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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Background"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Background</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Background-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1787_drafting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1787_drafting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>1787 drafting</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1787_drafting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ratification_by_the_states" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ratification_by_the_states"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Ratification by the states</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ratification_by_the_states-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Influences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Influences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Influences</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Influences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Constitution's_provisions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Constitution's_provisions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Constitution's provisions</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Constitution's_provisions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Constitution's provisions subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Constitution's_provisions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Preamble" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Preamble"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Preamble</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Preamble-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Articles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Articles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Articles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Articles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Article_I_–_The_Legislature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Article_I_–_The_Legislature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1</span> <span>Article I – The Legislature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Article_I_–_The_Legislature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Article_II_–_The_Executive" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Article_II_–_The_Executive"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.2</span> <span>Article II – The Executive</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Article_II_–_The_Executive-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Article_III_–_The_Judiciary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Article_III_–_The_Judiciary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.3</span> <span>Article III – The Judiciary</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Article_III_–_The_Judiciary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Article_IV_–_The_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Article_IV_–_The_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.4</span> <span>Article IV – The States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Article_IV_–_The_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Article_V_–_Amendment_Process" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Article_V_–_Amendment_Process"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.5</span> <span>Article V – Amendment Process</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Article_V_–_Amendment_Process-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Article_VI_–_Federal_Powers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Article_VI_–_Federal_Powers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.6</span> <span>Article VI – Federal Powers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Article_VI_–_Federal_Powers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Article_VII_–_Ratification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Article_VII_–_Ratification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.7</span> <span>Article VII – Ratification</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Article_VII_–_Ratification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Closing_endorsement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Closing_endorsement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Closing endorsement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Closing_endorsement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Amendments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Amendments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Amendments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Amendments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Safeguards_of_liberty_(Amendments_1,_2,_and_3)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Safeguards_of_liberty_(Amendments_1,_2,_and_3)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.1</span> <span>Safeguards of liberty (Amendments 1, 2, and 3)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Safeguards_of_liberty_(Amendments_1,_2,_and_3)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Safeguards_of_justice_(Amendments_4,_5,_6,_7,_and_8)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Safeguards_of_justice_(Amendments_4,_5,_6,_7,_and_8)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.2</span> <span>Safeguards of justice (Amendments 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Safeguards_of_justice_(Amendments_4,_5,_6,_7,_and_8)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Unenumerated_rights_and_reserved_powers_(Amendments_9_and_10)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Unenumerated_rights_and_reserved_powers_(Amendments_9_and_10)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.3</span> <span>Unenumerated rights and reserved powers (Amendments 9 and 10)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Unenumerated_rights_and_reserved_powers_(Amendments_9_and_10)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Governmental_authority_(Amendments_11,_16,_18,_and_21)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Governmental_authority_(Amendments_11,_16,_18,_and_21)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.4</span> <span>Governmental authority (Amendments 11, 16, 18, and 21)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Governmental_authority_(Amendments_11,_16,_18,_and_21)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Safeguards_of_civil_rights_(Amendments_13,_14,_15,_19,_23,_24,_and_26)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Safeguards_of_civil_rights_(Amendments_13,_14,_15,_19,_23,_24,_and_26)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.5</span> <span>Safeguards of civil rights (Amendments 13, 14, 15, 19, 23, 24, and 26)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Safeguards_of_civil_rights_(Amendments_13,_14,_15,_19,_23,_24,_and_26)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Government_processes_and_procedures_(Amendments_12,_17,_20,_22,_25,_and_27)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Government_processes_and_procedures_(Amendments_12,_17,_20,_22,_25,_and_27)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.6</span> <span>Government processes and procedures (Amendments 12, 17, 20, 22, 25, and 27)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Government_processes_and_procedures_(Amendments_12,_17,_20,_22,_25,_and_27)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Unratified_amendments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Unratified_amendments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Unratified amendments</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Unratified_amendments-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Unratified amendments subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Unratified_amendments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pending" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pending"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Pending</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pending-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Expired" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Expired"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Expired</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Expired-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Judicial_review" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Judicial_review"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Judicial review</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Judicial_review-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Judicial review subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Judicial_review-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Scope_and_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scope_and_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Scope and theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scope_and_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Establishment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Establishment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Establishment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Establishment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Self-restraint" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Self-restraint"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.1</span> <span>Self-restraint</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Self-restraint-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Separation_of_powers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Separation_of_powers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.2</span> <span>Separation of powers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Separation_of_powers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Subsequent_Courts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Subsequent_Courts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Subsequent Courts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Subsequent_Courts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Civic_religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Civic_religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Civic religion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Civic_religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Worldwide_influence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Worldwide_influence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Worldwide influence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Worldwide_influence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticisms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticisms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Criticisms</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Criticisms-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Criticisms subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Criticisms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Difficult_to_amend" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Difficult_to_amend"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Difficult to amend</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Difficult_to_amend-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Commemorations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Commemorations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Commemorations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Commemorations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-See_also-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle See also subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Related_documents" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Related_documents"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Related documents</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Related_documents-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-External_links-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle External links subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-U.S._government_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#U.S._government_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15.1</span> <span>U.S. government sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-U.S._government_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-governmental_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-governmental_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15.2</span> <span>Non-governmental sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-governmental_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Constitution of the United States</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 90 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-90" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">90 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grondwet_van_die_Verenigde_State" title="Grondwet van die Verenigde State – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Grondwet van die Verenigde State" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grundgesetnes_%C3%BE%C4%81ra_Ge%C4%81ndena_R%C4%ABca_American" title="Grundgesetnes þāra Geāndena Rīca American – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Grundgesetnes þāra Geāndena Rīca American" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ænglisc</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%AF%D8%A9" title="دستور الولايات المتحدة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="دستور الولايات المتحدة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constituci%C3%B3n_de_los_Estaos_Xun%C3%ADos" title="Constitución de los Estaos Xuníos – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Constitución de los Estaos Xuníos" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/AB%C5%9E_Konstitusiyas%C4%B1" title="ABŞ Konstitusiyası – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="ABŞ Konstitusiyası" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B7%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="মার্কিন যুক্তরাষ্ট্রের সংবিধান – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="মার্কিন যুক্তরাষ্ট্রের সংবিধান" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D2%A0%D0%A8_%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%83%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F%D2%BB%D1%8B" title="АҠШ Конституцияһы – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="АҠШ Конституцияһы" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8B%D1%82%D1%83%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F_%D0%97%D0%A8%D0%90" title="Канстытуцыя ЗША – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Канстытуцыя ЗША" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8B%D1%82%D1%83%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F_%D0%97%D0%A8%D0%90" title="Канстытуцыя ЗША – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Канстытуцыя ЗША" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%87_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="अमेरिका के संबिधान – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="अमेरिका के संबिधान" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%83%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%A1%D0%90%D0%A9" title="Конституция на САЩ – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Конституция на САЩ" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ustav_Sjedinjenih_Ameri%C4%8Dkih_Dr%C5%BEava" title="Ustav Sjedinjenih Američkih Država – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Ustav Sjedinjenih Američkih Država" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constituci%C3%B3_dels_Estats_Units" title="Constitució dels Estats Units – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Constitució dels Estats Units" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%9F%D0%A8_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%83%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B9%C4%95" title="АПШ конституцийĕ – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="АПШ конституцийĕ" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9Astava_Spojen%C3%BDch_st%C3%A1t%C5%AF_americk%C3%BDch" title="Ústava Spojených států amerických – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Ústava Spojených států amerických" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/USA%27s_forfatning" title="USA's forfatning – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="USA's forfatning" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verfassung_der_Vereinigten_Staaten" title="Verfassung der Vereinigten Staaten – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Verfassung der Vereinigten Staaten" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ameerika_%C3%9Chendriikide_p%C3%B5hiseadus" title="Ameerika Ühendriikide põhiseadus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Ameerika Ühendriikide põhiseadus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%8D%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%B3%CE%BC%CE%B1_%CF%84%CF%89%CE%BD_%CE%97%CE%BD%CF%89%CE%BC%CE%AD%CE%BD%CF%89%CE%BD_%CE%A0%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%B9%CF%84%CE%B5%CE%B9%CF%8E%CE%BD" title="Σύνταγμα των Ηνωμένων Πολιτειών – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Σύνταγμα των Ηνωμένων Πολιτειών" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constituci%C3%B3n_de_los_Estados_Unidos" title="Constitución de los Estados Unidos – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Constitución de los Estados Unidos" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstitucio_de_Usono" title="Konstitucio de Usono – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Konstitucio de Usono" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ameriketako_Estatu_Batuetako_Konstituzioa" title="Ameriketako Estatu Batuetako Konstituzioa – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Ameriketako Estatu Batuetako Konstituzioa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%AF%D9%87_%D8%A2%D9%85%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%A7" title="قانون اساسی ایالات متحده آمریکا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="قانون اساسی ایالات متحده آمریکا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_des_%C3%89tats-Unis" title="Constitution des États-Unis – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Constitution des États-Unis" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bunreacht_na_St%C3%A1t_Aontaithe" title="Bunreacht na Stát Aontaithe – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Bunreacht na Stát Aontaithe" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constituci%C3%B3n_dos_Estados_Unidos_de_Am%C3%A9rica" title="Constitución dos Estados Unidos de América – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Constitución dos Estados Unidos de América" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%88%A9%E5%A0%85%E5%90%88%E7%9C%BE%E5%9C%8B%E6%86%B2%E6%B3%95" title="美利堅合眾國憲法 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="美利堅合眾國憲法" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>贛語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%AE-koet_Hi%C3%A8n-fap" title="Mî-koet Hièn-fap – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Mî-koet Hièn-fap" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%AF%B8%EA%B5%AD%EC%9D%98_%ED%97%8C%EB%B2%95" title="미국의 헌법 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="미국의 헌법" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%84%D5%86_%D5%8D%D5%A1%D5%B0%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%A4%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="ԱՄՆ Սահմանադրություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="ԱՄՆ Սահմանադրություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="संयुक्त राज्य संविधान – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="संयुक्त राज्य संविधान" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ustav_Sjedinjenih_Ameri%C4%8Dkih_Dr%C5%BEava" title="Ustav Sjedinjenih Američkih Država – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Ustav Sjedinjenih Američkih Država" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstitusi_Amerika_Serikat" title="Konstitusi Amerika Serikat – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Konstitusi Amerika Serikat" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stj%C3%B3rnarskr%C3%A1_Bandar%C3%ADkjanna" title="Stjórnarskrá Bandaríkjanna – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Stjórnarskrá Bandaríkjanna" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Costituzione_degli_Stati_Uniti_d%27America" title="Costituzione degli Stati Uniti d'America – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Costituzione degli Stati Uniti d'America" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%97%D7%95%D7%A7%D7%AA_%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%A6%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%AA" title="חוקת ארצות הברית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="חוקת ארצות הברית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%85%E0%B2%AE%E0%B3%87%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%95_%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%AF%E0%B3%81%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4_%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A5%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A8%E0%B2%A6_%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%A7%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A8" title="ಅಮೇರಿಕ ಸಂಯುಕ್ತ ಸಂಸ್ಥಾನದ ಸಂವಿಧಾನ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಅಮೇರಿಕ ಸಂಯುಕ್ತ ಸಂಸ್ಥಾನದ ಸಂವಿಧಾನ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%A8%E1%83%94%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%97%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%A8%E1%83%A2%E1%83%90%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A3%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ამერიკის შეერთებული შტატების კონსტიტუცია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ამერიკის შეერთებული შტატების კონსტიტუცია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D2%9A%D0%A8_%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%83%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%81%D1%8B" title="АҚШ Конституциясы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="АҚШ Конституциясы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korf_Lagha_an_Statys_Unys" title="Korf Lagha an Statys Unys – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Korf Lagha an Statys Unys" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kernowek</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutio_Civitatum_Foederatarum_Americae" title="Constitutio Civitatum Foederatarum Americae – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Constitutio Civitatum Foederatarum Americae" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASV_Konstit%C5%ABcija" title="ASV Konstitūcija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="ASV Konstitūcija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jungtini%C5%B3_Amerikos_Valstij%C5%B3_Konstitucija" title="Jungtinių Amerikos Valstijų Konstitucija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Jungtinių Amerikos Valstijų Konstitucija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Costituzion_di_Stat_Unii" title="Costituzion di Stat Unii – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Costituzion di Stat Unii" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Az_Amerikai_Egyes%C3%BClt_%C3%81llamok_alkotm%C3%A1nya" title="Az Amerikai Egyesült Államok alkotmánya – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Az Amerikai Egyesült Államok alkotmánya" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B2_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5_%D0%90%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%94%D1%80%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8" title="Устав на Соединетите Американски Држави – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Устав на Соединетите Американски Држави" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%87_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="अमेरिकेचे संविधान – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="अमेरिकेचे संविधान" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%90%E1%83%A8-%E1%83%98%E1%83%A8_%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A3%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ააშ-იშ კონსტიტუცია – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ააშ-იშ კონსტიტუცია" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%83%D8%A7" title="دستور امريكا – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="دستور امريكا" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perlembagaan_Amerika_Syarikat" title="Perlembagaan Amerika Syarikat – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Perlembagaan Amerika Syarikat" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%9D%D0%A3-%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D2%AE%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%81%D1%8D%D0%BD_%D1%85%D1%83%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="АНУ-ын Үндсэн хууль – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="АНУ-ын Үндсэн хууль" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grondwet_van_de_Verenigde_Staten" title="Grondwet van de Verenigde Staten – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Grondwet van de Verenigde Staten" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="संयुक्त राज्य अमेरिकाको संविधान – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="संयुक्त राज्य अमेरिकाको संविधान" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A2%E3%83%A1%E3%83%AA%E3%82%AB%E5%90%88%E8%A1%86%E5%9B%BD%E6%86%B2%E6%B3%95" title="アメリカ合衆国憲法 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="アメリカ合衆国憲法" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/USAs_grunnlov" title="USAs grunnlov – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="USAs grunnlov" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Den_amerikanske_grunnloven" title="Den amerikanske grunnloven – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Den amerikanske grunnloven" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitucion_dels_Estats_Units" title="Constitucion dels Estats Units – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Constitucion dels Estats Units" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/AQSh_Konstitutsiyasi" title="AQSh Konstitutsiyasi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="AQSh Konstitutsiyasi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B8%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%AF%E0%A9%81%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%A4_%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%9C_%E0%A8%A6%E0%A8%BE_%E0%A8%B8%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%A7%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A8" title="ਸੰਯੁਕਤ ਰਾਜ ਦਾ ਸੰਵਿਧਾਨ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਸੰਯੁਕਤ ਰਾਜ ਦਾ ਸੰਵਿਧਾਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%DB%81%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%92_%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%AF%DB%81_%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%A7_%D8%AF%D8%A7_%D8%A2%D8%A6%DB%8C%D9%86" title="ریاستہائے متحدہ امریکا دا آئین – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ریاستہائے متحدہ امریکا دا آئین" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%AF%D9%87_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88_%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%8A_%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D9%86" title="د متحده ایالاتو اساسي قانون – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د متحده ایالاتو اساسي قانون" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstytucja_Stan%C3%B3w_Zjednoczonych" title="Konstytucja Stanów Zjednoczonych – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Konstytucja Stanów Zjednoczonych" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitui%C3%A7%C3%A3o_dos_Estados_Unidos" title="Constituição dos Estados Unidos – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Constituição dos Estados Unidos" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitu%C8%9Bia_Statelor_Unite_ale_Americii" title="Constituția Statelor Unite ale Americii – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Constituția Statelor Unite ale Americii" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%83%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%A1%D0%A8%D0%90" title="Конституция США – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Конституция США" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%A5%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B1%D0%BEh%D1%83%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B0%D1%85_%D0%A8%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%83%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Америка Холбоhуктаах Штаттарын конституцията – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Америка Холбоhуктаах Штаттарын конституцията" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kushtetuta_e_Shteteve_t%C3%AB_Bashkuara" title="Kushtetuta e Shteteve të Bashkuara – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Kushtetuta e Shteteve të Bashkuara" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%91%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8A%E0%B7%83%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%8A_%E0%B6%A2%E0%B6%B1%E0%B6%B4%E0%B6%AF_%E0%B6%86%E0%B6%AB%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%A9%E0%B7%94%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BB%E0%B6%B8_%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%AE%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80" title="එක්සත් ජනපද ආණ්ඩුක්‍රම ව්‍යවස්ථාව – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="එක්සත් ජනපද ආණ්ඩුක්‍රම ව්‍යවස්ථාව" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Constitution of the United States" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9Astava_Spojen%C3%BDch_%C5%A1t%C3%A1tov" title="Ústava Spojených štátov – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Ústava Spojených štátov" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ustava_Zdru%C5%BEenih_dr%C5%BEav_Amerike" title="Ustava Združenih držav Amerike – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Ustava Združenih držav Amerike" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%DB%95%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D9%88%DB%8C%D9%84%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%95%D8%AA%DB%95_%DB%8C%DB%95%DA%A9%DA%AF%D8%B1%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%88%DB%95%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C_%D8%A6%DB%95%D9%85%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%A7" title="دەستووری ویلایەتە یەکگرتووەکانی ئەمریکا – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="دەستووری ویلایەتە یەکگرتووەکانی ئەمریکا" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B2_%D0%A1%D1%98%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%9A%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%90%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%94%D1%80%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Устав Сједињених Америчких Држава – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Устав Сједињених Америчких Држава" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ustav_Sjedinjenih_Ameri%C4%8Dkih_Dr%C5%BEava" title="Ustav Sjedinjenih Američkih Država – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Ustav Sjedinjenih Američkih Država" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yhdysvaltain_perustuslaki" title="Yhdysvaltain perustuslaki – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Yhdysvaltain perustuslaki" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/USA:s_konstitution" title="USA:s konstitution – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="USA:s konstitution" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saligang_Batas_ng_Estados_Unidos" title="Saligang Batas ng Estados Unidos – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Saligang Batas ng Estados Unidos" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%90%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF_%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95_%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81" title="ஐக்கிய அமெரிக்க அரசியலமைப்பு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="ஐக்கிய அமெரிக்க அரசியலமைப்பு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%85%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%86%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%95%E0%B0%BE_%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%9C%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%97%E0%B0%82" title="అమెరికా రాజ్యాంగం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="అమెరికా రాజ్యాంగం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%90%E0%B8%98%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B9%E0%B8%8D%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%90" title="รัฐธรรมนูญสหรัฐ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="รัฐธรรมนูญสหรัฐ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%80%D2%9B%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%98%D1%91%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B8_%D0%9C%D1%83%D1%82%D0%B0%D2%B3%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B4%D0%B0" title="Сарқонуни Иёллоти Мутаҳидда – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Сарқонуни Иёллоти Мутаҳидда" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amerika_Birle%C5%9Fik_Devletleri_Anayasas%C4%B1" title="Amerika Birleşik Devletleri Anayasası – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Amerika Birleşik Devletleri Anayasası" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%83%D1%86%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%A1%D0%A8%D0%90" title="Конституція США – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Конституція США" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%DB%81%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%92_%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%AF%DB%81_%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%A7_%DA%A9%D8%A7_%D8%A2%D8%A6%DB%8C%D9%86" title="ریاستہائے متحدہ امریکا کا آئین – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="ریاستہائے متحدہ امریکا کا آئین" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Costitusion_dei_Stati_Unii_de_l%27Am%C3%A8rica" title="Costitusion dei Stati Unii de l'Amèrica – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Costitusion dei Stati Unii de l'Amèrica" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hi%E1%BA%BFn_ph%C3%A1p_Hoa_K%E1%BB%B3" title="Hiến pháp Hoa Kỳ – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Hiến pháp Hoa Kỳ" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%9B%BD%E5%AE%AA%E6%B3%95" title="美国宪法 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="美国宪法" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Cw%C3%A9-%C3%B2fin_%C3%8Cb%C3%A1gb%C3%A9p%E1%BB%8D%CC%80_Or%C3%ADl%E1%BA%B9%CC%80-%C3%A8d%C3%A8_Am%E1%BA%B9%CC%81r%C3%ADk%C3%A0" title="Ìwé-òfin Ìbágbépọ̀ Orílẹ̀-èdè Amẹ́ríkà – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Ìwé-òfin Ìbágbépọ̀ Orílẹ̀-èdè Amẹ́ríkà" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Yorùbá</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%9C%8B%E6%86%B2%E6%B3%95" title="美國憲法 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="美國憲法" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%9B%BD%E5%AE%AA%E6%B3%95" title="美国宪法 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="美国宪法" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q11698#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> 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id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_Constitution&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">United States Constitution</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Supreme law of the US since 1789</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="text-align:center;background: #ededed;">Constitution of the United States</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Constitution_of_the_United_States,_page_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Constitution_of_the_United_States%2C_page_1.jpg/250px-Constitution_of_the_United_States%2C_page_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="266" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Constitution_of_the_United_States%2C_page_1.jpg/330px-Constitution_of_the_United_States%2C_page_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Constitution_of_the_United_States%2C_page_1.jpg/500px-Constitution_of_the_United_States%2C_page_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7258" data-file-height="8785" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Page one of <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Shallus" title="Jacob Shallus">Jacob Shallus</a>' officially <a href="/wiki/Enrolled_bill" title="Enrolled bill">engrossed</a> copy of the Constitution signed in <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a> by delegates of the <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)" title="Constitutional Convention (United States)">Constitutional Convention</a> in 1787<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background: #ededed;">Overview</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Jurisdiction</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Created</th><td class="infobox-data">September 17, 1787</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Presented</th><td class="infobox-data">September 28, 1787</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Ratification" title="Ratification">Ratified</a></th><td class="infobox-data">June 21, 1788 (9 of 13 states)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Effective_date" class="mw-redirect" title="Effective date">Date effective</a></th><td class="infobox-data">March 4, 1789<span class="noprint"><br />(236 years ago)</span><span style="display:none"> (<span class="bday dtstart published updated">1789-03-04</span>)</span><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">System</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Federalism" title="Federalism">Federal</a> <a href="/wiki/Presidential_system" title="Presidential system">presidential</a> <a href="/wiki/Republic" title="Republic">republic</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background: #ededed;">Government structure</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Government_branch" class="mw-redirect" title="Government branch">Branches</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers_under_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Separation of powers under the United States Constitution">3</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Legislative_chamber" title="Legislative chamber">Chambers</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Bicameral</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Executive_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Executive government">Executive</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Judiciary" title="Judiciary">Judiciary</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States_courts_of_appeals" title="United States courts of appeals">Circuits</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States_district_court" title="United States district court">Districts</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Federalism" title="Federalism">Federalism</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Yes</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Electoral_college" title="Electoral college">Electoral college</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Electoral_College" title="United States Electoral College">Yes</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Entrenched_clause" title="Entrenched clause">Entrenchments</a></th><td class="infobox-data">2, 1 still active</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background: #ededed;">History</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Legislature" title="Legislature">First legislature</a></th><td class="infobox-data">March 4, 1789 (11 of 13 states)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">First executive</th><td class="infobox-data">April 30, 1789</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">First court</th><td class="infobox-data">February 2, 1790</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_amendment" title="Constitutional amendment">Amendments</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/List_of_amendments_to_the_United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="List of amendments to the United States Constitution">27</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Last amended</th><td class="infobox-data">May 5, 1992</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Citation</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CDOC-110hdoc50/pdf/CDOC-110hdoc50.pdf"><i><span style="font-size: 85%;">The Constitution of the United States of America, As Amended</span></i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, July 25, 2007</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%3Cspan+style%3D%22font-size%3A+85%25%3B%22%3EThe+Constitution+of+the+United+States+of+America%2C+As+Amended%3C%2Fspan%3E&rft.date=2007-07-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.govinfo.gov%2Fcontent%2Fpkg%2FCDOC-110hdoc50%2Fpdf%2FCDOC-110hdoc50.