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class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Great Famine (Ireland)</h1> <div class="tagline"></div> </div> <ul id="p-associated-pages" class="minerva__tab-container"> <li class="minerva__tab selected"> <a class="minerva__tab-text" href="/wiki/Great_Famine_(Ireland)" rel="" data-event-name="tabs.subject">Article</a> </li> <li class="minerva__tab "> <a class="minerva__tab-text" href="/wiki/Talk:Great_Famine_(Ireland)" rel="discussion" data-event-name="tabs.talk">Talk</a> </li> </ul> <nav class="page-actions-menu"> <ul id="p-views" class="page-actions-menu__list"> <li id="language-selector" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" href="#p-lang" data-mw="interface" data-event-name="menu.languages" title="Language" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet language-selector"> Language </a> </li> <li id="page-actions-watch" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" id="ca-watch" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Great+Famine+%28Ireland%29" data-event-name="menu.watch" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet menu__item--page-actions-watch"> Watch </a> </li> <li id="page-actions-edit" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" id="ca-edit" href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Famine_(Ireland)&action=edit" data-event-name="menu.edit" data-mw="interface" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet edit-page menu__item--page-actions-edit"> Edit </a> </li> </ul> </nav>  <div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="content"> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><script>function mfTempOpenSection(id){var block=document.getElementById("mf-section-"+id);block.className+=" open-block";block.previousSibling.className+=" open-block";}</script><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><section class="mf-section-0" id="mf-section-0"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Irish famine" and "Great Hunger" redirect here. For other famines in Ireland, see <a href="/wiki/Irish_famine_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Irish famine (disambiguation)">Irish famine (disambiguation)</a>. For the book written by <a href="/wiki/Cecil_Woodham-Smith" title="Cecil Woodham-Smith">Cecil Woodham-Smith</a>, see <a href="/wiki/The_Great_Hunger:_Ireland_1845%E2%80%931849" title="The Great Hunger: Ireland 1845–1849">The Great Hunger: Ireland 1845–1849</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style>The Great Famine, also known as the Great Hunger (<a href="/wiki/Irish_language" title="Irish language">Irish</a>: an Gorta Mór <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Irish" title="Help:IPA/Irish">[ənˠ ˈɡɔɾˠt̪ˠə ˈmˠoːɾˠ]</a>), the Famine and the Irish Potato Famine,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinealy19945-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Neill20091-2">[2]</a> was a period of mass <a href="/wiki/Starvation" title="Starvation">starvation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Disease" title="Disease">disease</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ireland" title="Ireland">Ireland</a> lasting from 1845 to 1852 that constituted a historical <a href="/wiki/Social_crisis" title="Social crisis">social crisis</a> and had a major impact on <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Ireland" title="Culture of Ireland">Irish society</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Ireland" title="History of Ireland">history</a> as a whole.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinealy1994xv-3">[3]</a> The most severely affected areas were in the western and southern parts of Ireland — where the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Irish_language#Nineteenth_and_twentieth_centuries" title="History of the Irish language">Irish language was dominant</a> — hence the period was contemporaneously known in Irish as an Drochshaol,<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> which literally translates to "the bad life" and loosely translates to "the hard times". The worst year of the famine was 1847, which became known as "Black '47".<a href="#cite_note-cuiv-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> The population of Ireland on the eve of the famine was about 8.5 million, by 1901 it was just 4.4 million.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> During the Great Hunger, roughly 1 million people died and more than 1 million more <a href="/wiki/Irish_diaspora" title="Irish diaspora">fled the country</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoss2002226-8">[8]</a> causing the country's population to fall by 20–25% (in some towns, populations fell as much as 67%) between 1841 and 1871.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinealy1994357-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-auto-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-irishcentral.com-11">[11]</a> Between 1845 and 1855, at least 2.1 million people left Ireland, primarily on <a href="/wiki/Packet_boat" title="Packet boat">packet ships</a> but also on <a href="/wiki/Steamboats" class="mw-redirect" title="Steamboats">steamboats</a> and <a href="/wiki/Barque" title="Barque">barques</a>—one of the greatest exoduses from a single island in history.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> <table class="infobox vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="text-align:center;background-color:#ededed;">Great Famine An Gorta Mór</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Skibbereen_by_James_Mahony,_1847.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Skibbereen_by_James_Mahony%2C_1847.JPG/240px-Skibbereen_by_James_Mahony%2C_1847.JPG" decoding="async" width="240" height="332" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Skibbereen_by_James_Mahony%2C_1847.JPG/360px-Skibbereen_by_James_Mahony%2C_1847.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/97/Skibbereen_by_James_Mahony%2C_1847.JPG 2x" data-file-width="405" data-file-height="560"></a><div class="infobox-caption">Scene at <a href="/wiki/Skibbereen" title="Skibbereen">Skibbereen</a> during the Great Famine by <a href="/wiki/County_Cork" title="County Cork">Cork</a> artist James Mahony, <a href="/wiki/The_Illustrated_London_News" title="The Illustrated London News">The Illustrated London News</a>, 1847</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Location</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Ireland" title="Ireland">Ireland</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Period</th><td class="infobox-data">1845–1852</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Total deaths</th><td class="infobox-data">1 million</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Causes</th><td class="infobox-data">Policy failure, <a href="/wiki/Phytophthora_infestans" title="Phytophthora infestans">potato blight</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Theories_of_famines" title="Theories of famines">Theory</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Corn_Laws" title="Corn Laws">Corn Laws</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Gregory" title="William Henry Gregory">Gregory clause</a>, <a href="/wiki/Encumbered_Estates%27_Court" title="Encumbered Estates' Court">Encumbered Estates' Court</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crime_and_Outrage_Bill_(Ireland)_1847" class="mw-redirect" title="Crime and Outrage Bill (Ireland) 1847">Crime and Outrage Bill (Ireland) 1847</a>, <a href="/wiki/Young_Irelander_Rebellion_of_1848" class="mw-redirect" title="Young Irelander Rebellion of 1848">Young Irelander Rebellion of 1848</a>, <a href="/wiki/Three_Fs" class="mw-redirect" title="Three Fs">Three Fs</a>, Poor Law Amendment Act</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Relief</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="#Charity">See below</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Effect on demographics</th><td class="infobox-data">Population fell by 20–25% due to death and emigration</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Consequences</th><td class="infobox-data">Permanent change in the country's demographic, political, and cultural landscape</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Website</th><td class="infobox-data">See <a href="/wiki/List_of_memorials_to_the_Great_Famine" title="List of memorials to the Great Famine">list of memorials to the Great Famine</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Irish_Famine_(1740%E2%80%931741)" title="Irish Famine (1740–1741)">Irish Famine (1740–1741)</a> (Bliain an Áir)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Succeeded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Irish_Famine_(1879)" title="Irish Famine (1879)">Irish Famine, 1879</a> (An Gorta Beag)</td></tr></tbody></table> The <a href="/wiki/Proximate_and_ultimate_causation" title="Proximate and ultimate causation">proximate cause</a> of the famine was the infection of <a href="/wiki/Potato" title="Potato">potato crops</a> by blight (<a href="/wiki/Phytophthora_infestans" title="Phytophthora infestans">Phytophthora infestans</a>)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C3%93_Gr%C3%A1da20067-14">[14]</a> <a href="/wiki/European_Potato_Failure" class="mw-redirect" title="European Potato Failure">throughout Europe</a> during the 1840s. Blight infection caused 100,000 deaths outside Ireland and influenced much of the unrest that culminated in European <a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">Revolutions of 1848</a>.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> Longer-term reasons for the massive impact of this particular famine included the system of <a href="/wiki/Absentee_landlordism" class="mw-redirect" title="Absentee landlordism">absentee landlordism</a>&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(September_2018)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_16-0' class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaxton1997%5B%5BCategory:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_September_2018%5D%5D<sup_class=%22noprint_Inline-Template_%22_style=%22white-space:nowrap;%22>&#91;%5B%5BWikipedia:Citing_sources%7C<span_title=%22This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(September_2018)%22>page&nbsp;needed%5D%5D&#93;-16">[16]</a>&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(September_2018)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_17-0' class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELitton1994%5B%5BCategory:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_September_2018%5D%5D<sup_class=%22noprint_Inline-Template_%22_style=%22white-space:nowrap;%22>&#91;%5B%5BWikipedia:Citing_sources%7C<span_title=%22This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(September_2018)%22>page&nbsp;needed%5D%5D&#93;-17">[17]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Monoculture" title="Monoculture">single-crop</a> dependence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEP%C3%B3irt%C3%A9ir199519%E2%80%9320-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-ecologyandsociety.org-19">[19]</a> Initial limited but constructive government actions to alleviate famine distress were ended by a new <a href="/wiki/Whigs_(British_political_party)" title="Whigs (British political party)">Whig</a> administration in London, which pursued a <a href="/wiki/Laissez-faire" title="Laissez-faire">laissez-faire</a> economic doctrine, but also because some in power believed in <a href="/wiki/Divine_providence" title="Divine providence">divine providence</a> or that the Irish lacked <a href="/wiki/Moral_character" title="Moral character">moral character</a>,<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> with aid only resuming to some degree later. Large amounts of food were exported from Ireland during the famine and the refusal of London to bar such exports, as had been done on previous occasions, was an immediate and continuing source of controversy, contributing to <a href="/wiki/Anti-British_sentiment" title="Anti-British sentiment">anti-British sentiment</a> and the campaign for independence. Additionally, the famine indirectly resulted in tens of thousands of households being <a href="/wiki/Eviction" title="Eviction">evicted</a>, exacerbated by a provision forbidding access to <a href="/wiki/Workhouse" title="Workhouse">workhouse</a> aid while in possession of more than one-quarter acre of land. The famine was a defining moment in the history of Ireland,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinealy1994xv-3">[3]</a> which was part of the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland</a> from <a href="/wiki/Acts_of_Union_1800" title="Acts of Union 1800">1801</a> to <a href="/wiki/Irish_Free_State" title="Irish Free State">1922</a>. The famine and its effects permanently changed the island's demographic, political, and cultural landscape, producing an estimated 2 million refugees and spurring <a href="/wiki/Irish_population_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Irish population analysis">a century-long population decline</a>.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> For both the <a href="/wiki/Irish_people" title="Irish people">native Irish</a> and those in the resulting diaspora, the famine entered <a href="/wiki/Folk_memory" title="Folk memory">folk memory</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinealy1994342-26">[26]</a> The strained relations between many Irish people and the then ruling British government worsened further because of the famine, heightening ethnic and sectarian tensions and boosting <a href="/wiki/Irish_nationalism" title="Irish nationalism">nationalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Irish_republicanism" title="Irish republicanism">republicanism</a> both in Ireland and among Irish emigrants around the world. English documentary maker <a href="/wiki/John_Percival_(TV_producer)" title="John Percival (TV producer)">John Percival</a> said that the famine "became part of the long story of betrayal and exploitation which led to the growing movement in Ireland for independence." Scholar Kirby Miller makes the same point.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> Debate exists regarding nomenclature for the event, whether to use the term "Famine", "Potato Famine" or "Great Hunger", the last of which some believe most accurately captures the complicated history of the period.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> The potato blight returned to Europe in 1879 but, by this time, the <a href="/wiki/Land_War" title="Land War">Land War</a> (one of the largest <a href="/wiki/Agrarianism" title="Agrarianism">agrarian</a> movements to take place in 19th-century Europe) had begun in Ireland.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge.org-30">[30]</a> The movement, organized by the <a href="/wiki/Land_League" class="mw-redirect" title="Land League">Land League</a>, continued the political campaign for the <a href="/wiki/Three_Fs" class="mw-redirect" title="Three Fs">Three Fs</a> which was issued in 1850 by the <a href="/wiki/Tenant_Right_League" title="Tenant Right League">Tenant Right League</a> during the Great Famine. When the potato blight returned to Ireland in the <a href="/wiki/Irish_Famine_(1879)" title="Irish Famine (1879)">1879 famine</a>, the League boycotted "notorious landlords" and its members physically blocked the evictions of farmers; the consequent reduction in homelessness and <a href="/wiki/House_demolition#Counter-insurgency_and_collective_punishment" class="mw-redirect" title="House demolition">house demolition</a> resulted in a drastic reduction in the number of deaths.<a href="#cite_note-muse.jhu.edu-31">[31]</a> <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Causes_and_contributing_factors">1 Causes and contributing factors</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#Landlords_and_tenants">1.1 Landlords and tenants</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Tenants_and_subdivisions">1.2 Tenants and subdivisions</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Potato_dependency">1.3 Potato dependency</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Blight_in_Ireland">1.4 Blight in Ireland</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6"><a href="#Reaction_in_Ireland">2 Reaction in Ireland</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><a href="#Government_response">3 Government response</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Government_responses_to_previous_food_shortages">3.1 Government responses to previous food shortages</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Tory_government">3.2 Tory government</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Whig_government">3.3 Whig government</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Military_response">3.4 Military response</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><a href="#Food_exports">4 Food exports</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><a href="#Charity">5 Charity</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-14"><a href="#Eviction">6 Eviction</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-15"><a href="#Emigration">7 Emigration</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-16"><a href="#Death_toll">8 Death toll</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17"><a href="#After_the_famine">9 After the famine</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-18"><a href="#Analysis_of_the_government's_role">10 Analysis of the government's role</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="#Contemporary_analysis">10.1 Contemporary analysis</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><a href="#Historical_analysis">10.2 Historical analysis</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-21"><a href="#Position_of_the_British_government">10.3 Position of the British government</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22"><a href="#Genocide_question">10.4 Genocide question</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-23"><a href="#Memorials">11 Memorials</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-24"><a href="#See_also">12 See also</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-25"><a href="#References">13 References</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-26"><a href="#External_links">14 External links</a></li> </ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><h2 id="Causes_and_contributing_factors">Causes and contributing factors</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Famine_(Ireland)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Causes and contributing factors" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Phytophtora_infestans-effects.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Phytophtora_infestans-effects.jpg/220px-Phytophtora_infestans-effects.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2790" data-file-height="2003"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 158px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Phytophtora_infestans-effects.jpg/220px-Phytophtora_infestans-effects.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="158" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Phytophtora_infestans-effects.jpg/330px-Phytophtora_infestans-effects.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Phytophtora_infestans-effects.jpg/440px-Phytophtora_infestans-effects.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Potato" title="Potato">potato</a> infected with <a href="/wiki/Phytophthora_infestans" title="Phytophthora infestans">late blight</a>, showing typical rot symptoms</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_the_Great_Famine" title="Chronology of the Great Famine">Chronology of the Great Famine</a></div> Ireland was brought into the United Kingdom in January 1801 following the passage of the <a href="/wiki/Acts_of_Union_1800" title="Acts of Union 1800">Acts of Union</a>. <a href="/wiki/Executive_(government)" title="Executive (government)">Executive power</a> lay in the hands of the <a href="/wiki/Lord_Lieutenant_of_Ireland" title="Lord Lieutenant of Ireland">Lord Lieutenant of Ireland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chief_Secretary_for_Ireland" title="Chief Secretary for Ireland">Chief Secretary for Ireland</a>, who were appointed by the British government. Ireland sent 105 members of parliament to the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="House of Commons of the United Kingdom">House of Commons of the United Kingdom</a>, and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Irish_representative_peers" title="List of Irish representative peers">Irish representative peers</a> elected 28 of their own number to sit for life in the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Lords" title="House of Lords">House of Lords</a>. Between 1832 and 1859, 70% of Irish representatives were landowners or the sons of landowners.&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(September_2018)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_32-0' class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEP%C3%B3irt%C3%A9ir1995%5B%5BCategory:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_September_2018%5D%5D<sup_class=%22noprint_Inline-Template_%22_style=%22white-space:nowrap;%22>&#91;%5B%5BWikipedia:Citing_sources%7C<span_title=%22This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(September_2018)%22>page&nbsp;needed%5D%5D&#93;-32">[32]</a> In the 40 years that followed the union, successive British governments grappled with the problems of governing a country which had, as <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Disraeli" title="Benjamin Disraeli">Benjamin Disraeli</a> stated in 1844, "a starving population, an absentee aristocracy, an alien <a href="/wiki/Church_of_Ireland" title="Church of Ireland">established Protestant church</a>, and in addition, the weakest executive in the world".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlake1967179-33">[33]</a> One historian calculated that, between 1801 and 1845, there had been 114 commissions and 61 special committees inquiring into the state of Ireland, and that "without exception their findings prophesied disaster; Ireland was on the verge of starvation, her population rapidly increasing, three-quarters of her labourers unemployed, housing conditions appalling and the standard of living unbelievably low".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodham-Smith199136-34">[34]</a> Lectures printed in 1847 by <a href="/wiki/John_Hughes_(archbishop_of_New_York)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Hughes (archbishop of New York)">John Hughes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_New_York" title="Roman Catholic Archdiocese of New York">Bishop of New York</a>, are a contemporary exploration into the antecedent causes, particularly the political climate, in which the Irish famine occurred.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Landlords_and_tenants">Landlords and tenants</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Famine_(Ireland)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Landlords and tenants" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The "middleman system" for managing <a href="/wiki/Landed_property" title="Landed property">landed property</a> was introduced in the 18th century. Rent collection was left in the hands of the landlords' agents, or middlemen. This assured the landlord of a regular income and relieved them of direct responsibility while leaving tenants open to exploitation by the middlemen.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodham-Smith199122-37">[37]</a> The ability of middlemen was measured by the rent income they could contrive to extract from tenants.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodham-Smith199122-37">[37]</a> Middlemen leased large tracts of land from the landlords on long leases with fixed rents and sublet to tenants, keeping any money raised in excess to the rent paid to the landlord. This system, coupled with minimal oversight of the middlemen, incentivised harsh exploitation of tenants. Middlemen would split a holding into smaller and smaller parcels so as to increase the amount of rent they could obtain. Tenants could be evicted for reasons such as non-payment of rents (which were high), or a landlord's decision to raise sheep instead of <a href="/wiki/Cereal" title="Cereal">grain crops</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cotter_(farmer)" title="Cotter (farmer)">Cottiers</a> paid their rent by working for the landlord while the spalpeens (itinerant labourers) paid for short-term leases through temporary day work.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELitton20069%E2%80%9310-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> A majority of Catholics, who constituted 80% of the Irish population, lived in conditions of <a href="/wiki/Poverty" title="Poverty">poverty</a> and insecurity. At the top of the social hierarchy was the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Ascendancy" title="Protestant Ascendancy">Ascendancy class</a>, composed of English and <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Irish_people" title="Anglo-Irish people">Anglo-Irish</a> families who owned most of the land and held more or less unchecked power over their tenants. Some of their estates were vast; for example, the <a href="/wiki/Earl_of_Lucan" title="Earl of Lucan">Earl of Lucan</a> owned more than 60,000 acres (240 km2).<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> Many of these landowners lived in England and functioned as <a href="/wiki/Absentee_landlord" title="Absentee landlord">absentee landlords</a>. The rent revenue—collected from impoverished tenants who were paid minimal wages to raise crops and livestock for export&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(September_2018)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_16-1' class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaxton1997%5B%5BCategory:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_September_2018%5D%5D<sup_class=%22noprint_Inline-Template_%22_style=%22white-space:nowrap;%22>&#91;%5B%5BWikipedia:Citing_sources%7C<span_title=%22This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(September_2018)%22>page&nbsp;needed%5D%5D&#93;-16">[16]</a>—was mostly sent to England.&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(September_2018)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_17-1' class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELitton1994%5B%5BCategory:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_September_2018%5D%5D<sup_class=%22noprint_Inline-Template_%22_style=%22white-space:nowrap;%22>&#91;%5B%5BWikipedia:Citing_sources%7C<span_title=%22This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(September_2018)%22>page&nbsp;needed%5D%5D&#93;-17">[17]</a> In 1800, the <a href="/wiki/John_FitzGibbon,_1st_Earl_of_Clare" title="John FitzGibbon, 1st Earl of Clare">1st Earl of Clare</a> observed of landlords that "confiscation is their common title".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodham-Smith199121-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> According to the historian <a href="/wiki/Cecil_Woodham-Smith" title="Cecil Woodham-Smith">Cecil Woodham-Smith</a>, landlords regarded the land as a source of income, from which as much as possible was to be extracted. With the peasantry "brooding over their discontent in sullen indignation" (in the words of the Earl of Clare), the landlords largely viewed the countryside as a hostile place in which to live. Some landlords visited their property only once or twice in a lifetime, if ever.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodham-Smith199121-41">[41]</a> The rents from Ireland were generally spent elsewhere; an estimated £6,000,000 was remitted out of Ireland in 1842.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodham-Smith199121-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-43">[a]</a> In 1843, the British Government recognized that the land management system in Ireland was the foundational cause of disaffection in the country. The Prime Minister established a <a href="/wiki/Royal_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Commission">Royal Commission</a>, chaired by the <a href="/wiki/William_Courtenay,_10th_Earl_of_Devon" title="William Courtenay, 10th Earl of Devon">Earl of Devon</a> (<a href="/wiki/Devon_Commission" title="Devon Commission">Devon Commission</a>), to enquire into the laws regarding the occupation of land. Irish politician <a href="/wiki/Daniel_O%27Connell" title="Daniel O'Connell">Daniel O'Connell</a> described this commission as "perfectly one-sided", being composed of landlords with no tenant representation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodham-Smith199120%E2%80%9321-44">[43]</a> In February 1845, Devon reported: <blockquote>It would be impossible adequately to describe the privations which they [the Irish labourer and his family] habitually and silently endure ... in many districts their only food is the potato, their only beverage water ... their cabins are seldom a protection against the weather ... a bed or a blanket is a rare luxury ... and nearly in all their pig and a manure heap constitute their only property.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodham-Smith199124-45">[44]</a></blockquote> The Commissioners concluded they could not "forbear expressing our strong sense of the patient endurance which the labouring classes have exhibited under sufferings greater, we believe, than the people of any other country in Europe have to sustain".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodham-Smith199124-45">[44]</a> The Commission stated that bad relations between landlord and tenant were principally responsible for this suffering. Landlords were described in evidence before the commission as "land sharks", "bloodsuckers", and "the most oppressive species of tyrant that ever lent assistance to the destruction of a country".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodham-Smith199122-37">[37]</a> As any improvement made on a holding by a tenant became the property of the landlord when the lease expired or was terminated, the incentive to make improvements was limited. Most tenants had no security of tenure on the land; as tenants "at will", they could be turned out whenever the landlord chose. The only exception to this arrangement was in <a href="/wiki/Ulster" title="Ulster">Ulster</a> where, under a practice known as <a href="/wiki/Custom_of_Ulster" class="mw-redirect" title="Custom of Ulster">"tenant right"</a>, a tenant was compensated for any improvement they made to their holding. According to Woodham-Smith, the commission stated that "the superior prosperity and tranquillity of Ulster, compared with the rest of Ireland, were due to tenant right".