linguistics)">Tone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonation" title="Phonation">Voice quality</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Social_environment" title="Social environment">Social context</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chronemics" title="Chronemics">Chronemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_(norm)" title="Convention (norm)">Conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Display_rules" title="Display rules">Display rules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitus_(sociology)" title="Habitus (sociology)">Habitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-context_and_low-context_cultures" title="High-context and low-context cultures">High-context and low-context cultures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interpersonal_relationship" title="Interpersonal relationship">Interpersonal relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_norm" title="Social norm">Social norm</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emoticon" title="Emoticon">Emoticon</a> / <a href="/wiki/Smiley" title="Smiley">Smiley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-bit_message" title="One-bit message">One-bit message</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Missed_call" title="Missed call">Missed call</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silent_service_code" title="Silent service code">Silent service code</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Unconscious_communication" title="Unconscious communication">Unconscious</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microexpression" title="Microexpression">Microexpression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-verbal_leakage" title="Non-verbal leakage">Non-verbal leakage</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Multi-faceted</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affect_display" title="Affect display">Affect display</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deception" title="Deception">Deception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotion_recognition" title="Emotion recognition">Emotion recognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_impression_(psychology)" title="First impression (psychology)">First impression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intimate_relationship" title="Intimate relationship">Intimacy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Broader_concepts97" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Broader concepts</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basic_interpersonal_communicative_skills" class="mw-redirect" title="Basic interpersonal communicative skills">Basic interpersonal communicative skills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communication" title="Communication">Communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_intelligence" title="Emotional intelligence">Emotional intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nunchi" title="Nunchi">Nunchi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People_skills" title="People skills">People skills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">Semiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_behavior" title="Social behavior">Social behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_cue" title="Social cue">Social cue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_competence" title="Social competence">Social competence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_skills" title="Social skills">Social skills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unsaid" title="Unsaid">Unsaid</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Further_information97" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Further information</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Disorders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aprosodia" title="Aprosodia">Aprosodia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asperger_syndrome" title="Asperger syndrome">Asperger syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autism" title="Autism">Autism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fragile_X_syndrome" title="Fragile X syndrome">Fragile X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pervasive_developmental_disorder_not_otherwise_specified" title="Pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified">Pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Childhood_disintegrative_disorder" title="Childhood disintegrative disorder">Childhood disintegrative disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rett_syndrome" title="Rett syndrome">Rett syndrome</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dyssemia" title="Dyssemia">Dyssemia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonverbal_learning_disorder" title="Nonverbal learning disorder">Nonverbal learning disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_(pragmatic)_communication_disorder" title="Social (pragmatic) communication disorder">Social (pragmatic) communication disorder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neuroanatomy" title="Neuroanatomy">Neuroanatomy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Limbic_system" title="Limbic system">Limbic system</a> / <a href="/wiki/Limbic_lobe" title="Limbic lobe">Limbic lobe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirror_neuron" title="Mirror neuron">Mirror neuron</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cold_reading" title="Cold reading">Cold reading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lie_detection" title="Lie detection">Lie detection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freudian_slip" title="Freudian slip">Freudian slip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tell_(poker)" title="Tell (poker)">Poker tell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attention_(advertising)" class="mw-redirect" title="Attention (advertising)">Targeted advertising</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Technology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_processing_of_body_language" title="Computer processing of body language">Computer processing of body language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotion_recognition_in_conversation" title="Emotion recognition in conversation">Emotion recognition in conversation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gesture_recognition" title="Gesture recognition">Gesture recognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_facial_expression_databases" title="List of facial expression databases">List of facial expression databases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentiment_analysis" title="Sentiment analysis">Sentiment analysis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Key people</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ray_Birdwhistell" title="Ray Birdwhistell">Ray Birdwhistell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Ekman" title="Paul Ekman">Paul Ekman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_communication" title="Animal communication">Animal communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_communication" title="Behavioral communication">Behavioral communication</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aggression" title="Aggression">Aggressive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assertiveness" title="Assertiveness">Assertive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deference" title="Deference">Passive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive-aggressive_behavior" title="Passive-aggressive behavior">Passive-aggressive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impression_management" title="Impression management">Impression management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-communication" title="Meta-communication">Meta-communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monastic_sign_languages" title="Monastic sign languages">Monastic sign lexicons</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Verbal communication</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-verbal language</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sign_language" title="Sign language">Sign language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tactile_signing" title="Tactile signing">Tactile signing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tadoma" title="Tadoma">Tadoma</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Art and literature</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mime_artist" title="Mime artist">Mime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimoplastic_art" title="Mimoplastic art">Mimoplastic art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subtext" title="Subtext">Subtext</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236088147">.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline;font-size:88%;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em 0 0;padding:0 2em}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;padding:0.2em 0;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px;line-height:22px}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;align-items:baseline;padding:0.2em 0;column-gap:1em;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{display:flex;align-items:baseline;margin:0.15em 0;min-height:24px;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-logo{width:22px;line-height:22px;margin:0 0.2em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-link{margin:0 0.2em;text-align:left}@media screen and (max-width:960px){.