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Location</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/National_Archives_Building" title="National Archives Building">National Archives Building</a> in <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a>, U.S.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Commissioned by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_the_Confederation" title="Congress of the Confederation">Congress of the Confederation</a> in <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a>, U.S.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Author(s)</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)" title="Constitutional Convention (United States)">Philadelphia Convention</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Signatories</th><td class="infobox-data">39 of the 55 delegates</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Media type</th><td class="infobox-data">Parchment</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Supersedes</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background: #ededed;">Full text</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/20px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/40px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span> <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States_of_America" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Constitution of the United States of America">Constitution of the United States of America</a> at <a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.US-politics-sidebar .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:#FFFFFF}.mw-parser-output .US-politics-sidebar .sidebar-heading{background:#bf0a30;color:#FFFFFF;border:1px double #8C959A}.mw-parser-output .US-politics-sidebar .sidebar-list-content{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .US-politics-sidebar .sidebar-list-title{text-align:center;background:#bf0a30;color:#FFFFFF;border:1px double #8C959A}.mw-parser-output .US-politics-sidebar .sidebar-list-title a{color:#FFFFFF}.mw-parser-output .US-politics-sidebar .mw-collapsible-text{color:#FFFFFF}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks US-politics-sidebar vcard hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle"><b>This article is part of a series on the</b></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_United_States" title="Politics of the United States"><small>Politics of the </small><br />United States</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg/120px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="110" height="116" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg/250px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="451" data-file-height="476" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">Federal government</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><b><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Constitution of the United States</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_United_States" title="Law of the United States">Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_the_United_States_treaties" title="List of the United States treaties">Treaties</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Legislature</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">United States Congress</a></b></li></ul> <p><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:(118th)_US_House_of_Representatives.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/%28118th%29_US_House_of_Representatives.svg/49px-%28118th%29_US_House_of_Representatives.svg.png" decoding="async" width="49" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/%28118th%29_US_House_of_Representatives.svg/74px-%28118th%29_US_House_of_Representatives.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/%28118th%29_US_House_of_Representatives.svg/98px-%28118th%29_US_House_of_Representatives.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:118th_United_States_Senate.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/118th_United_States_Senate.svg/60px-118th_United_States_Senate.svg.png" decoding="async" width="54" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/118th_United_States_Senate.svg/120px-118th_United_States_Senate.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="320" /></a></span> </p> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">House of Representatives</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Speaker_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Speaker of the United States House of Representatives">Speaker</a> <a href="/wiki/Mike_Johnson" title="Mike Johnson">Mike Johnson</a> (R)</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Party_leaders_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Party leaders of the United States House of Representatives">Majority Leader</a> <a href="/wiki/Steve_Scalise" title="Steve Scalise">Steve Scalise</a> (R)</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Party_leaders_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Party leaders of the United States House of Representatives">Minority Leader</a> <a href="/wiki/Hakeem_Jeffries" title="Hakeem Jeffries">Hakeem Jeffries</a> (D)</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_congressional_district" class="mw-redirect" title="United States congressional district">Congressional districts</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_congressional_districts" title="List of United States congressional districts">list</a>)</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Non-voting_members_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Non-voting members of the United States House of Representatives">Non-voting members</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">Senate</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States" title="Vice President of the United States">President</a> <a href="/wiki/JD_Vance" title="JD Vance">JD Vance</a> (R)</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/President_pro_tempore_of_the_United_States_Senate" title="President pro tempore of the United States Senate">President Pro Tempore</a> <a href="/wiki/Chuck_Grassley" title="Chuck Grassley">Chuck Grassley</a> (R)</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Party_leaders_of_the_United_States_Senate" title="Party leaders of the United States Senate">Majority Leader</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Thune" title="John Thune">John Thune</a> (R)</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Party_leaders_of_the_United_States_Senate" title="Party leaders of the United States Senate">Minority Leader</a> <a href="/wiki/Chuck_Schumer" title="Chuck Schumer">Chuck Schumer</a> (D)</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Executive_branch_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Executive branch of the United States">Executive</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Donald Trump</a> (R)</li></ul> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States" title="Vice President of the United States">Vice President of the United States</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/JD_Vance" title="JD Vance">JD Vance</a> (R)</li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_the_United_States" title="Cabinet of the United States">Cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_agencies_in_the_United_States" title="List of federal agencies in the United States">Federal agencies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Office_of_the_President_of_the_United_States" title="Executive Office of the President of the United States">Executive Office</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Federal_judiciary_of_the_United_States" title="Federal judiciary of the United States">Judiciary</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court of the United States</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_the_United_States" title="Chief Justice of the United States">Chief Justice</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Roberts" title="John Roberts">John Roberts</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas" title="Clarence Thomas">Thomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Alito" title="Samuel Alito">Alito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonia_Sotomayor" title="Sonia Sotomayor">Sotomayor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elena_Kagan" title="Elena Kagan">Kagan</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neil_Gorsuch" title="Neil Gorsuch">Gorsuch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brett_Kavanaugh" title="Brett Kavanaugh">Kavanaugh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amy_Coney_Barrett" title="Amy Coney Barrett">Barrett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson" title="Ketanji Brown Jackson">Jackson</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Article_Three_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Three of the United States Constitution">Inferior Courts of the United States</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_courts_of_appeals" title="United States courts of appeals">Courts of appeals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_district_court" title="United States district court">District courts</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_district_and_territorial_courts" title="List of United States district and territorial courts">list</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_International_Trade" title="United States Court of International Trade"> Court of International Trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Alien_Terrorist_Removal_Court" title="United States Alien Terrorist Removal Court">Alien Terrorist Removal Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Judicial_Panel_on_Multidistrict_Litigation" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Judicial Panel on Multidistrict Litigation">Judicial Panel on Multidistrict Litigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Foreign_Intelligence_Surveillance_Court" title="United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court">Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Foreign_Intelligence_Surveillance_Court_of_Review" title="United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review">Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Federal_tribunals_in_the_United_States" title="Federal tribunals in the United States">Other tribunals</a></b></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_the_United_States" title="Elections in the United States">Elections</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><b> National elections</b></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_election" title="United States presidential election">Presidential elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_midterm_election" title="United States midterm election">Midterm elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Off-year_election" title="Off-year election">Off-year elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_election#In_the_United_States" title="Primary election">Primary elections</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_primary" title="United States presidential primary">Presidential primary</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b> Elections by state and territory</b></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Alabama" title="Elections in Alabama">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Alaska" title="Elections in Alaska">Alaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Arizona" title="Elections in Arizona">Arizona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Arkansas" title="Elections in Arkansas">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_California" title="Elections in California">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Colorado" title="Elections in Colorado"> Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Connecticut" title="Elections in Connecticut">Connecticut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Delaware" title="Elections in Delaware">Delaware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Florida" title="Elections in Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Elections in Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Hawaii" title="Elections in Hawaii">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Idaho" title="Elections in Idaho">Idaho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Illinois" title="Elections in Illinois">Illinois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Indiana" title="Elections in Indiana">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Iowa" title="Elections in Iowa">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Kansas" title="Elections in Kansas">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Kentucky" title="Elections in Kentucky">Kentucky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Louisiana" title="Elections in Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Maine" title="Elections in Maine">Maine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Maryland" title="Elections in Maryland">Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_elections_in_Massachusetts" title="List of elections in Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Michigan" title="Elections in Michigan">Michigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Minnesota" title="Elections in Minnesota">Minnesota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Mississippi" title="Elections in Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Missouri" title="Elections in Missouri">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Montana" title="Elections in Montana">Montana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Nebraska" title="Elections in Nebraska">Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Nevada" title="Elections in Nevada">Nevada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_New_Hampshire" title="Elections in New Hampshire">New Hampshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_New_Jersey" title="Elections in New Jersey">New Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_New_Mexico" title="Elections in New Mexico">New Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_New_York_(state)" title="Elections in New York (state)">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_North_Carolina" title="Elections in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_North_Dakota" title="Elections in North Dakota">North Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Ohio" title="Elections in Ohio">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Oklahoma" title="Elections in Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Oregon" title="Elections in Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Pennsylvania" title="Elections in Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Rhode_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Elections in Rhode Island">Rhode Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_South_Carolina" title="Elections in South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_South_Dakota" title="Elections in South Dakota">South Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Tennessee" title="Elections in Tennessee">Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Texas" title="Elections in Texas">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Utah" title="Elections in Utah">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Vermont" title="Elections in Vermont">Vermont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Virginia" title="Elections in Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Washington_(state)" title="Elections in Washington (state)">Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_West_Virginia" class="mw-redirect" title="Elections in West Virginia">West Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Wisconsin" title="Elections in Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Wyoming" title="Elections in Wyoming">Wyoming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_American_Samoa" title="Elections in American Samoa">American Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Guam" title="Elections in Guam">Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_the_Northern_Mariana_Islands" title="Elections in the Northern Mariana Islands">Northern Mariana Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Puerto_Rico" title="Elections in Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_the_United_States_Virgin_Islands" title="Elections in the United States Virgin Islands">U.S. Virgin Islands</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_the_District_of_Columbia" title="Elections in the District of Columbia">Elections in the District of Columbia</a></b></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_elections_in_the_United_States" title="List of elections in the United States">List of elections</a>)</b></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Political_parties_in_the_United_States" title="Political parties in the United States">Political parties</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republican</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Third_party_(U.S._politics)" title="Third party (U.S. politics)">Third parties</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_Party_(United_States)" title="Libertarian Party (United States)">Libertarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Party_of_the_United_States" title="Green Party of the United States">Green</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_the_United_States" title="List of political parties in the United States">List of political parties</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Political_ideologies_in_the_United_States" title="Political ideologies in the United States">Political ideologies</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Conservatism in the United States">Conservatism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Black conservatism in the United States">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiscal_conservatism" title="Fiscal conservatism">Fiscal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_conservatism" title="Liberal conservatism">Liberal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoconservatism" title="Neoconservatism">Neo-</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoconservatism" title="Paleoconservatism">Paleo-</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Social conservatism in the United States">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditionalist_conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Traditionalist conservatism in the United States">Traditionalist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trumpism" title="Trumpism">Trumpism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_the_United_States" title="Liberalism in the United States">Liberalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism#United_States" title="Classical liberalism">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_liberalism#United_States" title="Conservative liberalism">Conservative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_liberalism_in_the_United_States" title="Modern liberalism in the United States">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoliberalism" title="Neoliberalism">Neo-</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Third_Way#United_States" title="Third Way">Third Way</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressivism_in_the_United_States" title="Progressivism in the United States">Progressivism</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">Abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutionalism_in_the_United_States" title="Constitutionalism in the United States">Constitutionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmentalism in the United States">Environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_the_United_States" title="Feminism in the United States">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_in_the_United_States" title="Libertarianism in the United States">Libertarianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_the_United_States" title="Anarchism in the United States">Anarchism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-capitalism" title="Anarcho-capitalism">Capitalist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualist_anarchism_in_the_United_States" title="Individualist anarchism in the United States">Individualist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_conservatism" title="Libertarian conservatism">Conservative</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleolibertarianism" title="Paleolibertarianism">Paleo-</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Night-watchman_state" title="Night-watchman state">Minarchist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivism" title="Objectivism">Objectivism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism_in_the_United_States" title="Monarchism in the United States">Monarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_nationalism" title="American nationalism">Nationalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nativism_in_United_States_politics" title="Nativism in United States politics">Nativism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Populism_in_the_United_States" title="Populism in the United States">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protectionism_in_the_United_States" title="Protectionism in the United States">Protectionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_States" title="Republicanism in the United States">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_socialist_movement_in_the_United_States" title="History of the socialist movement in the United States">Socialism</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_culture_of_the_United_States" title="Political culture of the United States">Political culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_polarization_in_the_United_States" title="Political polarization in the United States">Political polarization</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Federalism_in_the_United_States" title="Federalism in the United States">Federalism</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/State_governments_of_the_United_States" title="State governments of the United States">State</a> and <a href="/wiki/Territories_of_the_United_States" title="Territories of the United States">territorial</a> government</b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_United_States_governors" title="List of current United States governors">Governors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_legislature_(United_States)" title="State legislature (United States)">Legislatures</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_state_legislatures" title="List of United States state legislatures">list</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_court_(United_States)" title="State court (United States)">Courts</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Local_government_in_the_United_States" title="Local government in the United States">Local government</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_District_of_Columbia" title="Government of the District of Columbia">District of Columbia government</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_the_District_of_Columbia" title="Council of the District of Columbia">District Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mayor_of_the_District_of_Columbia" title="Mayor of the District of Columbia">Mayor</a></li> <li><a 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href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers_under_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Separation of powers under the United States Constitution">Separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_right#United_States" title="Constitutional right">Individual rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law#United_States" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalism_in_the_United_States" title="Federalism in the United States">Federalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_States" title="Republicanism in the United States">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_footing" title="Equal footing">Equal footing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_of_review" title="Standard of review">Tiers of scrutiny</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#f5f5dc"> Government structure</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Legislative branch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">Executive branch</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Judicial branch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_governments_of_the_United_States" title="State governments of the United States">State government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Local_government_in_the_United_States" title="Local government in the United States">Local government</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#f5f5dc"> Individual rights</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_the_United_States" title="Freedom of religion in the United States">Freedom of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech_in_the_United_States" title="Freedom of speech in the United States">Freedom of speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press_in_the_United_States" title="Freedom of the press in the United States">Freedom of the press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_assembly" title="Freedom of assembly">Freedom of assembly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_petition_in_the_United_States" title="Right to petition in the United States">Right to petition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_association#United_States_Constitution" title="Freedom of association">Freedom of association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms_in_the_United_States" title="Right to keep and bear arms in the United States">Right to keep and bear arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juries_in_the_United_States" title="Juries in the United States">Right to trial by jury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_constitutional_criminal_procedure" title="United States constitutional criminal procedure">Criminal procedural rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privacy_laws_of_the_United_States" title="Privacy laws of the United States">Right to privacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Freedom from slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Due_Process_Clause" title="Due Process Clause">Due process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause" title="Equal Protection Clause">Equal protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_nationality_law" title="United States nationality law">Citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Voting rights in the United States">Voting rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ballot_access" title="Ballot access">Right to candidacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vagueness_doctrine" title="Vagueness doctrine">Comprehensible rules</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#f5f5dc"> Theory</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Living_Constitution" title="Living Constitution">Living Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Originalism" title="Originalism">Originalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substantive_due_process" title="Substantive due process">Substantive due process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_process_theory_(law)" title="Political process theory (law)">Political process theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_restraint" title="Judicial restraint">Judicial restraint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purposive_approach" title="Purposive approach">Purposivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Textualism" title="Textualism">Textualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strict_constructionism" title="Strict constructionism">Strict constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_good_constitutionalism" title="Common good constitutionalism">Common good constitutionalism</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:United_States_constitutional_law" title="Template:United States constitutional law"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:United_States_constitutional_law" title="Template talk:United States constitutional law"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:United_States_constitutional_law" title="Special:EditPage/Template:United States constitutional law"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks vcard hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">This article is part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Category:Constitution of the United States">a series</a> on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Constitution<br />of the United States</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg/250px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="160" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg/330px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="451" data-file-height="476" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:lavender;"> <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Original_frame">Preamble and Articles</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Preamble_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Preamble to the United States Constitution">Preamble</a></li></ul> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Three_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Three of the United States Constitution">III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Four_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Four of the United States Constitution">IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Five_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Five of the United States Constitution">V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Six_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Six of the United States Constitution">VI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Seven_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Seven of the United States Constitution">VII</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:lavender;"> <a href="/wiki/List_of_amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States#Ratified_amendments" title="List of amendments to the Constitution of the United States">Amendments to the Constitution</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Second Amendment to the United States Constitution">II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Third Amendment to the United States Constitution">III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution">VI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">VII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution">VIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ninth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Ninth Amendment to the United States Constitution">IX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">X</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eleventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eleventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">XI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twelfth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XIV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XVI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seventeenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XVII</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eighteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XVIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nineteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XIX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twentieth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twentieth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-first_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution">XXI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution">XXII</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-third_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution">XXIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XXIV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XXV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-sixth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XXVI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-seventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">XXVII</a></li></ul> </div> <hr /> <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States#Unratified_amendments" title="List of amendments to the Constitution of the United States">Unratified Amendments</a></b>:<div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Apportionment_Amendment" title="Congressional Apportionment Amendment">Congressional Apportionment</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Titles_of_Nobility_Amendment" title="Titles of Nobility Amendment">Titles of Nobility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corwin_Amendment" title="Corwin Amendment">Corwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_Labor_Amendment" title="Child Labor Amendment">Child Labor</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Equal_Rights_Amendment" title="Equal Rights Amendment">Equal Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia_Voting_Rights_Amendment" title="District of Columbia Voting Rights Amendment">D.C. Voting Rights</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:lavender;"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="History of the United States Constitution">History</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_drafting_and_ratification_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Timeline of drafting and ratification of the United States Constitution">Drafting and ratification timeline</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)" title="Constitutional Convention (United States)">Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signing_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Signing of the United States Constitution">Signing</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Federalism_in_the_United_States" title="Federalism in the United States">Federalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_States" title="Republicanism in the United States">Republicanism</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Reconstruction Amendments</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:lavender;"> <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States_of_America" class="extiw" title="s:Constitution of the United States of America">Full text</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States_of_America" class="extiw" title="s:Constitution of the United States of America">Preamble and Articles I–VII</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" class="extiw" title="s:United States Bill of Rights">Amendments I–X</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Additional_amendments_to_the_United_States_Constitution" class="extiw" title="s:Additional amendments to the United States Constitution">Amendments XI–XXVII</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Portal:Unsuccessful_attempts_to_amend_the_United_States_Constitution" class="extiw" title="s:Portal:Unsuccessful attempts to amend the United States Constitution">Unratified Amendments</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:1px #aaa solid; border-bottom:1px #aaa solid;"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/17px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="17" height="9" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/26px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, 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style="width:22.0em;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#002868;"><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution"><span style="color:#FFFFFF;">American Revolution</span></a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><figure class="mw-halign-center mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_Independence_(painting)" title="Declaration of Independence (painting)"><img alt="Declaration of Independence (painting)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Declaration_of_Independence_%281819%29%2C_by_John_Trumbull.jpg/250px-Declaration_of_Independence_%281819%29%2C_by_John_Trumbull.