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodham-Smith199122-37">[37]</a> Landlords in Ireland often used their powers without <a href="/wiki/Compunction" class="mw-redirect" title="Compunction">compunction</a>, and tenants lived in dread of them. Woodham-Smith writes that, in these circumstances, "industry and enterprise were extinguished and a peasantry created which was one of the most destitute in Europe".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodham-Smith199124-45">[44]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tenants_and_subdivisions">Tenants and subdivisions</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Famine_(Ireland)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Tenants and subdivisions" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Irish_farm_subdivision" title="Irish farm subdivision">Irish farm subdivision</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Irish_family_from_Carraroe,_County_Galway,_during_the_Famine.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Irish_family_from_Carraroe%2C_County_Galway%2C_during_the_Famine.jpg/220px-Irish_family_from_Carraroe%2C_County_Galway%2C_during_the_Famine.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="338"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 149px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Irish_family_from_Carraroe%2C_County_Galway%2C_during_the_Famine.jpg/220px-Irish_family_from_Carraroe%2C_County_Galway%2C_during_the_Famine.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="149" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Irish_family_from_Carraroe%2C_County_Galway%2C_during_the_Famine.jpg/330px-Irish_family_from_Carraroe%2C_County_Galway%2C_during_the_Famine.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Irish_family_from_Carraroe%2C_County_Galway%2C_during_the_Famine.jpg/440px-Irish_family_from_Carraroe%2C_County_Galway%2C_during_the_Famine.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>A starving Irish family from <a href="/wiki/Carraroe" title="Carraroe">Carraroe</a>, <a href="/wiki/County_Galway" title="County Galway">County Galway</a>, during the Great Famine (<a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Ireland" title="National Library of Ireland">National Library of Ireland</a>)</figcaption></figure> Immense <a href="/wiki/Historical_population_of_Ireland" title="Historical population of Ireland">population growth</a>, from about 2 million in 1700 to 8 million by the time of the Great Famine, led to increased division of holdings and a consequent reduction in their average size. By 1845, 24% of all Irish tenant farms were of 0.4–2 hectares (1–5 acres) in size, while 40% were of 2–6 hectares (5–15 acres). Holdings were so small that no crop other than potatoes would suffice to feed a family. Shortly before the famine, the British government reported that poverty was so widespread that one-third of all Irish small holdings could not support the tenant families after rent was paid; the families survived only by earnings as seasonal migrant labour in England and Scotland.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKee199315-46">[45]</a> Following the famine, reforms were implemented making it illegal to further divide land holdings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUrisUris200315-47">[46]</a> The <a href="/wiki/1841_census_of_Ireland" title="1841 census of Ireland">1841 census</a> showed a population of just over eight million. Two-thirds of people depended on agriculture for their survival but rarely received a working wage. They had to work for their landlords in return for a small patch of land to farm. This forced Ireland's peasantry to practice continuous <a href="/wiki/Monoculture" title="Monoculture">monoculture</a>, as the potato was the only crop that could meet nutritional needs.&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(September_2018)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_16-2' class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaxton1997%5B%5BCategory:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_September_2018%5D%5D<sup_class=%22noprint_Inline-Template_%22_style=%22white-space:nowrap;%22>&#91;%5B%5BWikipedia:Citing_sources%7C<span_title=%22This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(September_2018)%22>page&nbsp;needed%5D%5D&#93;-16">[16]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Potato_dependency">Potato dependency</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Famine_(Ireland)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Potato dependency" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:An_Irish_Peasant_Family_Discovering_the_Blight_of_their_Store_by_Daniel_MacDonald.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/An_Irish_Peasant_Family_Discovering_the_Blight_of_their_Store_by_Daniel_MacDonald.jpg/300px-An_Irish_Peasant_Family_Discovering_the_Blight_of_their_Store_by_Daniel_MacDonald.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="235" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="470"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 300px;height: 235px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/An_Irish_Peasant_Family_Discovering_the_Blight_of_their_Store_by_Daniel_MacDonald.jpg/300px-An_Irish_Peasant_Family_Discovering_the_Blight_of_their_Store_by_Daniel_MacDonald.jpg" data-width="300" data-height="235" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/An_Irish_Peasant_Family_Discovering_the_Blight_of_their_Store_by_Daniel_MacDonald.jpg/450px-An_Irish_Peasant_Family_Discovering_the_Blight_of_their_Store_by_Daniel_MacDonald.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/54/An_Irish_Peasant_Family_Discovering_the_Blight_of_their_Store_by_Daniel_MacDonald.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>An Irish Peasant Family Discovering the Blight of their Store by Cork artist Daniel MacDonald, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1847</figcaption></figure> The potato was introduced in Ireland as a garden crop of the <a href="/wiki/Gentry" title="Gentry">gentry</a>. By the late 17th century, it had become widespread as a supplementary food; their main diet was still based on butter, milk, and grain products.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEP%C3%B3irt%C3%A9ir199519%E2%80%9320-18">[18]</a> The Irish economy grew between 1760 and 1815 due to infrastructure expansion and the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a> (1805–1815), which had increased the demand for food in Britain. Tillage increased to such an extent that there was only a small amount of land available to small farmers to feed themselves. The potato was adopted as a primary food source because of its quick growth in a comparatively small space.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C3%93_Gr%C3%A1da1993138%E2%80%93144-48">[47]</a> By 1800, the potato had become a <a href="/wiki/Staple_food" title="Staple food">staple food</a> for one in three Irish people,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C3%93_Gr%C3%A1da1993138%E2%80%93144-48">[47]</a> especially in winter. It eventually became a staple year-round for farmers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEP%C3%B3irt%C3%A9ir199520-49">[48]</a> A disproportionate share of the potatoes grown in Ireland were the <a href="/wiki/Irish_Lumper" title="Irish Lumper">Irish Lumper</a>,<a href="#cite_note-ecologyandsociety.org-19">[19]</a> creating a lack of <a href="/wiki/Genetic_variability" title="Genetic variability">genetic variability</a> among potato plants, which increased vulnerability to disease.<a href="#cite_note-50">[49]</a> Potatoes were essential to the expansion of the <a href="/wiki/Cottier_(farmer)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cottier (farmer)">cottier system</a>; they supported an extremely cheap workforce, but at the cost of lower living standards. For the labourer, "a potato wage" shaped the expanding agrarian economy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEP%C3%B3irt%C3%A9ir199520-49">[48]</a> The potato was also used extensively as a fodder crop for livestock immediately prior to the famine. Approximately 33% of production, amounting to 5,000,000 <a href="/wiki/Short_ton" title="Short ton">short tons</a> (4,500,000 <a href="/wiki/Tonne" title="Tonne">t</a>), was typically used in this way.<a href="#cite_note-51">[50]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Blight_in_Ireland">Blight in Ireland</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Famine_(Ireland)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Blight in Ireland" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Suggested_paths_of_migration_and_diversification_of_P._infestans_lineages_HERB-1_and_US-1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Suggested_paths_of_migration_and_diversification_of_P._infestans_lineages_HERB-1_and_US-1.jpg/220px-Suggested_paths_of_migration_and_diversification_of_P._infestans_lineages_HERB-1_and_US-1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="125" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2790" data-file-height="1582"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 125px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Suggested_paths_of_migration_and_diversification_of_P._infestans_lineages_HERB-1_and_US-1.jpg/220px-Suggested_paths_of_migration_and_diversification_of_P._infestans_lineages_HERB-1_and_US-1.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="125" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Suggested_paths_of_migration_and_diversification_of_P._infestans_lineages_HERB-1_and_US-1.jpg/330px-Suggested_paths_of_migration_and_diversification_of_P._infestans_lineages_HERB-1_and_US-1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Suggested_paths_of_migration_and_diversification_of_P._infestans_lineages_HERB-1_and_US-1.jpg/440px-Suggested_paths_of_migration_and_diversification_of_P._infestans_lineages_HERB-1_and_US-1.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Suggested paths of migration and diversification of P. infestans lineages HERB-1 and US-1</figcaption></figure> Prior to the arrival of <a href="/wiki/Phytophthora_infestans" title="Phytophthora infestans">Phytophthora infestans</a>, commonly known as "blight", only two main potato plant diseases had been discovered.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonnelly200540-52">[51]</a> One was called "dry rot" or "taint", and the other was a virus known popularly as "curl".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonnelly200540-52">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinealy199432%E2%80%9333-53">[52]</a> Phytophthora infestans is an <a href="/wiki/Oomycete" title="Oomycete">oomycete</a> (a variety of parasitic, non-photosynthetic organisms closely related to <a href="/wiki/Brown_algae" title="Brown algae">brown algae</a>, and not a fungus).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPaddock1992197%E2%80%93222-54">[53]</a> In 1851, the Census of Ireland Commissioners recorded 24 <a href="/wiki/Harvest_failure" class="mw-redirect" title="Harvest failure">failures</a> of the potato crop going back to 1728, of varying severity. General crop failures, through disease or frost, were recorded in 1739, 1740, 1770, 1800, and 1807. In 1821 and 1822, the potato crop failed in <a href="/wiki/Munster" title="Munster">Munster</a> and <a href="/wiki/Connacht" title="Connacht">Connaught</a>. In 1830 and 1831, counties <a href="/wiki/County_Mayo" title="County Mayo">Mayo</a>, <a href="/wiki/County_Donegal" title="County Donegal">Donegal</a>, and <a href="/wiki/County_Galway" title="County Galway">Galway</a> suffered likewise. In 1832, 1833, 1834, and 1836, dry rot and curl caused serious losses, and in 1835 the potato failed in Ulster. Widespread failures throughout Ireland occurred in 1836, 1837, 1839, 1841, and 1844. According to Woodham-Smith, "the unreliability of the potato was an accepted fact in Ireland".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodham-Smith199138-55">[54]</a> Experts are still unsure of how and when blight arrived in Europe; it almost certainly was not present prior to 1842, and probably arrived in 1844.<a href="#cite_note-Bourke-56">[55]</a> The origin of the pathogen has been traced to the <a href="/wiki/Toluca_Valley" title="Toluca Valley">Toluca Valley</a> in Mexico,<a href="#cite_note-57">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-58">[57]</a> whence it spread within North America and then to Europe.<a href="#cite_note-Bourke-56">[55]</a> The 1845–1846 blight was caused by the HERB-1 strain of the blight.<a href="#cite_note-59">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-60">[59]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Potatoes_Production_Great_Famine_en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Potatoes_Production_Great_Famine_en.svg/290px-Potatoes_Production_Great_Famine_en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="189" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1179" data-file-height="770"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 290px;height: 189px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Potatoes_Production_Great_Famine_en.svg/290px-Potatoes_Production_Great_Famine_en.svg.png" data-width="290" data-height="189" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Potatoes_Production_Great_Famine_en.svg/435px-Potatoes_Production_Great_Famine_en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Potatoes_Production_Great_Famine_en.svg/580px-Potatoes_Production_Great_Famine_en.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Potato production during the Great Famine.<a href="#cite_note-61">[60]</a> Note: years 1844, 1845, 1846, and 1848 are extrapolated.</figcaption></figure> In 1844, Irish newspapers carried reports concerning a disease that had attacked the potato crops in America for two years.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinealy199431-62">[61]</a> In 1843 and 1844, blight largely destroyed the potato crops in the Eastern United States. Ships from <a href="/wiki/Baltimore" title="Baltimore">Baltimore</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a>, or <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a> could have carried diseased potatoes from these areas to European ports.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonnelly200541-63">[62]</a> American plant pathologist William C. Paddock<a href="#cite_note-64">[63]</a> posited that the blight was transported via potatoes being carried to feed passengers on <a href="/wiki/Clipper_ship" class="mw-redirect" title="Clipper ship">clipper ships</a> sailing from America to Ireland.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPaddock1992197%E2%80%93222-54">[53]</a> Once introduced in Ireland and Europe, blight spread rapidly. By mid-August 1845, it had reached much of northern and central Europe; Belgium, The Netherlands, northern France, and southern England had all already been affected.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonnelly200542-65">[64]</a> On 16 August 1845, <a href="/wiki/The_Gardeners%27_Chronicle" title="The Gardeners' Chronicle">The Gardeners' Chronicle and Horticultural Gazette</a> reported "a blight of unusual character" on the <a href="/wiki/Isle_of_Wight" title="Isle of Wight">Isle of Wight</a>. A week later, on 23 August, it reported that "A fearful malady has broken out among the potato crop ... In Belgium the fields are said to be completely desolated. There is hardly a sound sample in <a href="/wiki/Covent_Garden" title="Covent Garden">Covent Garden market</a> ... As for cure for this distemper, there is none."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodham-Smith199140-66">[65]</a> These reports were extensively covered in Irish newspapers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinealy199432-67">[66]</a> On 11 September, the <a href="/wiki/Freeman%27s_Journal" title="Freeman's Journal">Freeman's Journal</a> reported on "the appearance of what is called 'cholera' in potatoes in Ireland, especially in the north".<a href="#cite_note-68">[67]</a> On 13 September,<a href="#cite_note-69">[fn 1]</a> The Gardeners' Chronicle announced: "We stop the Press with very great regret to announce that the potato Murrain has unequivocally declared itself in Ireland."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodham-Smith199140-66">[65]</a> Nevertheless, the British government remained optimistic over the next few weeks, as it received conflicting reports. Only when the crop was harvested in October did the scale of destruction become apparent.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodham-Smith199140%E2%80%9341,_43-70">[68]</a> Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Robert_Peel" title="Robert Peel">Sir Robert Peel</a> wrote to <a href="/wiki/Sir_James_Graham,_2nd_Baronet" title="Sir James Graham, 2nd Baronet">Sir James Graham</a> in mid-October that he found the reports "very alarming", but allayed his fears by claiming that there was "always a tendency to exaggeration in Irish news".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodham-Smith199141%E2%80%9342-71">[69]</a> Crop loss in 1845 has been estimated at anywhere from one-third<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C3%93_Gr%C3%A1da20067-14">[14]</a> to one-half of cultivated acreage.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinealy199432-67">[66]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Mansion_House_and_Guildhall_Meetings" title="Mansion House and Guildhall Meetings">Mansion House Committee</a> in <a href="/wiki/Dublin" title="Dublin">Dublin</a>, to which hundreds of letters were directed from all over Ireland, claimed on 19 November 1845 to have ascertained beyond the shadow of a doubt that "considerably more than one-third of the entire of the potato crop ... has been already destroyed".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonnelly200542-65">[64]</a> In 1846, three-quarters of the harvest was lost to blight.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedyEllCrawfordClarkson199969-72">[70]</a> By December, a third of a million destitute people were employed in public works.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoss2002311-73">[71]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Cormac_%C3%93_Gr%C3%A1da" title="Cormac Ó Gráda">Cormac Ó Gráda</a>, the first attack of potato blight caused considerable hardship in rural Ireland from the autumn of 1846, when the first deaths from starvation were recorded.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C3%93_Gr%C3%A1da20069-74">[72]</a> Seed potatoes were scarce in 1847. Few had been sown, so, despite average yields, hunger continued. 1848 yields were only two-thirds of normal. Since over three million Irish people were totally dependent on potatoes for food, hunger and famine were widespread.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedyEllCrawfordClarkson199969-72">[70]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><h2 id="Reaction_in_Ireland">Reaction in Ireland</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Famine_(Ireland)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Reaction in Ireland" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> The <a href="/wiki/Corporation_of_Dublin" class="mw-redirect" title="Corporation of Dublin">Corporation of Dublin</a> sent a memorial to the Queen, "praying her" to call Parliament together early (Parliament was at this time <a href="/wiki/Legislative_session" title="Legislative session">prorogued</a>), and to recommend the requisition of some public money for public works, especially railways in Ireland. The Town Council of <a href="/wiki/Belfast" title="Belfast">Belfast</a> met and made similar suggestions, but neither body asked for charity, according to <a href="/wiki/John_Mitchel" title="John Mitchel">John Mitchel</a>, one of the leading Repealers.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In early November 1845, a deputation from the citizens of Dublin, including the <a href="/wiki/Augustus_FitzGerald,_3rd_Duke_of_Leinster" title="Augustus FitzGerald, 3rd Duke of Leinster">Duke of Leinster</a>, <a href="/wiki/Valentine_Lawless,_2nd_Baron_Cloncurry" title="Valentine Lawless, 2nd Baron Cloncurry">Lord Cloncurry</a>, Daniel O'Connell and the <a href="/wiki/Lord_Mayor_of_Dublin" title="Lord Mayor of Dublin">Lord Mayor</a>, went to the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, <a href="/wiki/William_%C3%A0_Court,_1st_Baron_Heytesbury" title="William à Court, 1st Baron Heytesbury">Lord Heytesbury</a> to discuss the issue. They offered suggestions such as opening the ports to foreign corn, stopping distillation from grain, prohibiting the export of foodstuffs, and providing employment through public works.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodham-Smith199148%E2%80%9349-75">[73]</a> Lord Heytesbury urged them not to be alarmed, that they "were premature", that scientists were enquiring into all those matters,<a href="#cite_note-77">[fn 2]</a> and that the Inspectors of Constabulary and Stipendiary Magistrates were charged with making constant reports from their districts, and there was no "immediate pressure on the market".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMitchel200594%E2%80%9396-78">[75]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] On 8 December 1845, Daniel O'Connell, head of the <a href="/wiki/Repeal_Association" title="Repeal Association">Repeal Association</a>, proposed several remedies to the pending disaster. One of the first things he suggested was the introduction of <a href="/wiki/Tenant-Right" class="mw-redirect" title="Tenant-Right">Tenant-Right</a> as practised in Ulster, giving the landlord a fair rent for his land, but giving the tenant compensation for any money he might have laid out on the land in permanent improvements.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMitchel200596-79">[76]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] O'Connell noted actions taken by the Belgian legislature during the same season, as they had also been hit by blight: shutting their ports against the export of provisions and opening them to imports. He suggested that, if Ireland had a domestic Parliament, the ports would be thrown open and the abundant crops raised in Ireland would be kept for the people of Ireland, as the Dublin parliament had done during the food shortages of the 1780s. O'Connell maintained that only an <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Ireland" title="Parliament of Ireland">Irish parliament</a> would provide both food and employment for the people. He said that repeal of the <a href="/wiki/Act_of_Union_1800" class="mw-redirect" title="Act of Union 1800">Act of Union</a> was a necessity and Ireland's only hope.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMitchel200596-79">[76]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] Mitchel later wrote one of the first widely circulated tracts on the famine, The Last Conquest of Ireland (Perhaps), published in 1861. It proposed that British actions during the famine and their treatment of the Irish were a deliberate effort at genocide. It contained a sentence that has since become famous: "The Almighty, indeed, sent the potato blight, but the English created the Famine."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDuffy2007312-80">[77]</a> Mitchel was charged with <a href="/wiki/Sedition" title="Sedition">sedition</a> because of his writings, but this charge was dropped. He was convicted by a <a href="/wiki/Packed_jury" class="mw-redirect" title="Packed jury">packed jury</a> under the newly enacted <a href="/wiki/Treason_Felony_Act_1848" title="Treason Felony Act 1848">Treason Felony Act</a> and sentenced to 14 years <a href="/wiki/Penal_transportation" title="Penal transportation">transportation</a> to <a href="/wiki/Bermuda" title="Bermuda">Bermuda</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDuffy2007323-81">[78]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Charles_Gavan_Duffy_(Australian_politician)" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Gavan Duffy (Australian politician)">Charles Gavan Duffy</a>, The Nation insisted that the proper remedy, retaining in the country the food raised by her people until the people were fed,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDuffy1888277%E2%80%93278-82">[79]</a> was one which the rest of Europe had adopted, and one which even the parliaments of <a href="/wiki/The_Pale" title="The Pale">the Pale</a> (i.e., before the union with Great Britain in 1801) had adopted in periods of distress. Contemporaneously, as found in letters from the period and in particular later oral memory, the name for the event is in <a href="/wiki/Irish_language" title="Irish language">Irish</a>: An Drochshaol, though with the earlier <a href="/wiki/Irish_language#Orthography" title="Irish language">spelling standard of the era</a>, which was <a href="/wiki/Gaelic_type" title="Gaelic type">Gaelic script</a>, it is found written as in Droċ-Ṡaoġal.<a href="#cite_note-83">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-84">[81]</a> In the modern era, this name, while loosely translated as "the hard-time", is always denoted with a capital letter to express its specific historic meaning.<a href="#cite_note-85">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-cuiv-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-86">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-87">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-88">[85]</a> The period of the potato blight in Ireland from 1845 to 1851 was full of political confrontation.&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(September_2023)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_89-0' class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEP%C3%B3irt%C3%A9ir1995%5B%5BCategory:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_September_2023%5D%5D<sup_class=%22noprint_Inline-Template_%22_style=%22white-space:nowrap;%22>&#91;%5B%5BWikipedia:Citing_sources%7C<span_title=%22This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(September_2023)%22>page&nbsp;needed%5D%5D&#93;-89">[86]</a> A more radical <a href="/wiki/Young_Ireland" title="Young Ireland">Young Ireland</a> group seceded from the Repeal movement in July 1846, and attempted <a href="/wiki/Young_Irelander_Rebellion_of_1848" class="mw-redirect" title="Young Irelander Rebellion of 1848">an armed rebellion in 1848</a>. It was unsuccessful.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodham-Smith1991329%E2%80%93360-90">[87]</a> In 1847, <a href="/wiki/William_Smith_O%27Brien" title="William Smith O'Brien">William Smith O'Brien</a>, leader of the Young Ireland party, became one of the founding members of the <a href="/wiki/Irish_Confederation" title="Irish Confederation">Irish Confederation</a>&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(September_2023)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_91-0' class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoheny1951%5B%5BCategory:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_September_2023%5D%5D<sup_class=%22noprint_Inline-Template_%22_style=%22white-space:nowrap;%22>&#91;%5B%5BWikipedia:Citing_sources%7C<span_title=%22This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(September_2023)%22>page&nbsp;needed%5D%5D&#93;-91">[88]</a> to campaign for a Repeal of the Act of Union, and called for the export of grain to be stopped and the ports closed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMitchel1869414-92">[89]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] The following year, he helped organise the short-lived Young Irelander Rebellion of 1848 in <a href="/wiki/County_Tipperary" title="County Tipperary">County Tipperary</a>.<a href="#cite_note-93">[90]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><h2 id="Government_response">Government response</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Famine_(Ireland)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Government response" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Government_responses_to_previous_food_shortages">Government responses to previous food shortages</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Famine_(Ireland)&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Government responses to previous food shortages" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> When Ireland experienced food shortages in 1782–1783, ports were closed to exporting food, with the intention of keeping locally grown food in Ireland to feed the hungry. Irish <a href="/wiki/Food_prices" title="Food prices">food prices</a> promptly dropped. Some merchants lobbied against the export ban, but the government in the 1780s overrode their protests.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIrish_Famine_Curriculum_Committee199811-94">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinealy1994354-95">[92]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tory_government">Tory government</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Famine_(Ireland)&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Tory government" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Historian <a href="/wiki/F._S._L._Lyons" title="F. S. L. Lyons">F. S. L. Lyons</a> characterised the initial response of the British government to the early, less severe phase of the famine as "prompt and relatively successful".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyons197330-96">[93]</a> Confronted by widespread crop failure in November 1845, the Prime Minister, Sir Robert Peel, purchased £100,000 worth of maize and <a href="/wiki/Cornmeal" title="Cornmeal">cornmeal</a> secretly from America<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodham-Smith199154%E2%80%9356-97">[94]</a> with <a href="/wiki/Barings_Bank" title="Barings Bank">Baring Brothers</a> initially acting as his agents. The government hoped that they would not "stifle private enterprise" and that their actions would not act as a disincentive to local relief efforts. Due to poor weather conditions, the first shipment did not arrive in Ireland until the beginning of February 1846.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinealy199447-98">[95]</a> The initial shipments were of unground dried kernels, but the few Irish mills in operation were not equipped for milling maize and a long and complicated milling process had to be adopted before the meal could be distributed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodham-Smith199164%E2%80%9365-99">[96]</a> In addition, before the cornmeal could be consumed, it had to be "very much" cooked again, or eating it could result in severe bowel complaints.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinealy199447-98">[95]</a> Due to its yellow colour, and initial unpopularity, it became known as "Peel's brimstone".