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{flex-flow:column wrap;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{flex:0 1}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{flex:1;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{flex:0 0 20em;min-width:20em}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.portal-bar{margin-top:-1px}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="noprint metadata sister-bar" role="navigation" aria-label="sister-projects"><div class="sister-bar-header"><b>Linguistics</b> at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects"><span id="sister-projects" style="white-space:nowrap;">sister projects</span></a>:</div><ul class="sister-bar-content"><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/14px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/21px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/28px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Linguistics" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Linguistics">Media</a></b> from Commons</span></li><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/16px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/24px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/32px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Linguistics" class="extiw" title="q:Linguistics">Quotations</a></b> from Wikiquote</span></li><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/19px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/29px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/38px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Linguistics" class="extiw" title="b:Linguistics">Textbooks</a></b> from Wikibooks</span></li><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/21px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/32px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/42px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="590" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8162" class="extiw" title="d:Q8162">Data</a></b> from Wikidata</span></li></ul></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8162#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1604" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8162#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1604" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8162#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/999202/">FAST</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4074250-7">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85077222">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11932194d">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11932194d">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00562334">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="lingvistika"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph115153&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX525047">Spain</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000047485&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007529216105171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/fr/articles/008273">Historical Dictionary of Switzerland</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Linguistics&oldid=1271939865">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Linguistics&oldid=1271939865</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Linguistics" title="Category:Linguistics">Linguistics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Cognitive_science" title="Category:Cognitive science">Cognitive science</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Communication_studies" title="Category:Communication studies">Communication studies</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Language" title="Category:Language">Language</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_dead_external_links" title="Category:All articles with dead external links">All articles with dead external links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_dead_external_links_from_March_2022" title="Category:Articles with dead external links from March 2022">Articles with dead external links from March 2022</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_permanently_dead_external_links" title="Category:Articles with permanently dead external links">Articles with permanently dead external links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_matches_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description matches Wikidata">Short description matches Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_Oxford_spelling_from_August_2016" title="Category:Use Oxford spelling from August 2016">Use Oxford spelling from August 2016</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_June_2020" title="Category:Use dmy dates from June 2020">Use dmy dates from June 2020</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_lacking_reliable_references" title="Category:All articles lacking reliable references">All articles lacking reliable references</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_lacking_reliable_references_from_December_2020" title="Category:Articles lacking reliable references from December 2020">Articles lacking reliable references from December 2020</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_June_2024" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from June 2024">Articles with unsourced statements from June 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_excerpts" title="Category:Articles with excerpts">Articles with excerpts</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_needing_additional_references_from_January_2019" title="Category:Articles needing additional references from January 2019">Articles needing additional references from January 2019</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_needing_additional_references" title="Category:All articles needing additional references">All articles needing additional references</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_needing_additional_references_from_February_2024" title="Category:Articles needing additional references from February 2024">Articles needing additional references from February 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_May_2023" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from May 2023">Articles with unsourced statements from May 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Arabic-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Arabic-language text">Articles containing Arabic-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_German-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing German-language text">Articles containing German-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_needing_additional_references_from_August_2021" title="Category:Articles needing additional references from August 2021">Articles needing additional references from August 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_displaying_short_descriptions_of_redirect_targets_via_Module:Annotated_link" title="Category:Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets via Module:Annotated link">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets via Module:Annotated link</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 26 January 2025, at 11:58<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Linguistics&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" lang="en" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><picture><source media="(min-width: 500px)" srcset="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" width="88" height="31"><img src="/w/resources/assets/mediawiki_compact.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="25" height="25" loading="lazy"></picture></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-header-container vector-sticky-header-container"> <div id="vector-sticky-header" class="vector-sticky-header"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-start"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-start vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" aria-hidden="true"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-sticky-header-search-toggle" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.vector-sticky-search-form.icon"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </button> </div> <div role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box"> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="vector-sticky-search-form" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia"> <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-sticky-header-toc vector-sticky-header-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-sticky-header-toc-label" for="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar-primary" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="mw-page-title-main">Linguistics</span></div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-end" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icons"> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-talk-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="talk-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbles mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbles"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-subject-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="subject-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-article mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-article"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-history-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="history-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-history mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-history"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only mw-watchlink" id="ca-watchstar-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="watch-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-star mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-star"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="wikitext-edit-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikiText mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-wikiText"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-ve-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-edit mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-edit"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-viewsource-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-protected-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-editLock mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-editLock"></span> <span></span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-buttons"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet mw-interlanguage-selector" id="p-lang-btn-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-language"></span> <span>202 languages</span> </button> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive" id="ca-addsection-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="addsection-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbleAdd-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbleAdd-progressive"></span> <span>Add topic</span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-end"> <div class="vector-user-links"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-5f46f78fdb-tx9jw","wgBackendResponseTime":145,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.912","walltime":"2.391","ppvisitednodes":{"value":11960,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":356147,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":5972,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":17,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":41,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":413843,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 2080.198 1 -total"," 38.85% 808.053 1 Template:Reflist"," 18.98% 394.797 53 Template:Cite_book"," 10.30% 214.328 24 Template:Annotated_link"," 7.54% 156.775 22 Template:Cite_journal"," 6.37% 132.585 1 Template:IAST"," 6.29% 130.846 1 Template:Transliteration"," 5.00% 103.991 1 Template:Linguistics"," 4.86% 101.171 1 Template:Sidebar_with_collapsible_lists"," 4.51% 93.713 6 Template:Navbox"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.275","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":21795009,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAkmajian,_AdrianDemers,_RichardFarmer,_AnnHarnish,_Robert2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAkmajian,_AdrianRichard_A._DemersAnn_K._FarmerRobert_M._Harnish2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAmsterdamska1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAndersonn.d.\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAntonsen,_Elmer_H.2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFArbib2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAriel2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAronoff,_MarkRees-Miller,_Janie2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAronoffFudemann.d.\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAustin2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBailey1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBaldi2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarbara_Seidlhofer2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBehrSha2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBenj2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBerns2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBloomfield1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCampbell1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChierchia,_GennaroSally_McConnell-Ginet2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChomsky1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChomsky2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCornishTamarizKirby2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCroft2008\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFCroft2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrystal1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrystal1990\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFDahl2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDaneš1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDerrida1967\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEades2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEvansGreen2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEveraertHuybregtsChomskyBerwick2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrancis2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFábregas2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGibbsColston1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHall2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHallidayJonathan_Webster2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHallidayMatthiessen2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHjelmslev1969\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHunston2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIbarretxe-Antuñano2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIsacCharles_Reiss2013\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFJensen2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKirby2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLabov1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLuuk2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacWhinney2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMariënManto2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMartinet1960\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcEnery2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcMahon1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcShaneNirenburg2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorpurgo_Davies1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNettle1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNichols1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNöth1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPanSha2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPennKiparski\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPleyerWinters2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFQuiles2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRens_Bod2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRichards,_I._A.1965\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFS.C._Vasu_(Tr.)1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSaussure\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchäfer2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSeuren,_Pieter_A._M.1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShahhoseiny2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShaozhong\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSinnemäkiDi_Garbo2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpolskyHult2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSzczegielniak\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTobin2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrask2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhitney1867\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZehentner2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZuckermann2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFde_Saussure1959\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 3,\n [\"About\"] = 1,\n [\"Anli\"] = 1,\n [\"Annotated link\"] = 24,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Better source needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation\"] = 2,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 53,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 21,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 12,\n [\"Communication studies\"] = 1,\n [\"Dead link\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col end\"] = 1,\n [\"Excerpt\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 2,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 4,\n [\"IAST\"] = 1,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 2,\n [\"Library resources box\"] = 1,\n [\"Linguistics\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 15,\n [\"More citations needed\"] = 1,\n [\"More citations needed section\"] = 1,\n [\"Nonverbal communication\"] = 1,\n [\"OEtymD\"] = 2,\n [\"Philosophy of language\"] = 1,\n [\"Portal\"] = 1,\n [\"Redirect\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Script\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 1,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Sister bar\"] = 1,\n [\"Social sciences\"] = 1,\n [\"Unreferenced section\"] = 1,\n [\"Use Oxford spelling\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","260","21.0"],["?","220","17.7"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpandedArgument","80","6.5"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","80","6.5"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","80","6.5"],["\u003Cmw.lua:694\u003E","80","6.5"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","60","4.8"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","60","4.8"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::sub","60","4.8"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::redirectTarget","40","3.2"],["[others]","220","17.7"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-5f46f78fdb-ntxpj","timestamp":"20250217153447","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Linguistics","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Linguistics","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q8162","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q8162","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-11-14T22:21:08Z","dateModified":"2025-01-26T11:58:12Z","headline":"scientific study of language"}</script> </body> </html>