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Declaration_of_Independence_%281819%29%2C_by_John_Trumbull.jpg/330px-Declaration_of_Independence_%281819%29%2C_by_John_Trumbull.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Declaration_of_Independence_%281819%29%2C_by_John_Trumbull.jpg/500px-Declaration_of_Independence_%281819%29%2C_by_John_Trumbull.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="1970" /></a><figcaption>Declaration of Independence (painting)</figcaption></figure><div class="sidebar-caption">The <a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Five" title="Committee of Five">Committee of Five</a> presents their draft of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">Declaration of Independence</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Second_Continental_Congress" title="Second Continental Congress">Second Continental Congress</a> in <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_American_Revolution" title="Timeline of the American Revolution">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_leaders_in_the_American_Revolutionary_War" title="List of military leaders in the American Revolutionary War">Military leaders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_American_Revolutionary_War_battles" title="List of American Revolutionary War battles">Battles</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution#Origins" title="American Revolution">Origins</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> Context</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">Thirteen Colonies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salutary_neglect" title="Salutary neglect">Salutary neglect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_and_Indian_War" title="French and Indian War">French and Indian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_III" title="George III">George III</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> Ideas</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Enlightenment" title="American Enlightenment">American Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_States" title="Republicanism in the United States">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_the_United_States" title="Liberalism in the United States">Liberalism</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/No_taxation_without_representation" title="No taxation without representation">No taxation without representation</a>"</li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> Conflict over taxation</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sugar_Act" title="Sugar Act">Sugar Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Currency_Act" title="Currency Act">Currency Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quartering_Acts" title="Quartering Acts">Quartering Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamp_Act_1765" title="Stamp Act 1765">Stamp Act 1765</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sons_of_Liberty" title="Sons of Liberty">Sons of Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamp_Act_Congress" title="Stamp Act Congress">Stamp Act Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declaratory_Act" title="Declaratory Act">Declaratory Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Townshend_Acts" title="Townshend Acts">Townshend Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Association" title="Virginia Association">Virginia Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tea_Act" title="Tea Act">Tea Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boston_Massacre" title="Boston Massacre">Boston Massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boston_Tea_Party" title="Boston Tea Party">Boston Tea Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philadelphia_Tea_Party" title="Philadelphia Tea Party">Philadelphia Tea Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intolerable_Acts" title="Intolerable Acts">Intolerable Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committees_of_Correspondence" class="mw-redirect" title="Committees of Correspondence">Committees of Correspondence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Continental_Congress" title="First Continental Congress">First Continental Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Association" title="Continental Association">Continental Association</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">Revolutionary War</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Army" title="Continental Army">Continental Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Navy" title="Continental Navy">Continental Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minutemen" title="Minutemen">Minutemen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Army_during_the_American_Revolutionary_War" title="British Army during the American Revolutionary War">British Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Royal_Navy_(after_1707)" title="History of the Royal Navy (after 1707)">British Royal Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/France_in_the_American_Revolutionary_War" title="France in the American Revolutionary War">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spain_and_the_American_Revolutionary_War" title="Spain and the American Revolutionary War">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_American_Revolutionary_War_battles" title="List of American Revolutionary War battles">Battles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplomacy_in_the_American_Revolutionary_War" title="Diplomacy in the American Revolutionary War">Diplomacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence_in_the_American_Revolutionary_War" title="Intelligence in the American Revolutionary War">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1783)" title="Treaty of Paris (1783)">Treaty of Paris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_costs_of_the_American_Revolutionary_War" title="Financial costs of the American Revolutionary War">Financial costs</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Political developments</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Loyalist_(American_Revolution)" title="Loyalist (American Revolution)">Loyalists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriot_(American_Revolution)" title="Patriot (American Revolution)">Patriots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_American_Revolution" title="Women in the American Revolution">Role of women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_the_Revolutionary_War" title="African Americans in the Revolutionary War">Role of African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Continental_Congress" title="Second Continental Congress">Second Continental Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/27_colonial_grievances" class="mw-redirect" title="27 colonial grievances">27 colonial grievances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olive_Branch_Petition" title="Olive Branch Petition">Olive Branch Petition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee_Resolution" title="Lee Resolution">Lee Resolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">Declaration of Independence</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li>(<a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Five" title="Committee of Five">Drafting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signing_of_the_United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Signing of the United States Declaration of Independence">Signing</a>)</li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Forming a republic</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Confederation_period" title="Confederation period">Confederation period</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_Union" title="Perpetual Union">Perpetual Union</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_the_Confederation" title="Congress of the Confederation">Congress of the Confederation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Ordinance" title="Northwest Ordinance">Northwest Ordinance</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> Dissent and rebellions</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Newburgh_Conspiracy" title="Newburgh Conspiracy">Newburgh Conspiracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Mutiny_of_1783" title="Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783">Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shays%27_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Shays' Rebellion">Shays' Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paper_Money_Riot" title="Paper Money Riot">Paper Money Riot</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Constitution</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Annapolis_Convention_(1786)" title="Annapolis Convention (1786)">Annapolis Convention</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)" title="Constitutional Convention (United States)">Philadelphia Convention</a></li><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Federalist_Papers" title="The Federalist Papers">The Federalist Papers</a></i></li><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Federalist_Papers" title="Anti-Federalist Papers">Anti-Federalist Papers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_drafting_and_ratification_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Timeline of drafting and ratification of the United States Constitution">Raftification</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a></li></ul></div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Legacy</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Revolutions" title="Atlantic Revolutions">Atlantic Revolutions</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/American_nationalism" title="American nationalism">American nationalism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/American_civil_religion" title="American civil religion">American civil religion</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Bicentennial" title="United States Bicentennial">Bicentennial</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Prospect_Hill_Flag_Debate" class="mw-redirect" title="Prospect Hill Flag Debate">Prospect Hill Flag Debate</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/17px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="17" height="9" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/26px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/34px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">United States portal</a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:American_Revolution_sidebar" title="Template:American Revolution sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:American_Revolution_sidebar" title="Template talk:American Revolution sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:American_Revolution_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:American Revolution sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><audio id="mwe_player_0" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" style="width:220px;" data-durationhint="2958" data-mwtitle="Constitution.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Constitution.ogg"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Constitution.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/f/f2/Constitution.ogg/Constitution.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio></span><figcaption>Reading of the United States Constitution of 1787</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>Constitution of the United States</b> is the <a href="/wiki/Supremacy_Clause" title="Supremacy Clause">supreme law</a> of the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States of America</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaier201035_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier201035-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It superseded the <a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a>, the nation's first <a href="/wiki/Constitution" title="Constitution">constitution</a>, on March 4, 1789. Originally including seven articles, the Constitution delineates the frame of the <a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">federal government</a>. The Constitution's first three articles embody the doctrine of the <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">separation of powers</a>, in which the federal government is divided into three branches: the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">legislative</a>, consisting of the <a href="/wiki/Bicameralism" title="Bicameralism">bicameral</a> Congress (<a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">Article I</a>); the <a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States#Executive_branch" title="Federal government of the United States">executive</a>, consisting of the <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">president</a> and subordinate officers (<a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">Article II</a>); and the <a href="/wiki/Federal_judiciary_of_the_United_States" title="Federal judiciary of the United States">judicial</a>, consisting of the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court</a> and other federal courts (<a href="/wiki/Article_Three_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Three of the United States Constitution">Article III</a>). <a href="/wiki/Article_Four_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Four of the United States Constitution">Article IV</a>, <a href="/wiki/Article_Five_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Five of the United States Constitution">Article V</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Article_Six_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Six of the United States Constitution">Article VI</a> embody concepts of <a href="/wiki/Federalism" title="Federalism">federalism</a>, describing the rights and responsibilities of <a href="/wiki/State_governments_of_the_United_States" title="State governments of the United States">state governments</a>, the <a href="/wiki/U.S._state" title="U.S. state">states</a> in relationship to the federal government, and the shared process of constitutional amendment. <a href="/wiki/Article_Seven_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Seven of the United States Constitution">Article VII</a> establishes the procedure subsequently used by the 13 states to <a href="/wiki/Ratification" title="Ratification">ratify</a> it. The Constitution of the United States is the oldest and longest-standing written and codified national constitution in force in the world.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_drafting_and_ratification_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Timeline of drafting and ratification of the United States Constitution">drafting of the Constitution</a>, often referred to as its framing, was completed at the <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)" title="Constitutional Convention (United States)">Constitutional Convention</a>, which assembled at <a href="/wiki/Independence_Hall" title="Independence Hall">Independence Hall</a> in <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a> between May 25 and September 17, 1787.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaier201027–28_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier201027–28-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Delegates to the convention were chosen by the state legislatures of 12 of the <a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">13 original states</a>; <a href="/wiki/Rhode_Island" title="Rhode Island">Rhode Island</a> refused to send delegates.<sup id="cite_ref-Bio_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bio-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The convention's initial mandate was limited to amending the Articles of Confederation, which had proven highly ineffective in meeting the young nation's needs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaier201011–13_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier201011–13-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Almost immediately, however, delegates began considering measures to replace the Articles.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERakove1996102–104_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERakove1996102–104-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first proposal discussed, introduced by delegates from <a href="/wiki/Virginia" title="Virginia">Virginia</a>, called for a bicameral (two-house) Congress that was to be elected on a proportional basis based on state population, an elected chief executive, and an appointed judicial branch.<sup id="cite_ref-AvalonVirginia_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AvalonVirginia-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An alternative to the <a href="/wiki/Virginia_Plan" title="Virginia Plan">Virginia Plan</a>, known as the <a href="/wiki/New_Jersey_Plan" title="New Jersey Plan">New Jersey Plan</a>, also called for an elected executive but retained the legislative structure created by the Articles, a unicameral Congress where all states had one vote.<sup id="cite_ref-AvalonNewJersey_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AvalonNewJersey-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On June 19, 1787, delegates rejected the New Jersey Plan with three states voting in favor, seven against, and one divided. The plan's defeat led to a series of compromises centering primarily on two issues: slavery and proportional representation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWarren1928231–232_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWarren1928231–232-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERakove199658_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERakove199658-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first of these pitted Northern states, where slavery was slowly being abolished, against Southern states, whose agricultural economies depended on slave labor.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman200967–68,_310–311_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman200967–68,_310–311-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The issue of proportional representation was of similar concern to less populous states, which under the Articles had the same power as larger states.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERakove199654_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERakove199654-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To satisfy interests in the South, particularly in Georgia and South Carolina, the delegates agreed to protect the slave trade, that is, the importation of slaves, for 20 years.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaier2010123_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier2010123-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Slavery was protected further by allowing states to count three-fifths of their slaves as part of their populations, for the purpose of representation in the federal government, and by requiring the return of escaped slaves to their owners, even if captured in states where slavery had been abolished.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBernstein1987167,_177_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBernstein1987167,_177-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Finally, the delegates adopted the <a href="/wiki/Connecticut_Compromise" title="Connecticut Compromise">Connecticut Compromise</a>, which proposed a Congress with proportional representation in the lower house and equal representation in the upper house (the Senate) giving each state two senators.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009200–204_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009200–204-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While these compromises held the Union together and aided the Constitution's ratification, slavery continued for six more decades and the less populous states continue to have disproportional representation in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">U.S. Senate</a> and <a href="/wiki/United_States_Electoral_College" title="United States Electoral College">Electoral College</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmar200520–21,_310_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmar200520–21,_310-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERakove199658_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERakove199658-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since the Constitution became operational in 1789, it has been <a href="/wiki/List_of_amendments_to_the_United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="List of amendments to the United States Constitution">amended</a> 27 times.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-senategov_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-senategov-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first ten amendments, known collectively as the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a>, offer specific protections of individual liberty and justice and place restrictions on the powers of government within the U.S. states.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The majority of the 17 later amendments expand individual civil rights protections. Others address issues related to federal authority or modify government processes and procedures. Amendments to the United States Constitution, unlike ones made to many constitutions worldwide, are appended to the document. The original U.S. Constitution<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was handwritten on five pages of <a href="/wiki/Parchment" title="Parchment">parchment</a> by <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Shallus" title="Jacob Shallus">Jacob Shallus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first permanent constitution,<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it is interpreted, supplemented, and implemented by a large body of <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_law_of_the_United_States" title="Constitutional law of the United States">federal constitutional law</a> and has influenced the constitutions of other nations. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="History of the United States Constitution">History of the United States Constitution</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For a chronological guide, see <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_drafting_and_ratification_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Timeline of drafting and ratification of the United States Constitution">Timeline of drafting and ratification of the United States Constitution</a>.</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Background">Background</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a></div> <p>From September 5, 1774, to March 1, 1781, the <a href="/wiki/Second_Continental_Congress" title="Second Continental Congress">Second Continental Congress</a>, convened in <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a> in what is now <a href="/wiki/Independence_Hall" title="Independence Hall">Independence Hall</a>, functioned as the <a href="/wiki/Provisional_government" title="Provisional government">provisional government</a> of the United States. Delegates to the <a href="/wiki/First_Continental_Congress" title="First Continental Congress">First Continental Congress</a> in 1774 and then the <a href="/wiki/Second_Continental_Congress" title="Second Continental Congress">Second Continental Congress</a> from 1775 to 1781 were chosen largely from the revolutionary <a href="/wiki/Committees_of_correspondence" title="Committees of correspondence">committees of correspondence</a> in various colonies rather than through the <a href="/wiki/Colonial_governments_of_the_Thirteen_Colonies" class="mw-redirect" title="Colonial governments of the Thirteen Colonies">colonial governments of the Thirteen Colonies</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLaughlin193583–90,_124_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLaughlin193583–90,_124-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a> and Perpetual Union was the first constitution of the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The document was drafted by a committee appointed by the <a href="/wiki/Second_Continental_Congress" title="Second Continental Congress">Second Continental Congress</a> in mid-June 1777 and was adopted by the full Congress in mid-November of that year. Ratification by the 13 colonies took more than three years and was completed March 1, 1781. The Articles gave little power to the central government. While the Confederation Congress had some decision-making abilities, it lacked enforcement powers. The implementation of most decisions, including amendments to the Articles, required legislative approval by all 13 of the newly formed states.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBernstein1987199_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBernstein1987199-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJensen195059_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJensen195059-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite these limitations, based on the Congressional authority granted in Article 9, the league of states was considered as strong as any similar republican confederation ever formed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWood1969359_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood1969359-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The chief problem was, in the words of <a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a>, "no money".<sup id="cite_ref-maier11-13_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-maier11-13-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Confederated Congress could print money, but it was worthless, and while the Congress could borrow money, it could not pay it back.<sup id="cite_ref-maier11-13_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-maier11-13-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> No state paid its share of taxes to support the government, and some paid nothing. A few states did meet the interest payments toward the national debt owed by their citizens, but nothing greater, and no interest was paid on debts owed foreign governments. By 1786, the United States was facing default on its outstanding debts.<sup id="cite_ref-maier11-13_34-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-maier11-13-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Under the Articles, the United States had little ability to defend its sovereignty. Most of the troops in the nation's 625-man army were deployed facing non-threatening <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">British</a> forts on American soil. Soldiers were not being paid, some were deserting, and others were threatening mutiny.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaier201012–13,_19_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier201012–13,_19-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_(New_Spain)" title="Louisiana (New Spain)">Spain</a> closed <a href="/wiki/New_Orleans" title="New Orleans">New Orleans</a> to American commerce, despite the protests of U.S. officials. When <a href="/wiki/Barbary_pirates" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbary pirates">Barbary pirates</a> began seizing American ships of commerce, the Treasury had no funds to pay toward ransom. If a military crisis required action, the Congress had no credit or taxing power to finance a response.<sup id="cite_ref-maier11-13_34-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-maier11-13-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Domestically, the Articles of Confederation was failing to bring unity to the diverse sentiments and interests of the various states. Although the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1783)" title="Treaty of Paris (1783)">Treaty of Paris</a> in 1783 was signed between Britain and the U.S., and named each of the American states, various states proceeded to violate it. <a href="/wiki/New_York_(state)" title="New York (state)">New York</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_Carolina" title="South Carolina">South Carolina</a> repeatedly prosecuted <a href="/wiki/Loyalist_(American_Revolution)" title="Loyalist (American Revolution)">Loyalists</a> for wartime activity and redistributed their lands.<sup id="cite_ref-maier11-13_34-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-maier11-13-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Individual state legislatures independently laid embargoes, negotiated directly with foreign authorities, raised armies, and made war, all violating the letter and the spirit of the Articles.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In September 1786, during an <a href="/wiki/Annapolis_Convention_(1786)" title="Annapolis Convention (1786)">inter–state convention</a> to discuss and develop a consensus about reversing the protectionist trade barriers that each state had erected, <a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a> questioned whether the Articles of Confederation was a binding compact or even a viable government. <a href="/wiki/Connecticut" title="Connecticut">Connecticut</a> paid nothing and "positively refused" to pay U.S. assessments for two years.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBowen1966129–130_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowen1966129–130-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A rumor at the time was that a <a href="/wiki/Sedition" title="Sedition">seditious</a> party of New York legislators had opened a conversation with the <a href="/wiki/Governor_General_of_Canada" title="Governor General of Canada">Viceroy of Canada</a>. To the south, the British were said to be openly funding <a href="/wiki/Muscogee" title="Muscogee">Creek</a> Indian raids on Georgia, and the state was under <a href="/wiki/Martial_law" title="Martial law">martial law</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBowen196631_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowen196631-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, during <a href="/wiki/Shays%27_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Shays' Rebellion">Shays' Rebellion</a> (August 1786 – June 1787) in Massachusetts, Congress could provide no money to support an endangered constituent state. General <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Lincoln" title="Benjamin Lincoln">Benjamin Lincoln</a> was obliged to raise funds from Boston merchants to pay for a volunteer army.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaier201015–16_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier201015–16-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Congress was paralyzed. It could do nothing significant without nine states, and some legislation required all 13. When a state produced only one member in attendance, its vote was not counted. If a state's delegation was evenly divided, its vote could not be counted towards the nine-count requirement.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaier201013_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier201013-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Congress of the Confederation had "virtually ceased trying to govern".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWood1969356–367,_359_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood1969356–367,_359-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The vision of a respectable nation among nations seemed to be fading in the eyes of revolutionaries such as <a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a>, <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Rufus_King" title="Rufus King">Rufus King</a>. Their dream of a <a href="/wiki/Republic" title="Republic">republic</a>, a nation without hereditary rulers, with power derived from the people in frequent elections, was in doubt.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaier201014,_30,_66_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier201014,_30,_66-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On February 21, 1787, the Confederation Congress called a convention of state delegates in <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a> to propose revisions to the Articles.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike earlier attempts, the convention was not meant for new laws or piecemeal alterations, but for the "sole and express purpose of revising the Articles of Confederation". The convention was not limited to commerce; rather, it was intended to "render the federal constitution adequate to the exigencies of government and the preservation of the Union". The proposal might take effect when approved by Congress and the states.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1787_drafting">1787 drafting</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)" title="Constitutional Convention (United States)">Constitutional Convention (United States)</a> and <a href="/wiki/James_Madison_as_Father_of_the_Constitution" title="James Madison as Father of the Constitution">James Madison as Father of the Constitution</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Scene_at_the_Signing_of_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Scene_at_the_Signing_of_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States.jpg/250px-Scene_at_the_Signing_of_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Scene_at_the_Signing_of_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States.jpg/330px-Scene_at_the_Signing_of_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Scene_at_the_Signing_of_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States.jpg/500px-Scene_at_the_Signing_of_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="1933" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Scene_at_the_Signing_of_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Scene at the Signing of the Constitution of the United States">Scene at the Signing of the Constitution of the United States on September 17, 1787</a></i>, a 1940 portrait by <a href="/wiki/Howard_Chandler_Christy" title="Howard Chandler Christy">Howard Chandler Christy</a> depicting the signing of the Constitution in Philadelphia</figcaption></figure> <p>On the appointed day, May 14, 1787, only the Virginia and Pennsylvania delegations were present, and the convention's opening meeting was postponed for lack of a quorum.