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodham-Smith199173-100">[97]</a> In October 1845, Peel moved to repeal the <a href="/wiki/Corn_Laws" title="Corn Laws">Corn Laws</a>—<a href="/wiki/Tariff" title="Tariff">tariffs</a> on grain which kept the price of bread high—but the issue split his party and he had insufficient support from his own colleagues to push the measure through. He resigned the premiership in December, but the opposition was unable to form a government and he was re-appointed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodham-Smith199151%E2%80%9352-101">[98]</a> In March, Peel set up a programme of public works in Ireland,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodham-Smith199178-102">[99]</a> but the famine situation worsened during 1846, and the repeal of the Corn Laws in that year did little to help the starving Irish; the measure split the Conservative Party, leading to the fall of Peel's ministry.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlake1967221%E2%80%93241-103">[100]</a> On 25 June, the <a href="/wiki/Second_reading" class="mw-redirect" title="Second reading">second reading</a> of the government's <a href="/wiki/Coercion_Act#Ireland" title="Coercion Act">Irish Coercion Bill</a> was defeated by 73 votes in the House of Commons by a combination of <a href="/wiki/Whigs_(British_political_party)" title="Whigs (British political party)">Whigs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Radicals_(UK)" title="Radicals (UK)">Radicals</a>, Irish Repealers, and <a href="/wiki/Protectionism" title="Protectionism">protectionist</a> Conservatives. Peel was forced to resign as prime minister on 29 June, and the Whig leader, <a href="/wiki/John_Russell,_1st_Earl_Russell" title="John Russell, 1st Earl Russell">Lord John Russell</a>, became prime minister.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoheny195198-104">[101]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Whig_government">Whig government</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Famine_(Ireland)&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Whig government" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ridpath%27s_history_of_the_world_-_being_an_account_of_the_principal_events_in_the_career_of_the_human_race_from_the_beginnings_of_civilization_to_the_present_time,_comprising_the_development_of_social_(14749361956).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Ridpath%27s_history_of_the_world_-_being_an_account_of_the_principal_events_in_the_career_of_the_human_race_from_the_beginnings_of_civilization_to_the_present_time%2C_comprising_the_development_of_social_%2814749361956%29.jpg/280px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="188" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2530" data-file-height="1696"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 280px;height: 188px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Ridpath%27s_history_of_the_world_-_being_an_account_of_the_principal_events_in_the_career_of_the_human_race_from_the_beginnings_of_civilization_to_the_present_time%2C_comprising_the_development_of_social_%2814749361956%29.jpg/280px-thumbnail.jpg" data-width="280" data-height="188" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Ridpath%27s_history_of_the_world_-_being_an_account_of_the_principal_events_in_the_career_of_the_human_race_from_the_beginnings_of_civilization_to_the_present_time%2C_comprising_the_development_of_social_%2814749361956%29.jpg/420px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Ridpath%27s_history_of_the_world_-_being_an_account_of_the_principal_events_in_the_career_of_the_human_race_from_the_beginnings_of_civilization_to_the_present_time%2C_comprising_the_development_of_social_%2814749361956%29.jpg/560px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Scene at the gate of the <a href="/wiki/Irish_Poor_Laws" class="mw-redirect" title="Irish Poor Laws">workhouse</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1846</figcaption></figure> The measures undertaken by Peel's successor, Russell, proved inadequate as the crisis deepened. The new Whig administration, influenced by the doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Laissez-faire" title="Laissez-faire">laissez-faire</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodham-Smith1991410%E2%80%93411-105">[102]</a> believed that the market would provide the food needed. They refused to interfere with the movement of food to England, and then halted the previous government's food and relief works, leaving many hundreds of thousands of people without access to work, money, or food.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoss2002224,_311-106">[103]</a> Russell's ministry introduced a new programme of public works that by the end of December 1846 employed some half a million but proved impossible to administer.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyons197330%E2%80%9334-107">[104]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Doolough.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Doolough.jpg/220px-Doolough.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2399" data-file-height="1599"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 147px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Doolough.jpg/220px-Doolough.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="147" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Doolough.jpg/330px-Doolough.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Doolough.jpg/440px-Doolough.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>A memorial to the victims of the <a href="/wiki/Doolough_Tragedy" title="Doolough Tragedy">Doolough Tragedy</a> (30 March 1849). To continue receiving relief, hundreds were instructed to travel many miles in bad weather. A large number died on the journey.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Sir_Charles_Trevelyan,_1st_Baronet" title="Sir Charles Trevelyan, 1st Baronet">Charles Trevelyan</a>, who was in charge of the administration of government relief, limited the Government's food aid programme, claiming that food would be readily imported into Ireland once people had more money to spend after wages were being paid on new public-works projects.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodham-Smith199187,_106%E2%80%93108-108">[105]</a> In a private correspondence, Trevelyan explained how the famine could bring benefit to the English; As he wrote to <a href="/wiki/Edward_Twisleton" title="Edward Twisleton">Edward Twisleton</a>:<blockquote>"We must not complain of what we really want to obtain. If small farmers go, and their landlords are reduced to sell portions of their estates to persons who will invest capital we shall at last arrive at something like a satisfactory settlement of the country".<a href="#cite_note-:2-109">[106]</a></blockquote>In January 1847, the government abandoned its policy of noninterference, realising that it had failed, and turned to a mixture of "indoor" and "outdoor" direct relief; the former administered in <a href="/wiki/Workhouse" title="Workhouse">workhouses</a> through the <a href="/wiki/Irish_Poor_Laws" class="mw-redirect" title="Irish Poor Laws">Irish Poor Laws</a>, the latter through <a href="/wiki/Soup_kitchen" title="Soup kitchen">soup kitchens</a>. The costs of the Poor Law fell primarily on the local landlords, some of whom in turn attempted to reduce their liability by evicting their tenants<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyons197330%E2%80%9334-107">[104]</a> or providing some relief through the <a href="/wiki/Religious_conversion" title="Religious conversion">conversionist</a> practice of <a href="/wiki/Souperism" title="Souperism">Souperism</a>. On 1 March 1847, the Bank of England announced plans to raise a loan of £14 million to relieve the Irish crisis, and also for unfunded tax cuts. This led to the <a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1847" title="Panic of 1847">Panic of 1847</a>, in which gold was withdrawn from circulation, so reducing the amount of bank notes that the Bank could legally circulate.<a href="#cite_note-110">[107]</a> By 17 April 1847 the bullion reserve of the Bank of England had diminished from £15 million in January to some £9 million, and it was announced that the cost of famine relief would be transferred to local taxes in Ireland. The financial crisis temporarily improved, but the intended relief for Ireland did not materialise.<a href="#cite_note-111">[108]</a> In June 1847, the <a href="/wiki/Poor_Relief_(Ireland)_Act_1847" class="mw-redirect" title="Poor Relief (Ireland) Act 1847">Poor Relief (Ireland) Act 1847</a> (<a href="/wiki/10_%26_11_Vict." class="mw-redirect" title="10 & 11 Vict.">10 & 11 Vict.</a> c. 31) was passed which embodied the principle, popular in Britain, that Irish property must support Irish poverty. The landed proprietors in Ireland were held in Britain to have created the conditions that led to the famine.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERanelagh200060-112">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodham-Smith1991296%E2%80%93297-113">[110]</a> However, it was asserted that, since the <a href="/wiki/Acts_of_Union_1800" title="Acts of Union 1800">Acts of Union 1800</a>, the British Parliament was partly to blame.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERanelagh200060-112">[109]</a> This point was raised in <a href="/wiki/The_Illustrated_London_News" title="The Illustrated London News">The Illustrated London News</a> on 13 February 1847: "There was no law it would not pass at their request, and no abuse it would not defend for them." On 24 March, <a href="/wiki/The_Times" title="The Times">The Times</a> reported that Britain had permitted in Ireland "a mass of poverty, disaffection, and degradation without a parallel in the world. It allowed proprietors to suck the very life-blood of that wretched race".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERanelagh200060-112">[109]</a> The "Gregory clause" of the Poor Law, named after <a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Gregory" title="William Henry Gregory">William H. Gregory</a>, MP,<a href="#cite_note-115">[fn 3]</a> prohibited anyone who held at least <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style>1⁄4 acre (0.1 ha) from receiving relief.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyons197330%E2%80%9334-107">[104]</a> In practice, this meant that the many farmers who had to sell all their produce to pay rent and taxes, would have to deliver up all their land to the landlord to qualify for public outdoor relief. Of this Law, Mitchel wrote that "it is the <a href="/wiki/Able-bodied" title="Able-bodied">able-bodied</a> idler only who is to be fed—if he attempted to till but one <a href="/wiki/Rood_(unit)" title="Rood (unit)">rood</a> of ground, he dies". This simple method of ejectment was called "passing paupers through the workhouse"—a man went in, a pauper came out.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMitchel199616-116">[112]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] These factors combined to drive thousands of people off the land: 90,000 in 1849, and 104,000 in 1850.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyons197330%E2%80%9334-107">[104]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Incumbered_Estates_(Ireland)_Act_1849" class="mw-redirect" title="Incumbered Estates (Ireland) Act 1849">Incumbered Estates (Ireland) Act 1849</a> (<a href="/wiki/12_%26_13_Vict." class="mw-redirect" title="12 & 13 Vict.">12 & 13 Vict.</a> c. 77) allowed landlord estates to be auctioned off upon the petition of creditors. Estates with debts were then auctioned off at low prices. Wealthy British speculators purchased the lands and "took a harsh view" of the tenant farmers who continued renting. The rents were raised, and tenants evicted to create large cattle grazing pastures. Between 1849 and 1854, some 50,000 families were evicted.<a href="#cite_note-117">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-118">[114]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Military_response">Military response</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Famine_(Ireland)&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Military response" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The Royal Navy squadron stationed in Cork under the command of Rear-Admiral <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Pigot_(Royal_Navy_officer,_born_1775)" title="Hugh Pigot (Royal Navy officer, born 1775)">Hugh Pigot</a> undertook significant relief operations from 1846 to 1847, transporting government relief into the port of Cork and other ports along the Irish coast, being ordered on 2 January 1846 to assist distressed regions. On 27 December 1846, Trevelyan ordered every available <a href="/wiki/Steamship" title="Steamship">steamship</a> to Ireland to assist in relief, and on 14 January 1847, Pigot received orders to also distribute supplies from the <a href="/wiki/British_Relief_Association" title="British Relief Association">British Relief Association</a> and treat them identically to government aid. In addition, some naval officers under Pigot oversaw the logistics of relief operations further inland from Cork. In February 1847, Trevelyan ordered Royal Navy surgeons dispatched to provide medical care for those suffering from illnesses that accompanied starvation, distribute medicines that were in short supply, and assist in proper, sanitary burials for the deceased. These efforts, although significant, were insufficient at preventing mass mortality from famine and disease.<a href="#cite_note-RoyalNavy-119">[115]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><h2 id="Food_exports">Food exports</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Famine_(Ireland)&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Food exports" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Irish grain trade in units of 1,000 quarters<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C3%93_Gr%C3%A1da1999123-120">[116]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Year</th> <th>Exports</th> <th>Imports</th> <th>Surplus</th> <th>Maize imports </th></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:right;">1842 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">2,538 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">280 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">+2,258 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">20 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:right;">1843 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">3,206 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">74 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">+3,132 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">3 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:right;">1844 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">2,801 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">150 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">+2,651 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">5 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:right;">1845 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">3,252 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">147 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">+3,105 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">34 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:right;">1846 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">1,826 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">987 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">+839 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">614 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:right;">1847 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">970 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">4,519 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">-3,549 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">3,287 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:right;">1848 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">1,953 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">2,186 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">-233 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">1,546 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:right;">1849 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">1,437 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">2,908 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">-1,471 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">1,897 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:right;">1850 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">1,329 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">2,357 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">-1,028 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">1,159 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:right;">1851 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">1,325 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">3,158 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">-1,833 </td> <td style="text-align:right;">1,745 </td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_food_riot_in_Dungarvan,_Co._Waterford,_Ireland,_during_the_famine_-_The_Pictorial_Times_(1846)_-_BL.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/A_food_riot_in_Dungarvan%2C_Co._Waterford%2C_Ireland%2C_during_the_famine_-_The_Pictorial_Times_%281846%29_-_BL.jpg/220px-A_food_riot_in_Dungarvan%2C_Co._Waterford%2C_Ireland%2C_during_the_famine_-_The_Pictorial_Times_%281846%29_-_BL.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="200" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1505" data-file-height="1369"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 200px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/A_food_riot_in_Dungarvan%2C_Co._Waterford%2C_Ireland%2C_during_the_famine_-_The_Pictorial_Times_%281846%29_-_BL.jpg/220px-A_food_riot_in_Dungarvan%2C_Co._Waterford%2C_Ireland%2C_during_the_famine_-_The_Pictorial_Times_%281846%29_-_BL.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="200" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/A_food_riot_in_Dungarvan%2C_Co._Waterford%2C_Ireland%2C_during_the_famine_-_The_Pictorial_Times_%281846%29_-_BL.jpg/330px-A_food_riot_in_Dungarvan%2C_Co._Waterford%2C_Ireland%2C_during_the_famine_-_The_Pictorial_Times_%281846%29_-_BL.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/A_food_riot_in_Dungarvan%2C_Co._Waterford%2C_Ireland%2C_during_the_famine_-_The_Pictorial_Times_%281846%29_-_BL.jpg/440px-A_food_riot_in_Dungarvan%2C_Co._Waterford%2C_Ireland%2C_during_the_famine_-_The_Pictorial_Times_%281846%29_-_BL.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Rioters in <a href="/wiki/Dungarvan" title="Dungarvan">Dungarvan</a> attempt to break into a <a href="/wiki/Bakery" title="Bakery">bakery</a>; the poor could not afford to buy what food was available. (The Pictorial Times, 1846).</figcaption></figure> The historian <a href="/wiki/Cecil_Woodham-Smith" title="Cecil Woodham-Smith">Cecil Woodham-Smith</a> wrote in <a href="/wiki/The_Great_Hunger:_Ireland_1845%E2%80%931849" title="The Great Hunger: Ireland 1845–1849">The Great Hunger: Ireland 1845–1849</a> that no issue has provoked so much anger and embittered relations between England and Ireland "as the indisputable fact that huge quantities of food were exported from Ireland to England throughout the period when the people of Ireland were dying of starvation".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodham-Smith199175-121">[117]</a> While in addition to the maize imports, four times as much wheat was imported into Ireland at the height of the famine as exported.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodham-Smith199176-122">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C3%93_Gr%C3%A1da2000123-123">[119]</a> Woodham-Smith added that provision via the <a href="/wiki/Poor_law_union" title="Poor law union">Poor law union</a> workhouses by the <a href="/wiki/Poor_Relief_(Ireland)_Act_1838" title="Poor Relief (Ireland) Act 1838">Poor Relief (Ireland) Act 1838</a> (<a href="/wiki/1_%26_2_Vict." class="mw-redirect" title="1 & 2 Vict.">1 & 2 Vict.</a> c. 56) had to be paid by <a href="/wiki/Rates_(tax)" title="Rates (tax)">rates</a> levied on the local property owners, and in areas where the famine was worst, the tenants could not pay their rents to enable landlords to fund the rates and therefore the workhouses. Only by selling food, some of which would inevitably be exported, could a <a href="/wiki/Virtuous_circle_and_vicious_circle" class="mw-redirect" title="Virtuous circle and vicious circle">"virtuous circle"</a> be created whereby the rents and rates would be paid, and the workhouses funded. Relief through the workhouse system was simply overwhelmed by the enormous scale and duration of the famine.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodham-Smith199137-124">[120]</a> Nicolas McEvoy, parish priest of <a href="/wiki/Kells,_County_Meath" title="Kells, County Meath">Kells</a>, wrote in October 1845: <blockquote>On my most minute personal inspection of the potato crop in this most fertile potato-growing locale is founded my inexpressibly painful conviction that one family in twenty of the people will not have a single potato left on Christmas day next. Many are the fields I have examined and testimony the most solemn can I tender, that in the great bulk of those fields all the potatoes sizable enough to be sent to table are irreparably damaged, while for the remaining comparatively sounder fields very little hopes are entertained in consequence of the daily rapid development of the deplorable disease. With starvation at our doors, grimly staring us, vessels laden with our sole hopes of existence, our provisions, are hourly wafted from our every port. From one milling establishment I have last night seen not less than fifty dray loads of meal moving on to Drogheda, thence to go to feed the foreigner, leaving starvation and death the sure and certain fate of the toil and sweat that raised this food. For their respective inhabitants England, Holland, Scotland, Germany, are taking early the necessary precautions—getting provisions from every possible part of the globe; and I ask are Irishmen alone unworthy the sympathies of a paternal gentry or a paternal Government? Let Irishmen themselves take heed before the provisions are gone. Let those, too, who have sheep, and oxen, and haggards. Self-preservation is the first law of nature. The right of the starving to try and sustain existence is a right far and away paramount to every right that property confers. Infinitely more precious in the eyes of reason in the adorable eye of the Omnipotent Creator, is the life of the last and least of human beings than the whole united property of the entire universe. The appalling character of the crisis renders delicacy but criminal and imperatively calls for the timely and explicit notice of principles that will not fail to prove terrible arms in the hands of a neglected, abandoned starving people.<a href="#cite_note-125">[121]</a> </blockquote> In the 5 May 2020, issue of the <a href="/wiki/Dublin_Review_of_Books" title="Dublin Review of Books">Dublin Review of Books</a>, Editor Maurice Earls wrote: <blockquote>Dr. McEvoy, in his grim forebodings and apocalyptic fear, was closer to the truth than the sanguine rationalists quoted in the newspapers, but McEvoy, like many others, overestimated the likelihood of mass rebellion, and even this great clerical friend of the poor could hardly have contemplated the depth of social, economic and cultural destruction which would persist and deepen over the following century and beyond. It was politics that turned a disease of potatoes and tomatoes into famine, and it was politics which ensured its disastrous aftereffects would disfigure numerous future generations.<a href="#cite_note-126">[122]</a></blockquote> According to historian James Donnelly, "the picture of Irish people starving as food was exported was the most powerful image in the nationalist construct of the Famine".<a href="#cite_note-Daly1997-127">[123]</a> Grain imports increased after the spring of 1847 and much of the debate "has been conducted within narrow parameters," focusing "almost exclusively on national estimates with little attempt to disaggregate the data by region or by product."<a href="#cite_note-128">[124]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><h2 id="Charity">Charity</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Famine_(Ireland)&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Charity" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Souperism" title="Souperism">Souperism</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Irish_potato_famine_Bridget_O%27Donnel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Irish_potato_famine_Bridget_O%27Donnel.jpg/170px-Irish_potato_famine_Bridget_O%27Donnel.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="247" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1291" data-file-height="1873"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 247px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Irish_potato_famine_Bridget_O%27Donnel.jpg/170px-Irish_potato_famine_Bridget_O%27Donnel.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="247" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Irish_potato_famine_Bridget_O%27Donnel.jpg/255px-Irish_potato_famine_Bridget_O%27Donnel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Irish_potato_famine_Bridget_O%27Donnel.jpg/340px-Irish_potato_famine_Bridget_O%27Donnel.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>An 1849 depiction of Bridget O'Donnell and her two children during the famine</figcaption></figure> Total charitable donations for famine relief might have been about £1.5 million of which £856,500 came from outside Ireland. Donations within Ireland are harder to trace; £380,000 of donations were officially registered but once some allowance is made for less formal donations the Irish total probably exceeds that of Britain (£525,000). People of Irish descent also contributed to funds raised outside of Ireland and those donations would be included in the region where the donation was made. English Protestants donated more to Irish famine relief than any other source outside of Ireland.<a href="#cite_note-Accounting-129">[125]</a>: 224–227 <table class="wikitable" style="float:right"> <caption>Donations by region excluding Ireland<a href="#cite_note-Accounting-129">[125]</a>: 226 </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Region</th> <th>Contribution </th></tr> <tr> <td>Britain </td> <td style="text-align:right;">£525,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td>US </td> <td style="text-align:right;">£170,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Indian Ocean </td> <td style="text-align:right;">£50,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td>France </td> <td style="text-align:right;">£26,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Canada </td> <td style="text-align:right;">£22,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td>West Indies </td> <td style="text-align:right;">£17,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Italy </td> <td style="text-align:right;">£13,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Australia </td> <td style="text-align:right;">£9,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td>The Netherlands, Belgium and Denmark </td> <td style="text-align:right;">£5,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Germany and Switzerland </td> <td style="text-align:right;">£4,500 </td></tr> <tr> <td>South Africa </td> <td style="text-align:right;">£4,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Latin America </td> <td style="text-align:right;">£3,500 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Russia </td> <td style="text-align:right;">£2,500 </td></tr> <tr> <td>The Ottoman Empire </td> <td style="text-align:right;">£2,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Other British Dependencies </td> <td style="text-align:right;">£2,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Spain and Portugal </td> <td style="text-align:right;">£1,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Total </td> <td style="text-align:right;">£856,500 </td></tr></tbody></table> Large sums of money were donated by charities; the first foreign campaign in December 1845 included the Boston Repeal Association and the Catholic Church.<a href="#cite_note-130">[126]</a> <a href="/wiki/Kolkata" title="Kolkata">Calcutta</a> is credited with making the first larger donations in 1846, summing up to around £14,000.<a href="#cite_note-131">[b]</a> The money raised included contributions by Irish soldiers serving there and Irish people employed by the <a href="/wiki/British_East_India_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="British East India Company">East India Company</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodham-Smith1991156-132">[127]</a> Russian Tsar <a href="/wiki/Alexander_II_of_Russia" title="Alexander II of Russia">Alexander II</a> sent funds and <a href="/wiki/Queen_Victoria" title="Queen Victoria">Queen Victoria</a> donated £2,000.<a href="#cite_note-133">[c]</a> According to legend,<a href="#cite_note-134">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-135">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C3%93_Gr%C3%A1da1999%5Bhttpsarchiveorgdetailsblack47beyondgre00ograpage197_197%E2%80%93198%5D-136">[130]</a> Sultan <a href="/wiki/Abd%C3%BClmecid_I" title="Abdülmecid I">Abdülmecid I</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> originally offered to send £10,000<a href="#cite_note-137">[d]</a> but was asked either by <a href="/wiki/Turkey%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_relations" title="Turkey–United Kingdom relations">British diplomats</a> or his own ministers to reduce it to £1,000<a href="#cite_note-138">[e]</a> to avoid donating more than the Queen.<a href="#cite_note-Christine-139">[131]</a> U.S. President <a href="/wiki/James_K._Polk" title="James K. Polk">James K. Polk</a> donated $50<a href="#cite_note-140">[f]</a> and in 1847 Congressman <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a> donated $10,<a href="#cite_note-141">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-142">[g]</a> or £5.<a href="#cite_note-Kinealy2014-143">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-144">[h]</a> International fundraising activities received donations from locations as diverse as Venezuela, Australia, South Africa, Mexico, Russia and Italy.<a href="#cite_note-145">[134]</a> In New Brunswick, which was at the time a British colony, the House of Assembly voted to donated 1,500 to the British Relief Association.<a href="#cite_note-Kinealy2014-143">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-146">[135]</a> <a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_IX" title="Pope Pius IX">Pope Pius IX</a> also made a personal contribution of 1,000 <a href="/wiki/Italian_scudo" title="Italian scudo">Scudi</a> (approximately £213) for famine relief in Ireland and authorized collections in Rome. Most significantly, on 25 March 1847, Pius IX issued the encyclical <a href="/wiki/Praedecessores_nostros" title="Praedecessores nostros">Praedecessores nostros</a>, which called the whole Catholic world to contribute moneywise and spiritually to Irish relief. Major figures behind international Catholic fundraising for Ireland were the rector of the Pontifical Irish College, <a href="/wiki/Paul_Cullen_(cardinal)" title="Paul Cullen (cardinal)">Paul Cullen</a>, and the President of the <a href="/wiki/Society_of_Saint_Vincent_de_Paul" title="Society of Saint Vincent de Paul">Society of Saint Vincent de Paul</a>, Jules Gossin.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEG%C3%B6tzBrewisWerther202082%E2%80%9387-147">[136]</a> In addition to the religious, non-religious organisations came to the assistance of famine victims. The <a href="/wiki/British_Relief_Association" title="British Relief Association">British Relief Association</a> was the largest of these groups. Founded on 1 January 1847 by <a href="/wiki/Lionel_de_Rothschild" title="Lionel de Rothschild">Lionel de Rothschild</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abel_Smith_(1788%E2%80%931859)" title="Abel Smith (1788–1859)">Abel Smith</a>, and other prominent bankers and aristocrats, the Association raised money throughout England, America, and Australia; their funding drive was benefited by a "Queen's Letter", a letter from Queen Victoria appealing for money to relieve the distress in Ireland.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinealy1994161-148">[137]</a> With this initial letter, the Association raised £171,533.<a href="#cite_note-149">[i]</a> A second, somewhat less successful "Queen's Letter" was issued in late 1847.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinealy1994161-148">[137]</a> In total, the Association raised approximately £390,000 for Irish relief.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodham-Smith1991169,_245-150">[138]</a><a href="#cite_note-151">[j]</a> Private initiatives such as the Central Relief Committee of the <a href="/wiki/Society_of_Friends" class="mw-redirect" title="Society of Friends">Society of Friends</a> (Quakers) attempted to fill the gap caused by the end of government relief, and eventually, the government reinstated the relief works, although bureaucracy slowed the release of food supplies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoss2002-152">[139]</a> Thousands of dollars were raised in the United States, including $170 ($5,218 in 2019 value<a href="#cite_note-153">[140]</a>) collected from a group of Native American <a href="/wiki/Choctaw" title="Choctaw">Choctaws</a> in 1847.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodham-Smith1991242-154">[141]</a> Judy Allen, editor of the <a href="/wiki/Choctaw_Nation_of_Oklahoma" title="Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma">Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma</a>'s newspaper Biskinik, wrote that "It had been just 16 years since the Choctaw people had experienced the <a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a>, and they had faced starvation ... It was an amazing gesture." To mark the 150th anniversary, eight Irish people retraced the Trail of Tears.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWard2002-155">[142]</a> Contributions by the United States during the famine were highlighted by Senator <a href="/wiki/Henry_Clay" title="Henry Clay">Henry Clay</a> who said; "No imagination can conceive—no tongue express—no brush paint—the horrors of the scenes which are daily exhibited in Ireland." He called upon Americans to remind them that the practice of charity was the greatest act of humanity they could do. In total, 118 vessels sailed from the US to Ireland with relief goods valued at $545,145.<a href="#cite_note-156">[143]</a><a href="#cite_note-157">[k]</a> Specific states which provided aid include South Carolina and Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Pennsylvania was the second most important state for famine relief in the US and the second-largest shipping port for aid to Ireland. The state hosted the Philadelphia Irish Famine Relief Committee. Catholics, Methodists, Quakers, Presbyterians, Episcopalians, Lutherans, Moravian and Jewish groups put aside their differences in the name of humanity to help the Irish.<a href="#cite_note-158">[144]</a> South Carolina rallied around the efforts to help those experiencing the famine. They raised donations of money, food and clothing to help the victims of the famine—Irish immigrants made up 39% of the white population in the southern cities. Historian Harvey Strum claims that "The states ignored all their racial, religious, and political differences to support the cause for relief."<a href="#cite_note-159">[145]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"><h2 id="Eviction">Eviction</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Famine_(Ireland)&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Eviction" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Parliament_Square,_London_(2014)_-_3.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Parliament_Square%2C_London_%282014%29_-_3.JPG/220px-Parliament_Square%2C_London_%282014%29_-_3.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="4000"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 293px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Parliament_Square%2C_London_%282014%29_-_3.JPG/220px-Parliament_Square%2C_London_%282014%29_-_3.JPG" data-width="220" data-height="293" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Parliament_Square%2C_London_%282014%29_-_3.JPG/330px-Parliament_Square%2C_London_%282014%29_-_3.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Parliament_Square%2C_London_%282014%29_-_3.JPG/440px-Parliament_Square%2C_London_%282014%29_-_3.JPG 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Henry_John_Temple,_3rd_Viscount_Palmerston" title="Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston">Lord Palmerston</a>, then British Foreign Secretary, evicted some 2,000 of his tenants.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:George_Bingham,_3rd_Earl_of_Lucan.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/George_Bingham%2C_3rd_Earl_of_Lucan.png/220px-George_Bingham%2C_3rd_Earl_of_Lucan.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="268" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="345" data-file-height="421"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 268px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/George_Bingham%2C_3rd_Earl_of_Lucan.png/220px-George_Bingham%2C_3rd_Earl_of_Lucan.png" data-width="220" data-height="268" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/George_Bingham%2C_3rd_Earl_of_Lucan.png/330px-George_Bingham%2C_3rd_Earl_of_Lucan.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/07/George_Bingham%2C_3rd_Earl_of_Lucan.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>George Bingham, 3rd Earl of Lucan</figcaption></figure> Landlords were responsible for paying the rates of every tenant whose yearly rent was £4 or less. Landlords whose land was crowded with poorer tenants were now faced with large bills. Many began clearing the poor tenants from their small plots and letting the land in larger plots for over £4 which then reduced their debts. In 1846, there had been some clearances, but the great mass of evictions came in 1847.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELitton200695-160">[146]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/James_S._Donnelly_Jr." title="James S. Donnelly Jr.">James S. Donnelly Jr.</a>, it is impossible to be sure how many people were evicted during the years of the famine and its immediate aftermath. It was only in 1849 that the police began to keep a count, and they recorded a total of almost 250,000 persons as officially evicted between 1849 and 1854.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEP%C3%B3irt%C3%A9ir1995155-161">[147]</a> Donnelly considered this to be an underestimate, and if the figures were to include the number pressured into "voluntary" surrenders during the whole period (1846–1854), the figure would almost certainly exceed half a million persons.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEP%C3%B3irt%C3%A9ir1995156-162">[148]</a> While Helen Litton says there were also thousands of "voluntary" surrenders, she notes also that there was "precious little voluntary about them". In some cases, tenants were persuaded to accept a small sum of money to leave their homes, "cheated into believing the workhouse would take them in".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELitton200695-160">[146]</a> <a href="/wiki/West_Clare" class="mw-redirect" title="West Clare">West Clare</a> was one of the worst areas for evictions, where landlords turned thousands of families out and demolished their <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/derisory#English" class="extiw" title="wikt:derisory">derisory</a> cabins. Captain Kennedy in April 1848 estimated that 1,000 houses, with an average of six people to each, had been levelled since November.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELitton200696-163">[149]</a> The Mahon family of Strokestown House evicted 3,000 people in 1847 and were still able to dine on lobster soup.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibney200855-164">[150]</a> After Clare, the worst area for evictions was <a href="/wiki/County_Mayo" title="County Mayo">County Mayo</a>, accounting for 10% of all evictions between 1849 and 1854. <a href="/wiki/George_Bingham,_3rd_Earl_of_Lucan" title="George Bingham, 3rd Earl of Lucan">George Bingham, 3rd Earl of Lucan</a>, who owned over 60,000 acres (240 km2), was among the worst evicting landlords. He was quoted as saying that "he would not breed paupers to pay priests". Having turned out in the parish of Ballinrobe over 2,000 tenants alone, he then used the cleared land as grazing farms.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELitton200698-165">[151]</a> In 1848, the Marquis of Sligo owed £1,650 to Westport Union; he was also an evicting landlord, though he claimed to be selective, saying that he was only getting rid of the idle and dishonest. Altogether, he cleared about 25% of his tenants.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELitton200695%E2%80%9398-166">[152]</a> In 1846 the future Prime Minister of the United Kingdom <a href="/wiki/John_Russell,_1st_Earl_Russell" title="John Russell, 1st Earl Russell">John Russell, 1st Earl Russell</a> reported that in one year more than 50,000 Irish families had been "turned out of their wretched dwellings without pity and without refuge...we have made it the most degraded and most miserable country in the world...all the world is crying shame upon us."<a href="#cite_note-167">[153]</a> In 1847, <a href="/wiki/Bishop_of_Meath" title="Bishop of Meath">Bishop of Meath</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nulty" title="Thomas Nulty">Thomas Nulty</a>, described his personal recollection of the evictions in a pastoral letter to his clergy: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">Seven hundred human beings were driven from their homes in one day and set adrift on the world, to gratify the caprice of one who, before God and man, probably deserved less consideration than the last and least of them ... The horrid scenes I then witnessed, I must remember all my life long. The wailing of women—the screams, the terror, the consternation of children—the speechless agony of honest industrious men—wrung tears of grief from all who saw them. I saw officers and men of a large police force, who were obliged to attend on the occasion, cry like children at beholding the cruel sufferings of the very people whom they would be obliged to butcher had they offered the least resistance. The landed proprietors in a circle all around—and for many miles in every direction—warned their tenantry, with threats of their direct vengeance, against the humanity of extending to any of them the hospitality of a single night's shelter ... and in little more than three years, nearly a fourth of them lay quietly in their graves.<a href="#cite_note-Falc'her-Poyroux-168">[154]</a></blockquote> The population in <a href="/wiki/Drumbaragh" title="Drumbaragh">Drumbaragh</a>, a townland in County Meath, plummeted 67 per cent between 1841 and 1851; in neighbouring Springville, it fell 54 per cent. There were fifty houses in Springville in 1841 and only eleven left in 1871.<a href="#cite_note-auto-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-irishcentral.com-11">[11]</a> According to Litton, evictions might have taken place earlier but for fear of the <a href="/wiki/Ribbonism" title="Ribbonism">secret societies</a>. However, they were now greatly weakened by the Famine. Revenge still occasionally took place, with seven landlords being shot, six fatally, during the autumn and winter of 1847. Ten other occupiers of land, though without tenants, were also murdered, she says.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELitton200699-169">[155]</a> One such landlord reprisal occurred in West <a href="/wiki/Roscommon" title="Roscommon">Roscommon</a>. The "notorious" Major <a href="/wiki/Denis_Mahon_(British_Army_officer)" title="Denis Mahon (British Army officer)">Denis Mahon</a> enforced thousands of his tenants into eviction before the end of 1847, with an estimated 60 per cent decline in population in some <a href="/wiki/Parish" title="Parish">parishes</a>. He was shot dead in that year.<a href="#cite_note-irishtimes.com-170">[156]</a> In East Roscommon, "where conditions were more benign", the estimated decline in population was under 10 percent.<a href="#cite_note-irishtimes.com-170">[156]</a> <a href="/wiki/George_Villiers,_4th_Earl_of_Clarendon" title="George Villiers, 4th Earl of Clarendon">Lord Clarendon</a>, alarmed at the number of landlords being shot and that this might mean rebellion, asked for special powers. Lord John Russell was not sympathetic to this appeal. Lord Clarendon believed that the landlords themselves were mostly responsible for the tragedy in the first place, saying that "It is quite true that landlords in England would not like to be shot like hares and partridges ... but neither does any landlord in England turn out fifty persons at once and burn their houses over their heads, giving them no provision for the future." The <a href="/wiki/Crime_and_Outrage_Bill_(Ireland)_1847" class="mw-redirect" title="Crime and Outrage Bill (Ireland) 1847">Crime and Outrage Act</a> was passed in December 1847 as a compromise, and additional troops were sent to Ireland.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELitton200698%E2%80%9399-171">[157]</a> The "Gregory clause", described by Donnelly as a "vicious amendment to the Irish poor law", had been a successful Tory amendment to the Whig poor-relief bill which became law in early June 1847, where its potential as an estate-clearing device was widely recognised in parliament, although not in advance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEP%C3%B3irt%C3%A9ir1995159-114">[111]</a> At first, the poor law commissioners and inspectors viewed the clause as a valuable instrument for a more cost-effective administration of public relief, but the drawbacks soon became apparent, even from an administrative perspective. They would soon view them as little more than murderous from a humanitarian perspective. According to Donnelly, it became obvious that the quarter-acre clause was "indirectly a death-dealing instrument".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonnelly2005110-172">[158]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"><h2 id="Emigration">Emigration</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Famine_(Ireland)&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Emigration" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Irish_diaspora" title="Irish diaspora">Irish diaspora</a> and <a href="/wiki/Typhus_epidemic_of_1847" class="mw-redirect" title="Typhus epidemic of 1847">Typhus epidemic of 1847</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Emigrants_Leave_Ireland_by_Henry_Doyle_1868.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Emigrants_Leave_Ireland_by_Henry_Doyle_1868.jpg/170px-Emigrants_Leave_Ireland_by_Henry_Doyle_1868.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2370" data-file-height="3161"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 227px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Emigrants_Leave_Ireland_by_Henry_Doyle_1868.jpg/170px-Emigrants_Leave_Ireland_by_Henry_Doyle_1868.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="227" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Emigrants_Leave_Ireland_by_Henry_Doyle_1868.jpg/255px-Emigrants_Leave_Ireland_by_Henry_Doyle_1868.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Emigrants_Leave_Ireland_by_Henry_Doyle_1868.jpg/340px-Emigrants_Leave_Ireland_by_Henry_Doyle_1868.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The Emigrants' Farewell, engraving by <a href="/wiki/Henry_Doyle" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry Doyle">Henry Doyle</a> (1827–1893), from <a href="/wiki/Mary_Frances_Cusack" class="mw-redirect" title="Mary Frances Cusack">Mary Frances Cusack</a>'s Illustrated History of Ireland, 1868</figcaption></figure> At least a million people are thought to have emigrated as a result of the famine.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoss2002226-8">[8]</a> There were about 1 million long-distance emigrants between 1846 and 1851, mainly to North America. The total given in the 1851 census is 967,908.<a href="#cite_note-173">[159]</a> Short-distance emigrants, mainly to Britain, may have numbered 200,000 or more.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoyle%C3%93_Gr%C3%A1da1986560-174">[160]</a> While the famine was responsible for a significant increase in emigration from Ireland, of anywhere from 45% to nearly 85% depending on the year and the county, it was not the sole cause. The beginning of mass emigration from Ireland can be traced to the mid-18th century, when some 250,000 people left Ireland over a period of 50 years to settle in the <a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a>. Irish economist Cormac Ó Gráda estimates that between 1 million and 1.5 million people emigrated during the 30 years between 1815 (when <a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a> was defeated in <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Waterloo" title="Battle of Waterloo">Waterloo</a>) and 1845 (when the Great Famine began).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C3%93_Gr%C3%A1da1975-175">[161]</a> However, during the worst of the famine, emigration reached somewhere around 250,000 in one year alone, with western Ireland seeing the most emigrants.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELibrary_of_Congress2007-176">[162]</a> Families did not migrate en masse, but younger members of families did, so much so that emigration almost became a <a href="/wiki/Rite_of_passage" title="Rite of passage">rite of passage</a>, as evidenced by the data that show that, unlike similar emigrations throughout world history, women emigrated just as often, just as early, and in the same numbers as men. The emigrants would send remittances (reaching a total of £1,404,000 by 1851) back to family in Ireland, which, in turn, allowed another member of their family to leave.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoster1988371-177">[163]</a> Emigration during the famine years of 1845–1850 was primarily to England, Scotland, South Wales, North America, and Australia. Many of those fleeing to the Americas used the <a href="/wiki/McCorkell_Line" title="McCorkell Line">McCorkell Line</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCorkell2010-178">[164]</a> One city that experienced a particularly strong influx of Irish immigrants was <a href="/wiki/Liverpool" title="Liverpool">Liverpool</a>, with at least one-quarter of the city's population being Irish-born by 1851.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoster1988268-179">[165]</a> This would heavily influence the city's <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Liverpool" title="Culture of Liverpool">identity and culture</a> in the coming years, earning it the nickname of "Ireland's second capital".<a href="#cite_note-180">[166]</a> Liverpool became the only place outside of Ireland to elect an <a href="/wiki/Irish_nationalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Irish nationalist">Irish nationalist</a> to parliament when it elected <a href="/wiki/T._P._O%27Connor" title="T. P. O'Connor">T. P. O'Connor</a> in 1885, and continuously re-elected him unopposed until his death in 1929.<a href="#cite_note-181">[167]</a> As of 2020, it is estimated that three quarters of people from the city have Irish ancestry.<a href="#cite_note-182">[168]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Population_(Irish_emigration).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Population_%28Irish_emigration%29.jpg/220px-Population_%28Irish_emigration%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3626" data-file-height="2484"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 151px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Population_%28Irish_emigration%29.jpg/220px-Population_%28Irish_emigration%29.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="151" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Population_%28Irish_emigration%29.jpg/330px-Population_%28Irish_emigration%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Population_%28Irish_emigration%29.jpg/440px-Population_%28Irish_emigration%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Irish population in the United States, 1880</figcaption></figure> Of the more than 100,000 Irish that sailed to <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a> in 1847, an estimated one out of five died from disease and malnutrition, including over 5,000 at <a href="/wiki/Grosse_Isle,_Quebec" class="mw-redirect" title="Grosse Isle, Quebec">Grosse Isle, Quebec</a>, an island in the <a href="/wiki/Saint_Lawrence_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Lawrence River">Saint Lawrence River</a> used to quarantine ships near <a href="/wiki/Quebec_City" title="Quebec City">Quebec City</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodham-Smith1991238-183">[169]</a> Overcrowded, poorly maintained, and badly provisioned vessels known as <a href="/wiki/Coffin_ship" title="Coffin ship">coffin ships</a> sailed from small, unregulated harbours in the West of Ireland in contravention of British safety requirements, and mortality rates were high.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodham-Smith1991216%E2%80%93217-184">[170]</a> The 1851 census reported that more than half the inhabitants of <a href="/wiki/Toronto" title="Toronto">Toronto</a> were Irish, and, in 1847 alone, 38,000 Irish flooded a city with fewer than 20,000 citizens. Other Canadian cities such as Quebec City, <a href="/wiki/Montreal" title="Montreal">Montreal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ottawa" title="Ottawa">Ottawa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingston,_Ontario" title="Kingston, Ontario">Kingston</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hamilton,_Ontario" title="Hamilton, Ontario">Hamilton</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Saint_John,_New_Brunswick" title="Saint John, New Brunswick">Saint John</a> also received large numbers. By 1871, 55% of Saint John residents were Irish natives or children of Irish-born parents.<a href="#cite_note-185">[171]</a> Unlike the United States, Canada could not close its ports to Irish ships because it was part of the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a>, so emigrants could obtain cheap passage in returning empty lumber holds. In America, most Irish became city-dwellers; with little money, many had to settle in the cities that the ships they came on landed in.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodham-Smith1991267-186">[172]</a> By 1850, the Irish made up a quarter of the population in <a href="/wiki/Boston" title="Boston">Boston</a>, New York City, Philadelphia, and Baltimore. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Population_of_Ireland_since_1600.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Population_of_Ireland_since_1600.png/330px-Population_of_Ireland_since_1600.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="233" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="680" data-file-height="480"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 330px;height: 233px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Population_of_Ireland_since_1600.png/330px-Population_of_Ireland_since_1600.png" data-width="330" data-height="233" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Population_of_Ireland_since_1600.png/495px-Population_of_Ireland_since_1600.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Population_of_Ireland_since_1600.png/660px-Population_of_Ireland_since_1600.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Irish population 1600–2010. Note the decrease beginning in 1845, which did not recover until the 21st century.</figcaption></figure> The famine marked the beginning of the depopulation of Ireland in the 19th century. The population had increased by 13–14% in the first three decades of the 19th century; between 1831 and 1841, the population grew by 5%. Application of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Malthus" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Malthus">Thomas Malthus</a>'s idea of population expanding geometrically while resources increase arithmetically was popular during the famines of 1817 and 1822. By the 1830s, they were seen as overly simplistic, and Ireland's problems were seen "less as an excess of population than as a lack of <a href="/wiki/Capital_investment" class="mw-redirect" title="Capital investment">capital investment</a>".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGray1995-187">[173]</a> The population of Ireland was increasing no faster than that of England, which suffered no equivalent catastrophe. By 1854, between 1.5 and 2 million Irish left their country due to evictions, starvation, and harsh living conditions.<a href="#cite_note-188">[174]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(8)"><h2 id="Death_toll">Death toll</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Famine_(Ireland)&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Death toll" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-8"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ireland_population_change_1841_1851.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Ireland_population_change_1841_1851.png/220px-Ireland_population_change_1841_1851.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="316" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="357" data-file-height="513"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 316px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Ireland_population_change_1841_1851.png/220px-Ireland_population_change_1841_1851.png" data-width="220" data-height="316" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Ireland_population_change_1841_1851.png/330px-Ireland_population_change_1841_1851.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/29/Ireland_population_change_1841_1851.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> It is not known exactly how many people died during the period of the famine, although it is believed that more died from disease than from starvation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodham-Smith1991204-189">[175]</a> State registration of births, marriages, or deaths had not yet begun, and records kept by the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a> are incomplete.<a href="#cite_note-191">[fn 4]</a> One possible estimate has been reached by comparing the expected population with the eventual numbers in the 1850s. A <a href="/wiki/1841_census_of_Ireland" title="1841 census of Ireland">census taken in 1841</a> recorded a population of 8,175,124. A census immediately after the famine in 1851 counted 6,552,385, a drop of over 1.5 million in 10 years. The census commissioners estimated that, at the normal rate of population increase, the population in 1851 should have grown to just over 9 million if the famine had not occurred.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodham-Smith1991411-192">[177]</a> On the in-development Great Irish Famine Online resource, produced by the Geography department of <a href="/wiki/University_College_Cork" title="University College Cork">University College Cork</a>, the population of Ireland section states, that together with the census figures being called low, before the famine it reads that "it is now generally believed" that over 8.75 million people populated the island of Ireland prior to it striking.<a href="#cite_note-193">[178]</a> In 1851, the census commissioners collected information on the number who died in each family since 1841, and the cause, season, and year of death. They recorded 21,770 total deaths from starvation in the previous decade and 400,720 deaths from diseases. Listed diseases were <a href="/wiki/Fever" title="Fever">fever</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diphtheria" title="Diphtheria">diphtheria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dysentery" title="Dysentery">dysentery</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cholera" title="Cholera">cholera</a>, <a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Influenza" title="Influenza">influenza</a>, with the first two being the main killers (222,021 and 93,232). The commissioners acknowledged that their figures were incomplete and that the true number of deaths was probably higher: <blockquote>The greater the amount of destitution of mortality ... the less will be the amount of recorded deaths derived through any household form;—for not only were whole families swept away by disease ... but whole villages were effaced from off the land.</blockquote> Later historians agree that the 1851 death tables "were flawed and probably under-estimated the level of mortality".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKillen1995250%E2%80%93252-194">[179]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinealy1994167-195">[180]</a> The combination of institutional and figures provided by individuals gives "an incomplete and biased count" of fatalities during the famine.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C3%93_Gr%C3%A1da20063-196">[181]</a> Cormac Ó Gráda, referencing the work of W. A. MacArthur,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacArthurEdwardsWilliams1957308%E2%80%93312-197">[182]</a> writes that specialists have long known that the Irish death tables were inaccurate,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C3%93_Gr%C3%A1da200667-198">[183]</a> and undercounted the number of deaths.