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A quorum of seven states met on May 25, and deliberations began. Eventually 12 states were represented, with Rhode Island refusing to participate. Of the 74 delegates appointed by the states, 55 attended.<sup id="cite_ref-Bio_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bio-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The delegates were generally convinced that an effective central government with a wide range of enforceable powers must replace the weaker <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_the_Confederation" title="Congress of the Confederation">Congress</a> established by the Articles of Confederation.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Two plans for structuring the federal government arose at the convention's outset: </p> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Virginia_Plan" title="Virginia Plan">Virginia Plan</a>, also known as the <i>Large State Plan</i> or the <i>Randolph Plan</i>, proposed that the legislative department of the national government be composed of a <a href="/wiki/Bicameralism" title="Bicameralism">Bicameral</a> Congress, with both chambers elected with apportionment according to population. Generally favoring the most highly populated states, it used the philosophy of <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a> to rely on consent of the governed, <a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a> for divided government, and <a href="/wiki/Edward_Coke" title="Edward Coke">Edward Coke</a> to emphasize <a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties_in_the_United_States" title="Civil liberties in the United States">civil liberties</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-AvalonVirginia_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AvalonVirginia-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/New_Jersey_Plan" title="New Jersey Plan">New Jersey Plan</a> proposed that the legislative department be a <a href="/wiki/Unicameralism" title="Unicameralism">unicameral</a> body with one vote per state. Generally favoring the less-populous states, it used the philosophy of English <a href="/wiki/Whigs_(British_political_party)" title="Whigs (British political party)">Whigs</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Edmund Burke</a> to rely on received procedure and <a href="/wiki/William_Blackstone" title="William Blackstone">William Blackstone</a> to emphasize sovereignty of the legislature. This position reflected the belief that the states were independent entities and, as they entered the United States of America freely and individually, remained so.<sup id="cite_ref-AvalonNewJersey_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AvalonNewJersey-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>On May 31, the Convention devolved into the <a href="/wiki/Committee_of_the_whole#United_States" title="Committee of the whole">Committee of the Whole</a>, charged with considering the Virginia Plan. On June 13, the Virginia resolutions in amended form were reported out of committee. The New Jersey Plan was put forward in response to the Virginia Plan.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>A Committee of Eleven, including one delegate from each state represented, met from July 2 to 16<sup id="cite_ref-committeest_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-committeest-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to work out a compromise on the issue of representation in the federal legislature. All agreed to a republican form of government grounded in representing the people in the states. For the legislature, two issues were to be decided: how the votes were to be allocated among the states in the Congress, and how the representatives should be elected. In its report, now known as the <a href="/wiki/Connecticut_Compromise" title="Connecticut Compromise">Connecticut Compromise</a> (or "Great Compromise"), the committee proposed proportional representation for seats in the House of Representatives based on population (with the people voting for representatives), and equal representation for each State in the Senate (with each state's legislators generally choosing their respective senators), and that all money bills would originate in the House.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Great Compromise ended the stalemate between patriots and nationalists, leading to numerous other compromises in a spirit of accommodation. There were sectional interests to be balanced by the <a href="/wiki/Three-Fifths_Compromise" class="mw-redirect" title="Three-Fifths Compromise">Three-Fifths Compromise</a>; reconciliation on <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">Presidential</a> term, powers, and method of selection; and jurisdiction of the federal judiciary.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>On July 24, a <a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Detail" title="Committee of Detail">Committee of Detail</a>, including <a href="/wiki/John_Rutledge" title="John Rutledge">John Rutledge</a> (South Carolina), <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Randolph" title="Edmund Randolph">Edmund Randolph</a> (Virginia), <a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Gorham" title="Nathaniel Gorham">Nathaniel Gorham</a> (Massachusetts), <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Ellsworth" title="Oliver Ellsworth">Oliver Ellsworth</a> (Connecticut), and <a href="/wiki/James_Wilson_(Founding_Father)" title="James Wilson (Founding Father)">James Wilson</a> (Pennsylvania), was elected to draft a detailed constitution reflective of the resolutions passed by the convention up to that point.<sup id="cite_ref-CCCs_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CCCs-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Convention recessed from July 26 to August 6 to await the report of this "Committee of Detail". Overall, the report of the committee conformed to the resolutions adopted by the convention, adding some elements. A twenty-three article (plus preamble) constitution was presented.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From August 6 to September 10, the report of the committee of detail was discussed, section by section and clause by clause. Details were attended to, and further compromises were effected.<sup id="cite_ref-committeest_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-committeest-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CCCs_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CCCs-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Toward the close of these discussions, on September 8, a Committee of Style and Arrangement, including <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</a> from <a href="/wiki/New_York_(state)" title="New York (state)">New York</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Samuel_Johnson" title="William Samuel Johnson">William Samuel Johnson</a> from <a href="/wiki/Connecticut" title="Connecticut">Connecticut</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rufus_King" title="Rufus King">Rufus King</a> from <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts" title="Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a> from Virginia, and <a href="/wiki/Gouverneur_Morris" title="Gouverneur Morris">Gouverneur Morris</a> from Pennsylvania, was appointed to distill a final draft constitution from the 23 approved articles.<sup id="cite_ref-CCCs_48-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CCCs-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The final draft, presented to the convention on September 12, contained seven articles, a <a href="/wiki/Preamble_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Preamble to the United States Constitution">preamble</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Eschatocol" title="Eschatocol">closing endorsement</a>, of which Morris was the primary author.<sup id="cite_ref-Bio_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bio-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The committee also presented a proposed letter to accompany the constitution when delivered to Congress.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The final document, <a href="/wiki/Western_calligraphy" title="Western calligraphy">engrossed</a> by <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Shallus" title="Jacob Shallus">Jacob Shallus</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was taken up on Monday, September 17, at the convention's final session. Several of the delegates were disappointed in the result, a makeshift series of unfortunate compromises. Some delegates left before the ceremony and three others refused to sign. Of the thirty-nine signers, <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a> summed up, addressing the convention: "There are several parts of this Constitution which I do not at present approve, but I am not sure I shall never approve them." He would accept the Constitution, "because I expect no better and because I am not sure that it is not the best".<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The advocates of the Constitution were anxious to obtain unanimous support of all twelve states represented in the convention. Their accepted formula for the closing endorsement was "Done in Convention, by the unanimous consent of the States present". At the end of the convention, the proposal was agreed to by eleven state delegations and the lone remaining delegate from New York, Alexander Hamilton.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ratification_by_the_states">Ratification by the states</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Ratification_of_the_Constitution" title="History of the United States Constitution">History of the United States Constitution § Ratification of the Constitution</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dates_US_Constitution_ratified_by_the_13_States.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Dates_US_Constitution_ratified_by_the_13_States.png/220px-Dates_US_Constitution_ratified_by_the_13_States.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Dates_US_Constitution_ratified_by_the_13_States.png/330px-Dates_US_Constitution_ratified_by_the_13_States.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Dates_US_Constitution_ratified_by_the_13_States.png/440px-Dates_US_Constitution_ratified_by_the_13_States.png 2x" data-file-width="685" data-file-height="857" /></a><figcaption>Dates the 13 original U.S. states ratified the Constitution</figcaption></figure> <p>Within three days of its signing on September 17, 1787, the Constitution was submitted to the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_the_Confederation" title="Congress of the Confederation">Congress of the Confederation</a>, then sitting in New York City, the nation's temporary capital.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllis2000160_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllis2000160-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009215,_285_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009215,_285-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBowen1966209_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowen1966209-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The document, originally intended as a revision of the Articles of Confederation, instead introduced a completely new form of government.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERakove1996102_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERakove1996102-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBernstein1987106,_160_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBernstein1987106,_160-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWarren1928281–282_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWarren1928281–282-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While members of Congress had the power to reject it, they voted unanimously on September 28 to forward the proposal to the thirteen states for their <a href="/wiki/Ratification" title="Ratification">ratification</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBernstein1987201–203_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBernstein1987201–203-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERakove1996108–110_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERakove1996108–110-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under the process outlined in <a href="/wiki/Article_Seven_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Seven of the United States Constitution">Article VII</a> of the proposed Constitution, the state legislatures were tasked with organizing "Federal Conventions" to ratify the document. This process ignored the amendment provision of the <a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a> which required unanimous approval of all the states. Instead, Article VII called for ratification by just nine of the 13 states—a two-thirds majority.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERakove1996106–108_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERakove1996106–108-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBernstein1987199_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBernstein1987199-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Two factions soon emerged, one supporting the Constitution, the <a href="/wiki/Federalist#United_States" title="Federalist">Federalists</a>, and the other opposing it, the so-called <a href="/wiki/Anti-Federalism" title="Anti-Federalism">Anti-Federalists</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBernstein1987201–202_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBernstein1987201–202-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBowen1966268–269_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowen1966268–269-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over the ensuing months, the proposal was debated, criticized, and expounded upon clause by clause. In the state of <a href="/wiki/New_York_(state)" title="New York (state)">New York</a>, at the time a hotbed of anti-Federalism, three delegates from the Philadelphia Convention who were also members of the Congress—<a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Hamilton</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a>, and <a href="/wiki/John_Jay" title="John Jay">Jay</a>—published a series of commentaries, now known as <i><a href="/wiki/The_Federalist_Papers" title="The Federalist Papers">The Federalist Papers</a></i>, in support of ratification.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009406_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009406-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBowen1966268–272_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowen1966268–272-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Before year's end, three state legislatures voted in favor of ratification. Delaware was first, voting unanimously 30–0; Pennsylvania second, approving the measure 46–23;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaier2010122_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier2010122-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWarren1928768,_819_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWarren1928768,_819-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBowen1966276–277_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowen1966276–277-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and New Jersey third, also recording a unanimous vote.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As 1788 began, Connecticut and Georgia followed Delaware's lead with almost unanimous votes, but the outcome became less certain as leaders in key states such as Virginia, New York, and Massachusetts expressed concerns over the lack of protections for people's rights.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBernstein1987178–181_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBernstein1987178–181-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJillson201650_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJillson201650-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorton2006185–186_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorton2006185–186-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECampbell1969317_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbell1969317-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fearing the prospect of defeat, the Federalists relented, promising that if the Constitution was adopted, amendments would be added to secure individual liberties.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009409_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009409-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With that, the anti-Federalists' position collapsed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERakove1996124–127_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERakove1996124–127-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On June 21, 1788, New Hampshire became the ninth state to ratify. Three months later, on September 17, the Congress of the Confederation certified the ratification of eleven states, and passed resolutions setting dates for choosing the first senators and representatives, the first Wednesday of January (January 7, 1789); electing the first president, the first Wednesday of February (February 4); and officially starting the new government, the first Wednesday of March (March 4), when the first Congress would convene in New York City.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As its final act, the Congress of Confederation agreed to purchase 10 square miles from Maryland and Virginia for establishing a permanent capital. </p><p>North Carolina waited to ratify the Constitution until after the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a> was passed by the new Congress, and <a href="/wiki/Ratification_of_the_United_States_Constitution_by_Rhode_Island" title="Ratification of the United States Constitution by Rhode Island">Rhode Island's ratification</a> would only come after a threatened trade embargo.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Influences">Influences</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="History of the United States Constitution">History of the United States Constitution</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Locke_by_Herman_Verelst.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/John_Locke_by_Herman_Verelst.png/220px-John_Locke_by_Herman_Verelst.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="270" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/John_Locke_by_Herman_Verelst.png/330px-John_Locke_by_Herman_Verelst.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/John_Locke_by_Herman_Verelst.png/440px-John_Locke_by_Herman_Verelst.png 2x" data-file-width="2145" data-file-height="2633" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a>, author of <i><a href="/wiki/Two_Treatises_of_Government" title="Two Treatises of Government">Two Treatises of Government</a></i></figcaption></figure> <p>The U.S. Constitution was a federal one and was greatly influenced by the study of Magna Carta and other federations, both ancient and extant. The <a href="/wiki/Due_Process_Clause" title="Due Process Clause">Due Process Clause</a> of the Constitution was partly based on <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> and on <a href="/wiki/Magna_Carta" title="Magna Carta">Magna Carta</a> (1215), which had become a foundation of English liberty against arbitrary power wielded by a ruler.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The idea of Separation of Powers inherent in the Constitution was largely inspired by eighteenth-century <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> philosophers, such as <a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The influence of Montesquieu, Locke, <a href="/wiki/Edward_Coke" title="Edward Coke">Edward Coke</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_Blackstone" title="William Blackstone">William Blackstone</a> were evident at the Constitutional Convention. Prior to and during the framing and signing of the Constitution, <a href="/wiki/William_Blackstone" title="William Blackstone">Blackstone</a>, <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a> and <a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a> were among the political philosophers most frequently referred to.<sup id="cite_ref-lutz146_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lutz146-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historian <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Schneider" title="Herbert Schneider">Herbert W. Schneider</a> held that the Scottish Enlightenment was "probably the most potent single tradition in the American Enlightenment" and the advancement of personal liberties.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historian <a href="/wiki/Jack_P._Greene" title="Jack P. Greene">Jack P. Greene</a> maintains that by 1776 the founders drew heavily upon <a href="/wiki/Magna_Carta" title="Magna Carta">Magna Carta</a> and the later writings of "Enlightenment rationalism" and English <a href="/wiki/English_law#Common_law" title="English law">common law</a>. Historian <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Walker_Howe" title="Daniel Walker Howe">Daniel Walker Howe</a> notes that <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a> greatly admired <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a>, an eighteenth-century Scottish philosopher, and had studied many of his works while at Edinburgh in 1760. Both embraced the idea that high-ranking public officials should receive no salary<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and that the lower class was a better judge of character when it came to choosing their representatives.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In his <i><a href="/wiki/Institutes_of_the_Lawes_of_England" title="Institutes of the Lawes of England">Institutes of the Lawes of England</a></i>, Coke interpreted Magna Carta protections and rights to apply not just to nobles, but to all British subjects. In writing the <a href="/wiki/London_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="London Company">Virginia Charter of 1606</a>, he enabled the King in Parliament to give those to be born in the colonies all rights and liberties as though they were born in England. William Blackstone's <i><a href="/wiki/Commentaries_on_the_Laws_of_England" title="Commentaries on the Laws of England">Commentaries on the Laws of England</a></i> are considered the most influential books on law in the new republic.<sup id="cite_ref-lutz146_84-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lutz146-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Madison made frequent reference to Blackstone, Locke, and Montesquieu,<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> all of whom were among the most prominent political theorists of the late eighteenth century.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following the <a href="/wiki/Glorious_Revolution" title="Glorious Revolution">Glorious Revolution</a> of 1688, British political philosopher John Locke was a major influence,<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> expanding on the contract theory of government advanced by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a>, his contemporary.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Locke advanced the principle of <a href="/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">consent of the governed</a> in his <i><a href="/wiki/Two_Treatises_of_Government" title="Two Treatises of Government">Two Treatises of Government</a></i>. Government's duty under a <a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">social contract</a> among the sovereign people was to serve the people by protecting their rights. These basic rights were <a href="/wiki/Life,_Liberty_and_the_pursuit_of_Happiness#Lockean_roots_hypothesis" title="Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness">life, liberty, and property</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Montesquieu's influence on the framers is evident in Madison's <i><a href="/wiki/Federalist_No._47" title="Federalist No. 47">Federalist No. 47</a></i> and Hamilton's <i><a href="/wiki/Federalist_No._78" title="Federalist No. 78">Federalist No. 78</a></i>. Jefferson, Adams, and Mason were known to read Montesquieu.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/List_of_justices_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="List of justices of the Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court Justices</a>, the ultimate interpreters of the constitution, have cited Montesquieu throughout the Court's history.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (See, <i>e.g.</i>, <cite><i><a href="/wiki/Green_v._Biddle" title="Green v. Biddle">Green v. Biddle</a></i></cite>, 21 U.S. 1, 1, 36 (1823).<cite><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Wood" class="mw-redirect" title="United States v. Wood">United States v. Wood</a></i></cite>, 39 U.S. 430, 438 (1840).<cite><i><a href="/wiki/Myers_v._United_States" title="Myers v. United States">Myers v. United States</a></i></cite>, 272 U.S. 52, 116 (1926).<cite><i><a href="/wiki/Nixon_v._Administrator_of_General_Services" class="mw-redirect" title="Nixon v. Administrator of General Services">Nixon v. Administrator of General Services</a></i></cite>, 433 U.S. 425, 442 (1977).<cite><i><a href="/wiki/Bank_Markazi_v._Peterson" title="Bank Markazi v. Peterson">Bank Markazi v. Peterson</a></i></cite>, 136 U.S. 1310, 1330 (2016).) Montesquieu emphasized the need for balanced forces pushing against each other to prevent tyranny (reflecting the influence of <a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a>'s 2nd century BC treatise on the <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">checks and balances</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a>). In his <i><a href="/wiki/The_Spirit_of_Law" title="The Spirit of Law">The Spirit of Law</a></i>, Montesquieu maintained that the separation of state powers should be by its service to the people's liberty: legislative, executive and judicial,<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while also emphasizing that the idea of separation had for its purpose the even distribution of authority among the several branches of government.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The English <a href="/wiki/Bill_of_Rights_1689" title="Bill of Rights 1689">Bill of Rights (1689)</a> was an inspiration for the American Bill of Rights. Both require <a href="/wiki/Jury_trial" title="Jury trial">jury trials</a>, contain a <a href="/wiki/Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms" title="Right to keep and bear arms">right to keep and bear arms</a>, prohibit excessive <a href="/wiki/Bail" title="Bail">bail</a> and forbid "<a href="/wiki/Cruel_and_unusual_punishment" title="Cruel and unusual punishment">cruel and unusual punishments</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-Schwartz_pp._23,_24_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schwartz_pp._23,_24-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many liberties protected by state constitutions and the <a href="/wiki/Virginia_Declaration_of_Rights" title="Virginia Declaration of Rights">Virginia Declaration of Rights</a> were incorporated into the Bill of Rights.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Upon the arrival of the American Revolution, many of the rights guaranteed by the Federal Bill of Rights were recognized as being inspired by English law.<sup id="cite_ref-Schwartz_pp._23,_24_99-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schwartz_pp._23,_24-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A substantial body of thought had been developed from the literature of <a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_States" title="Republicanism in the United States">republicanism in the United States</a>, typically demonstrated by the works of <a href="/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams">John Adams</a>, who often quoted Blackstone and Montesquieu verbatim, and applied to the creation of <a href="/wiki/State_constitution_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="State constitution (United States)">state constitutions</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While the ideas of unalienable rights, the separation of powers and the structure of the Constitution were largely influenced by the European Enlightenment thinkers, like <a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a> and others,<sup id="cite_ref-lutz146_84-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lutz146-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson still had reservations about the existing forms of government in Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-grinde301-303_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-grinde301-303-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a speech at the Constitutional Convention Franklin stated, "We have gone back to ancient history for models of Government, and examined different forms of those Republics ... And we have viewed modern States all round Europe but find none of their Constitutions suitable to our circumstances."<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jefferson maintained, that most European governments were <a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">autocratic</a> <a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">monarchies</a> and not compatible with the <a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">egalitarian</a> character of the American people. In a 1787 letter to <a href="/wiki/John_Rutledge" title="John Rutledge">John Rutledge</a>, Jefferson asserted that "The only condition on earth to be compared with [American government] ... is that of the Indians, where they still have less law than we."<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>American Indian history scholars <a href="/wiki/Donald_A._Grinde_Jr." title="Donald A. Grinde Jr.">Donald Grinde</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bruce_E._Johansen" title="Bruce E. Johansen">Bruce Johansen</a> claim there is "overwhelming evidence" that <a href="/wiki/Iroquois_League" class="mw-redirect" title="Iroquois League">Iroquois Confederacy</a> political concepts and ideas <a href="/wiki/Great_Law_of_Peace#Influence_on_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Great Law of Peace">influenced the U.S. Constitution</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and are considered to be the most outspoken supporters of the Iroquois thesis.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The idea as to the extent of that influence on the founding, however, varies among historians and has been questioned or criticized by various historians, including Samuel Payne,<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> William Starna, George Hamell,<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and historian and archaeologist <a href="/wiki/Philip_Levy_(historian)" title="Philip Levy (historian)">Philip Levy</a>, who claims the evidence is largely coincidental and circumstantial.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most outspoken critic, anthropologist <a href="/wiki/Elisabeth_Tooker" title="Elisabeth Tooker">Elisabeth Tooker</a>, claimed the Iroquois influence thesis is largely the product of "white interpretations of Indians" and "scholarly misapprehension".<sup id="cite_ref-Tooker_p._327_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tooker_p._327-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/John_Napoleon_Brinton_Hewitt" title="John Napoleon Brinton Hewitt">John Napoleon Brinton Hewitt</a>, who was born on the <a href="/wiki/Tuscarora_Indian_Reservation" class="mw-redirect" title="Tuscarora Indian Reservation">Tuscarora Indian Reservation</a>, and was an <a href="/wiki/Ethnologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnologist">ethnologist</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Smithsonian_Institution" title="Smithsonian Institution">Smithsonian Institution</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Ethnology" class="mw-redirect" title="Bureau of Ethnology">Bureau of Ethnology</a> is often cited by historians of Iroquois history. Hewitt, however, rejected the idea that the Iroquois League had a major influence on the <a href="/wiki/Albany_Plan_of_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Albany Plan of Union">Albany Plan of Union</a>, Benjamin Franklin's plan to create a unified government for the <a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">Thirteen Colonies</a>, which was rejected.<sup id="cite_ref-Tooker_p._327_112-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tooker_p._327-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Constitution's_provisions"><span id="Constitution.27s_provisions"></span>Constitution's provisions</h2></div> <p>The Constitution includes four sections: an introductory paragraph titled Preamble, a list of seven Articles that define the government's framework, an untitled closing endorsement with the signatures of 39 framers, and 27 amendments that have been adopted under Article V (see <a href="#Article_V">below</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Preamble">Preamble</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Preamble_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Preamble to the United States Constitution">Preamble to the United States Constitution</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Constitution_We_the_People.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Constitution_We_the_People.jpg/250px-Constitution_We_the_People.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Constitution_We_the_People.jpg/330px-Constitution_We_the_People.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Constitution_We_the_People.jpg/500px-Constitution_We_the_People.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1461" data-file-height="530" /></a><figcaption>"<a href="/wiki/We_the_People" class="mw-redirect" title="We the People">We the People</a>" in its original edition</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><audio id="mwe_player_1" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" style="width:220px;" data-durationhint="2958" data-mwtitle="Constitution.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Constitution.ogg"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Constitution.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/f/f2/Constitution.ogg/Constitution.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio></span><figcaption>Reading of the 1787 United States Constitution</figcaption></figure> <p>The Preamble, the Constitution's introductory paragraph, lays out the purposes of the new government:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBernstein1987183_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBernstein1987183-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defence, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.</p></blockquote> <p>The opening words, "<a href="/wiki/We_the_People" class="mw-redirect" title="We the People">We the People</a>", represented a new thought: the idea that the people and not the states were the source of the government's legitimacy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmar20055–7,_29_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmar20055–7,_29-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009332,_347–348,_404_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009332,_347–348,_404-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBerkin200290_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBerkin200290-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBickel197516–18_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBickel197516–18-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorton2006225_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorton2006225-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZink2009444_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZink2009444-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Coined by <a href="/wiki/Gouverneur_Morris" title="Gouverneur Morris">Gouverneur Morris</a> of Pennsylvania, who chaired the convention's Committee of Style, the phrase is considered an improvement on the section's original draft which followed the words <i>We the People</i> with a list of the 13 states.