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C3%93_Gr%C3%A1da200671-199">[184]</a> S. H. Cousens's estimate of 800,000 deaths relied heavily on retrospective information contained in the 1851 census and elsewhere,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECousens196055%E2%80%9374-200">[185]</a> and is now regarded as too low.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedyEllCrawfordClarkson199936-201">[186]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C3%93_Gr%C3%A1da1993138%E2%80%93144-48">[47]</a> Modern historian <a href="/wiki/J._J._Lee_(historian)" title="J. J. Lee (historian)">J. J. Lee</a> says "at least 800,000",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELee19731-202">[187]</a> and <a href="/wiki/R._F._Foster_(historian)" title="R. F. Foster (historian)">R. F. Foster</a> estimates that "at least 775,000 died, mostly through disease, including cholera in the latter stages of the holocaust". He further notes that "a recent sophisticated computation estimates excess deaths from 1846 to 1851 as between 1,000,000 and 1,500,000 ... after a careful critique of this, other statisticians arrive at a figure of 1,000,000".<a href="#cite_note-204">[fn 5]</a> <a href="/wiki/Joel_Mokyr" title="Joel Mokyr">Joel Mokyr</a>'s estimates at an aggregated county level range from 1.1 million to 1.5 million deaths between 1846 and 1851. Mokyr produced two sets of data which contained an upper-bound and lower-bound estimate, which showed not much difference in regional patterns.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMokyr1983266%E2%80%93267-205">[189]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedyEllCrawfordClarkson199936-201">[186]</a> The true figure is likely to lie between the two extremes of half and one and a half million, and the most widely accepted estimate is one million.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoyle%C3%93_Gr%C3%A1da1986554-206">[190]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinealy1994168-207">[191]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Decline in population 1841–1851 (%)<a href="#cite_note-208">[192]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr style="text-align:center; background-color:#ffdead;"> <th>Leinster</th> <th>Munster</th> <th>Ulster</th> <th>Connacht</th> <th>Ireland </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:right;"> <td>15.3</td> <td>22.5</td> <td>15.7</td> <td>28.8</td> <td>20 </td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1033199720">.mw-parser-output div.crossreference{padding-left:0}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951">Detailed statistics of the population of Ireland since 1841 are available at <a href="/wiki/Irish_population_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Irish population analysis">Irish population analysis</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_terrible_record_John_Johnson_political_%26_satirical_cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/A_terrible_record_John_Johnson_political_%26_satirical_cropped.jpg/220px-A_terrible_record_John_Johnson_political_%26_satirical_cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="519" data-file-height="406"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 172px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/A_terrible_record_John_Johnson_political_%26_satirical_cropped.jpg/220px-A_terrible_record_John_Johnson_political_%26_satirical_cropped.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="172" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/A_terrible_record_John_Johnson_political_%26_satirical_cropped.jpg/330px-A_terrible_record_John_Johnson_political_%26_satirical_cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/A_terrible_record_John_Johnson_political_%26_satirical_cropped.jpg/440px-A_terrible_record_John_Johnson_political_%26_satirical_cropped.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Political cartoon from the 1880s: "In forty years I have lost, through the operation of no natural law, more than Three Million of my Sons and Daughters, and they, the Young and the Strong, leaving behind the Old and Infirm to weep and to die. Where is this to end?"</figcaption></figure> Another area of uncertainty lies in the descriptions of disease given by tenants as to the cause of their relatives' deaths.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedyEllCrawfordClarkson199936-201">[186]</a> Though the 1851 census has been rightly criticised as underestimating the true extent of mortality, it does provide a framework for the medical history of the Great Famine. The diseases that badly affected the population fell into two categories:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedyEllCrawfordClarkson1999104-209">[193]</a> famine-induced diseases and diseases of <a href="/wiki/Illnesses_related_to_poor_nutrition" class="mw-redirect" title="Illnesses related to poor nutrition">nutritional deficiency</a>. Of the nutritional deficiency diseases, the most commonly experienced were starvation and <a href="/wiki/Marasmus" title="Marasmus">marasmus</a>, as well as a condition at the time called dropsy. Dropsy (<a href="/wiki/Oedema" class="mw-redirect" title="Oedema">oedema</a>) was a popular name given for the symptoms of several diseases, one of which, <a href="/wiki/Kwashiorkor" title="Kwashiorkor">kwashiorkor</a>, is associated with starvation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedyEllCrawfordClarkson1999104-209">[193]</a> However, the greatest mortality was not from nutritional deficiency diseases, but from famine-induced ailments.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedyEllCrawfordClarkson1999104-209">[193]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELivi-Bacci199138-210">[194]</a> The malnourished are very vulnerable to <a href="/wiki/Infection" title="Infection">infections</a>; therefore, these were more severe when they occurred. <a href="/wiki/Measles" title="Measles">Measles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diphtheria" title="Diphtheria">diphtheria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diarrhea" title="Diarrhea">diarrhoea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a>, most <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_infection" class="mw-redirect" title="Respiratory infection">respiratory infections</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pertussis" class="mw-redirect" title="Pertussis">whooping cough</a>, many <a href="/wiki/Intestinal_parasite" class="mw-redirect" title="Intestinal parasite">intestinal parasites</a>, and cholera were all strongly conditioned by nutritional status. Potentially lethal diseases, such as smallpox and influenza, were so virulent that their spread was independent of nutrition. The best example of this phenomenon was fever, which exacted the greatest death toll. In the popular mind, as well as medical opinion, fever and famine were closely related.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodham-Smith1991196-211">[195]</a> Social dislocation—the congregation of the hungry at soup kitchens, food depots, and overcrowded workhouses—created conditions that were ideal for spreading infectious diseases such as <a href="/wiki/Typhus" title="Typhus">typhus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Typhoid" class="mw-redirect" title="Typhoid">typhoid</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Relapsing_fever" title="Relapsing fever">relapsing fever</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELivi-Bacci199138-210">[194]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedyEllCrawfordClarkson1999104-209">[193]</a> Diarrhoeal diseases were the result of poor hygiene, bad sanitation, and dietary changes. The concluding attack on a population incapacitated by famine was delivered by Asiatic cholera, which had visited Ireland briefly in the 1830s. In the following decade, it spread uncontrollably across Asia, through Europe, and into Britain, finally reaching Ireland in 1849.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedyEllCrawfordClarkson1999104-209">[193]</a> Some scholars estimate that the population of Ireland was reduced by 20–25%.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinealy1994357-9">[9]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(9)"><h2 id="After_the_famine">After the famine</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Famine_(Ireland)&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: After the famine" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-9 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-9"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Great_Irish_Famine" title="Legacy of the Great Irish Famine">Legacy of the Great Irish Famine</a></div> Ireland's mean age of marriage in 1830 was 23.8 for women and 27.5 for men, where they had once been 21 for women and 25 for men, and those who never married numbered about 10% of the population;<a href="#cite_note-212">[196]</a> in 1840, they had respectively risen to 24.4 and 27.7.<a href="#cite_note-213">[197]</a><a href="#cite_note-214">[198]</a> In the decades after the Famine, the age of marriage had risen to 28–29 for women and 33 for men, and as many as a third of Irishmen and a quarter of Irishwomen never married, due to low wages and chronic economic problems that discouraged early and universal marriage.<a href="#cite_note-215">[199]</a> One consequence of the increase in the number of orphaned children was that some young women turned to prostitution to provide for themselves.<a href="#cite_note-216">[200]</a> Some of the women who became <a href="/wiki/Wrens_of_the_Curragh" title="Wrens of the Curragh">Wrens of the Curragh</a> were famine orphans.<a href="#cite_note-217">[201]</a> The potato blight would return to Ireland in 1879, though by then the rural cottier tenant farmers and labourers of Ireland had begun the "<a href="/wiki/Land_War" title="Land War">Land War</a>", described as one of the largest <a href="/wiki/Agrarianism" title="Agrarianism">agrarian</a> movements to take place in nineteenth-century Europe.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge.org-30">[30]</a> By the time the potato blight returned in 1879, The Land League, which was led by <a href="/wiki/Michael_Davitt" title="Michael Davitt">Michael Davitt</a>, who was born during the Great Famine and whose family had been evicted when Davitt was only 4 years old, encouraged the mass <a href="/wiki/Boycott#Etymology" title="Boycott">boycott</a> of "notorious landlords" with some members also physically blocking evictions. The policy, however, would soon be <a href="/wiki/Plan_of_Campaign" title="Plan of Campaign">suppressed</a>. Despite close to 1000 interned under the <a href="/wiki/Protection_of_Persons_and_Property_Act_1881" class="mw-redirect" title="Protection of Persons and Property Act 1881">1881 Coercion Act</a> for suspected membership. With the reduction in the rate of <a href="/wiki/Homelessness" title="Homelessness">homelessness</a> and the increased physical and political networks eroding the <a href="/wiki/Landlordism" class="mw-redirect" title="Landlordism">landlordism</a> system, the severity of <a href="/wiki/Irish_Famine_(1879)" title="Irish Famine (1879)">the following shorter famine</a> would be limited.<a href="#cite_note-muse.jhu.edu-31">[31]</a> According to the linguist Erick Falc'her-Poyroux, surprisingly, for a country renowned for its rich musical heritage, only a small number of folk songs can be traced back to the demographic and cultural catastrophe brought about by the Great Famine, and he infers from this that the subject was generally avoided for decades among poorer people as it brought back too many sorrowful memories. Also, large areas of the country became uninhabited and the folk song collectors of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries did not collect the songs they heard in the Irish language, as the language of the peasantry was often regarded as dead, or "not delicate enough for educated ears". Of the songs that have survived probably the best known is <a href="/wiki/Skibbereen_(song)" title="Skibbereen (song)">Skibbereen</a>. Emigration has been an important source of inspiration for songs of the Irish during the 20th century.<a href="#cite_note-Falc'her-Poyroux-168">[154]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(10)"><h2 id="Analysis_of_the_government's_role">Analysis of the government's role</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Famine_(Ireland)&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Analysis of the government's role" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-10 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-10"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Contemporary_analysis">Contemporary analysis</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Famine_(Ireland)&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Contemporary analysis" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Contemporary opinion was sharply critical of the Russell government's response to and management of the crisis. From the start, there were accusations that the government failed to grasp the magnitude of the disaster. Sir James Graham, who had served as <a href="/wiki/Home_Secretary" title="Home Secretary">Home Secretary</a> in Sir Robert Peel's late government, wrote to Peel that, in his opinion, "the real extent and magnitude of the Irish difficulty are underestimated by the Government, and cannot be met by measures within the strict rule of economical science".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinealy199480-218">[202]</a> This criticism was not confined to outside critics. The Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland, Lord Clarendon, wrote a letter to Russell on 26 April 1849, urging that the government propose additional relief measures: "I don't think there is another legislature in Europe that would disregard such suffering as now exists in the west of Ireland, or coldly persist in a policy of extermination."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodham-Smith1991381-219">[203]</a> Also in 1849, the Chief Poor Law Commissioner, Edward Twisleton, resigned in protest over the Rate-in-Aid Act, which provided additional funds for the Poor Law through a 6d in the pound levy on all rateable properties in Ireland.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinealy1994254%E2%80%93260-220">[204]</a> Twisleton testified that "comparatively trifling sums were required for Britain to spare itself the deep disgrace of permitting its miserable fellow-subjects to die of starvation". According to <a href="/wiki/Peter_Gray_(historian)" title="Peter Gray (historian)">Peter Gray</a> in his book The Irish Famine, the government spent £7 million for relief in Ireland between 1845 and 1850, "representing less than half of one per cent of the British <a href="/wiki/Measures_of_national_income_and_output" title="Measures of national income and output">gross national product</a> over five years. Contemporaries noted the sharp contrast with the £20 million compensation given to <a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">West Indian</a> slave-owners in the 1830s."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGray1995-187">[173]</a> Other critics maintained that, even after the government recognised the scope of the crisis, it failed to take sufficient steps to address it. John Mitchel, one of the leaders of the Young Ireland Movement, wrote in 1860: <blockquote>I have called it an artificial famine: that is to say, it was a famine which desolated a rich and fertile island that produced every year abundance and superabundance to sustain all her people and many more. The English, indeed, call the famine a "dispensation of Providence"; and ascribe it entirely to the blight on potatoes. But potatoes failed in like manner all over Europe, yet there was no famine save in Ireland. The British account of the matter, then, is first, a fraud; second, a blasphemy. The Almighty, indeed, sent the potato blight, but the English created the famine.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGallagher1987-221">[205]</a></blockquote> Still, other critics saw reflected in the government's response its attitude to the so-called "<a href="/wiki/Irish_Question" class="mw-redirect" title="Irish Question">Irish Question</a>". <a href="/wiki/Nassau_Senior" class="mw-redirect" title="Nassau Senior">Nassau Senior</a>, an economics professor at <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxford University">Oxford University</a>, wrote that the Famine "would not kill more than one million people, and that would scarcely be enough to do any good".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGallagher1987-221">[205]</a> In 1848, Denis Shine Lawlor suggested that Russell was a student of the Elizabethan poet <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Spenser" title="Edmund Spenser">Edmund Spenser</a>, who had calculated "how far English colonisation and English policy might be most effectively carried out by Irish starvation".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonnelly1995-222">[206]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sir_Charles_Trevelyan,_1st_Baronet" title="Sir Charles Trevelyan, 1st Baronet">Charles Trevelyan</a>, the civil servant with most direct responsibility for the government's handling of the famine, described it in 1848 as "a direct stroke of an all-wise and all-merciful Providence", which laid bare "the deep and inveterate root of social evil"; he affirmed that the Famine was "the sharp but effectual remedy by which the cure is likely to be effected. God grant that the generation to which this opportunity has been offered may rightly perform its part..."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETrevelyan1848-223">[207]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historical_analysis">Historical analysis</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Famine_(Ireland)&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Historical analysis" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Christine Kinealy has written that "the major tragedy of the Irish Famine of 1845–1852 marked a watershed in modern Irish history. Its occurrence, however, was neither inevitable nor unavoidable".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinealy1994xv-3">[3]</a> The underlying factors which combined to cause the famine were aggravated by an inadequate government response. Kinealy notes that the "government had to do something to help alleviate the suffering" but that "it became apparent that the government was using its information not merely to help it formulate its relief policies, but also as an opportunity to facilitate various long-desired changes within Ireland".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinealy1994353-224">[208]</a> Joel Mokyr writes that, "There is no doubt that Britain could have saved Ireland," and compares the £9.5 million the government spent on famine relief in Ireland to the £63.9 million it would spend a few years later on the "utterly futile" <a href="/wiki/Crimean_War" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMokyr1983291%E2%80%93293-225">[209]</a> Mokyr argues that, despite its formal integration into the United Kingdom, Ireland was effectively a foreign country to the British, who were therefore unwilling to spend resources that could have saved hundreds of thousands of lives.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMokyr1983291%E2%80%93293-225">[209]</a> Some also pointed to the structure of the British Empire as a contributing factor. <a href="/wiki/James_Anthony_Froude" title="James Anthony Froude">James Anthony Froude</a> wrote that "England governed Ireland for what she deemed her own interest, making her calculations on the gross balance of her trade ledgers, and leaving moral obligations aside, as if right and wrong had been blotted out of the statute book of the Universe."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacManus1921492-226">[210]</a> Dennis Clark, an <a href="/wiki/Irish_American" class="mw-redirect" title="Irish American">Irish-American</a> historian and critic of empire, claimed the famine was "the culmination of generations of neglect, misrule and repression. It was an epic of English colonial cruelty and inadequacy. For the landless cabin dwellers, it meant emigration or extinction..."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClark1982-227">[211]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Position_of_the_British_government">Position of the British government</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Famine_(Ireland)&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Position of the British government" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The British government has not expressly apologized for its role in the famine. But in 1997, at a commemoration event in County Cork, the actor <a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Byrne" title="Gabriel Byrne">Gabriel Byrne</a> read out a message by Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Tony_Blair" title="Tony Blair">Tony Blair</a> that acknowledged the inadequacy of the government response. It asserted that "those who governed in London at the time failed their people through standing by while a crop failure turned into a massive human tragedy". The message was well received in Ireland, where it was understood as the long-sought-after British apology. Archive documents released in 2021 showed that the message was not in fact written or approved by Blair, who could not be reached by aides at the time. It was therefore approved by Blair's <a href="/wiki/Principal_Private_Secretary" class="mw-redirect" title="Principal Private Secretary">principal private secretary</a> John Holmes on his own initiative.<a href="#cite_note-228">[212]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genocide_question">Genocide question</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Famine_(Ireland)&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Genocide question" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history_(before_World_War_I)#Great_Irish_Famine" title="Genocides in history (before World War I)">Genocides in history (before World War I) § Great Irish Famine</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:An_gorta_Mor.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/An_gorta_Mor.jpg/350px-An_gorta_Mor.jpg" decoding="async" width="350" height="233" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1909" data-file-height="1273"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 350px;height: 233px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/An_gorta_Mor.jpg/350px-An_gorta_Mor.jpg" data-width="350" data-height="233" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/An_gorta_Mor.jpg/525px-An_gorta_Mor.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/An_gorta_Mor.jpg/700px-An_gorta_Mor.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Ireland's Holocaust mural on the Ballymurphy Road, <a href="/wiki/Belfast" title="Belfast">Belfast</a>. "An Gorta Mór, Britain's genocide by starvation, Ireland's holocaust 1845–1849, over 1,500,000 deaths".</figcaption></figure> The vast majority of historians reject the claim that the British government's response to the famine constituted a genocide. Their position is partially based on the fact that, with regard to famine related deaths, there was a lack of intent to commit genocide. For a mass-death atrocity to be defined as a genocide, it must include the intentional destruction of a people.<a href="#cite_note-grada_cambridge-229">[213]</a><a href="#cite_note-230">[214]</a> Contemporary commentators blamed the mass death on the actions of the British government, rather than the blight.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcveigh2008549-231">[215]</a> In 1996, the U.S. state of <a href="/wiki/New_Jersey" title="New Jersey">New Jersey</a> included the famine in the "Holocaust and Genocide Curriculum" of its <a href="/wiki/Secondary_education_in_the_United_States" title="Secondary education in the United States">secondary</a> schools.<a href="#cite_note-233">[fn 6]</a> In the 1990s, Irish-American <a href="/wiki/Lobbying_in_the_United_States" title="Lobbying in the United States">lobbying groups</a> campaigned vigorously to include the study of the Irish Famine in school curriculums, alongside studies of <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">the Holocaust</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">slavery</a> and other similar atrocities.<a href="#cite_note-:1-234">[217]</a> The New Jersey curriculum was pushed by such lobbying groups and was drafted by the librarian James Mullin. Following criticism, the New Jersey Holocaust Commission requested statements from two academics that the Irish famine was genocide, which was eventually provided by law professors <a href="/wiki/Charles_E._Rice" title="Charles E. Rice">Charles E. Rice</a> and <a href="/wiki/Francis_Boyle" title="Francis Boyle">Francis Boyle</a>, who had not been previously known for studying Irish history.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2016100%E2%80%93101-235">[218]</a> They concluded that the British government deliberately pursued a race- and ethnicity-based policy aimed at destroying the Irish people and that the policy of mass starvation amounted to genocide per retrospective application of article 2 of the <a href="/wiki/Genocide_Convention" title="Genocide Convention">Hague Convention of 1948</a>.<a href="#cite_note-237">[fn 7]</a><a href="#cite_note-238">[220]</a> Historian <a href="/wiki/Donald_Akenson" title="Donald Akenson">Donald Akenson</a>, who has written 24 books on Ireland, stated that "When you see [the word Holocaust used with regard to the Great Famine], you know that you are encountering famine-porn. It is inevitably part of a presentation that is historically unbalanced and, like other kinds of pornography, is distinguished by a covert (and sometimes overt) appeal to misanthropy and almost always an incitement to hatred."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2016104-239">[221]</a> Irish historian <a href="/wiki/Cormac_%C3%93_Gr%C3%A1da" title="Cormac Ó Gráda">Cormac Ó Gráda</a> rejected the claim that the British government's response to the famine was a genocide and he also stated that "no academic historian continues to take the claim of 'genocide' seriously".<a href="#cite_note-grada_cambridge-229">[213]</a> He argued that "genocide includes <a href="/wiki/Genocidal_intent" title="Genocidal intent">murderous intent</a>, and it must be said that not even the most bigoted and <a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">racist</a> commentators of the day sought the extermination of the Irish", and he also stated that most people in <a href="/wiki/Whitehall" title="Whitehall">Whitehall</a> "hoped for better times for Ireland". Additionally, he stated that the claim of genocide overlooks "the enormous challenge facing relief agencies, both central and local, public and private".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C3%93_Gr%C3%A1da200010-240">[222]</a> Ó Gráda thinks that a case of neglect is easier to sustain than a case of genocide.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C3%93_Gr%C3%A1da200010-240">[222]</a> John Leazer, professor of history at Carthage College, Wisconsin, wrote that the binary framing of the debate about the British government's, and particularly Trevelyan's, actions as being good or bad is "unsatisfactory" and that the entire debate surrounding the question of genocide serves to oversimplify and obfuscate complex factors behind the actions of the government as a whole and individuals within it.<a href="#cite_note-241">[223]</a> Writing in 2008, historian Robbie Mcveigh highlighted that while discussions around whether the Great Irish Famine was genocidal in nature have a long history, the tools of genocide analysis were never employed to assess such claims.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcveigh2008553-242">[224]</a> Scholars highlight the similarity of British policies around and in response to the Irish famine and other cases of famine and starvation in the British empire and colonial regimes,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConleyde_Waal2023139-243">[225]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcveigh2008556-244">[226]</a> with Mcveigh stating in the other cases they "appear not as horrendous imperial incompetence but rather a deliberate administrative policy of genocide", and calls for more rigorous investigation of the history of Ireland in genocide studies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcveigh2008556-244">[226]</a> There have been later genocide scholars who support the description of the famine as a genocide.<a href="#cite_note-245">[227]</a> Nat Hill, director of research at <a href="/wiki/Genocide_Watch" class="mw-redirect" title="Genocide Watch">Genocide Watch</a>, has stated that "While the potato famine may not fit perfectly into the legal and political definitions of 'genocide', it should be given equal consideration in history as an egregious crime against humanity".<a href="#cite_note-246">[228]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(11)"><h2 id="Memorials">Memorials</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Famine_(Ireland)&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Memorials" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-11 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-11"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_memorials_to_the_Great_Famine" title="List of memorials to the Great Famine">List of memorials to the Great Famine</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Great_Irish_Famine" title="Legacy of the Great Irish Famine">Legacy of the Great Irish Famine</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Famine_memorial_dublin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Famine_memorial_dublin.jpg/280px-Famine_memorial_dublin.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="210" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 280px;height: 210px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Famine_memorial_dublin.jpg/280px-Famine_memorial_dublin.jpg" data-width="280" data-height="210" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Famine_memorial_dublin.jpg/420px-Famine_memorial_dublin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Famine_memorial_dublin.jpg/560px-Famine_memorial_dublin.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Famine_Memorial_(Dublin)" title="Famine Memorial (Dublin)">Famine Memorial</a> in <a href="/wiki/Dublin" title="Dublin">Dublin</a></figcaption></figure> Ireland's National Famine Memorial is situated in <a href="/wiki/Murrisk_Millennium_Peace_Park" title="Murrisk Millennium Peace Park">Murrisk Millennium Peace Park</a>, a five-acre park overlooking the Atlantic Ocean in the village of <a href="/wiki/Murrisk" title="Murrisk">Murrisk</a>, <a href="/wiki/County_Mayo" title="County Mayo">County Mayo</a> at the foot of <a href="/wiki/Croagh_Patrick" title="Croagh Patrick">Croagh Patrick</a> mountain.