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBowen1966240_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowen1966240-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBernstein1987183_114-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBernstein1987183-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In place of the names of the states Morris substituted "of the United States" and then listed the Constitution's six goals, none of which were mentioned originally.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWarren1928393_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWarren1928393-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Articles">Articles</h3></div> <p>The Constitution's main provisions include seven articles that define the basic framework of the federal government. Articles that have been amended still include the original text, although provisions repealed by amendments under Article V are usually bracketed or italicized to indicate they no longer apply. Despite these changes, the focus of each Article remains the same as when adopted in 1787.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Article_I_–_The_Legislature"><span id="Article_I_.E2.80.93_The_Legislature"></span>Article I – The Legislature</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">Article One of the United States Constitution</a></div> <p>Article I describes the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Legislature" title="Legislature">legislative branch</a> of the federal government. Section 1 reads, "All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">Senate</a> and <a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">House of Representatives</a>." The article establishes the manner of <a href="/wiki/Elections_in_the_United_States" title="Elections in the United States">election</a> and the qualifications of members of each body. Representatives must be at least 25 years old, be a citizen of the United States for seven years, and live in the state they represent. Senators must be at least 30 years old, be a citizen for nine years, and live in the state they represent. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Section_8:_Powers_of_Congress" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">Article I, Section 8</a> enumerates the powers delegated to the legislature. Financially, Congress has the power to tax, borrow, pay debt and provide for the common defense and the general welfare; to regulate commerce, bankruptcies, and coin money. To regulate internal affairs, it has the power to regulate and govern military forces and <a href="/wiki/Militia_(United_States)" title="Militia (United States)">militias</a>, suppress insurrections and repel invasions. It is to provide for naturalization, standards of weights and measures, post offices and roads, and patents; to directly govern the federal district and cessions of land by the states for forts and arsenals. Internationally, Congress has the power to define and punish piracies and offenses against the Law of Nations, to declare war and make rules of war. The final <a href="/wiki/Necessary_and_Proper_Clause" title="Necessary and Proper Clause">Necessary and Proper Clause</a>, also known as the Elastic Clause, expressly confers incidental powers upon Congress without the Articles' requirement for express delegation for each and every power. <a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Section_9:_Limits_on_Congress" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">Article I, Section 9</a> lists eight specific limits on congressional power. </p><p>The Supreme Court has sometimes broadly interpreted the <a href="/wiki/Commerce_Clause" title="Commerce Clause">Commerce Clause</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Necessary_and_Proper_Clause" title="Necessary and Proper Clause">Necessary and Proper Clause</a> in Article One to allow Congress to enact legislation that is neither expressly allowed by the <a href="/wiki/Enumerated_powers_(United_States)" title="Enumerated powers (United States)">enumerated powers</a> nor expressly denied in the limitations on Congress. In <i><a href="/wiki/McCulloch_v._Maryland" title="McCulloch v. Maryland">McCulloch v. Maryland</a></i> (1819), the Supreme Court read the Necessary and Proper Clause to permit the federal government to take action that would "enable [it] to perform the high duties assigned to it [by the Constitution] in the manner most beneficial to the people,"<sup id="cite_ref-17US421_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17US421-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> even if that action is not itself within the enumerated powers. <a href="/wiki/John_Marshall" title="John Marshall">Chief Justice Marshall</a> clarified: "Let the end be legitimate, let it be within the scope of the Constitution, and all means which are appropriate, which are plainly adapted to that end, which are not prohibited, but consist with the letter and spirit of the Constitution, are Constitutional."<sup id="cite_ref-17US421_124-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17US421-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Article_II_–_The_Executive"><span id="Article_II_.E2.80.93_The_Executive"></span>Article II – The Executive</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">Article Two of the United States Constitution</a></div> <p>Article II describes the office, qualifications, and duties of the <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States" title="Vice President of the United States">Vice President</a>. The President is head of the <a href="/wiki/Executive_(government)" title="Executive (government)">executive branch</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">federal government</a>, as well as the nation's <a href="/wiki/Head_of_state" title="Head of state">head of state</a> and <a href="/wiki/Head_of_government" title="Head of government">head of government</a>. </p><p>Article two is modified by the <a href="/wiki/Twelfth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution">12th Amendment</a>, which tacitly acknowledges political parties, and the <a href="/wiki/Twenty-fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">25th Amendment</a> relating to office succession. The president is to receive only one compensation from the federal government. The inaugural oath is specified to preserve, protect and defend the Constitution. </p><p>The president is the <a href="/wiki/Commander-in-chief" title="Commander-in-chief">Commander in Chief</a> of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Armed_Forces" title="United States Armed Forces">United States Armed Forces</a>, as well as of state militias when they are mobilized. The president makes treaties <a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_2:_Advice_and_Consent_Clause" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">with the advice and consent</a> of a two-thirds quorum of the Senate. To administer the federal government, the president commissions all the offices of the federal government as Congress directs; and may require the opinions of its principal officers and make "<a href="/wiki/Recess_appointment" title="Recess appointment">recess appointments</a>" for vacancies that may happen during the recess of the Senate. The president ensures the laws are faithfully executed and may grant reprieves and pardons with the exception of Congressional <a href="/wiki/Federal_impeachment_in_the_United_States" title="Federal impeachment in the United States">impeachment</a>. The president reports to Congress on the <a href="/wiki/State_of_the_Union" title="State of the Union">State of the Union</a>, and by the <a href="/wiki/Recommendation_Clause" class="mw-redirect" title="Recommendation Clause">Recommendation Clause</a>, recommends "necessary and expedient" national measures. The president may convene and adjourn Congress under special circumstances. </p><p>Section 4 provides for the removal of the president and other federal officers. The president is removed on impeachment for, and conviction of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Article_III_–_The_Judiciary"><span id="Article_III_.E2.80.93_The_Judiciary"></span>Article III – The Judiciary</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Article_Three_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Three of the United States Constitution">Article Three of the United States Constitution</a></div> <p>Article III describes the <a href="/wiki/Federal_judiciary_of_the_United_States" title="Federal judiciary of the United States">court system</a> (the <a href="/wiki/Judiciary" title="Judiciary">judicial branch</a>), including the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court</a>. The article describes the kinds of cases the court takes as <a href="/wiki/Original_jurisdiction" title="Original jurisdiction">original jurisdiction</a>. Congress can create lower courts and an appeals process and enacts law defining crimes and punishments. Article Three also protects the right to <a href="/wiki/Jury_trial" title="Jury trial">trial by jury</a> in all <a href="/wiki/Criminal_law" title="Criminal law">criminal cases</a>, and defines the crime of <a href="/wiki/Treason" title="Treason">treason</a>. </p><p>Section 1 vests the judicial power of the United States in federal courts and, with it, the authority to interpret and apply the law to a particular case. Also included is the power to punish, sentence, and direct future action to resolve conflicts. The Constitution outlines the U.S. judicial system. In the <a href="/wiki/Judiciary_Act_of_1789" title="Judiciary Act of 1789">Judiciary Act of 1789</a>, Congress began to fill in details. Currently, Title 28 of the U.S. Code<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2010_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2010-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> describes judicial powers and administration. </p><p>As of the First Congress, the Supreme Court justices rode circuit to sit as panels to hear appeals from the <a href="/wiki/United_States_district_court" title="United States district court">district courts</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1891, Congress enacted a new system. District courts would have <a href="/wiki/Original_jurisdiction" title="Original jurisdiction">original jurisdiction</a>. Intermediate appellate courts (circuit courts) with <a href="/wiki/Exclusive_jurisdiction" title="Exclusive jurisdiction">exclusive jurisdiction</a> heard regional appeals before consideration by the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court holds <a href="/wiki/Discretionary_jurisdiction" title="Discretionary jurisdiction">discretionary jurisdiction</a>, meaning that it does not have to hear every case that is brought to it.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2010_125-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2010-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To enforce judicial decisions, the Constitution grants federal courts both <a href="/wiki/Contempt_of_court" title="Contempt of court">criminal contempt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Contempt_of_court" title="Contempt of court">civil contempt</a> powers. Other implied powers include injunctive relief and the <a href="/wiki/Habeas_corpus" title="Habeas corpus">habeas corpus</a> remedy. The Court may imprison for <a href="/wiki/Contumacy" title="Contumacy">contumacy</a>, bad-faith litigation, and failure to obey a writ of <a href="/wiki/Mandamus" title="Mandamus">mandamus</a>. Judicial power includes that granted by Acts of Congress for rules of law and punishment. Judicial power also extends to areas not covered by statute. Generally, federal courts cannot interrupt state court proceedings.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2010_125-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2010-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Case_or_Controversy_Clause" title="Case or Controversy Clause">Clause<span class="nowrap"> </span>1 of Section<span class="nowrap"> </span>2</a> authorizes the federal courts to hear actual cases and controversies only. Their judicial power does not extend to cases that are hypothetical, or which are proscribed due to <a href="/wiki/Standing_(law)" title="Standing (law)">standing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mootness" title="Mootness">mootness</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Ripeness" title="Ripeness">ripeness</a> issues. Generally, a case or controversy requires the presence of adverse parties who have some interest genuinely at stake in the case.<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>d<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Clause 2 of Section 2 provides that the Supreme Court has <a href="/wiki/Original_jurisdiction" title="Original jurisdiction">original jurisdiction</a> in cases involving ambassadors, ministers, and consuls, for all cases respecting foreign nation-states,<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and also in those controversies which are subject to federal judicial power because at least one state is a party. Cases arising under the laws of the United States and its treaties come under the jurisdiction of federal courts. Cases under international maritime law and conflicting land grants of different states come under federal courts. Cases between U.S. citizens in different states, and cases between U.S. citizens and foreign states and their citizens, come under federal jurisdiction. The trials will be in the state where the crime was committed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2010_125-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2010-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>No part of the Constitution expressly authorizes <a href="/wiki/Article_Three_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Judicial_review" title="Article Three of the United States Constitution">judicial review</a>, but the Framers did contemplate the idea, and precedent has since established that the courts could exercise judicial review over the actions of Congress or the executive branch. Two conflicting federal laws are under "pendent" jurisdiction if one presents a strict constitutional issue. Federal court jurisdiction is rare when a state legislature enacts something as under federal jurisdiction.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>e<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To establish a federal system of national law, considerable effort goes into developing a spirit of <a href="/wiki/Comity" title="Comity">comity</a> between federal government and states. By the doctrine of '<a href="/wiki/Res_judicata" title="Res judicata">Res judicata</a>', federal courts give "full faith and credit" to State Courts.<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>f<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Supreme Court will decide Constitutional issues of state law only on a case-by-case basis, and only by strict Constitutional necessity, independent of state legislators' motives, their policy outcomes or its national wisdom.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>g<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Section 3 bars Congress from changing or modifying Federal <a href="/wiki/Treason_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Treason laws in the United States">law on treason</a> by simple majority statute. This section also defines treason as an <a href="/wiki/Overt_act" title="Overt act">overt act</a> of making war or materially helping those at war with the United States. Accusations must be corroborated by at least two witnesses. Congress is a political body, and political disagreements routinely encountered should never be considered as treason. This allows for nonviolent resistance to the government because opposition is not a life or death proposition. However, Congress does provide for other lesser subversive crimes, such as <a href="/wiki/List_of_political_conspiracies" title="List of political conspiracies">conspiracy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>h<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Article_IV_–_The_States"><span id="Article_IV_.E2.80.93_The_States"></span>Article IV – The States</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Article_Four_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Four of the United States Constitution">Article Four of the United States Constitution</a></div> <p>Article IV outlines the relations among the states and between each state and the federal government. In addition, it provides for such matters as <a href="/wiki/Admission_to_the_Union" title="Admission to the Union">admitting new states</a> and border changes between the states. For instance, it requires states to give "<a href="/wiki/Full_Faith_and_Credit_Clause" title="Full Faith and Credit Clause">full faith and credit</a>" to the public acts, records, and court proceedings of the other states. Congress is permitted to <a href="/wiki/Regulation" title="Regulation">regulate</a> the manner in which proof of such acts may be admitted. The <a href="/wiki/Privileges_and_Immunities_Clause" title="Privileges and Immunities Clause">"privileges and immunities" clause</a> prohibits state governments from discriminating against citizens of other states in favor of resident citizens. For instance, in <a href="/wiki/Criminal_sentencing_in_the_United_States" title="Criminal sentencing in the United States">criminal sentencing</a>, a state may not increase a penalty on the grounds that the convicted person is a non-resident. </p><p>It also establishes <a href="/wiki/Extradition" title="Extradition">extradition</a> between the states, as well as laying down a legal basis for <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_movement" title="Freedom of movement">freedom of movement</a> and travel among the states. Today, this provision is sometimes taken for granted, but in the days of the <a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a>, crossing state lines was often arduous and costly. The <a href="/wiki/Article_Four_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Federal_property_and_the_Territorial_Clause" title="Article Four of the United States Constitution">Territorial Clause</a> gives Congress the power to make rules for disposing of federal property and governing non-state territories of the United States. Finally, the fourth section of Article Four requires the United States to guarantee to each state a <a href="/wiki/Republic" title="Republic">republican form of government</a> and to protect them from invasion and violence. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Article_V_–_Amendment_Process"><span id="Article_V_.E2.80.93_Amendment_Process"></span>Article V – Amendment Process</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Article_Five_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Five of the United States Constitution">Article Five of the United States Constitution</a></div> <p>Article V outlines the process for amending the Constitution. Eight state constitutions in effect in 1787 included an amendment mechanism. Amendment-making power rested with the legislature in three of the states, and in the other five it was given to specially elected conventions. The Articles of Confederation provided that amendments were to be proposed by Congress and ratified by the unanimous vote of all 13 state legislatures. This proved to be a major flaw in the Articles, as it created an insurmountable obstacle to constitutional reform. The amendment process crafted during the Philadelphia Constitutional Convention was, according to The <a href="/wiki/Federalist_No._43" title="Federalist No. 43">Federalist No. 43</a>, designed to establish a balance between pliancy and rigidity:<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This is a conservative advocacy group, not an academic source. (June 2023)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>It guards equally against that extreme facility which would render the Constitution too mutable; and that extreme difficulty which might perpetuate its discovered faults. It moreover equally enables the General and the State Governments to originate the amendment of errors, as they may be pointed out by the experience on one side, or on the other.</p></blockquote> <p>There are two steps in the amendment process. Proposals to amend the Constitution must be properly adopted and ratified before they change the Constitution. First, there are two procedures for adopting the language of a proposed amendment, either by (a) <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Supermajority" title="Supermajority">two-thirds majority</a> in both the Senate and the House of Representatives, or (b) <a href="/wiki/Convention_to_propose_amendments_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Convention to propose amendments to the United States Constitution">national convention</a> (which shall take place whenever two-thirds of the state legislatures collectively call for one). Second, there are two procedures for ratifying the proposed amendment, which requires three-fourths of the states' (presently 38 of 50) approval: (a) consent of the <a href="/wiki/State_legislature_(United_States)" title="State legislature (United States)">state legislatures</a>, or (b) consent of <a href="/wiki/State_ratifying_conventions" title="State ratifying conventions">state ratifying conventions</a>. The ratification method is chosen by Congress for each amendment.<sup id="cite_ref-Clayton_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clayton-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> State ratifying conventions were used only once, for the <a href="/wiki/Twenty-first_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution">Twenty-first Amendment</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Presently, the <a href="/wiki/Archivist_of_the_United_States" title="Archivist of the United States">Archivist of the United States</a> is charged with responsibility for administering the ratification process under the provisions of <a href="/wiki/Title_1_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 1 of the United States Code">1<span class="nowrap"> </span>U.S. Code</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/1/106b">§ 106b</a>. The Archivist submits the proposed amendment to the states for their consideration by sending a letter of notification to each <a href="/wiki/Governor_(United_States)" title="Governor (United States)">Governor</a>. Each Governor then formally submits the amendment to their state's legislature. When a state ratifies a proposed amendment, it sends the Archivist an original or certified copy of the state's action. Ratification documents are examined by the <a href="/wiki/Office_of_the_Federal_Register" title="Office of the Federal Register">Office of the Federal Register</a> for facial legal sufficiency and an authenticating signature.<sup id="cite_ref-register_136-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-register-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Article Five ends by shielding certain clauses in the new frame of government from being amended. Article One, Section 9, Clause<span class="nowrap"> </span>1 prevents Congress from passing any law that would restrict the <a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery" title="History of slavery">importation of slaves</a> into the United States prior to 1808, plus the fourth clause from that same section, which reiterates the Constitutional rule that <a href="/wiki/Direct_tax" title="Direct tax">direct taxes</a> must be apportioned according to state populations. These clauses were explicitly shielded from Constitutional amendment prior to 1808. On January 1, 1808, the first day it was permitted to do so, Congress approved legislation <a href="/wiki/Act_Prohibiting_Importation_of_Slaves" title="Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves">prohibiting the importation of slaves</a> into the country. On February 3, 1913, with ratification of the <a href="/wiki/Sixteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Sixteenth Amendment</a>, Congress gained the authority to levy an <a href="/wiki/Income_tax" title="Income tax">income tax</a> without apportioning it among <a href="/wiki/U.S._state" title="U.S. state">the states</a> or basing it on the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Census" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Census">United States Census</a>. The third textually entrenched provision is Article One, Section 3, Clauses 1, which provides for equal representation of the states in the Senate. The shield protecting this clause from the amendment process ("no state, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal Suffrage in the Senate") is less absolute but it is permanent. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Article_VI_–_Federal_Powers"><span id="Article_VI_.E2.80.93_Federal_Powers"></span>Article VI – Federal Powers</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Article_Six_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Six of the United States Constitution">Article Six of the United States Constitution</a></div> <p>Article VI establishes that the Constitution and all federal laws and treaties made in accordance with it have <a href="/wiki/Supremacy_Clause" title="Supremacy Clause">supremacy</a> over state laws, and that "the judges in every state shall be bound thereby, any thing in the laws or constitutions of any state notwithstanding". It validates <a href="/wiki/Government_debt" title="Government debt">national debt</a> created under the Articles of Confederation and requires that all federal and state legislators, officers, and judges take oaths or affirmations to support the Constitution. This means that the states' constitutions and laws should not conflict with the laws of the federal constitution and that in case of a conflict, state judges are legally bound to honor the federal laws and constitution over those of any state. Article Six also states "<a href="/wiki/No_Religious_Test_Clause" title="No Religious Test Clause">no religious Test</a> shall ever be required as a Qualification to any Office or public Trust under the United States". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Article_VII_–_Ratification"><span id="Article_VII_.E2.80.93_Ratification"></span>Article VII – Ratification</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Article_Seven_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Seven of the United States Constitution">Article Seven of the United States Constitution</a></div> <p>Article VII describes the process for establishing the proposed new frame of government. Anticipating that the influence of many state politicians would be Antifederalist, delegates to the Philadelphia Convention provided for <a href="/wiki/Ratification" title="Ratification">ratification</a> of the Constitution by popularly elected <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_convention_(political_meeting)" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitutional convention (political meeting)">ratifying conventions</a> in each state. The convention method also made it possible that judges, ministers and others ineligible to serve in state legislatures, could be elected to a convention. Suspecting that Rhode Island, at least, might not ratify, delegates decided that the Constitution would go into effect as soon as nine states (two-thirds rounded up) ratified.<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each of the remaining four states could then join the newly formed union by ratifying.<sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Closing_endorsement">Closing endorsement</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Constitution_signatures.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Constitution_signatures.jpg/250px-Constitution_signatures.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Constitution_signatures.jpg/330px-Constitution_signatures.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Constitution_signatures.jpg/500px-Constitution_signatures.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2452" data-file-height="1948" /></a><figcaption>The signatures in the closing endorsement section of the United States Constitution</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Signing_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Signing of the United States Constitution">signing of the United States Constitution</a> occurred on September 17, 1787, when 39 delegates endorsed the constitution created during the convention. In addition to signatures, this closing endorsement, the Constitution's <a href="/wiki/Eschatocol" title="Eschatocol">eschatocol</a>, included a brief declaration that the delegates' work has been successfully completed and that those whose signatures appear on it subscribe to the final document. Included are a statement pronouncing the document's adoption by the states present, a formulaic dating of its adoption, and the delegates' signatures. Additionally, the convention's secretary, <a href="/wiki/William_Jackson_(secretary)" title="William Jackson (secretary)">William Jackson</a>, added a note to verify four amendments made by hand to the final document, and signed the note to authenticate its validity.<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The language of the concluding endorsement, conceived by <a href="/wiki/Gouverneur_Morris" title="Gouverneur Morris">Gouverneur Morris</a> and presented to the convention by <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a>, was made intentionally ambiguous in hopes of winning over the votes of dissenting delegates. Advocates for the new frame of government, realizing the impending difficulty of obtaining the consent of the states needed to make it operational, were anxious to obtain the unanimous support of the delegations from each state. It was feared that many of the delegates would refuse to give their individual assent to the Constitution. Therefore, in order that the action of the convention would appear to be unanimous, the formula, <i>Done in convention by the unanimous consent of the states present<span class="nowrap"> </span>...</i> was devised.<sup id="cite_ref-attest_140-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-attest-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This is a conservative advocacy group, not an academic source. (June 2023)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The document is dated: "the Seventeenth Day of September in the Year of our Lord" 1787, and "of the Independence of the United States of America the Twelfth." This two-fold epoch dating serves to place the Constitution in the context of the religious traditions of <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Western civilization</a> and, at the same time, links it to the <a href="/wiki/Regime" title="Regime">regime</a> principles proclaimed in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">Declaration of Independence</a>. This dual reference can also be found in the Articles of Confederation and the <a href="/wiki/Northwest_Ordinance" title="Northwest Ordinance">Northwest Ordinance</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-attest_140-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-attest-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This is a conservative advocacy group, not an academic source. (June 2023)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The closing endorsement serves an <a href="/wiki/Authentication" title="Authentication">authentication</a> function only. It neither assigns powers to the federal government nor does it provide specific limitations on government action. It does, however, provide essential <a href="/wiki/Evidence_(law)" title="Evidence (law)">documentation</a> of the Constitution's validity, a statement of "This is what was agreed to." It records who signed the Constitution, and when and where.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Amendments">Amendments</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_amendments_to_the_United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="List of amendments to the United States Constitution">List of amendments to the United States Constitution</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bill_of_Rights_Pg1of1_AC.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Bill_of_Rights_Pg1of1_AC.jpg/250px-Bill_of_Rights_Pg1of1_AC.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="234" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Bill_of_Rights_Pg1of1_AC.jpg/330px-Bill_of_Rights_Pg1of1_AC.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Bill_of_Rights_Pg1of1_AC.jpg/500px-Bill_of_Rights_Pg1of1_AC.jpg 2x" data-file-width="8636" data-file-height="9183" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">United States Bill of Rights</a>, currently housed in the <a href="/wiki/National_Archives_and_Records_Administration" title="National Archives and Records Administration">National Archives</a> in <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The procedure for amending the Constitution is outlined in Article V (see <a href="#Article_V">above</a>). The process is overseen by the <a href="/wiki/Archivist_of_the_United_States" title="Archivist of the United States">archivist of the United States</a>. Between 1949 and 1985, it was overseen by the <a href="/wiki/General_Services_Administration" title="General Services Administration">administrator of General Services</a>, and before that by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_State" title="United States Secretary of State">secretary of state</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-register_136-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-register-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Under Article Five, a proposal for an amendment must be adopted either by two-thirds of both houses of Congress or by a <a href="/wiki/Convention_to_propose_amendments_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Convention to propose amendments to the United States Constitution">national convention</a> that had been requested by two-thirds of the state legislatures.<sup id="cite_ref-register_136-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-register-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Once the proposal has passed by either method, Congress must decide whether the proposed amendment is to be ratified by state legislatures or by state ratifying conventions. The proposed amendment along with the method of ratification is sent to the Office of the Federal Register, which copies it in <a href="/wiki/Slip_law" title="Slip law">slip law</a> format and submits it to the states.<sup id="cite_ref-register_136-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-register-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To date, the convention method of proposal has never been tried and the convention method of ratification has only been used once, for the Twenty-first Amendment.<sup id="cite_ref-Clayton_134-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clayton-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A proposed amendment becomes an operative part of the Constitution as soon as it is ratified by three-fourths of the States (currently 38 of the 50 states). There is no further step. The text requires no additional action by Congress or anyone else after ratification by the required number of states.<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, when the Office of the Federal Register verifies that it has received the required number of authenticated ratification documents, it drafts a formal proclamation for the Archivist to certify that the amendment is valid and has become part of the nation's frame of government. This certification is published in the <i><a href="/wiki/Federal_Register" title="Federal Register">Federal Register</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/United_States_Statutes_at_Large" title="United States Statutes at Large">United States Statutes at Large</a></i> and serves as official notice to Congress and to the nation that the ratification process has been successfully completed.<sup id="cite_ref-register_136-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-register-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Constitution has twenty-seven amendments. Structurally, the Constitution's original text and all prior amendments remain untouched. The precedent for this <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_amendment#Form_of_changes_to_the_text" title="Constitutional amendment">practice</a> was set in 1789, when <a href="/wiki/1st_United_States_Congress" title="1st United States Congress">Congress</a> considered and proposed the first several Constitutional amendments. Among these, Amendments 1–10 are collectively known as the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a>, and Amendments 13–15 are known as the <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Reconstruction Amendments</a>. Excluding the <a href="/wiki/Twenty-seventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">Twenty-seventh Amendment</a>, which was pending before the states for 202 years, 225 days, the longest pending amendment that was successfully ratified was the <a href="/wiki/Twenty-second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution">Twenty-second Amendment</a>, which took 3 years, 343 days. The <a href="/wiki/Twenty-sixth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Twenty-sixth Amendment</a> was ratified in the shortest time, 100 days. The <a href="/wiki/Arithmetic_mean" title="Arithmetic mean">average</a> ratification time for the first twenty-six amendments was 1<span class="nowrap"> </span>year, 252 days; for all twenty-seven, 9<span class="nowrap"> </span>years, 48 days. </p><p>The first ten Amendments introduced were referred to as the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a> which consists of 10 amendments that were added to the Constitution in 1791, as <a href="/wiki/Federalism_in_the_United_States#Early_federalism" title="Federalism in the United States">supporters of the Constitution</a> had promised <a href="/wiki/Anti-Federalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Federalist">critics</a> during the debates of 1788.<sup id="cite_ref-National_Archive_Article_on_the_Bill_of_Rights_142-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-National_Archive_Article_on_the_Bill_of_Rights-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Safeguards_of_liberty_(Amendments_1,_2,_and_3)"><span id="Safeguards_of_liberty_.28Amendments_1.2C_2.2C_and_3.29"></span>Safeguards of liberty (Amendments 1, 2, and 3)</h4></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment</a> (1791) prohibits Congress from obstructing the exercise of certain individual freedoms: <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_the_United_States" title="Freedom of religion in the United States">freedom of religion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">freedom of speech</a>, <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press" title="Freedom of the press">freedom of the press</a>, <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_assembly" title="Freedom of assembly">freedom of assembly</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Right_to_petition" title="Right to petition">right to petition</a>. Its <a href="/wiki/Free_Exercise_Clause" title="Free Exercise Clause">Free Exercise Clause</a> guarantees a person's right to hold whatever religious beliefs they want, and to freely exercise that belief, and its <a href="/wiki/Establishment_Clause" title="Establishment Clause">Establishment Clause</a> prevents the federal government from creating an official national church or favoring one set of religious beliefs over another. The amendment guarantees an individual's right to express and to be exposed to a wide range of opinions and views. It was intended to ensure a free exchange of ideas, even unpopular ones. It also guarantees an individual's right to physically gather or associate with others in groups for economic, political or religious purposes. Additionally, it guarantees an individual's right to petition the government for a redress of grievances.<sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Second Amendment to the United States Constitution">Second Amendment</a> (1791) protects the right of individuals<sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to <a href="/wiki/Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms_in_the_United_States" title="Right to keep and bear arms in the United States">keep and bear arms</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-146" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-149" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Supreme Court has ruled that this right applies to individuals, not merely to collective militias. It has also held that the government may regulate or place some limits on the manufacture, ownership and sale of <a href="/wiki/Firearm" title="Firearm">firearms</a> or other <a href="/wiki/Weapon" title="Weapon">weapons</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-150" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-151" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Requested by several states during the Constitutional ratification debates, the amendment reflected the lingering resentment over the widespread efforts of the British to confiscate the colonists' firearms at the outbreak of the Revolutionary War. Patrick Henry had rhetorically asked, shall we be stronger, "when we are totally disarmed, and when a British Guard shall be stationed in every house?"<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoncure1990_152-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoncure1990-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Third_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Third Amendment to the United States Constitution">Third Amendment</a> (1791) prohibits the federal government from forcing individuals to provide lodging to soldiers in their homes during peacetime without their consent. Requested by several states during the Constitutional ratification debates, the amendment reflected the lingering resentment over the <a href="/wiki/Quartering_Acts" title="Quartering Acts">Quartering Acts</a> passed by the <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Great_Britain" title="Parliament of Great Britain">British Parliament</a> during the Revolutionary War, which had allowed British soldiers to take over private homes for their own use.<sup id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Safeguards_of_justice_(Amendments_4,_5,_6,_7,_and_8)"><span id="Safeguards_of_justice_.28Amendments_4.2C_5.2C_6.2C_7.2C_and_8.29"></span>Safeguards of justice (Amendments 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8)</h4></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourth Amendment</a> (1791) protects people against unreasonable <a href="/wiki/Search_and_seizure" title="Search and seizure">searches and seizures</a> of either self or <a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">property</a> by government officials. A search can mean everything from a frisking by a police officer or to a demand for a blood test to a search of an individual's home or car. A seizure occurs when the government takes control of an individual or something in the possession of the individual. Items that are seized often are used as evidence when the individual is charged with a crime. It also imposes certain limitations on police investigating a crime and prevents the use of illegally obtained evidence at trial.<sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fifth Amendment</a> (1791) establishes the requirement that a <a href="/wiki/Trial" title="Trial">trial</a> for a major <a href="/wiki/Crime" title="Crime">crime</a> may commence only after an <a href="/wiki/Indictment" title="Indictment">indictment</a> has been handed down by a <a href="/wiki/Grand_jury" title="Grand jury">grand jury</a>; protects individuals from <a href="/wiki/Double_jeopardy" title="Double jeopardy">double jeopardy</a>, being tried and put in danger of being punished more than once for the same criminal act; prohibits punishment without <a href="/wiki/Due_process" title="Due process">due process</a> of law, thus protecting individuals from being imprisoned without fair procedures; and provides that an accused person may not be compelled to reveal to the police, prosecutor, judge, or jury any information that might <a href="/wiki/Self-incrimination" title="Self-incrimination">incriminate or be used against</a> him or her in a court of law. Additionally, the Fifth Amendment also prohibits government from taking private property for public use without "<a href="/wiki/Just_compensation" title="Just compensation">just compensation</a>", the basis of <a href="/wiki/Eminent_domain" title="Eminent domain">eminent domain</a> in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Sixth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Sixth Amendment</a> (1791) provides several protections and rights to an individual accused of a crime. The accused has the right to a fair and speedy trial by a local and impartial <a href="/wiki/Jury" title="Jury">jury</a>. Likewise, a person has the right to a public trial. This right protects defendants from secret proceedings that might encourage abuse of the justice system, and serves to keep the public informed. This amendment also guarantees a right to <a href="/wiki/Lawyer" title="Lawyer">legal counsel</a> if accused of a crime, guarantees that the accused may require <a href="/wiki/Witness" title="Witness">witnesses</a> to attend the trial and testify in the presence of the accused, and guarantees the accused a right to know the charges against them. In 1966, the Supreme Court ruled that, with the Fifth Amendment, this amendment requires what has become known as the <a href="/wiki/Miranda_warning" title="Miranda warning"><i>Miranda</i> warning</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-156" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Seventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">Seventh Amendment</a> (1791) extends the right to a <a href="/wiki/Jury_trial" title="Jury trial">jury trial</a> to federal <a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(common_law)" title="Civil law (common law)">civil</a> cases, and inhibits courts from overturning a jury's <a href="/wiki/Question_of_law" title="Question of law">findings of fact</a>. Although the Seventh Amendment itself says that it is limited to "suits at common law", meaning cases that triggered the right to a jury under English law, the amendment has been found to apply in lawsuits that are similar to the old common law cases. For example, the right to a jury trial applies to cases brought under federal statutes that prohibit race or gender discrimination in housing or employment. Importantly, this amendment guarantees the right to a jury trial only in federal court, not in state court.<sup id="cite_ref-157" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Eighth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Eighth Amendment</a> (1791) protects people from having <a href="/wiki/Bail" title="Bail">bail</a> or <a href="/wiki/Fine_(penalty)" title="Fine (penalty)">fines</a> set at an amount so high that it would be impossible for all but the richest defendants to pay, and also protects people from being subjected to <a href="/wiki/Cruel_and_unusual_punishment" title="Cruel and unusual punishment">cruel and unusual punishment</a>. Although this phrase originally was intended to outlaw certain gruesome methods of punishment, it has been broadened over the years to protect against punishments that are grossly disproportionate to or too harsh for the particular crime. This provision has also been used to challenge prison conditions such as extremely unsanitary cells, overcrowding, insufficient medical care and deliberate failure by officials to protect inmates from one another.<sup id="cite_ref-158" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Unenumerated_rights_and_reserved_powers_(Amendments_9_and_10)"><span id="Unenumerated_rights_and_reserved_powers_.28Amendments_9_and_10.29"></span>Unenumerated rights and reserved powers (Amendments 9 and 10)</h4></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Ninth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Ninth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Ninth Amendment</a> (1791) declares that individuals have other fundamental rights, in addition to those stated in the Constitution. During the Constitutional ratification debates, Anti-Federalists argued that a Bill of Rights should be added. The Federalists opposed it on grounds that a list would necessarily be incomplete but would be taken as <a href="/wiki/Enumerative_definition" title="Enumerative definition">explicit and exhaustive</a>, thus enlarging the power of the federal government by implication. The Anti-Federalists persisted, and several state ratification conventions refused to ratify the Constitution without a more specific list of protections, so the First Congress added what became the Ninth Amendment as a compromise. Because the rights protected by the Ninth Amendment are not specified, they are referred to as "unenumerated". The Supreme Court has found that unenumerated rights include such important rights as the right to travel, the right to vote, the right to privacy, and the right to make important decisions about one's health care or body.<sup id="cite_ref-159" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Tenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Tenth Amendment</a> (1791) was included in the Bill of Rights to further define the balance of power between the federal government and the states. The amendment states that the federal government has only those powers specifically granted by the Constitution. These powers include the power to declare war, to collect taxes, to regulate interstate business activities and others that are listed in the articles or in subsequent constitutional amendments. Any power not listed is, says the Tenth Amendment, left to the states or the people. While there is no specific list of what these "reserved powers" may be, the Supreme Court has ruled that laws affecting family relations, commerce within a state's own borders, abortion, and local law enforcement activities, are among those specifically reserved to the states or the people.<sup id="cite_ref-160" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-161" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Governmental_authority_(Amendments_11,_16,_18,_and_21)"><span id="Governmental_authority_.28Amendments_11.2C_16.2C_18.2C_and_21.29"></span>Governmental authority (Amendments 11, 16, 18, and 21)</h4></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Eleventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eleventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">Eleventh Amendment</a> (1795) specifically prohibits federal courts from hearing cases in which a state is sued by an individual from another state or another country, thus extending to the states <a href="/wiki/Sovereign_immunity_in_the_United_States" title="Sovereign immunity in the United States">sovereign immunity</a> protection from certain types of legal liability. <a href="/wiki/Article_Three_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_1:_Cases_and_controversies" title="Article Three of the United States Constitution">Article Three, Section 2, Clause 1</a> has been affected by this amendment, which also overturned the Supreme Court's decision in <i><a href="/wiki/Chisholm_v._Georgia" title="Chisholm v. Georgia">Chisholm v. Georgia</a></i> (1793).<sup id="cite_ref-162" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-163" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Sixteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Sixteenth Amendment</a> (1913) removed existing Constitutional constraints that limited the power of Congress to lay and collect taxes on income. Specifically, the apportionment constraints delineated in <a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Apportionment_of_direct_taxes" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">Article 1, Section 9, Clause 4</a> have been removed by this amendment, which also overturned an 1895 Supreme Court decision, in <i><a href="/wiki/Pollock_v._Farmers%27_Loan_%26_Trust_Co." title="Pollock v. Farmers' Loan & Trust Co.">Pollock v. Farmers' Loan & Trust Co.</a></i>, that declared an unapportioned federal income tax on rents, dividends, and interest unconstitutional. This amendment has become the basis for all subsequent federal income tax legislation and has greatly expanded the scope of federal taxing and spending in the years since.<sup id="cite_ref-164" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Eighteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Eighteenth Amendment</a> (1919) prohibited the making, transporting, and selling of alcoholic beverages nationwide. It also authorized Congress to enact legislation enforcing this prohibition. Adopted at the urging of a national <a href="/wiki/Temperance_movement_in_the_United_States" title="Temperance movement in the United States">temperance movement</a>, proponents believed that the use of alcohol was reckless and destructive and that <a href="/wiki/Prohibition_in_the_United_States" title="Prohibition in the United States">prohibition</a> would reduce crime and corruption, solve social problems, decrease the need for welfare and prisons, and improve the health of all Americans. During prohibition, it is estimated that alcohol consumption and alcohol related deaths declined dramatically. But prohibition had other, more negative consequences. The amendment drove the lucrative alcohol business underground, giving rise to a large and pervasive <a href="/wiki/Rum-running" title="Rum-running">black market</a>. In addition, prohibition encouraged disrespect for the law and strengthened <a href="/wiki/Organized_crime" title="Organized crime">organized crime</a>. Prohibition came to an end in 1933, when this amendment was repealed.<sup id="cite_ref-165" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Twenty-first_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution">Twenty-first Amendment</a> (1933) repealed the Eighteenth Amendment and returned the regulation of alcohol to the states. Each state sets its own rules for the sale and importation of alcohol, including the drinking age. Because a federal law provides federal funds to states that prohibit the sale of alcohol to minors under the age of twenty-one, all fifty states have set their drinking age there. Rules about how alcohol is sold vary greatly from state to state.<sup id="cite_ref-166" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Safeguards_of_civil_rights_(Amendments_13,_14,_15,_19,_23,_24,_and_26)"><span id="Safeguards_of_civil_rights_.28Amendments_13.2C_14.2C_15.2C_19.2C_23.2C_24.2C_and_26.29"></span>Safeguards of civil rights (Amendments 13, 14, 15, 19, 23, 24, and 26)</h4></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Thirteenth Amendment</a> (1865) abolished <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">slavery</a> and <a href="/wiki/Involuntary_servitude" title="Involuntary servitude">involuntary servitude</a>, except <a href="/wiki/Penal_labor_in_the_United_States" title="Penal labor in the United States">as punishment for a crime</a>, and authorized Congress to enforce <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">abolition</a>. Though millions of slaves had been declared free by the 1863 <a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a>, their post-<a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a> status was unclear, as was the status of other millions.<sup id="cite_ref-167" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Congress intended the Thirteenth Amendment to be a proclamation of freedom for all slaves throughout the nation and to take the question of emancipation away from politics. This amendment rendered inoperative or moot several of the original parts of the constitution.<sup id="cite_ref-168" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</a> (1868) granted <a href="/wiki/United_States_nationality_law" title="United States nationality law">United States citizenship</a> to former slaves and to all persons "subject to U.S. jurisdiction". It also contained three new limits on state power: a state shall not violate a citizen's privileges or immunities; shall not deprive any person of life, liberty, or property without due process of law; and must guarantee all persons equal protection of the laws. These limitations dramatically expanded the protections of the Constitution. This amendment, according to the Supreme Court's Doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Incorporation_of_the_Bill_of_Rights" title="Incorporation of the Bill of Rights">Incorporation</a>, makes most provisions of the Bill of Rights applicable to state and local governments as well. It superseded the mode of apportionment of representatives delineated in Article 1, Section 2, Clause 3, and also overturned the Supreme Court's decision in <i><a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott v. Sandford</a></i> (1857).<sup id="cite_ref-169" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Fifteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fifteenth Amendment</a> (1870) prohibits the use of <a href="/wiki/Race_(human_categorization)" title="Race (human categorization)">race</a>, <a href="/wiki/Colored" title="Colored">color</a>, or previous condition of servitude in determining which citizens may vote. The last of three post Civil War Reconstruction Amendments, it sought to abolish one of the key vestiges of slavery and to advance the civil rights and liberties of former slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-170" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Nineteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Nineteenth Amendment</a> (1920) prohibits the government from denying women the <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage" title="Women's suffrage">right to vote</a> on the same terms as men. Prior to the amendment's adoption, only a few states permitted women to vote and to hold office.<sup id="cite_ref-171" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Twenty-third_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution">Twenty-third Amendment</a> (1961) extends the right to vote in presidential elections to citizens residing in the <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">District of Columbia</a> by granting the District electors in the Electoral College, as if it were a state. When first established as the nation's capital in 1800, the District of Columbia's five thousand residents had neither a local government, nor the right to vote in federal elections. By 1960 the population of the District had grown to over 760,000.<sup id="cite_ref-172" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Twenty-fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Twenty-fourth Amendment</a> (1964) prohibits a <a href="/wiki/Poll_taxes_in_the_United_States" title="Poll taxes in the United States">poll tax</a> for voting. Although passage of the Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth Amendments helped remove many of the discriminatory laws left over from slavery, they did not eliminate all forms of discrimination. Along with literacy tests and durational residency requirements, poll taxes were used to keep low-income (primarily African American) citizens from participating in elections. The Supreme Court has since struck down these discriminatory measures.<sup id="cite_ref-173" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Twenty-sixth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Twenty-sixth Amendment</a> (1971) prohibits the government from denying the right of United States citizens, eighteen years of age or older, to vote on account of age. The drive to lower the <a href="/wiki/Voting_age#United_States" title="Voting age">voting age</a> was driven in large part by the broader <a href="/wiki/Student_activism" title="Student activism">student activism</a> movement protesting the <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a>. It gained strength following the Supreme Court's decision in <i><a href="/wiki/Oregon_v._Mitchell" title="Oregon v. Mitchell">Oregon v. Mitchell</a></i> (1970).<sup id="cite_ref-174" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Government_processes_and_procedures_(Amendments_12,_17,_20,_22,_25,_and_27)"><span id="Government_processes_and_procedures_.28Amendments_12.2C_17.2C_20.2C_22.2C_25.2C_and_27.29"></span>Government processes and procedures (Amendments 12, 17, 20, 22, 25, and 27)</h4></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Twelfth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Twelfth Amendment</a> (1804) modifies the way the Electoral College chooses the president and vice president. It stipulates that each elector must cast a distinct vote for president and vice president, instead of two votes for president. It also suggests that the president and vice president should not be from the same state. <a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_3:_Electoral_College" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">Article II, Section 1, Clause 3</a> is superseded by this amendment, which also extends the <a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_5:_Qualifications_for_office" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">eligibility requirements</a> to become president to the vice president.<sup id="cite_ref-175" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Seventeenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Seventeenth Amendment</a> (1913) modifies the way senators are elected. It stipulates that senators are to be elected by <a href="/wiki/Direct_election" title="Direct election">direct popular vote</a>. The amendment supersedes <a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Section_3:_Senate" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">Article 1, Section 3</a>, Clauses<span class="nowrap"> </span>1 and 2, under which the two senators from each state were elected by the <a href="/wiki/State_legislature_(United_States)" title="State legislature (United States)">state legislature</a>. It also allows state legislatures to permit their governors to make temporary appointments until a <a href="/wiki/By-election" title="By-election">special election</a> can be held.<sup id="cite_ref-176" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Twentieth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twentieth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Twentieth Amendment</a> (1933) changes the date on which a new president, Vice President and Congress take office, thus shortening the time between <a href="/wiki/Election_Day_(United_States)#History" title="Election Day (United States)">Election Day</a> and the beginning of Presidential, Vice Presidential and Congressional terms.<sup id="cite_ref-177" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Originally, the Constitution provided that the annual meeting was to be on the first Monday in December unless otherwise provided by law. This meant that, when a new Congress was elected in November, it did not come into office until the following March, with a "<a href="/wiki/Lame_duck_(politics)" title="Lame duck (politics)">lame duck</a>" Congress convening in the interim. By moving the beginning of the president's new term from March 4 to January 20 (and in the case of Congress, to January 3), proponents hoped to put an end to lame duck sessions, while allowing for a speedier transition for the new administration and legislators.<sup id="cite_ref-178" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-178"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Twenty-second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution">Twenty-second Amendment</a> (1951) limits an elected president to two terms in office, a total of eight years. However, under some circumstances it is possible for an individual to serve more than eight years. Although nothing in the original frame of government limited how many presidential terms one could serve, the nation's first president, George Washington, declined to run for a third term, suggesting that two terms of four years were enough for any president. This precedent remained an unwritten rule of the presidency until broken by <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a>, who was elected to a third term as president 1940 and in 1944 to a fourth.<sup id="cite_ref-179" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-179"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Twenty-fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Twenty-fifth Amendment</a> (1967) clarifies what happens upon the death, removal, or resignation of the President or Vice President and how the Presidency is temporarily filled if the President becomes disabled and cannot fulfill the responsibilities of the office. It supersedes the <a href="/wiki/Ambiguity" title="Ambiguity">ambiguous</a> succession rule established in <a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_6:_Vacancy_and_disability" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">Article II, Section 1, Clause 6</a>. A concrete plan of succession has been needed on multiple occasions since 1789. However, for nearly 20% of U.S. history, there has been no vice president in office who could assume the presidency.<sup id="cite_ref-180" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Twenty-seventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">Twenty-seventh Amendment</a> (1992) prevents members of Congress from granting themselves pay raises during the current session. Rather, any raises that are adopted must take effect during the next session of Congress. Its proponents believed that Federal legislators would be more likely to be cautious about increasing congressional pay if they have no personal stake in the vote. <a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_1:_Compensation_and_legal_protection" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">Article One, section 6, Clause 1</a> has been affected by this amendment, which remained pending for over two centuries as it contained no time limit for ratification.<sup id="cite_ref-181" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-181"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Unratified_amendments">Unratified amendments</h2></div> <p>Collectively, members of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">House</a> and <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">Senate</a> propose around 150 amendments during each two-year term of <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-C-SPAN's_Capitol_Questions_182-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-C-SPAN's_Capitol_Questions-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most however, never get out of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_congressional_committee" title="United States congressional committee">Congressional committees</a> in which they are proposed, and only a fraction of those approved in committee receive sufficient support to win Congressional approval and actually enter the constitutional ratification process.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Six amendments approved by Congress and proposed to the states for consideration have not been ratified by the required number of states to become part of the Constitution. Four of these are technically still pending, as Congress did not set a time limit (see also <i><a href="/wiki/Coleman_v._Miller" title="Coleman v. Miller">Coleman v. Miller</a></i>) for their ratification. The other two are no longer pending, as both had a time limit attached and in both cases the time period set for their ratification expired.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pending">Pending</h3></div> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Congressional_Apportionment_Amendment" title="Congressional Apportionment Amendment">Congressional Apportionment Amendment</a> (proposed 1789) would, if ratified, establish a formula for determining the appropriate size of the House of Representatives and the appropriate <a href="/wiki/United_States_congressional_apportionment" title="United States congressional apportionment">apportionment</a> of representatives among the states following each constitutionally mandated decennial <a href="/wiki/United_States_Census" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Census">census</a>. At the time it was sent to the states for ratification, an affirmative vote by ten states would have made this amendment operational. In 1791 and 1792, when <a href="/wiki/Vermont" title="Vermont">Vermont</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kentucky" title="Kentucky">Kentucky</a> joined the Union, the number climbed to twelve. Thus, the amendment remained one state shy of the number needed for it to become part of the Constitution. No additional states have ratified this amendment since. To become part of the Constitution today, ratification by an additional twenty-seven would be required. The <a href="/wiki/Apportionment_Act_of_1792" title="Apportionment Act of 1792">Apportionment Act of 1792</a> apportioned the House of Representatives at 33,000 persons per representative in consequence of the 1790 census. Reapportionment has since been effected by statute.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Titles_of_Nobility_Amendment" title="Titles of Nobility Amendment">Titles of Nobility Amendment</a> (proposed 1810) would, if ratified, strip United States citizenship from any citizen who accepted a title of nobility from a foreign country. When submitted to the states, ratification by thirteen states was required for it to become part of the Constitution; eleven had done so by early 1812. However, with the addition of <a href="/wiki/Louisiana" title="Louisiana">Louisiana</a> into the Union that year (April 30, 1812), the ratification threshold rose to fourteen. Thus, when <a href="/wiki/New_Hampshire" title="New Hampshire">New Hampshire</a> ratified it in December 1812, the amendment again came within two states of being ratified. No additional states have ratified this amendment since. To become part of the Constitution today, ratification by an additional twenty-six would be required.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Corwin_Amendment" title="Corwin Amendment">Corwin Amendment</a> (proposed 1861) would, if ratified, <a href="/wiki/Entrenched_clause" title="Entrenched clause">shield</a> "<a href="/wiki/Institution" title="Institution">domestic institutions</a>" of the states (which in 1861 included <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">slavery</a>) from the constitutional amendment process and from abolition or interference by Congress. This proposal was one of several measures considered by Congress in an ultimately unsuccessful attempt to attract the seceding states back into the Union and to entice <a href="/wiki/Border_states_(American_Civil_War)" title="Border states (American Civil War)">border slave states</a> to stay.<sup id="cite_ref-183" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-183"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>175<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Five states ratified the amendment in the early 1860s, but none have since. To become part of the Constitution today, ratification by an additional 33 states would be required. The subject of this proposal was subsequently addressed by the 1865 Thirteenth Amendment, which abolished slavery.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Child_Labor_Amendment" title="Child Labor Amendment">Child Labor Amendment</a> (proposed 1924) would, if ratified, specifically authorize Congress to limit, regulate and prohibit labor of persons less than eighteen years of age. The amendment was proposed in response to Supreme Court rulings in <i><a href="/wiki/Hammer_v._Dagenhart" title="Hammer v. Dagenhart">Hammer v. Dagenhart</a></i> (1918) and <i><a href="/wiki/Bailey_v._Drexel_Furniture_Co." title="Bailey v. Drexel Furniture Co.">Bailey v. Drexel Furniture Co.</a></i> (1922) that found federal laws regulating and taxing goods produced by employees under the ages of 14 and 16 unconstitutional. When submitted to the states, ratification by 36 states was required for it to become part of the Constitution, as there were forty-eight states. Twenty-eight had ratified the amendment by early 1937, but none have done so since. To become part of the Constitution today, ratification by an additional ten would be required.<sup id="cite_ref-184" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-184"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>176<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A <a href="/wiki/Fair_Labor_Standards_Act_of_1938" title="Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938">federal statute</a> approved June 25, 1938, regulated the employment of those under 16 or 18 years of age in interstate commerce. The Supreme Court, by unanimous vote in <i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Darby_Lumber_Co." title="United States v. Darby Lumber Co.">United States v. Darby Lumber Co.</a></i> (1941), found this law constitutional, effectively overturning <i>Hammer v. Dagenhart</i>. As a result of this development, the movement pushing for the amendment concluded.<sup id="cite_ref-185" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-185"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Expired">Expired</h3></div> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Equal_Rights_Amendment" title="Equal Rights Amendment">Equal Rights Amendment</a> (proposed 1972) would have prohibited deprivation of equality of rights (<a href="/wiki/Discrimination" title="Discrimination">discrimination</a>) by the federal or state governments on account of sex. A seven-year ratification time limit was initially placed on the amendment, but as the deadline approached, Congress granted a three-year extension. Thirty-five states ratified the proposed amendment prior to the original deadline, three short of the number required for it to be implemented (five of them later voted to rescind their ratification). No further states ratified the amendment within the extended deadline. In 2017, Nevada became the first state to ratify the ERA after the expiration of both deadlines,<sup id="cite_ref-35_years_after_186-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35_years_after-186"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>178<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> followed by Illinois in 2018,<sup id="cite_ref-187" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-187"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>179<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Virginia in 2020,<sup id="cite_ref-188" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-188"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-189" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>181<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> bringing the number of ratifications to 38. However, experts and advocates have acknowledged legal uncertainty about the consequences of these ratifications, due to the expired deadlines and the five states' revocations.