<a href="#cite_note-247">[229]</a>&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(September_2023)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_248-0' class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcDonald2010%5B%5BCategory:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_September_2023%5D%5D<sup_class=%22noprint_Inline-Template_%22_style=%22white-space:nowrap;%22>&#91;%5B%5BWikipedia:Citing_sources%7C<span_title=%22This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(September_2023)%22>page&nbsp;needed%5D%5D&#93;-248">[230]</a> Designed by Irish artist <a href="/wiki/John_Behan_(sculptor)" title="John Behan (sculptor)">John Behan</a>, the memorial consists of a bronze sculpture of a coffin ship with skeletons interwoven through the rigging symbolising the many emigrants that did not survive the journey across the ocean to Britain, America and elsewhere. It was unveiled on 20 July 1997 by then-<a href="/wiki/President_of_Ireland" title="President of Ireland">President</a> <a href="/wiki/Mary_Robinson" title="Mary Robinson">Mary Robinson</a>.<a href="#cite_note-IFM-249">[231]</a> The Famine Commemoration Committee who led the project chose the site in Murrisk as they felt it was "...entirely fitting that the national famine memorial [..] be located in the west, which suffered most during the Famine with one in four of the population of Connaught dying in those terrible years."<a href="#cite_note-250">[232]</a><a href="#cite_note-ABray-251">[233]</a> The <a href="/wiki/National_Famine_Commemoration_Day" title="National Famine Commemoration Day">National Famine Commemoration Day</a> is observed annually in Ireland, usually on a Sunday in May.<a href="#cite_note-252">[234]</a> It is also memorialized in many locations throughout Ireland, especially in those regions of Ireland which suffered the greatest losses, and it is also memorialized overseas, particularly in cities with large populations which are descended from Irish immigrants, such as <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-253">[235]</a> Among the memorials in the US is the <a href="/wiki/Irish_Hunger_Memorial" title="Irish Hunger Memorial">Irish Hunger Memorial</a> near a section of the Manhattan waterfront.<a href="#cite_note-:0-253">[235]</a> <a href="/wiki/Kindred_Spirits_(sculpture)" title="Kindred Spirits (sculpture)">Kindred Spirits</a>, a large stainless steel sculpture of nine eagle feathers by artist Alex Pentek was erected in 2017 in the Irish town of <a href="/wiki/Midleton" title="Midleton">Midleton</a>, <a href="/wiki/County_Cork" title="County Cork">County Cork</a>, to thank the Choctaw people for its <a href="#Charity">financial assistance during the famine</a>.<a href="#cite_note-254">[236]</a><a href="#cite_note-255">[237]</a> An annual <a href="/wiki/Doolough_Tragedy" title="Doolough Tragedy">Great Famine walk</a> from <a href="/wiki/Doolough" title="Doolough">Doolough</a> to <a href="/wiki/Louisburgh,_County_Mayo" title="Louisburgh, County Mayo">Louisburgh, County Mayo</a> was inaugurated in 1988 and has been led by such notable personalities as Archbishop <a href="/wiki/Desmond_Tutu" title="Desmond Tutu">Desmond Tutu</a> of South Africa and representatives of the Choctaw nation of Oklahoma.<a href="#cite_note-256">[238]</a><a href="#cite_note-257">[239]</a> The walk, organised by <a href="/wiki/Afri_(organisation)" title="Afri (organisation)">Afri</a>, takes place on the first or second Saturday of May and links the memory of the famine with contemporary human rights issues. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(12)"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Famine_(Ireland)&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: See also" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-12 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-12"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Famine%27s_effect_on_the_American_economy" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Famine's effect on the American economy">Great Famine's effect on the American economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highland_Potato_Famine" title="Highland Potato Famine">Highland Potato Famine</a> (an agrarian crisis which occurred in <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a> at the same time)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Famine_(1740%E2%80%931741)" title="Irish Famine (1740–1741)">Irish Famine (1740–1741)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Famine_(1879)" title="Irish Famine (1879)">Irish Famine (1879)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_famines" title="List of famines">List of famines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Wood,_1st_Viscount_Halifax#Role_in_the_Irish_Famine" title="Charles Wood, 1st Viscount Halifax">Charles Wood, 1st Viscount Halifax#Role in the Irish Famine</a></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(13)"><h2 id="References">References</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Famine_(Ireland)&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: References" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-13 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-13"> Informational notes <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> Kinealy put the date at the 16th.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinealy199432-67">[66]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Lyon_Playfair" class="mw-redirect" title="Lyon Playfair">Lyon Playfair</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Lindley" title="John Lindley">John Lindley</a> were sent from England to investigate with the local assistance of <a href="/wiki/Robert_Kane_(chemist)" title="Robert Kane (chemist)">Robert Kane</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodham-Smith199144%E2%80%9345-76">[74]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> William H. Gregory became the husband of <a href="/wiki/Augusta,_Lady_Gregory" class="mw-redirect" title="Augusta, Lady Gregory">Lady Gregory</a>. He was heir to a substantial Galway estate in 1847, which he dissipated by gambling debts on the turf in the late 1840s and early 1850s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEP%C3%B3irt%C3%A9ir1995159-114">[111]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a> Civil registration of births and deaths in Ireland was not established by law until 1863.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThe_Register_Office20051-190">[176]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-204"><a href="#cite_ref-204">^</a> "Based on hitherto unpublished work by C. Ó Gráda and Phelim Hughes, 'Fertility trends, excess mortality and the Great Irish Famine' ... Also see <a href="/wiki/Cormac_%C3%93_Gr%C3%A1da" title="Cormac Ó Gráda">Cormac Ó Gráda</a> and <a href="/wiki/Joel_Mokyr" title="Joel Mokyr">Joel Mokyr</a>, 'New developments in Irish Population History 1700–1850', Economic History Review, vol. xxxvii, no. 4 (November 1984), pp. 473–488."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoster1988234-203">[188]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-233"><a href="#cite_ref-233">^</a> Approved by the New Jersey Commission on Holocaust Education on 10 September 1996, for inclusion in the Holocaust and Genocide Curriculum at the secondary level. Revision submitted 11/26/98.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIrish_Famine_Curriculum_Committee19981-232">[216]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-237"><a href="#cite_ref-237">^</a> "Clearly, during the years 1845 to 1850, the British government pursued a policy of mass starvation in Ireland with intent to destroy in substantial part the national, ethnic and racial group commonly known as the Irish People ... Therefore, during the years 1845 to 1850 the British government knowingly pursued a policy of mass starvation in Ireland that constituted acts of genocide against the Irish people within the meaning of Article II (c) of the 1948 [Hague] <a href="/wiki/Convention_on_the_Prevention_and_Punishment_of_the_Crime_of_Genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide">Genocide Convention</a>."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERitschel1996-236">[219]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> Footnotes <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> About £710 million in 2023. </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> equivalent to £1,712,000 in 2023 </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> equivalent to £244,637 in 2023 </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> equivalent to £1,154,312 in 2023 </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a> equivalent to £115,431 in 2023 </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a> equivalent to $1,635 in 2023 </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> equivalent to $327 in 2023 </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> equivalent to £577 in 2023 </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> equivalent to £20,982,000 in 2023 </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> equivalent to £47,704,000 in 2023 </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> equivalent to $18,486,000 in 2023 </li> </ol></div></div> Citations <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinealy19945-1"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKinealy19945_1-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKinealy1994">Kinealy 1994</a>, p. 5. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Neill20091-2"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Neill20091_2-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFO'Neill2009">O'Neill 2009</a>, p. 1. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinealy1994xv-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKinealy1994xv_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKinealy1994xv_3-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKinealy1994xv_3-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFKinealy1994">Kinealy 1994</a>, p. xv. </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.duchas.ie/en/tpc/cbes/4427742?con=GA">[1]</a><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200512043154/https://www.duchas.ie/en/tpc/cbes/4427742?con=GA">Archived</a> 12 May 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> The great famine (An Drochshaol). Dúchas.ie </li> <li id="cite_note-cuiv-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cuiv_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-cuiv_5-1">b</a> Éamon Ó Cuív, <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.irishfamine.ie/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/2009-05-08-FINAL-speech-for-University-of-Toronto-Lecture.pdf">[2]</a><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200517204333/https://www.irishfamine.ie/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/2009-05-08-FINAL-speech-for-University-of-Toronto-Lecture.pdf">Archived</a> 17 May 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> An Gorta Mór – the impact and legacy of the Great Irish Famine </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/irish/articles/view/1186/english/">An Fháinleog</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200818134744/https://www.bbc.co.uk/irish/articles/view/1186/english/">Archived</a> 18 August 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Chapter 6. "drochshaol, while it can mean a hard life, or hard times, also, with a capital letter, has a specific, historic meaning: Bliain an Drochshaoil means The Famine Year, particularly 1847; Aimsir an Drochshaoil means the time of the Great Famine (1847–52)." </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dfa.ie/irish-embassy/usa/about-us/ambassador/ambassadors-blog/black47irelandsgreatfamineanditsafter-effects/">"Black '47 Ireland's Great Famine and its after-effects - Department of Foreign Affairs"</a>. www.dfa.ie. 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London: The Boydell Press. pp. 148–149. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781783277278" title="Special:BookSources/9781783277278"><bdi>9781783277278</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+Famine+in+Ireland+and+Britain%27s+Financial+Crisis&rft.place=London&rft.pages=148-149&rft.pub=The+Boydell+Press&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=9781783277278&rft.aulast=Read&rft.aufirst=C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Famine+%28Ireland%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERanelagh200060-112">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERanelagh200060_112-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERanelagh200060_112-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERanelagh200060_112-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFRanelagh2000">Ranelagh 2000</a>, p. 60. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodham-Smith1991296–297-113"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWoodham-Smith1991296%E2%80%93297_113-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWoodham-Smith1991">Woodham-Smith 1991</a>, pp. 296–297. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPóirtéir1995159-114">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEP%C3%B3irt%C3%A9ir1995159_114-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEP%C3%B3irt%C3%A9ir1995159_114-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFP%C3%B3irt%C3%A9ir1995">Póirtéir 1995</a>, p. 159. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMitchel199616-116"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMitchel199616_116-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMitchel1996">Mitchel 1996</a>, p. 16. </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170107041845/http://www.historicalballinrobe.com/page_id__166.aspx">"A valuable resource for family research | Ballinrobe Local History: The Encumbered Estates Acts, 1848 and 1849 | Topics | Historical Ballinrobe"</a>. 7 January 2017. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historicalballinrobe.com/page_id__166.aspx">the original</a> on 7 January 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+valuable+resource+for+family+research+%26%23124%3B+Ballinrobe+Local+History%3A+The+Encumbered+Estates+Acts%2C+1848+and+1849+%26%23124%3B+Topics+%26%23124%3B+Historical+Ballinrobe&rft.date=2017-01-07&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.historicalballinrobe.com%2Fpage_id__166.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Famine+%28Ireland%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiller2008" class="citation journal cs1">Miller, David W. (11 June 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://muse.jhu.edu/article/240915">"Ireland's Great Famine: Interdisciplinary Perspectives (review)"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Interdisciplinary_History" title="Journal of Interdisciplinary History">Journal of Interdisciplinary History</a>. 39 (1): 114–115. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1162%2Fjinh.2008.39.1.114">10.1162/jinh.2008.39.1.114</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:195826785">195826785</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190330151432/https://muse.jhu.edu/article/240915">Archived</a> from the original on 30 March 2019. Retrieved 23 September 2018 – via <a href="/wiki/Project_MUSE" class="mw-redirect" title="Project MUSE">Project MUSE</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Interdisciplinary+History&rft.atitle=Ireland%27s+Great+Famine%3A+Interdisciplinary+Perspectives+%28review%29&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=114-115&rft.date=2008-06-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1162%2Fjinh.2008.39.1.114&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A195826785%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=David+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmuse.jhu.edu%2Farticle%2F240915&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Famine+%28Ireland%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-RoyalNavy-119"><a href="#cite_ref-RoyalNavy_119-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcLean2019" class="citation journal cs1">McLean, David (23 February 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/ehr/article-abstract/134/566/92/5363998?redirectedFrom=fulltext&login=false">"Famine on the Coast: The Royal Navy and the Relief of Ireland, 1846–1847"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_English_Historical_Review" title="The English Historical Review">The English Historical Review</a>. 134 (566): 92–120. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fehr%2Fcez004">10.1093/ehr/cez004</a>. Retrieved 22 October 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+English+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=Famine+on+the+Coast%3A+The+Royal+Navy+and+the+Relief+of+Ireland%2C+1846%E2%80%931847&rft.volume=134&rft.issue=566&rft.pages=92-120&rft.date=2019-02-23&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fehr%2Fcez004&rft.aulast=McLean&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fehr%2Farticle-abstract%2F134%2F566%2F92%2F5363998%3FredirectedFrom%3Dfulltext%26login%3Dfalse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Famine+%28Ireland%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEÓ_Gráda1999123-120"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTE%C3%93_Gr%C3%A1da1999123_120-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREF%C3%93_Gr%C3%A1da1999">Ó Gráda 1999</a>, p. 123. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodham-Smith199175-121"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWoodham-Smith199175_121-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWoodham-Smith1991">Woodham-Smith 1991</a>, p. 75. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodham-Smith199176-122"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWoodham-Smith199176_122-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWoodham-Smith1991">Woodham-Smith 1991</a>, p. 76. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEÓ_Gráda2000123-123"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTE%C3%93_Gr%C3%A1da2000123_123-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREF%C3%93_Gr%C3%A1da2000">Ó Gráda 2000</a>, p. 123. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodham-Smith199137-124"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWoodham-Smith199137_124-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWoodham-Smith1991">Woodham-Smith 1991</a>, p. 37. </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> [The Nation, 25 October 1845; repr. in P. S. O'Hegarty, A history of Ireland under the Union(London 1952) 293] </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEarls2020" class="citation magazine cs1">Earls, Maurice (5 May 2020). "Blighted". <a href="/wiki/Dublin_Review_of_Books" title="Dublin Review of Books">Dublin Review of Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Dublin+Review+of+Books&rft.atitle=Blighted&rft.date=2020-05-05&rft.aulast=Earls&rft.aufirst=Maurice&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Famine+%28Ireland%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Daly1997-127"><a href="#cite_ref-Daly1997_127-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaly1997" class="citation journal cs1">Daly, Mary E. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/60000023">"Historians and the Famine: A Beleaguered Species?"</a>. Irish Historical Studies. 30 (120): 591–601. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS002112140001347X">10.1017/S002112140001347X</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-1214">0021-1214</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/60000023">60000023</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:163627192">163627192</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201201000528/https://www.jstor.org/stable/60000023">Archived</a> from the original on 1 December 2020. Retrieved 1 January 2021. <q>[Donnelly] has noted that statistics for grain exports and imports were readily available during the second half of the nineteenth century 'and if honestly confronted, would at least have raised serious doubts about the accuracy of the nationalist perspective'. Modern scholars have even less of an excuse for prevarication. Peter Solar calculated that on the eve of the Famine Ireland produced sufficient food for 9.5 to 10m people; during the years 1846–50 it produced little more than half that amount. Austin Bourke showed that food imports were considerably in excess of exports during the Famine years, though a ban on exports during the autumn of 1846 might have eased food shortages. Food exports during the autumn and winter of 1846 were equivalent to one-tenth of the potatoes lost... [Kinealy] seems to imply that Mitchel's case is more credible than recent scholars suggest; few would agree.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Irish+Historical+Studies&rft.atitle=Historians+and+the+Famine%3A+A+Beleaguered+Species%3F&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=120&rft.pages=591-601&rft.date=1997&rft.issn=0021-1214&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A163627192%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F60000023%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS002112140001347X&rft.aulast=Daly&rft.aufirst=Mary+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F60000023&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Famine+%28Ireland%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> Kinealy, Christine. Food Exports from Ireland 1846–47. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.historyireland.com/18th-19th-century-history/food-exports-from-ireland-1846-47/">History Ireland</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210216080054/https://www.historyireland.com/18th-19th-century-history/food-exports-from-ireland-1846-47/">Archived</a> 16 February 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Spring 1997. </li> <li id="cite_note-Accounting-129">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Accounting_129-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Accounting_129-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Humanitarinism In The Modern World. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. 2020. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1108655903" title="Special:BookSources/978-1108655903"><bdi>978-1108655903</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Humanitarinism+In+The+Modern+World&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1108655903&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Famine+%28Ireland%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFForbesLee1967" class="citation book cs1">Forbes, H. A. Crosby; Lee, Henry (1967). Massachusetts Help to Ireland during the Great Famine. Milton: Captain Robert Bennet Forbes House.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Massachusetts+Help+to+Ireland+during+the+Great+Famine&rft.place=Milton&rft.pub=Captain+Robert+Bennet+Forbes+House&rft.date=1967&rft.aulast=Forbes&rft.aufirst=H.+A.+Crosby&rft.au=Lee%2C+Henry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Famine+%28Ireland%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodham-Smith1991156-132"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWoodham-Smith1991156_132-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWoodham-Smith1991">Woodham-Smith 1991</a>, p. 156. </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAkay2012" class="citation news cs1">Akay, Latifa (29 January 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131017094035/http://www.todayszaman.com/newsDetail_getNewsById.action?newsId=269871">"Ottoman aid to the Irish to hit the big screen"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Zaman_(newspaper)" title="Zaman (newspaper)">Zaman</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.todayszaman.com/newsDetail_getNewsById.action?newsId=269871">the original</a> on 17 October 2013. <q>Legend has it ...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zaman&rft.atitle=Ottoman+aid+to+the+Irish+to+hit+the+big+screen&rft.date=2012-01-29&rft.aulast=Akay&rft.aufirst=Latifa&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.todayszaman.com%2FnewsDetail_getNewsById.action%3FnewsId%3D269871&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Famine+%28Ireland%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKinealy1997" class="citation book cs1">Kinealy, Christine (1997). "Potatoes, providence and philanthropy". In O'Sullivan, Patrick (ed.). The Meaning of the Famine. 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Ourselves Alone: Women's Emigration from Ireland, 1885–1920. <a href="/wiki/University_Press_of_Kentucky" title="University Press of Kentucky">University Press of Kentucky</a>. pp. 74–75.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ourselves+Alone%3A+Women%27s+Emigration+from+Ireland%2C+1885%E2%80%931920&rft.pages=74-75&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Kentucky&rft.date=1986&rft.aulast=Nolan&rft.aufirst=Janet&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Famine+%28Ireland%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-216"><a href="#cite_ref-216">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLuddy2007" class="citation book cs1">Luddy, Maria (2007). Prostitution and Irish society, 1800–1940. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-88241-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-88241-5"><bdi>978-0-521-88241-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/154706356">154706356</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Prostitution+and+Irish+society%2C+1800%E2%80%931940&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F154706356&rft.isbn=978-0-521-88241-5&rft.aulast=Luddy&rft.aufirst=Maria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Famine+%28Ireland%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-217"><a href="#cite_ref-217">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLuddy1992" class="citation journal cs1">Luddy, Maria (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09612029200200014">"An outcast community: the 'wrens' of the curragh"</a>. Women's History Review. 1 (3): 341–355. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09612029200200014">10.1080/09612029200200014</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0961-2025">0961-2025</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Women%27s+History+Review&rft.atitle=An+outcast+community%3A+the+%27wrens%27+of+the+curragh&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=341-355&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F09612029200200014&rft.issn=0961-2025&rft.aulast=Luddy&rft.aufirst=Maria&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%252F09612029200200014&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Famine+%28Ireland%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinealy199480-218"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKinealy199480_218-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKinealy1994">Kinealy 1994</a>, p. 80. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodham-Smith1991381-219"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWoodham-Smith1991381_219-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWoodham-Smith1991">Woodham-Smith 1991</a>, p. 381. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinealy1994254–260-220"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKinealy1994254%E2%80%93260_220-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKinealy1994">Kinealy 1994</a>, pp. 254–260. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGallagher1987-221">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGallagher1987_221-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGallagher1987_221-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFGallagher1987">Gallagher 1987</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonnelly1995-222"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonnelly1995_222-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDonnelly1995">Donnelly 1995</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETrevelyan1848-223"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETrevelyan1848_223-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTrevelyan1848">Trevelyan 1848</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinealy1994353-224"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKinealy1994353_224-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKinealy1994">Kinealy 1994</a>, p. 353. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMokyr1983291–293-225">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMokyr1983291%E2%80%93293_225-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMokyr1983291%E2%80%93293_225-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMokyr1983">Mokyr 1983</a>, pp. 291–293. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacManus1921492-226"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacManus1921492_226-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMacManus1921">MacManus 1921</a>, p. 492. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEClark1982-227"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClark1982_227-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFClark1982">Clark 1982</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-228"><a href="#cite_ref-228">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavies2021" class="citation news cs1">Davies, Caroline (20 July 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/jul/20/tony-blairs-apology-for-irish-famine-written-by-aides-papers-reveal">"Tony Blair's apology for Irish famine written by aides, papers reveal"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210720144316/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/jul/20/tony-blairs-apology-for-irish-famine-written-by-aides-papers-reveal">Archived</a> from the original on 20 July 2021. Retrieved 20 July 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Tony+Blair%27s+apology+for+Irish+famine+written+by+aides%2C+papers+reveal&rft.date=2021-07-20&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=Caroline&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2021%2Fjul%2F20%2Ftony-blairs-apology-for-irish-famine-written-by-aides-papers-reveal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Famine+%28Ireland%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-grada_cambridge-229">^ <a href="#cite_ref-grada_cambridge_229-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-grada_cambridge_229-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFÓ_Gráda1995" class="citation book cs1">Ó Gráda, Cormac (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X0uf6t8VfAsC">The Great Irish famine</a>. New Studies in Economic and Social History (illustrated, reprinted ed.). <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. 4, 68. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-55787-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-55787-0"><bdi>978-0-521-55787-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200813011514/https://books.google.com/books?id=X0uf6t8VfAsC">Archived</a> from the original on 13 August 2020. Retrieved 7 August 2020. <q>[page 4] While no academic historian continues to take the claim of genocide seriously, the issue of blame remains controversial [page 68]. In sum, the Great Famine of the 1840s, instead of being inevitable and inherent in the potato economy, was a tragic ecological accident. Ireland's experience during these years supports neither the complacency exemplified by the Whig view of political economy nor the genocide theories formerly espoused by a few nationalist historians.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+Irish+famine&rft.series=New+Studies+in+Economic+and+Social+History&rft.pages=4%2C+68&rft.edition=illustrated%2C+reprinted&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-521-55787-0&rft.aulast=%C3%93+Gr%C3%A1da&rft.aufirst=Cormac&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DX0uf6t8VfAsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Famine+%28Ireland%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-230"><a href="#cite_ref-230">^</a> <div><ul><li><a href="#CITEREFKenny2003">Kenny 2003</a>, p. 246: "And, while few, if any, historians in Ireland today would endorse the idea of British genocide (in the sense of conscious intent to slaughter), this does not mean that government policies, whether adopted or rejected, had no impact on starvation, disease, mortality and emigration."</li><li><a href="#CITEREFKennedy2016">Kennedy 2016</a>, p. 111: "Contrary to what might be surmised, modern Irish society is not particularly receptive to the doctrine of genocide. The fact that virtually all historians of Ireland have reached a verdict that eschews that position, be they Irish-born or scholars from Britain, North America or Australasia, has weakened the populist account."</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMcGowan2017">McGowan 2017</a>, p. 88</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcveigh2008549-231"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcveigh2008549_231-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcveigh2008">Mcveigh 2008</a>, p. 549. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIrish_Famine_Curriculum_Committee19981-232"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIrish_Famine_Curriculum_Committee19981_232-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFIrish_Famine_Curriculum_Committee1998">Irish Famine Curriculum Committee 1998</a>, p. 1. </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-234"><a href="#cite_ref-:1_234-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKennedy" class="citation web cs1">Kennedy, Liam. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210213022226/https://www.qub.ac.uk/sites/irishhistorylive/IrishHistoryResources/Articlesandlecturesbyourteachingstaff/TheGreatIrishFamineandtheHolocaust/">"The Great Irish Famine and the Holocaust"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.qub.ac.uk/sites/irishhistorylive/IrishHistoryResources/Articlesandlecturesbyourteachingstaff/TheGreatIrishFamineandtheHolocaust/">the original</a> on 13 February 2021. Retrieved 5 February 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Great+Irish+Famine+and+the+Holocaust&rft.aulast=Kennedy&rft.aufirst=Liam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.qub.ac.uk%2Fsites%2Firishhistorylive%2FIrishHistoryResources%2FArticlesandlecturesbyourteachingstaff%2FTheGreatIrishFamineandtheHolocaust%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Famine+%28Ireland%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2016100–101-235"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2016100%E2%80%93101_235-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKennedy2016">Kennedy 2016</a>, pp. 100–101. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERitschel1996-236"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERitschel1996_236-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRitschel1996">Ritschel 1996</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-238"><a href="#cite_ref-238">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMullin2002" class="citation journal cs1">Mullin, James V. (Spring–Summer 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120709023854/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0FKX/is_2002_Spring-Summer/ai_87915680/pg_5">"The New Jersey Famine Curriculum: a report"</a>. Eire-Ireland: Journal of Irish Studies. 37 (1–2): 119–129. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Feir.2002.0008">10.1353/eir.2002.0008</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0FKX/is_2002_Spring-Summer/ai_87915680/pg_5">the original</a> on 9 July 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Eire-Ireland%3A+Journal+of+Irish+Studies&rft.atitle=The+New+Jersey+Famine+Curriculum%3A+a+report&rft.chron=spring%E2%80%93summer&rft.volume=37&rft.issue=1%E2%80%932&rft.pages=119-129&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Feir.2002.0008&rft.aulast=Mullin&rft.aufirst=James+V.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffindarticles.com%2Fp%2Farticles%2Fmi_m0FKX%2Fis_2002_Spring-Summer%2Fai_87915680%2Fpg_5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Famine+%28Ireland%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2016104-239"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2016104_239-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKennedy2016">Kennedy 2016</a>, p. 104. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEÓ_Gráda200010-240">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTE%C3%93_Gr%C3%A1da200010_240-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTE%C3%93_Gr%C3%A1da200010_240-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREF%C3%93_Gr%C3%A1da2000">Ó Gráda 2000</a>, p. 10. </li> <li id="cite_note-241"><a href="#cite_ref-241">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeazer2022" class="citation journal cs1">Leazer, John (17 January 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/03324893211049539">"Politics as Usual: Charles Edward Trevelyan and the Irish and Scottish Fisheries Before and During the Great Famine"</a>. Irish Economic and Social History. 49 (1): 47–59. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F03324893211049539">10.1177/03324893211049539</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:246022519">246022519</a>. Retrieved 16 December 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Irish+Economic+and+Social+History&rft.atitle=Politics+as+Usual%3A+Charles+Edward+Trevelyan+and+the+Irish+and+Scottish+Fisheries+Before+and+During+the+Great+Famine&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=47-59&rft.date=2022-01-17&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F03324893211049539&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A246022519%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Leazer&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.sagepub.com%2Fdoi%2Ffull%2F10.1177%2F03324893211049539&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Famine+%28Ireland%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcveigh2008553-242"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcveigh2008553_242-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcveigh2008">Mcveigh 2008</a>, p. 553. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConleyde_Waal2023139-243"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConleyde_Waal2023139_243-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConleyde_Waal2023">Conley & de Waal 2023</a>, p. 139. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcveigh2008556-244">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcveigh2008556_244-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcveigh2008556_244-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcveigh2008">Mcveigh 2008</a>, p. 556. </li> <li id="cite_note-245"><a href="#cite_ref-245">^</a> <div><ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKing2009" class="citation book cs1">King, Neysa (2009). "Rethinking and Recognizing Genocide: The British and the Case of the Great Irish Potato Famine". In Cooley, Dennis R.; Steffen, Lloyd (eds.). Re-Imaging Death and Dying. 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Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2F9781108655903">10.1017/9781108655903</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781108655903" title="Special:BookSources/9781108655903"><bdi>9781108655903</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Humanitarianism+in+the+Modern+World%3A+The+Moral+Economy+of+Famine+Relief&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2F9781108655903&rft.isbn=9781108655903&rft.aulast=G%C3%B6tz&rft.aufirst=Norbert&rft.au=Brewis%2C+Georgina&rft.au=Werther%2C+Steffen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Famine+%28Ireland%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIrish_Famine_Curriculum_Committee1998" class="citation cs2">Irish Famine Curriculum Committee (1998), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jrbooksonline.com/PDF_Books/irish.pdf">The Great Irish Famine</a> (PDF), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140319234704/http://www.jrbooksonline.com/PDF_Books/irish.pdf">archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 19 March 2014, retrieved 1 July 2014</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+Irish+Famine&rft.date=1998&rft.au=Irish+Famine+Curriculum+Committee&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jrbooksonline.com%2FPDF_Books%2Firish.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Famine+%28Ireland%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacobs2023" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a href="/wiki/Steven_L._Jacobs" title="Steven L. 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Hamish Hamilton. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-241-12858-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-241-12858-9"><bdi>978-0-241-12858-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Laurel+and+the+Ivy%3A+The+Story+of+Charles+Stewart+Parnell+and+Irish+Nationalism&rft.pub=Hamish+Hamilton&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-241-12858-9&rft.aulast=Kee&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flaurelivystoryof0000keer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Famine+%28Ireland%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKennedyEllCrawfordClarkson1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Liam_Kennedy_(historian)" title="Liam Kennedy (historian)">Kennedy, Liam</a>; Ell, Paul S.; Crawford, E. M.; Clarkson, L. A (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mappinggreatiris00lacl">Mapping The Great Irish Famine</a>. Four Courts Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85182-353-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-85182-353-0"><bdi>1-85182-353-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mapping+The+Great+Irish+Famine&rft.pub=Four+Courts+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=1-85182-353-0&rft.aulast=Kennedy&rft.aufirst=Liam&rft.au=Ell%2C+Paul+S.&rft.au=Crawford%2C+E.+M.&rft.au=Clarkson%2C+L.+A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmappinggreatiris00lacl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Famine+%28Ireland%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKennedy2016" class="citation book cs1">Kennedy, Liam (2016). <a href="/wiki/Unhappy_the_Land:_The_Most_Oppressed_People_Ever,_the_Irish%3F" class="mw-redirect" title="Unhappy the Land: The Most Oppressed People Ever, the Irish?">Unhappy the Land: The Most Oppressed People Ever, the Irish?</a>. Dublin: Irish Academic Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781785370472" title="Special:BookSources/9781785370472"><bdi>9781785370472</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Unhappy+the+Land%3A+The+Most+Oppressed+People+Ever%2C+the+Irish%3F&rft.place=Dublin&rft.pub=Irish+Academic+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9781785370472&rft.aulast=Kennedy&rft.aufirst=Liam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Famine+%28Ireland%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKenny2003" class="citation book cs1">Kenny, Kevin (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xsPtAAAAMAAJ">New directions in Irish-American history</a>. 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(2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ViPT_bL7FG0C&q=%22the%20scottish%20ethnologist%20robert%20knox%2C%20writing%20in%20the%20medical%20times%22%22&pg=PA12">The Irish through British eyes: perceptions of Ireland in the Famine era</a>. <a href="/wiki/Greenwood_Publishing_Group" title="Greenwood Publishing Group">Greenwood Publishing Group</a>. pp. 12, 48, 104. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-275-97634-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-275-97634-7"><bdi>978-0-275-97634-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210415032404/https://books.google.com/books?id=ViPT_bL7FG0C&q=%22the%20scottish%20ethnologist%20robert%20knox%2C%20writing%20in%20the%20medical%20times%22%22&pg=PA12">Archived</a> from the original on 15 April 2021. Retrieved 11 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Irish+through+British+eyes%3A+perceptions+of+Ireland+in+the+Famine+era&rft.pages=12%2C+48%2C+104&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-275-97634-7&rft.aulast=Lengel&rft.aufirst=Edward+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DViPT_bL7FG0C%26q%3D%2522the%2520scottish%2520ethnologist%2520robert%2520knox%252C%2520writing%2520in%2520the%2520medical%2520times%2522%2522%26pg%3DPA12&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Famine+%28Ireland%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLibrary_of_Congress2007" class="citation cs2">Library of Congress (2007), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/teachers/classroommaterials/presentationsandactivities/presentations/immigration/irish2.html">Irish immigration to America</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200511045157/https://www.loc.gov/teachers/classroommaterials/presentationsandactivities/presentations/immigration/irish2.html">archived</a> from the original on 11 May 2020, retrieved 22 April 2019</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Irish+immigration+to+America&rft.date=2007&rft.au=Library+of+Congress&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.loc.gov%2Fteachers%2Fclassroommaterials%2Fpresentationsandactivities%2Fpresentations%2Fimmigration%2Firish2.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Famine+%28Ireland%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLitton1994" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Helen_Litton" title="Helen Litton">Litton, Helen</a> (1994). 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Population and Nutrition: An Essay on European Demographic History. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-36871-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-36871-1"><bdi>978-0-521-36871-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Population+and+Nutrition%3A+An+Essay+on+European+Demographic+History&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-521-36871-1&rft.aulast=Livi-Bacci&rft.aufirst=Massimo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Famine+%28Ireland%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLyons1973" class="citation book cs1">Lyons, Francis Stewart Leland (1973). Ireland since the famine. Fontana.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ireland+since+the+famine&rft.pub=Fontana&rft.date=1973&rft.aulast=Lyons&rft.aufirst=Francis+Stewart+Leland&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Famine+%28Ireland%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacArthurEdwardsWilliams1957" class="citation book cs1">MacArthur, William Porter; Edwards, Robert Dudley; Williams, Thomas Desmond (1957). Medical history of the famine. 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Genocide Studies International. 11 (1). <a href="/wiki/University_of_Toronto_Press" title="University of Toronto Press">University of Toronto Press</a>: 87–104. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3138%2Fgsi.11.1.04">10.3138/gsi.11.1.04</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Genocide+Studies+International&rft.atitle=The+Famine+Plot+Revisited%3A+A+Reassessment+of+the+Great+Irish+Famine+as+Genocide&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=87-104&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3138%2Fgsi.11.1.04&rft.aulast=McGowan&rft.aufirst=Mark+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Famine+%28Ireland%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcveigh2008" class="citation journal cs1">Mcveigh, Robbie (2008). 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The Last Conquest of Ireland (Perhaps) (reprint ed.). <a href="/wiki/University_College_Dublin_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="University College Dublin Press">University College Dublin Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-904558-36-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-904558-36-4"><bdi>1-904558-36-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Last+Conquest+of+Ireland+%28Perhaps%29&rft.edition=reprint&rft.pub=University+College+Dublin+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=1-904558-36-4&rft.aulast=Mitchel&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Famine+%28Ireland%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMitchel1869" class="citation book cs1">——— (1869). The history of Ireland: from the Treaty of Limerick to the present time. James Duffy.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+history+of+Ireland%3A+from+the+Treaty+of+Limerick+to+the+present+time&rft.pub=James+Duffy&rft.date=1869&rft.aulast=Mitchel&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Famine+%28Ireland%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMitchel1996" class="citation book cs1">Mitchel, John (1996) [1876]. Jail Journal of Five Years in British Prisons. Woodstock Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/185477218X" title="Special:BookSources/185477218X"><bdi>185477218X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jail+Journal+of+Five+Years+in+British+Prisons&rft.pub=Woodstock+Books&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=185477218X&rft.aulast=Mitchel&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Famine+%28Ireland%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMokyr1983" class="citation journal cs1">Mokyr, Joel (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1140027">"Why Ireland starved, A quantitative and analytical history of the Irish economy 1800–1850"</a>. Medical History. 28 (4): 447–448. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1140027">1140027</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Medical+History&rft.atitle=Why+Ireland+starved%2C+A+quantitative+and+analytical+history+of+the+Irish+economy+1800%E2%80%931850&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=447-448&rft.date=1983&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1140027%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.aulast=Mokyr&rft.aufirst=Joel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1140027&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Famine+%28Ireland%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFÓ_Gráda1975" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Cormac_%C3%93_Gr%C3%A1da" title="Cormac Ó Gráda">Ó Gráda, Cormac</a> (March 1975). "A Note on Nineteenth Emigration Statistics". <a href="/wiki/Population_Studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Population Studies">Population Studies</a>. 29 (1): 143–149. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2173431">10.2307/2173431</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2173431">2173431</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22091811">22091811</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Population+Studies&rft.atitle=A+Note+on+Nineteenth+Emigration+Statistics&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=143-149&rft.date=1975-03&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22091811&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2173431%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2173431&rft.aulast=%C3%93+Gr%C3%A1da&rft.aufirst=Cormac&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Famine+%28Ireland%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFÓ_Gráda1993" class="citation book cs1">——— (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SNvoAAAAIAAJ&q=18001925">Ireland before and after the Famine: Explorations in Economic History 1800–1925</a>. <a href="/wiki/Manchester_University_Press" title="Manchester University Press">Manchester University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0719040353" title="Special:BookSources/0719040353"><bdi>0719040353</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210414232413/https://books.google.com/books?id=SNvoAAAAIAAJ&q=18001925">Archived</a> from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 11 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ireland+before+and+after+the+Famine%3A+Explorations+in+Economic+History+1800%E2%80%931925&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0719040353&rft.aulast=%C3%93+Gr%C3%A1da&rft.aufirst=Cormac&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSNvoAAAAIAAJ%26q%3D18001925&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Famine+%28Ireland%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFÓ_Gráda1999" class="citation book cs1">——— (1999). Black '47 and Beyond. <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-01550-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-01550-3"><bdi>0-691-01550-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Black+%2747+and+Beyond&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-691-01550-3&rft.aulast=%C3%93+Gr%C3%A1da&rft.aufirst=Cormac&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Famine+%28Ireland%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFÓ_Gráda2000" class="citation journal cs1">——— (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sH-J4WxqknkC&q=black+47+and+beyond">"Black '47 and Beyond: The Great Irish Famine in History, Economy, and Memory"</a>. Medical History. 45 (1). <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>: 136–137. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-07015-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-07015-5"><bdi>978-0-691-07015-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1044715">1044715</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210415031300/https://books.google.com/books?id=sH-J4WxqknkC&q=black+47+and+beyond">Archived</a> from the original on 15 April 2021. Retrieved 11 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Medical+History&rft.atitle=Black+%2747+and+Beyond%3A+The+Great+Irish+Famine+in+History%2C+Economy%2C+and+Memory&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=136-137&rft.date=2000&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1044715%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.isbn=978-0-691-07015-5&rft.aulast=%C3%93+Gr%C3%A1da&rft.aufirst=Cormac&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsH-J4WxqknkC%26q%3Dblack%2B47%2Band%2Bbeyond&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Famine+%28Ireland%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFÓ_Gráda2006" class="citation book cs1">——— (2006). Ireland's Great Famine: Interdisciplinary Perspectives. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Dublin_Press&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dublin Press (page does not exist)">Dublin Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-904558-57-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-904558-57-6"><bdi>978-1-904558-57-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ireland%27s+Great+Famine%3A+Interdisciplinary+Perspectives&rft.pub=Dublin+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-904558-57-6&rft.aulast=%C3%93+Gr%C3%A1da&rft.aufirst=Cormac&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Famine+%28Ireland%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Neill2009" class="citation book cs1">O'Neill, Joseph R. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TVEWfeClF8MC">The Irish Potato Famine</a>. ABDO. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60453-514-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60453-514-3"><bdi>978-1-60453-514-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200724101147/https://books.google.com/books?id=TVEWfeClF8MC">Archived</a> from the original on 24 July 2020. Retrieved 23 August 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Irish+Potato+Famine&rft.pub=ABDO&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-60453-514-3&rft.aulast=O%27Neill&rft.aufirst=Joseph+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTVEWfeClF8MC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Famine+%28Ireland%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Sullivan1945" class="citation book cs1">O'Sullivan, T. F. (1945). Young Ireland. The Kerryman Ltd.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Young+Ireland&rft.pub=The+Kerryman+Ltd.&rft.date=1945&rft.aulast=O%27Sullivan&rft.aufirst=T.+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Famine+%28Ireland%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaddock1992" class="citation journal cs1">Paddock, W. C. (1992). "Our Last Chance to Win the War on Hunger". Advances in Plant Pathology. 8: 197–222.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Advances+in+Plant+Pathology&rft.atitle=Our+Last+Chance+to+Win+the+War+on+Hunger&rft.volume=8&rft.pages=197-222&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=Paddock&rft.aufirst=W.+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Famine+%28Ireland%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPóirtéir1995" class="citation book cs1">Póirtéir, Cathal (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/greatirishfamine00poir">The Great Irish Famine</a>. RTÉ/Mercier Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85635-111-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-85635-111-4"><bdi>1-85635-111-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+Irish+Famine&rft.pub=RT%C3%89%2FMercier+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=1-85635-111-4&rft.aulast=P%C3%B3irt%C3%A9ir&rft.aufirst=Cathal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgreatirishfamine00poir&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Famine+%28Ireland%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRanelagh2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Ranelagh" title="John Ranelagh">Ranelagh, John O'Beirne</a> (2000). Fearful Realities: New Perspectives on the Famine. Chris Morash & Richard Hayes, Colourbooks Ltd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7165-2566-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7165-2566-6"><bdi>0-7165-2566-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fearful+Realities%3A+New+Perspectives+on+the+Famine&rft.pub=Chris+Morash+%26+Richard+Hayes%2C+Colourbooks+Ltd&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-7165-2566-6&rft.aulast=Ranelagh&rft.aufirst=John+O%27Beirne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Famine+%28Ireland%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRifkin1993" class="citation book cs1">Rifkin, Jeremy (1993). Beyond Beef. Plume. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-452-26952-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-452-26952-1"><bdi>978-0-452-26952-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beyond+Beef&rft.pub=Plume&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-452-26952-1&rft.aulast=Rifkin&rft.aufirst=Jeremy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Famine+%28Ireland%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRitschel1996" class="citation cs2">Ritschel, Dan (1996), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090221122426/http://www.umbc.edu/history/CHE/InstPg/RitFamine/irish-famine-historiographical-issues.html">The Irish Famine: Interpretive & Historiographical Issues</a>, Department of History, University of Maryland, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.umbc.edu/history/CHE/InstPg/RitFamine/irish-famine-historiographical-issues.html">the original</a> on 21 February 2009</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Irish+Famine%3A+Interpretive+%26+Historiographical+Issues&rft.pub=Department+of+History%2C+University+of+Maryland&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Ritschel&rft.aufirst=Dan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.umbc.edu%2Fhistory%2FCHE%2FInstPg%2FRitFamine%2Firish-famine-historiographical-issues.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Famine+%28Ireland%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThe_Register_Office2005" class="citation cs2">The Register Office (2005), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100701133947/http://www.groireland.ie/history.htm">History</a>, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.groireland.ie/history.htm">the original</a> on 1 July 2010, retrieved 21 September 2010</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History&rft.date=2005&rft.au=The+Register+Office&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.groireland.ie%2Fhistory.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Famine+%28Ireland%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoss2002" class="citation book cs1">Ross, David (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/irelandhistoryof0000ross">Ireland: History of a Nation</a>. New Lanark: Geddes & Grosset. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84205-164-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-84205-164-4"><bdi>1-84205-164-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ireland%3A+History+of+a+Nation&rft.place=New+Lanark&rft.pub=Geddes+%26+Grosset&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=1-84205-164-4&rft.aulast=Ross&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Firelandhistoryof0000ross&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Famine+%28Ireland%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShaw1903" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/George_Bernard_Shaw" title="George Bernard Shaw">Shaw, George Bernard</a> (1903), "Act IV", Man and Superman</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Act+IV&rft.btitle=Man+and+Superman&rft.date=1903&rft.aulast=Shaw&rft.aufirst=George+Bernard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Famine+%28Ireland%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrevelyan1848" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Sir_Charles_Trevelyan,_1st_Baronet" title="Sir Charles Trevelyan, 1st Baronet">Trevelyan, Charles E.</a> (1848). The Irish Crisis. London.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Irish+Crisis&rft.place=London&rft.date=1848&rft.aulast=Trevelyan&rft.aufirst=Charles+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Famine+%28Ireland%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUrisUris2003" class="citation book cs1">Uris, Jill; Uris, Leon (2003). Ireland: Terrible Beauty. Bantam Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-553-01381-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-553-01381-8"><bdi>978-0-553-01381-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ireland%3A+Terrible+Beauty&rft.pub=Bantam+Books&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-553-01381-8&rft.aulast=Uris&rft.aufirst=Jill&rft.au=Uris%2C+Leon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Famine+%28Ireland%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWard2002" class="citation cs2">Ward, Mike (2002), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110511162720/https://pantherfile.uwm.edu/michael/www/choctaw/retrace.html">Irish Repay Choctaw Famine Gift:March Traces Trail of Tears in Trek for Somalian Relief</a>, American-Stateman Capitol, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pantherfile.uwm.edu/michael/www/choctaw/retrace.html">the original</a> on 11 May 2011, retrieved 20 September 2010</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Irish+Repay+Choctaw+Famine+Gift%3AMarch+Traces+Trail+of+Tears+in+Trek+for+Somalian+Relief&rft.pub=American-Stateman+Capitol&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Ward&rft.aufirst=Mike&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpantherfile.uwm.edu%2Fmichael%2Fwww%2Fchoctaw%2Fretrace.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Famine+%28Ireland%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoodham-Smith1991" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Cecil_Woodham-Smith" title="Cecil Woodham-Smith">Woodham-Smith, Cecil</a> (1991) [1962]. <a href="/wiki/The_Great_Hunger:_Ireland_1845%E2%80%931849" title="The Great Hunger: Ireland 1845–1849">The Great Hunger: Ireland 1845–1849</a>. <a href="/wiki/Penguin_Books" title="Penguin Books">Penguin</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-014515-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-014515-1"><bdi>978-0-14-014515-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+Hunger%3A+Ireland+1845%E2%80%931849&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-14-014515-1&rft.aulast=Woodham-Smith&rft.aufirst=Cecil&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Famine+%28Ireland%29" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> Further reading <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmerican_University1996" class="citation cs2">American University (1996), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100926181128/http://www1.american.edu/TED/potato.htm">Irish Potato Famine and Trade</a>, American University, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.american.edu/TED/potato.htm">the original</a> on 26 September 2010</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Irish+Potato+Famine+and+Trade&rft.pub=American+University&rft.date=1996&rft.au=American+University&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.american.edu%2FTED%2Fpotato.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Famine+%28Ireland%29" class="Z3988">.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBalch1850" class="citation book cs1">Balch, William Stevens (1850). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/irelandasisawitc00balc">Ireland, As I Saw It: The Character, Condition and Prospects of the People</a>. G. P. Putnam. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1047380580">1047380580</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ireland%2C+As+I+Saw+It%3A+The+Character%2C+Condition+and+Prospects+of+the+People&rft.pub=G.+P.+Putnam&rft.date=1850&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1047380580&rft.aulast=Balch&rft.aufirst=William+Stevens&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Firelandasisawitc00balc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Famine+%28Ireland%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoogan2012" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Tim_Pat_Coogan" title="Tim Pat Coogan">Coogan, Tim Pat</a> (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=x3HEH2XvUZ8C">The Famine Plot: England's Role in Ireland's Greatest Tragedy</a>. St. Martin's Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-10952-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-230-10952-0"><bdi>978-0-230-10952-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Famine+Plot%3A+England%27s+Role+in+Ireland%27s+Greatest+Tragedy&rft.pub=St.+Martin%27s+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-230-10952-0&rft.aulast=Coogan&rft.aufirst=Tim+Pat&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dx3HEH2XvUZ8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Famine+%28Ireland%29" class="Z3988">.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaly1986" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mary_E._Daly" title="Mary E. Daly">Daly, Mary F.</a> (1986). The Famine in Ireland. Dublin: Dundalgan Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85221-1083" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85221-1083"><bdi>978-0-85221-1083</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Famine+in+Ireland&rft.place=Dublin&rft.pub=Dundalgan+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-85221-1083&rft.aulast=Daly&rft.aufirst=Mary+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Famine+%28Ireland%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdwardsWilliamsÓ_Gráda1994" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/R._Dudley_Edwards" class="mw-redirect" title="R. Dudley Edwards">Edwards, R. Dudley</a>; Williams, T. Desmond; Ó Gráda, Cormac, eds. (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/greatfaminestudi00edwa/greatfaminestudi00edwa">The Great Famine: Studies in Irish History 1845-52</a> (1997 Reprint ed.). Dublin: Lilliput Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-946640-94-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-946640-94-2"><bdi>978-0-946640-94-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+Famine%3A+Studies+in+Irish+History+1845-52&rft.place=Dublin&rft.edition=1997+Reprint&rft.pub=Lilliput+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-946640-94-2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgreatfaminestudi00edwa%2Fgreatfaminestudi00edwa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Famine+%28Ireland%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeorge1881" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Henry_George" title="Henry George">George, Henry</a> (1881). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/progresspovertyi00georiala/progresspovertyi00georiala">Progress and Poverty: An Inquiry into the cause of industrial depressions, and of increase of want with increase of wealth</a>. D. Appleton and Company. pp. 110–114. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/680834714">680834714</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Progress+and+Poverty%3A+An+Inquiry+into+the+cause+of+industrial+depressions%2C+and+of+increase+of+want+with+increase+of+wealth&rft.pages=110-114&rft.pub=D.+Appleton+and+Company&rft.date=1881&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F680834714&rft.aulast=George&rft.aufirst=Henry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fprogresspovertyi00georiala%2Fprogresspovertyi00georiala&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Famine+%28Ireland%29" class="Z3988"> – Discussion and analysis of the Irish famine within contemporary economic theory, particularly as a case study in disproving Malthusian theory.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKee1982" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Kee" title="Robert Kee">Kee, Robert</a> (1982) [1980]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/irelandhistory00keer/irelandhistory00keer">Ireland, A History</a> (1st American ed.). Boston: Little, Brown and Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-316-48506-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-316-48506-7"><bdi>978-0-316-48506-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ireland%2C+A+History&rft.place=Boston&rft.edition=1st+American&rft.pub=Little%2C+Brown+and+Company&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-0-316-48506-7&rft.aulast=Kee&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Firelandhistory00keer%2Firelandhistory00keer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Famine+%28Ireland%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKelly2014" class="citation book cs1">Kelly, Mary C. (2014). Ireland's Great Famine in Irish-American History: Enshrining a Fateful Memory. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4422-2608-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4422-2608-1"><bdi>978-1-4422-2608-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ireland%27s+Great+Famine+in+Irish-American+History%3A+Enshrining+a+Fateful+Memory&rft.place=Lanham%2C+MD&rft.pub=Rowman+and+Littlefield&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-4422-2608-1&rft.aulast=Kelly&rft.aufirst=Mary+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Famine+%28Ireland%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKelly2012" class="citation book cs1">Kelly, John (2012). The Graves are Walking, The Great Famine and the Saga of the Irish People. New York: Henry Holt and Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8050-9563-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8050-9563-0"><bdi>978-0-8050-9563-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Graves+are+Walking%2C+The+Great+Famine+and+the+Saga+of+the+Irish+People&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Henry+Holt+and+Company&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-8050-9563-0&rft.aulast=Kelly&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Famine+%28Ireland%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMac_Suibhne2017" class="citation book cs1">Mac Suibhne, Breandán (2017). Subjects Lacking Words?: The Gray Zone of the Great Famine. Hamden: <a href="/wiki/Quinnipiac_University_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Quinnipiac University Press">Quinnipiac University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780997837476" title="Special:BookSources/9780997837476"><bdi>9780997837476</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Subjects+Lacking+Words%3F%3A+The+Gray+Zone+of+the+Great+Famine&rft.place=Hamden&rft.pub=Quinnipiac+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9780997837476&rft.aulast=Mac+Suibhne&rft.aufirst=Breand%C3%A1n&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Famine+%28Ireland%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcMahon2021" class="citation book cs1">McMahon, Cian T. (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.18574/nyu/9781479808809.001.0001">The Coffin Ship: Life and Death at Sea during the Great Irish Famine</a>. the Glucksman Irish Diaspora series. New York: New York University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4798-0880-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4798-0880-9"><bdi>978-1-4798-0880-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv27ftvcg">j.ctv27ftvcg</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Coffin+Ship%3A+Life+and+Death+at+Sea+during+the+Great+Irish+Famine&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=the+Glucksman+Irish+Diaspora+series&rft.pub=New+York+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fj.ctv27ftvcg%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.isbn=978-1-4798-0880-9&rft.aulast=McMahon&rft.aufirst=Cian+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.18574%2Fnyu%2F9781479808809.001.0001&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Famine+%28Ireland%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li>O'Neill Peter D. (2019). "Famine Irish and the American Racial State." New York: Routledge. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-367-34444-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-367-34444-3">978-0-367-34444-3</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRead2022" class="citation book cs1">Read, C. (2022). The Great Famine in Ireland and Britain's Financial Crisis. Woodbridge: <a href="/wiki/Boydell_%26_Brewer" title="Boydell & Brewer">Boydell & Brewer</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78327-727-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78327-727-8"><bdi>978-1-78327-727-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+Famine+in+Ireland+and+Britain%27s+Financial+Crisis&rft.place=Woodbridge&rft.pub=Boydell+%26+Brewer&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-1-78327-727-8&rft.aulast=Read&rft.aufirst=C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Famine+%28Ireland%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Rourke1989" class="citation book cs1">O'Rourke, Canon John (1989) [1874]. The Great Irish Famine. Veritas Publications.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+Irish+Famine&rft.pub=Veritas+Publications&rft.date=1989&rft.aulast=O%27Rourke&rft.aufirst=Canon+John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Famine+%28Ireland%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li>George Poulett Scrope, Letters to Lord John Russell on the Further Measures for the Social Amelioration of Ireland|Letters to Lord John Russell on the Further Measures for the Social Amelioration of Ireland. James Ridgway, 1847.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSociety_of_Friends._Central_Relief_Committee1852" class="citation cs2">Society of Friends. Central Relief Committee (1852), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZY4sAAAAYAAJ&q=Transactions+of+the+Central+Relief+Committee+of+the+Society+of+Friends+during+the+Famine+in+Ireland+in+1846+and+1847">Transactions of the Central Relief Committee of the Society of Friends during the Famine in Ireland in 1846 and 1847, Dublin</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Transactions+of+the+Central+Relief+Committee+of+the+Society+of+Friends+during+the+Famine+in+Ireland+in+1846+and+1847%2C+Dublin&rft.date=1852&rft.au=Society+of+Friends.+Central+Relief+Committee&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZY4sAAAAYAAJ%26q%3DTransactions%2Bof%2Bthe%2BCentral%2BRelief%2BCommittee%2Bof%2Bthe%2BSociety%2Bof%2BFriends%2Bduring%2Bthe%2BFamine%2Bin%2BIreland%2Bin%2B1846%2Band%2B1847&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Famine+%28Ireland%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTóibínFerriter2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Colm_T%C3%B3ib%C3%ADn" title="Colm Tóibín">Tóibín, Colm</a>; Ferriter, Diarmaid (2001). <a href="/wiki/The_Irish_Famine_(book)" title="The Irish Famine (book)">The Irish Famine</a>. Profile Books Limited. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-86197-2491" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-86197-2491"><bdi>978-1-86197-2491</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Irish+Famine&rft.pub=Profile+Books+Limited&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1-86197-2491&rft.aulast=T%C3%B3ib%C3%ADn&rft.aufirst=Colm&rft.au=Ferriter%2C+Diarmaid&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Famine+%28Ireland%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180903060536/https://ueaeprints.uea.ac.uk/59748/1/HungryForties1501201612022016.pdf">The "Hungry Forties", an analysis of the Chrononym</a>.</li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(14)"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Famine_(Ireland)&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: External links" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-14 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-14"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 30px;height: 40px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="30" data-height="40" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Potato_famine_of_Ireland" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Potato famine of Ireland">Potato famine of Ireland</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nationalarchives.ie/topics/famine/famine.html">Irish National Archives information on the Famine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060622103532/http://multitext.ucc.ie/d/Famine">Cork Multitext Project article on the Famine</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Donnchadh_%C3%93_Corr%C3%A1in" title="Donnchadh Ó Corráin">Donnchadh Ó Corráin</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hsp.org/education/unit-plans/irish-immigration/irish-immigrant-letters-home">Historical society of Pennsylvania. Primary Sources. The Curtis Family Letters, Irish Immigrant Letters Home.</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/m0003rj1">"The Great Irish Famine", BBC In our time podcast, April 2019</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B_K-q4GCdWg">"When Ireland Starved", Radharc/RTE. The four part Irish documentary series from 1992.</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nepm.org/post/contagion-familys-past-and-present#stream/0">Radio Essay on 175th Commemoration of the Beginning of the Great Hunger. "Contagion In This Family's Past And Present." New England Public Media, 2021.</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://historycooperative.org/the-irish-famine/#_ftn4">The Great Irish Potato Famine</a> Guest Contribution, History Cooperative, 31 October 2009,</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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<h4>Languages</h4> <section> <ul id="p-variants" class="minerva-languages"></ul> <ul class="minerva-languages"><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groot_Ierse_Hongersnood" title="Groot Ierse Hongersnood – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Groot Ierse Hongersnood" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%A9_%D8%A3%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%84%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%A7_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%89" title="مجاعة أيرلندا الكبرى – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مجاعة أيرلندا الكبرى" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gran_fame_irlandesa" title="Gran fame irlandesa – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Gran fame irlandesa" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%B6y%C3%BCk_acl%C4%B1q_(%C4%B0rlandiya)" title="Böyük aclıq (İrlandiya) – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Böyük aclıq (İrlandiya)" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%80i-n%C3%AD-l%C3%A2n_T%C5%8Da-ki-hng" title="Ài-ní-lân Tōa-ki-hng – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Ài-ní-lân Tōa-ki-hng" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%BC_%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4_(%D0%98%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%8F)" title="Голям глад (Ирландия) – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Голям глад (Ирландия)" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velika_glad_u_Irskoj" title="Velika glad u Irskoj – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Velika glad u Irskoj" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naonegezh_Vras_Iwerzhon" title="Naonegezh Vras Iwerzhon – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Naonegezh Vras Iwerzhon" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gran_fam_irlandesa" title="Gran fam irlandesa – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Gran fam irlandesa" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velk%C3%BD_irsk%C3%BD_hladomor" title="Velký irský hladomor – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Velký irský hladomor" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newyn_Mawr_Iwerddon" title="Newyn Mawr Iwerddon – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Newyn Mawr Iwerddon" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungersn%C3%B8den_i_Irland_1845-1849" title="Hungersnøden i Irland 1845-1849 – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Hungersnøden i Irland 1845-1849" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gro%C3%9Fe_Hungersnot_in_Irland" title="Große Hungersnot in Irland – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Große Hungersnot in Irland" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iiri_n%C3%A4ljah%C3%A4da" title="Iiri näljahäda – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Iiri näljahäda" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gran_hambruna_irlandesa" title="Gran hambruna irlandesa – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Gran hambruna irlandesa" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granda_malsatego_en_Irlando" title="Granda malsatego en Irlando – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Granda malsatego en Irlando" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irlandako_Gosete_Handia" title="Irlandako Gosete Handia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Irlandako Gosete Handia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%AD%D8%B7%DB%8C_%D8%A8%D8%B2%D8%B1%DA%AF_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B1%D9%84%D9%86%D8%AF" title="قحطی بزرگ ایرلند – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="قحطی بزرگ ایرلند" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grande_famine_irlandaise" title="Grande famine irlandaise – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Grande famine irlandaise" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ierske_Hongersneed_(1845-1852)" title="Ierske Hongersneed (1845-1852) – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Ierske Hongersneed (1845-1852)" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Gorta_M%C3%B3r" title="An Gorta Mór – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="An Gorta Mór" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%27_Ghort_Mh%C3%B2r" title="A' Ghort Mhòr – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="A' Ghort Mhòr" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gran_Fame_irlandesa" title="Gran Fame irlandesa – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Gran Fame irlandesa" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%95%84%EC%9D%BC%EB%9E%9C%EB%93%9C_%EB%8C%80%EA%B8%B0%EA%B7%BC" title="아일랜드 대기근 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="아일랜드 대기근" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velika_glad_u_Irskoj" title="Velika glad u Irskoj – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Velika glad u Irskoj" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelaparan_di_Irlandia" title="Kelaparan di Irlandia – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kelaparan di Irlandia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hall%C3%A6ri%C3%B0_mikla_(%C3%8Drland)" title="Hallærið mikla (Írland) – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Hallærið mikla (Írland)" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grande_carestia_irlandese" title="Grande carestia irlandese – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Grande carestia irlandese" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A8%D7%A2%D7%91_%D7%AA%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%97%D7%99_%D7%94%D7%90%D7%93%D7%9E%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%92%D7%93%D7%95%D7%9C_%D7%91%D7%90%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%9C%D7%A0%D7%93" title="רעב תפוחי האדמה הגדול באירלנד – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="רעב תפוחי האדמה הגדול באירלנד" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%93%E1%83%98_%E1%83%A8%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%A8%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%91%E1%83%90" title="ირლანდიის დიდი შიმშილობა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ირლანდიის დიდი შიმშილობა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukame_wa_Eire" title="Ukame wa Eire – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Ukame wa Eire" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lielais_bads_%C4%AArij%C4%81" title="Lielais bads Īrijā – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Lielais bads Īrijā" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kebuluran_Besar_Ireland" title="Kebuluran Besar Ireland – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Kebuluran Besar Ireland" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9A%E1%80%AC%E1%80%9C%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA%E1%80%94%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%84%E1%80%B6_%E1%80%92%E1%80%AF%E1%80%97%E1%80%B9%E1%80%98%E1%80%AD%E1%80%80%E1%80%B9%E1%80%81%E1%80%94%E1%80%B9%E1%80%90%E1%80%9B%E1%80%80%E1%80%95%E1%80%BA" title="အိုင်ယာလန်နိုင်ငံ ဒုဗ္ဘိက္ခန္တရကပ် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="အိုင်ယာလန်နိုင်ငံ ဒုဗ္ဘိက္ခန္တရကပ်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ierse_hongersnood_(1845-1850)" title="Ierse hongersnood (1845-1850) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Ierse hongersnood (1845-1850)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B8%E3%83%A3%E3%82%AC%E3%82%A4%E3%83%A2%E9%A3%A2%E9%A5%89" title="ジャガイモ飢饉 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ジャガイモ飢饉" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungersn%C3%B8den_i_Irland_1845%E2%80%931849" title="Hungersnøden i Irland 1845–1849 – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Hungersnøden i Irland 1845–1849" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Den_store_hungersnauda_i_Irland" title="Den store hungersnauda i Irland – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Den store hungersnauda i Irland" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granda_Famina_en_Irlanda" title="Granda Famina en Irlanda – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Granda Famina en Irlanda" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wielki_g%C5%82%C3%B3d_w_Irlandii_(1845%E2%80%931849)" title="Wielki głód w Irlandii (1845–1849) – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Wielki głód w Irlandii (1845–1849)" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grande_fome_de_1845%E2%80%931849_na_Irlanda" title="Grande fome de 1845–1849 na Irlanda – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Grande fome de 1845–1849 na Irlanda" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marea_Foamete_Irlandez%C4%83" title="Marea Foamete Irlandeză – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Marea Foamete Irlandeză" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B4_%D0%B2_%D0%98%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B8_(1845%E2%80%941849)" title="Голод в Ирландии (1845—1849) – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Голод в Ирландии (1845—1849)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caristia_manna_(Irlanda)" title="Caristia manna (Irlanda) – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Caristia manna (Irlanda)" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groote_Hungersnood_in_Irlound" title="Groote Hungersnood in Irlound – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Groote Hungersnood in Irlound" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Seeltersk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Famine_(Ireland)" title="Great Famine (Ireland) – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Great Famine (Ireland)" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ve%C4%BEk%C3%BD_%C3%ADrsky_hladomor" title="Veľký írsky hladomor – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Veľký írsky hladomor" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velika_lakota_(Irska)" title="Velika lakota (Irska) – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Velika lakota (Irska)" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4_%D1%83_%D0%98%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%98" title="Велика глад у Ирској – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Велика глад у Ирској" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velika_glad_u_Irskoj" title="Velika glad u Irskoj – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Velika glad u Irskoj" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irlannin_suuri_n%C3%A4l%C3%A4nh%C3%A4t%C3%A4" title="Irlannin suuri nälänhätä – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Irlannin suuri nälänhätä" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Den_stora_sv%C3%A4lten_p%C3%A5_Irland" title="Den stora svälten på Irland – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Den stora svälten på Irland" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%99%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%9E%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="அயர்லாந்தின் உருளைக்கிழங்குப் பஞ்சம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="அயர்லாந்தின் உருளைக்கிழங்குப் பஞ்சம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%82%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%87%E0%B9%83%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%8D%E0%B9%88%E0%B9%83%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%84%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%94%E0%B9%8C" title="ทุพภิกขภัยครั้งใหญ่ในไอร์แลนด์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ทุพภิกขภัยครั้งใหญ่ในไอร์แลนด์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%BCy%C3%BCk_K%C4%B1tl%C4%B1k_(%C4%B0rlanda)" title="Büyük Kıtlık (İrlanda) – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Büyük Kıtlık (İrlanda)" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B4_%D0%B2_%D0%86%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%96%D1%97" title="Великий голод в Ірландії – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Великий голод в Ірландії" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%E1%BA%A1n_%C4%91%C3%B3i_l%E1%BB%9Bn_(Ireland)" title="Nạn đói lớn (Ireland) – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Nạn đói lớn (Ireland)" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%88%B1%E5%B0%94%E5%85%B0%E5%A4%A7%E9%A5%A5%E8%8D%92" title="爱尔兰大饥荒 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="爱尔兰大饥荒" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%84%9B%E7%88%BE%E8%98%AD%E8%96%AF%E4%BB%94%E9%A5%91%E8%8D%92" title="愛爾蘭薯仔饑荒 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="愛爾蘭薯仔饑荒" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%88%B1%E5%B0%94%E5%85%B0%E5%A4%A7%E9%A5%A5%E8%8D%92" title="爱尔兰大饥荒 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="爱尔兰大饥荒" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dtp mw-list-item"><a href="https://dtp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kowingkatan_Tagayo_Ireland" title="Kowingkatan Tagayo Ireland – Central Dusun" lang="dtp" hreflang="dtp" 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