<sup id="cite_ref-192" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-192"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>i<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia_Voting_Rights_Amendment" title="District of Columbia Voting Rights Amendment">District of Columbia Voting Rights Amendment</a> (proposed 1978) would have granted the District of Columbia full representation in the United States Congress as if it were a state, repealed the Twenty-third Amendment, granted the District unconditional Electoral College voting rights, and allowed its participation in the process by which the Constitution is amended. A seven-year ratification time limit was placed on the amendment. Sixteen states ratified the amendment (twenty-two short of the number required for it to be implemented) prior to the deadline, thus it failed to be adopted.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Judicial_review">Judicial review</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Judicial_review_in_the_United_States" title="Judicial review in the United States">Judicial review in the United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Judicial_review" title="Judicial review">Judicial review</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Appeal#Appellate_review" title="Appeal">Appeal § Appellate review</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ArchivesRotunda.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/ArchivesRotunda.jpg/250px-ArchivesRotunda.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/ArchivesRotunda.jpg/330px-ArchivesRotunda.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/ArchivesRotunda.jpg/500px-ArchivesRotunda.jpg 2x" data-file-width="796" data-file-height="526" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/National_Archives_and_Records_Administration" title="National Archives and Records Administration">National Archives'</a> <a href="/wiki/Charters_of_Freedom" title="Charters of Freedom">Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom</a> in Washington, D.C. where, in between two <a href="/wiki/Barry_Faulkner" title="Barry Faulkner">Barry Faulkner</a> murals, the original Constitution, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">Declaration of Independence</a>, and other American founding documents are publicly exhibited.</figcaption></figure> <p>The way the Constitution is understood is influenced by court decisions, especially those of the Supreme Court. These decisions are referred to as <a href="/wiki/Precedent" title="Precedent">precedents</a>. Judicial review is the power of the Court to examine federal legislation, federal executive, and all state branches of government, to decide their <a href="/wiki/Constitutionality" title="Constitutionality">constitutionality</a>, and to strike them down if found unconstitutional.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Judicial review includes the power of the Court to explain the meaning of the Constitution as it applies to particular cases. Over the years, Court decisions on issues ranging from governmental regulation of <a href="/wiki/Radio" title="Radio">radio</a> and <a href="/wiki/Television" title="Television">television</a> to the rights of the accused in criminal cases have changed the way many constitutional clauses are interpreted, without amendment to the actual text of the Constitution.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Legislation passed to implement the Constitution, or to adapt those implementations to changing conditions, broadens and, in subtle ways, changes the meanings given to the words of the Constitution. Up to a point, the rules and regulations of the many federal executive agencies have a similar effect. If an action of Congress or the agencies is challenged, however, the court system ultimately decides whether these actions are permissible under the Constitution.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scope_and_theory">Scope and theory</h3></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional" style="float: right;"> <li class="gallerycaption">Early Court roots in the founding</li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 195px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 190px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gilbert_Stuart,_John_Jay,_1794,_NGA_75023.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="John Jay, 1789–1795, New York co-author The Federalist Papers"><img alt="John Jay, 1789–1795, New York co-author The Federalist Papers" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Gilbert_Stuart%2C_John_Jay%2C_1794%2C_NGA_75023.jpg/250px-Gilbert_Stuart%2C_John_Jay%2C_1794%2C_NGA_75023.jpg" decoding="async" width="154" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Gilbert_Stuart%2C_John_Jay%2C_1794%2C_NGA_75023.jpg/330px-Gilbert_Stuart%2C_John_Jay%2C_1794%2C_NGA_75023.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3091" data-file-height="4000" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/John_Jay" title="John Jay">John Jay</a>, 1789–1795, New York co-author <i><a href="/wiki/The_Federalist_Papers" title="The Federalist Papers">The Federalist Papers</a></i></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 195px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 190px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Marshall_by_Henry_Inman,_1832.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="John Marshall, 1801–1835, Fauquier County delegate, Virginia Ratification Convention"><img alt="John Marshall, 1801–1835, Fauquier County delegate, Virginia Ratification Convention" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/John_Marshall_by_Henry_Inman%2C_1832.jpg/250px-John_Marshall_by_Henry_Inman%2C_1832.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/John_Marshall_by_Henry_Inman%2C_1832.jpg/330px-John_Marshall_by_Henry_Inman%2C_1832.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1059" data-file-height="1312" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/John_Marshall" title="John Marshall">John Marshall</a>, 1801–1835, <a href="/wiki/Fauquier_County,_Virginia" title="Fauquier County, Virginia">Fauquier County</a> delegate, Virginia Ratification Convention</div> </li> </ul> <p>Courts established by the Constitution can regulate government under the Constitution, the supreme law of the land.<sup id="cite_ref-194" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-194"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>j<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> First, they have jurisdiction over actions by an officer of government and state law. Second, federal courts may rule on whether coordinate branches of national government conform to the Constitution. Until the twentieth century, the Supreme Court of the United States may have been the only high tribunal in the world to use a court for constitutional interpretation of fundamental law, others generally depending on their national legislature.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPritchett1959134_195-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPritchett1959134-195"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>185<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The basic theory of American judicial review is summarized by constitutional legal scholars and historians as follows: the written Constitution is fundamental law within the <a href="/wiki/U.S._state" title="U.S. state">states</a>. It can change only by extraordinary legislative process of national proposal, then state ratification. The powers of all departments are limited to enumerated grants found in the Constitution. Courts are expected (a) to enforce provisions of the Constitution as the supreme law of the land, and (b) to refuse to enforce anything in conflict with it.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPritchett1959136_196-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPritchett1959136-196"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As to judicial review and the Congress, the first proposals by Madison (Virginia) and Wilson (Pennsylvania) called for a supreme court veto over national legislation. In this it resembled the system in New York, where the Constitution of 1777 called for a "<a href="/wiki/Council_of_Revision" title="Council of Revision">Council of Revision</a>" by the governor and justices of the state supreme court. The council would review and veto any passed legislation; violating the spirit of the Constitution before it went into effect. The nationalist's proposal in convention was defeated three times and replaced by a presidential veto with congressional over-ride. Judicial review relies on the jurisdictional authority in Article III, and the Supremacy Clause.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPritchett1959137–138_197-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPritchett1959137–138-197"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>187<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The justification for judicial review is to be explicitly found in the open ratifications held in the states and reported in their newspapers. <a href="/wiki/John_Marshall" title="John Marshall">John Marshall</a> in Virginia, <a href="/wiki/James_Wilson_(Founding_Father)" title="James Wilson (Founding Father)">James Wilson</a> in Pennsylvania and <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Ellsworth" title="Oliver Ellsworth">Oliver Ellsworth</a> of Connecticut all argued for Supreme Court judicial review of acts of state legislature. In <a href="/wiki/Federalist_No._78" title="Federalist No. 78">Federalist No. 78</a>, Alexander Hamilton advocated the doctrine of a written document held as a superior enactment of the people. "A limited constitution can be preserved in practice no other way" than through courts which can declare void any legislation contrary to the Constitution. The preservation of the people's authority over legislatures rests "particularly with judges."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPritchett1959138_198-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPritchett1959138-198"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>188<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-200" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-200"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>k<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Supreme Court was initially made up of jurists who had been intimately connected with the framing of the Constitution and the establishment of its government as law. <a href="/wiki/John_Jay" title="John Jay">John Jay</a> (New York), a co-author of <i>The Federalist Papers</i>, served as chief justice for the first six years. The second chief justice, <a href="/wiki/John_Rutledge" title="John Rutledge">John Rutledge</a> (South Carolina), was appointed by Washington in 1795 as a recess appointment, but was not confirmed by the Senate. Resigning later that year, he was succeeded in 1796 by the third chief justice, <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Ellsworth" title="Oliver Ellsworth">Oliver Ellsworth</a> (Connecticut).<sup id="cite_ref-201" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-201"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>190<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both Rutledge and Ellsworth were delegates to the Constitutional Convention. <a href="/wiki/John_Marshall" title="John Marshall">John Marshall</a> (Virginia), the fourth chief justice, had served in the Virginia Ratification Convention in 1788. His 34 years of service on the Court would see some of the most important rulings to help establish the nation the Constitution had begun. Other early members of the Supreme Court who had been delegates to the Constitutional Convention included <a href="/wiki/James_Wilson_(Founding_Father)" title="James Wilson (Founding Father)">James Wilson</a> (Pennsylvania) for ten years, and <a href="/wiki/John_Blair_Jr." title="John Blair Jr.">John Blair Jr.</a> (Virginia) for five years.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Establishment">Establishment</h3></div> <p>When John Marshall followed Oliver Ellsworth as chief justice of the Supreme Court in 1801, the federal judiciary had been established by the <a href="/wiki/Judiciary_Act_of_1789" title="Judiciary Act of 1789">Judiciary Act</a>, but there were few cases, and less prestige. "The fate of judicial review was in the hands of the Supreme Court itself." Review of state legislation and appeals from state supreme courts was understood. But the Court's life, jurisdiction over state legislation was limited. The <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Court" title="Marshall Court">Marshall Court</a>'s landmark <i><a href="/wiki/Barron_v._Baltimore" title="Barron v. Baltimore">Barron v. Baltimore</a></i> held that the Bill of Rights restricted only the federal government, and not the states.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPritchett1959138_198-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPritchett1959138-198"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>188<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the landmark <i><a href="/wiki/Marbury_v._Madison" title="Marbury v. Madison">Marbury v. Madison</a></i> case, the Supreme Court asserted its authority of judicial review over Acts of Congress. Its findings were that Marbury and the others had a right to their commissions as judges in the District of Columbia. Marshall, writing the opinion for the majority, announced his discovered conflict between Section 13 of the <a href="/wiki/Judiciary_Act_of_1789" title="Judiciary Act of 1789">Judiciary Act of 1789</a> and Article III.<sup id="cite_ref-202" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-202"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>l<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPritchett1959140_203-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPritchett1959140-203"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>191<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-204" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-204"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>m<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this case, both the Constitution and the statutory law applied to the particulars at the same time. "The very essence of judicial duty" according to Marshall was to determine which of the two conflicting rules should govern. The Constitution enumerates powers of the judiciary to extend to cases arising "under the Constitution". Further, justices take a Constitutional oath to uphold it as <a href="/wiki/Supremacy_Clause" title="Supremacy Clause">"Supreme law of the land</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPritchett1959140–141_205-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPritchett1959140–141-205"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>192<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, since the United States government as created by the Constitution is a limited government, the federal courts were required to choose the Constitution over congressional law if there were deemed to be a conflict.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>"This argument has been ratified by time and by practice<span class="nowrap"> </span>..."<sup id="cite_ref-207" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-207"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>n<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-208" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-208"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>o<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Supreme Court did not declare another act of Congress unconstitutional until the controversial <a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott</a> decision in 1857, held after the voided <a href="/wiki/Missouri_Compromise" title="Missouri Compromise">Missouri Compromise</a> statute had already been repealed. In the eighty years following the Civil War to World War II, the Court voided congressional statutes in 77 cases, on average almost one a year.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPritchett1959141–142_209-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPritchett1959141–142-209"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>194<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A crisis arose when, in 1935 and 1936, the Supreme Court handed down twelve decisions voiding acts of Congress relating to the New Deal. President <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> then responded with his abortive "<a href="/wiki/Judicial_Procedures_Reform_Bill_of_1937" title="Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937">court packing plan</a>". Other proposals have suggested a Court super-majority to overturn Congressional legislation, or a constitutional amendment to require that the justices retire at a specified age by law. To date, the Supreme Court's power of judicial review has persisted.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPritchett1959142_199-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPritchett1959142-199"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Self-restraint">Self-restraint</h4></div> <p>The power of judicial review could not have been preserved long in a democracy unless it had been "wielded with a reasonable measure of <a href="/wiki/Judicial_restraint" title="Judicial restraint">judicial restraint</a>, and with some attention, as <a href="/wiki/Finley_Peter_Dunne" title="Finley Peter Dunne">Mr. Dooley</a> said, to the election returns." Indeed, the Supreme Court has developed a system of doctrine and practice that self-limit its power of judicial review.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPritchett1959145_210-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPritchett1959145-210"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>195<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Court controls almost all of its business by choosing what cases to consider, writs of <a href="/wiki/Certiorari" title="Certiorari">certiorari</a>. In this way, it can avoid opinions on embarrassing or difficult cases. The Supreme Court limits itself by defining what is a "justiciable question". First, the Court is fairly consistent in refusing to make any "<a href="/wiki/Advisory_opinion" title="Advisory opinion">advisory opinions</a>" in advance of actual cases.<sup id="cite_ref-211" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-211"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>p<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Second, "<a href="/wiki/Friendly_suit" class="mw-redirect" title="Friendly suit">friendly suits</a>" between those of the same legal interest are not considered. Third, the Court requires a "personal interest", not one generally held, and a legally protected right must be immediately threatened by government action. Cases are not taken up if the litigant has no <a href="/wiki/Standing_(law)" title="Standing (law)">standing to sue</a>. Simply having the money to sue and being injured by government action are not enough.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPritchett1959145_210-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPritchett1959145-210"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>195<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>These three procedural ways of dismissing cases have led critics to charge that the Supreme Court delays decisions by unduly insisting on technicalities in their "standards of litigability". They say cases are left unconsidered which are in the public interest, with genuine controversy, and resulting from good faith action. "The Supreme Court is not only a court of law but a court of justice."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPritchett1959148–149_212-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPritchett1959148–149-212"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>196<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Separation_of_powers">Separation of powers</h4></div> <p>The Supreme Court balances several pressures to maintain its roles in national government. It seeks to be a co-equal branch of government, but its decrees must be enforceable. The Court seeks to minimize situations where it asserts itself superior to either president or Congress, but federal officers must be held accountable. The Supreme Court assumes power to declare acts of Congress as unconstitutional but it self-limits its passing on constitutional questions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPritchett1959149_213-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPritchett1959149-213"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>197<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But the Court's guidance on basic problems of life and governance in a democracy is most effective when American political life reinforces its rulings.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPritchett1959154_214-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPritchett1959154-214"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>198<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Louis_Brandeis" title="Louis Brandeis">Justice Brandeis</a> summarized four general guidelines that the Supreme Court uses to avoid constitutional decisions relating to Congress:<sup id="cite_ref-215" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-215"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>q<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Court will not anticipate a question of constitutional law nor decide open questions unless a case decision requires it. If it does, a rule of constitutional law is formulated only as the precise facts in the case require. The Court will choose statutes or general law for the basis of its decision if it can without constitutional grounds. If it does, the Court will choose a constitutional construction of an act of Congress, even if its constitutionality is seriously in doubt.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPritchett1959149_213-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPritchett1959149-213"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>197<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Likewise with the executive department, Edwin Corwin observed that the Court does sometimes rebuff presidential pretensions, but it more often tries to rationalize them. Against Congress, an act is merely "disallowed". In the executive case, exercising judicial review produces "some change in the external world" beyond the ordinary judicial sphere.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPritchett1959150_216-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPritchett1959150-216"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>199<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The "political question" doctrine especially applies to questions which present a difficult enforcement issue. Chief Justice <a href="/wiki/Charles_Evans_Hughes" title="Charles Evans Hughes">Charles Evans Hughes</a> addressed the Court's limitation when political process allowed future policy change, but a judicial ruling would "attribute finality". Political questions lack "satisfactory criteria for a judicial determination."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPritchett1959151_217-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPritchett1959151-217"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>200<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>John Marshall recognized that the president holds "important political powers" which as <a href="/wiki/Executive_privilege" title="Executive privilege">executive privilege</a> allows great discretion. This doctrine was applied in Court rulings on President <a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Ulysses S. Grant">Grant</a>'s duty to enforce the law during <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction</a>. It extends to the sphere of foreign affairs. Justice <a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Jackson" title="Robert H. Jackson">Robert Jackson</a> explained, foreign affairs are inherently political, "wholly confided by our Constitution to the political departments of the government ... [and] not subject to judicial intrusion or inquiry".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPritchett1959150–151_218-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPritchett1959150–151-218"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>201<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Critics of the Court object in two principal ways to self-restraint in judicial review, deferring as it does as a matter of doctrine to acts of Congress and presidential actions. </p> <ol><li>Its inaction is said to allow "a flood of legislative appropriations" which permanently create an imbalance between the states and federal government.</li> <li>Supreme Court deference to Congress and the executive compromises American protection of civil rights, political minority groups and aliens.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPritchett1959153_219-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPritchett1959153-219"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>202<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers_under_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Separation of powers under the United States Constitution">Separation of powers under the United States Constitution</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Subsequent_Courts">Subsequent Courts</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="History of the Supreme Court of the United States">History of the Supreme Court of the United States</a></div> <p>Supreme Courts under the leadership of subsequent chief justices have also used judicial review to interpret the Constitution among individuals, states and federal branches. Notable contributions were made by the <a href="/wiki/Chase_Court" title="Chase Court">Chase Court</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Taft_Court" title="Taft Court">Taft Court</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Warren_Court" title="Warren Court">Warren Court</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Rehnquist_Court" title="Rehnquist Court">Rehnquist Court</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Chase_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Chase Court">List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Chase Court</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Salmon_P._Chase" title="Salmon P. Chase">Salmon P. Chase</a> was a Lincoln appointee, serving as chief justice from 1864 to 1873. His career encompassed service as a U.S. senator and Governor of Ohio. He coined the slogan, "Free soil, free Labor, free men." One of Lincoln's "team of rivals", he was appointed Secretary of Treasury during the Civil War, issuing "greenbacks". Partly to appease the <a href="/wiki/Radical_Republicans" title="Radical Republicans">Radical Republicans</a>, Lincoln appointed him chief justice upon the death of <a href="/wiki/Roger_B._Taney" title="Roger B. Taney">Roger B. Taney</a>. </p><p>In one of his first official acts, Chase admitted <a href="/wiki/John_Rock_(abolitionist)" title="John Rock (abolitionist)">John Rock</a>, the first African American to practice before the Supreme Court. The Chase Court is famous for <i><a href="/wiki/Texas_v._White" title="Texas v. White">Texas v. White</a></i>, which asserted a permanent Union of indestructible states. <i><a href="/wiki/Veazie_Bank_v._Fenno" title="Veazie Bank v. Fenno">Veazie Bank v. Fenno</a></i> upheld the Civil War tax on state banknotes. <i><a href="/wiki/Hepburn_v._Griswold" title="Hepburn v. Griswold">Hepburn v. Griswold</a></i> found parts of the Legal Tender Acts unconstitutional, though it was reversed under a late Supreme Court majority. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Taft_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Taft Court">List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Taft Court</a></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional" style="max-width: 326px;float: right;"> <li class="gallerycaption">Scope of judicial review expanded</li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Mathew_Brady,_Portrait_of_Secretary_of_the_Treasury_Salmon_P._Chase,_officer_of_the_United_States_government_(1860%E2%80%931865,_full_version).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Salmon P. Chase[r] Union, Reconstruction"><img alt="Salmon P. Chase[r] Union, Reconstruction" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Mathew_Brady%2C_Portrait_of_Secretary_of_the_Treasury_Salmon_P._Chase%2C_officer_of_the_United_States_government_%281860%E2%80%931865%2C_full_version%29.jpg/120px-Mathew_Brady%2C_Portrait_of_Secretary_of_the_Treasury_Salmon_P._Chase%2C_officer_of_the_United_States_government_%281860%E2%80%931865%2C_full_version%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="106" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Mathew_Brady%2C_Portrait_of_Secretary_of_the_Treasury_Salmon_P._Chase%2C_officer_of_the_United_States_government_%281860%E2%80%931865%2C_full_version%29.jpg/250px-Mathew_Brady%2C_Portrait_of_Secretary_of_the_Treasury_Salmon_P._Chase%2C_officer_of_the_United_States_government_%281860%E2%80%931865%2C_full_version%29.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="3139" data-file-height="3544" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><b><a href="/wiki/Salmon_P._Chase" title="Salmon P. Chase">Salmon P. Chase</a></b><sup id="cite_ref-220" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-220"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>r<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br />Union, Reconstruction</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:William_Howard_Taft_cph.3b35813.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="William Howard Taft[s] commerce, incorporation"><img alt="William Howard Taft[s] commerce, incorporation" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/William_Howard_Taft_cph.3b35813.jpg/84px-William_Howard_Taft_cph.3b35813.jpg" decoding="async" width="84" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/William_Howard_Taft_cph.3b35813.jpg/126px-William_Howard_Taft_cph.3b35813.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/William_Howard_Taft_cph.3b35813.jpg/168px-William_Howard_Taft_cph.3b35813.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1005" data-file-height="1431" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><b><a href="/wiki/William_Howard_Taft" title="William Howard Taft">William Howard Taft</a></b><sup id="cite_ref-221" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-221"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>s<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br />commerce, <a href="/wiki/Incorporation_of_the_Bill_of_Rights" title="Incorporation of the Bill of Rights">incorporation</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Earl_Warren.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Earl Warren[t] due process, civil rights"><img alt="Earl Warren[t] due process, civil rights" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Earl_Warren.jpg/96px-Earl_Warren.jpg" decoding="async" width="96" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Earl_Warren.jpg/144px-Earl_Warren.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Earl_Warren.jpg/192px-Earl_Warren.jpg 2x" data-file-width="620" data-file-height="773" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><b><a href="/wiki/Earl_Warren" title="Earl Warren">Earl Warren</a></b><sup id="cite_ref-222" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-222"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>t<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br />due process, civil rights</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:William_Rehnquist.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="William Rehnquist[u] federalism, privacy"><img alt="William Rehnquist[u] federalism, privacy" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/William_Rehnquist.jpg/120px-William_Rehnquist.jpg" decoding="async" width="93" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/William_Rehnquist.jpg/250px-William_Rehnquist.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="305" data-file-height="393" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><b><a href="/wiki/William_Rehnquist" title="William Rehnquist">William Rehnquist</a></b><sup id="cite_ref-223" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-223"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>u<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br />federalism, privacy</div> </li> </ul> <p><a href="/wiki/William_Howard_Taft" title="William Howard Taft">William Howard Taft</a> was a Harding appointment to chief justice from 1921 to 1930. A <a href="/wiki/Progressive_Republican" class="mw-redirect" title="Progressive Republican">Progressive Republican</a> from Ohio, he was a one-term President. </p><p>As chief justice, he advocated the <a href="/wiki/Judiciary_Act_of_1925" title="Judiciary Act of 1925">Judiciary Act of 1925</a> that brought the Federal District Courts under the administrative jurisdiction of the Supreme Court. Taft successfully sought the expansion of Court jurisdiction over non-states such as District of Columbia and Territories of Alaska and Hawaii. </p><p>In 1925, the Taft Court issued a ruling overturning a Marshall Court ruling on the Bill of Rights. In <i><a href="/wiki/Gitlow_v._New_York" title="Gitlow v. New York">Gitlow v. New York</a></i>, the Court established the doctrine of "<a href="/wiki/Incorporation_of_the_Bill_of_Rights" title="Incorporation of the Bill of Rights">incorporation</a>", which applied the Bill of Rights to the states. Important cases included the <i><a href="/wiki/Board_of_Trade_of_City_of_Chicago_v._Olsen" title="Board of Trade of City of Chicago v. Olsen">Board of Trade of City of Chicago v. Olsen</a></i>, which upheld Congressional regulation of commerce. <i><a href="/wiki/Olmstead_v._United_States" title="Olmstead v. United States">Olmstead v. United States</a></i> allowed exclusion of evidence obtained without a warrant based on application of the 14th Amendment proscription against unreasonable searches. <i><a href="/wiki/Wisconsin_v._Illinois" title="Wisconsin v. Illinois">Wisconsin v. Illinois</a></i> ruled the equitable power of the United States can impose positive action on a state to prevent its inaction from damaging another state. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Warren_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Warren Court">List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Warren Court</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Earl_Warren" title="Earl Warren">Earl Warren</a> was an Eisenhower nominee, chief justice from 1953 to 1969. Warren's Republican career in the law reached from county prosecutor, California state attorney general, and three consecutive terms as governor. His programs stressed progressive efficiency, expanding state education, re-integrating returning veterans, infrastructure, and highway construction. </p><p>In 1954, the Warren Court overturned a landmark <a href="/wiki/Fuller_Court" title="Fuller Court">Fuller Court</a> ruling on the Fourteenth Amendment interpreting racial segregation as permissible in government and commerce providing "<a href="/wiki/Separate_but_equal" title="Separate but equal">separate but equal</a>" services. Warren built a coalition of justices after 1962 that developed the idea of natural rights as guaranteed in the Constitution. <i><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a></i> banned segregation in public schools. <i><a href="/wiki/Baker_v._Carr" title="Baker v. Carr">Baker v. Carr</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Reynolds_v._Sims" title="Reynolds v. Sims">Reynolds v. Sims</a></i> established Court ordered "one-man-one-vote". Bill of Rights Amendments were incorporated into the states. Due process was expanded in <i><a href="/wiki/Gideon_v._Wainwright" title="Gideon v. Wainwright">Gideon v. Wainwright</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Miranda_v._Arizona" title="Miranda v. Arizona">Miranda v. Arizona</a>.</i> First Amendment rights were addressed in <i><a href="/wiki/Griswold_v._Connecticut" title="Griswold v. Connecticut">Griswold v. Connecticut</a></i> concerning privacy, and <i><a href="/wiki/Engel_v._Vitale" title="Engel v. Vitale">Engel v. Vitale</a></i> relative to free speech. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Rehnquist_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Rehnquist Court">List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Rehnquist Court</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/William_Rehnquist" title="William Rehnquist">William Rehnquist</a> was a Reagan-appointed chief justice, serving from 1986 to 2005. While he would concur with overthrowing a state supreme court's decision, as in <i>Bush v. Gore</i>, he built a coalition of Justices after 1994 that developed the idea of federalism as provided for in the Tenth Amendment. In the hands of the Supreme Court, the Constitution and its amendments were to restrain Congress, as in <i><a href="/wiki/City_of_Boerne_v._Flores" title="City of Boerne v. Flores">City of Boerne v. Flores</a></i>. </p><p>Nevertheless, the Rehnquist Court was noted in the contemporary "culture wars" for overturning state laws relating to privacy, prohibiting late-term abortions in <i><a href="/wiki/Stenberg_v._Carhart" title="Stenberg v. Carhart">Stenberg v. Carhart</a></i>, prohibiting sodomy in <i><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_v._Texas" title="Lawrence v. Texas">Lawrence v. Texas</a></i>, or ruling so as to protect free speech in <i><a href="/wiki/Texas_v._Johnson" title="Texas v. Johnson">Texas v. Johnson</a></i> or affirmative action in <i><a href="/wiki/Grutter_v._Bollinger" title="Grutter v. Bollinger">Grutter v. Bollinger</a></i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Civic_religion">Civic religion</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/American_civil_religion" title="American civil religion">American civil religion</a></div> <p>There is a viewpoint that some Americans have come to see the documents of the Constitution, along with the Declaration of Independence and the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a>, as being a cornerstone of a type of <a href="/wiki/Civil_religion" title="Civil religion">civil religion</a>. Some commentators depict the multi-ethnic, multi-sectarian United States as held together by political orthodoxy, in contrast with a <a href="/wiki/Nation_state" title="Nation state">nation-state</a> of people having more "natural" ties.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevinson1987118_224-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevinson1987118-224"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>203<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevinson1987119_225-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevinson1987119-225"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>204<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Worldwide_influence">Worldwide influence</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Worldwide_influence_of_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Worldwide influence of the Constitution of the United States">Worldwide influence of the Constitution of the United States</a></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional" style="max-width: 326px;float: right;"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Jose_Rizal_full.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="José Rizal"><img alt="José Rizal" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Jose_Rizal_full.jpg/84px-Jose_Rizal_full.jpg" decoding="async" width="84" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Jose_Rizal_full.jpg/126px-Jose_Rizal_full.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Jose_Rizal_full.jpg/169px-Jose_Rizal_full.jpg 2x" data-file-width="955" data-file-height="1358" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><b><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Rizal" title="José Rizal">José Rizal</a></b></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sun_Yat-sen_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Sun Yat-sen"><img alt="Sun Yat-sen" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Sun_Yat-sen_2.jpg/88px-Sun_Yat-sen_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="88" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Sun_Yat-sen_2.jpg/132px-Sun_Yat-sen_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Sun_Yat-sen_2.jpg/176px-Sun_Yat-sen_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="3147" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><b><a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun Yat-sen</a></b></div> </li> </ul> <p>The United States Constitution has been a notable model for governance worldwide, especially through the 1970s. Its international influence is found in similarities in phrasing and borrowed passages in other constitutions, as well as in the principles of the <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">rule of law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">separation of powers</a>, and recognition of <a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">individual rights</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The American experience of fundamental law with amendments and <a href="/wiki/Judicial_review" title="Judicial review">judicial review</a> has motivated <a href="/wiki/Constitutionalism" title="Constitutionalism">constitutionalists</a> at times when they were considering the possibilities for their nation's future.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBillias2009xi–xv_226-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBillias2009xi–xv-226"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>205<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It informed <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a> during the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-229" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-229"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>v<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> his contemporary and ally <a href="/wiki/Benito_Ju%C3%A1rez" title="Benito Juárez">Benito Juárez</a> of Mexico,<sup id="cite_ref-231" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-231"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>w<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the second generation of 19th-century constitutional nationalists, <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Rizal" title="José Rizal">José Rizal</a> of the Philippines<sup id="cite_ref-233" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-233"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>x<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun Yat-sen</a> of China.<sup id="cite_ref-235" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-235"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>y<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The framers of the <a href="/wiki/Australian_constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian constitution">Australian constitution</a> integrated federal ideas from the U.S. and other constitutions.<sup id="cite_ref-236" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-236"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>211<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since the 1980s, the influence of the United States Constitution has been waning as other countries have created new constitutions or updated older constitutions, a process which <a href="/wiki/Sanford_Levinson" title="Sanford Levinson">Sanford Levinson</a> believes to be more difficult in the United States than in any other country.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_237-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-237"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>212<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-jr-diusc_238-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jr-diusc-238"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>213<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-diusc_239-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-diusc-239"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>214<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticisms">Criticisms</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Criticism_of_the_Constitution" title="History of the United States Constitution">History of the United States Constitution § Criticism of the Constitution</a></div> <p>The United States Constitution has faced various criticisms since its inception in 1787. </p><p>The Constitution did not originally define who was <a href="/wiki/Voting_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Voting rights in the United States">eligible to vote</a>, allowing each state to determine who was eligible. In the early history of the U.S., most states allowed only <a href="/wiki/White_Americans" title="White Americans">white</a> male adult property owners to vote; the notable exception was New Jersey, where women were able to vote on the same basis as men.<sup id="cite_ref-240" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-240"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>215<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-241" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-241"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>216<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-242" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-242"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>217<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Until the <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Reconstruction Amendments</a> were adopted between 1865 and 1870, the five years immediately following the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a>, the Constitution did not abolish slavery, nor give citizenship and voting rights to former slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-243" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-243"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>218<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These amendments did not include a specific prohibition on discrimination in voting on the basis of sex; it took another amendment—the <a href="/wiki/Nineteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Nineteenth</a>, ratified in 1920—for the Constitution to prohibit any United States citizen from being denied the right to vote on the basis of sex.<sup id="cite_ref-244" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-244"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>219<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to a 2012 study by David Law and Mila Versteeg published in the <i><a href="/wiki/New_York_University_Law_Review" title="New York University Law Review">New York University Law Review</a></i>, the U.S. Constitution guarantees relatively few rights compared to the constitutions of other countries and contains fewer than half (26 of 60) of the provisions listed in the average bill of rights. It is also one of the few in the world today that still features the <a href="/wiki/Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms" title="Right to keep and bear arms">right to keep and bear arms</a>; the other two being the constitutions of <a href="/wiki/Guatemala" title="Guatemala">Guatemala</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-jr-diusc_238-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jr-diusc-238"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>213<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-diusc_239-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-diusc-239"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>214<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Difficult_to_amend">Difficult to amend</h3></div> <p>Sanford Levinson wrote in 2006 that it has been the most difficult constitution in the world to amend since the fall of Yugoslavia.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_237-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-237"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>212<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-245" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-245"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>220<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Levitsky and Ziblatt argue that the US Constitution is the most difficult in the world to amend, and that this helps explain why the US still has so many undemocratic institutions that most or all other democracies have reformed, directly allowing significant <a href="/wiki/Democratic_backsliding_in_the_United_States" title="Democratic backsliding in the United States">democratic backsliding in the United States</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-246" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-246"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>221<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Commemorations">Commemorations</h2></div> <p>In 1937, the U.S. Post Office, at the prompting of President <a href="/wiki/Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt" class="mw-redirect" title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt">Franklin Delano Roosevelt</a>, an avid stamp collector himself, released a commemorative postage stamp celebrating the 150th anniversary of the signing of the U.S. Constitution. The engraving on this issue is after an <a href="/wiki/File:Washington_Constitutional_Convention_1787.jpg" title="File:Washington Constitutional Convention 1787.jpg">1856 painting</a> by <a href="/wiki/Junius_Brutus_Stearns" title="Junius Brutus Stearns">Junius Brutus Stearns</a> of Washington and shows <a href="/wiki/Signing_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Signing of the United States Constitution">delegates signing the Constitution</a> at the 1787 Convention.<sup id="cite_ref-247" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-247"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>222<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The following year another commemorative stamp was issued celebrating the 150th anniversary of the ratification of the Constitution.<sup id="cite_ref-248" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-248"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>223<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1987 the U.S. Government minted a 1987 silver dollar in celebration of the 200th anniversary of the signing of the Constitution.<sup id="cite_ref-249" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-249"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>224<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-250" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-250"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>225<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table style="margin:auto"> <tbody><tr> <td><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Constitution_Sesquicentennial_1937_Issue-3c.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Constitution_Sesquicentennial_1937_Issue-3c.jpg/250px-Constitution_Sesquicentennial_1937_Issue-3c.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Constitution_Sesquicentennial_1937_Issue-3c.jpg/500px-Constitution_Sesquicentennial_1937_Issue-3c.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="1324" data-file-height="846" /></a><figcaption>Postage Issue of 1937 commemorating the 150th anniversary of the <a href="/wiki/Signing_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Signing of the United States Constitution">signing of the Constitution</a></figcaption></figure> </td> <td><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Constitution_Ratification,_3c,_1938_issue.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Constitution_Ratification%2C_3c%2C_1938_issue.jpg/240px-Constitution_Ratification%2C_3c%2C_1938_issue.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Constitution_Ratification%2C_3c%2C_1938_issue.jpg/360px-Constitution_Ratification%2C_3c%2C_1938_issue.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Constitution_Ratification%2C_3c%2C_1938_issue.jpg/480px-Constitution_Ratification%2C_3c%2C_1938_issue.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1063" data-file-height="694" /></a><figcaption>Postage Issue of 1938 commemorating the 150th anniversary of the ratification of the Constitution</figcaption></figure> </td> <td><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1987-S_Proof_Constitution_Commemorative_Silver_Dollar_$1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/1987-S_Proof_Constitution_Commemorative_Silver_Dollar_%241.jpg/500px-1987-S_Proof_Constitution_Commemorative_Silver_Dollar_%241.jpg" decoding="async" width="350" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/1987-S_Proof_Constitution_Commemorative_Silver_Dollar_%241.jpg/960px-1987-S_Proof_Constitution_Commemorative_Silver_Dollar_%241.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="3191" data-file-height="1569" /></a><figcaption>1987 Constitution Commemorative Silver Dollar</figcaption></figure> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Commentaries_on_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Commentaries on the Constitution of the United States">Commentaries on the Constitution of the United States</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Story" title="Joseph Story">Joseph Story</a> (1833, three volumes)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_power_of_enforcement" title="Congressional power of enforcement">Congressional power of enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_Day_and_Citizenship_Day" title="Constitution Day and Citizenship Day">Constitution Day and Citizenship Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_Week" title="Constitution Week">Constitution Week</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Constitution_of_the_United_States_of_America:_Analysis_and_Interpretation" title="The Constitution of the United States of America: Analysis and Interpretation">The Constitution of the United States of America: Analysis and Interpretation</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_3_May_1791" title="Constitution of 3 May 1791">Constitution of 3 May 1791</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutionalism_in_the_United_States" title="Constitutionalism in the United States">Constitutionalism in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6del%27s_Loophole" title="Gödel's Loophole">Gödel's Loophole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Founding Fathers of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Founders_Online" title="Founders Online">Founders Online</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_democracy" title="History of democracy">History of democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="History of the United States Constitution">History of the United States Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_constitutions" title="List of national constitutions">List of national constitutions</a> (world countries)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_proposed_amendments_to_the_United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="List of proposed amendments to the United States Constitution">List of proposed amendments to the United States Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sources_of_law_in_the_United_States" title="List of sources of law in the United States">List of sources of law in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pocket_Constitution" title="Pocket Constitution">Pocket Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Constitutional_Convention_of_the_United_States" title="Second Constitutional Convention of the United States">Second Constitutional Convention of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_drafting_and_ratification_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Timeline of drafting and ratification of the United States Constitution">Timeline of drafting and ratification of the United States Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UK_constitutional_law" class="mw-redirect" title="UK constitutional law">UK constitutional law</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Related_documents">Related documents</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115" /><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Massachusetts" title="Constitution of Massachusetts">Constitution of Massachusetts</a> (1780)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamental_Orders_of_Connecticut" title="Fundamental Orders of Connecticut">Fundamental Orders of Connecticut</a> (1639)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Body_of_Liberties" title="Massachusetts Body of Liberties">Massachusetts Body of Liberties</a> (1641)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mayflower_Compact" title="Mayflower Compact">Mayflower Compact</a> (1620)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Statute_for_Religious_Freedom" title="Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom">Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom</a> (1779)</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Other countries, such as the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>, and <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>, and other <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_countries" class="mw-redirect" title="Commonwealth countries">Commonwealth countries</a>, have constitutional provisions such as the <a href="/wiki/Bill_of_Rights_1689" title="Bill of Rights 1689">Bill of Rights 1689</a>, among other statutes, that are older than the United States Constitution that are still in force to this day.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Historically, the first written constitution of an independent polity which was adopted by representatives elected by the people was the 1755 <a href="/wiki/Corsican_Constitution" title="Corsican Constitution">Corsican Constitution</a>, despite being short-lived, drafted by <a href="/wiki/Pasquale_Paoli" title="Pasquale Paoli">Pasquale Paoli</a>, whose work was an inspiration for many <a href="/wiki/Patriot_(American_Revolution)" title="Patriot (American Revolution)">American patriots</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> including the <a href="/wiki/Hearts_of_Oak_(New_York_militia)" title="Hearts of Oak (New York militia)">Hearts of Oak</a>, originally named "The Corsicans", and the <a href="/wiki/Sons_of_Liberty" title="Sons of Liberty">Sons of Liberty</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Earlier written constitutions of independent states exist but were not adopted by bodies elected by the people, such as the <a href="/wiki/Swedish_Constitution_of_1772" class="mw-redirect" title="Swedish Constitution of 1772">Swedish Constitution of 1772</a>, adopted by the king, the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_San_Marino" title="Constitution of San Marino">Constitution of San Marino</a> of 1600 which is the oldest surviving constitution in the world, or the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Pylyp_Orlyk" title="Constitution of Pylyp Orlyk">Constitution of Pylyp Orlyk</a>, the first establishing separation of powers.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The <a href="/wiki/Judiciary_Act_of_1789" title="Judiciary Act of 1789">Judiciary Act of 1789</a> established six Supreme Court justices. The number was periodically increased, reaching ten in 1863, allowing Lincoln additional appointments. After the Civil War, vacancies reduced the number to seven. Congress finally fixed the number at nine.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The four concepts which determine "justiciability", the formula for a federal court taking and deciding a case, are the doctrines of (a) standing, (b) real and substantial interests, (c) adversity, and (d) avoidance of political questions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2010_125-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2010-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Judicial Review is explained in Hamilton's <a href="/wiki/Federalist_No._78" title="Federalist No. 78">Federalist No. 78</a>. It also has roots in Natural Law expressions in the Declaration of Independence. The Supreme Court first ruled an act of Congress unconstitutional in <i><a href="/wiki/Marbury_v._Madison" title="Marbury v. Madison">Marbury v. Madison</a></i>, the second was <a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott" title="Dred Scott">Dred Scott</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2010_125-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2010-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For instance, 'collateral estoppel' directs that when a litigant wins in a state court, they cannot sue in federal court to get a more favorable outcome.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Recently numerous <a href="/wiki/Habeas_corpus" title="Habeas corpus">habeas corpus</a> reforms have tried to preserve a working "relationship of comity" and simultaneously streamline the process for state and lower courts to apply Supreme Court interpretations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2010_125-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2010-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Contrary to this source when viewed, the Constitution provides that punishments, including forfeiture of income and property, must apply to the person convicted. "No attainder of treason shall work <a href="/wiki/Attainder#Corruption_of_blood" title="Attainder">corruption of blood</a> or forfeiture" on the convicted traitor's children or heirs. This avoids the perpetuation of civil war into the generations by Parliamentary majorities as in the <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Roses" title="Wars of the Roses">Wars of the Roses</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2010_125-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2010-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Three states have ratified the ERA in recent years (Virginia, Illinois and Nevada), purportedly bringing the number of ratifications to 38. In January 2020, after the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Justice" title="United States Department of Justice">Justice Department</a> issued an opinion that the deadline for passage of the amendment expired at the time of the original 1979 deadline, the <a href="/wiki/State_attorney_general" title="State attorney general">attorneys general</a> of those three states filed suit in <a href="/wiki/United_States_District_Court_for_the_District_of_Columbia" title="United States District Court for the District of Columbia">U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia</a> seeking to require the <a href="/wiki/Archivist_of_the_United_States" title="Archivist of the United States">Archivist of the United States</a> to publish and certify the amendment as ratified. The District Court dismissed the case, finding that the plaintiff states' "ratifications came after both the original and extended deadlines that Congress attached to the ERA, so the Archivist is not bound to record them as valid".<sup id="cite_ref-190" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-190"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit affirmed the dismissal, stating that the plaintiff states had "not clearly and indisputably shown that the Archivist had a duty to certify and publish the ERA or that Congress lacked the authority to place a time limit in the proposing clause of the ERA".<sup id="cite_ref-191" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-191"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-194"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In this context, colonial territories held by the U.S. are not considered part of the land, so the constitution does not apply to them.<sup id="cite_ref-193" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-193"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-200"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-200">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Supreme Court found 658 cases of invalid state statutes from 1790 to 1941 before the advent of civil rights cases in the last half of the twentieth century<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPritchett1959142_199-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPritchett1959142-199"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-202"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-202">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In this, John Marshall leaned on the argument of Hamilton in <a href="/wiki/Federalist_No._78" title="Federalist No. 78">Federalist No. 78</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-204"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-204">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Although it may be that the true meaning of the Constitution to the people of the United States in 1788 can only be divined by a study of the state ratification conventions, the Supreme Court has used <i><a href="/wiki/The_Federalist_Papers" title="The Federalist Papers">The Federalist Papers</a></i> as a supplemental guide to the Constitution since their co-author, John Jay, was the first Chief Justice.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-207"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-207">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The entire quote reads, "This argument has been ratified by time and by practice, and there is little point in quibbling with it. Of course, the president also takes an oath to support the Constitution."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPritchett1959141_206-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPritchett1959141-206"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>193<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-208"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The presidential reference is to Andrew Jackson's disagreement with Marshall's Court over <i><a href="/wiki/Worcester_v._Georgia" title="Worcester v. Georgia">Worcester v. Georgia</a></i>, finding Georgia could not impose its laws in Cherokee Territory. Jackson replied, "John Marshall has made his decision; now let him enforce it!", and the Trail of Tears proceeded. Jackson would not politically interpose the U.S. Army between Georgia and the Cherokee people as Eisenhower would do between Arkansas and the integrating students.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-211"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-211">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Advisory opinions" are not the same as "<a href="/wiki/Declaratory_judgment" title="Declaratory judgment">declaratory judgments</a>". (a) These address rights and legal relationships in cases of "actual controversy", and (b) the holding has the force and effect of a final judgment. (c) There is no coercive order, as the parties are assumed to follow the judgment, but a "declaratory judgment" is the basis of any subsequent ruling in case law.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-215"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-215">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Louis Brandeis concurring opinion, <i>Ashwander v. Tennessee Valley Authority</i>, 1936.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-220"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-220">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The <a href="/wiki/Chase_Court" title="Chase Court">Chase Court</a>, 1864–1873, in 1865 were Salmon P. Chase (chief Justice); Hon. Nathan Clifford, Maine; Stephen J. Field, Justice Supreme Court, U.S.; Hon. Samuel F. Miller, U.S. Supreme Court; Hon. Noah H. Swayne, Justice Supreme Court, U.S.; Judge Morrison R. Waite</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-221"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-221">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The <a href="/wiki/Taft_Court" title="Taft Court">Taft Court</a>, 1921–1930, in 1925 were James Clark McReynolds, Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr., William Howard Taft (chief justice), Willis Van Devanter, Louis Brandeis. Edward Sanford, George Sutherland, Pierce Butler, Harlan Fiske Stone</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-222"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-222">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The <a href="/wiki/Warren_Court" title="Warren Court">Warren Court</a>, 1953–1969, in 1963 were Felix Frankfurter; Hugo Black; Earl Warren (chief justice); Stanley Reed; William O. Douglas. Tom Clark; Robert H. Jackson; Harold Burton; Sherman Minton</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-223"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-223">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The <a href="/wiki/Rehnquist_Court" title="Rehnquist Court">Rehnquist Court</a>, 1986–2005.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-229"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-229">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Secession was indeed unconstitutional ... military resistance to secession was not only constitutional but also morally justified.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFarber20033_227-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFarber20033-227"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>206<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "the <i>primary</i> purpose of the Constitution was ... to create 'a more perfect union' ... the Constitution was an exercise in nation building.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFarber2003198_228-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFarber2003198-228"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>207<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-231"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-231">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Juarez regarded the United States as a model of republican democracy and consistently supported Abraham Lincoln.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStacy2003436_230-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStacy2003436-230"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>208<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-233"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-233">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The institutions of the two countries which have most influenced constitutional development are Spain and the United States". One of the reforms, "sine quibus non", to use the words of Rizal and Mabini, always insisted upon by the Filipinos, was Philippine representation in the <a href="/wiki/Cortes_Generales" title="Cortes Generales">Spanish Cortes</a>, the promulgation in the Islands of the Spanish Constitution, and the complete assimilation equal to that of any in the Spanish provinces on the continent.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalcolm1920109_232-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalcolm1920109-232"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>209<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-235"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-235">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In the modern history of China, there were many revolutionaries who tried to seek the truth from the West in order to overthrow the feudal system of the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a>. <a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun Yat-sen</a>, for example, was much influenced by American democracy, especially the U.S. Constitution.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQing_Yu1988193_234-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQing_Yu1988193-234"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>210<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Citations">Citations</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626" /><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJohn_H._Lienhard" class="citation web cs1">John H. Lienhard. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.uh.edu/engines/epi1003.htm">"Engrossed in the Constitution"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 8,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Engrossed+in+the+Constitution&rft.au=John+H.+Lienhard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.uh.edu%2Fengines%2Fepi1003.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">16 Am. Jur. 2d Constitutional Law § 10; "The Constitution went into effect in March of 1789." Referring to Owings v. Speed, 18 U.S. 420, 5 L. 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The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration. October 30, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 22,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=America%27s+Founding+Fathers-Delegates+to+the+Constitutional+Convention&rft.pub=The+U.S.+National+Archives+and+Records+Administration&rft.date=2015-10-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.archives.gov%2Ffounding-docs%2Ffounding-fathers&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier201011–13-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaier201011–13_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMaier2010">Maier 2010</a>, pp. 11–13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERakove1996102–104-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERakove1996102–104_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRakove1996">Rakove 1996</a>, pp. 102–104.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AvalonVirginia-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AvalonVirginia_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AvalonVirginia_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/vatexta.asp">"Variant Texts of the Virginia Plan, Presented by Edmund Randolph to the Federal Convention"</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Avalon_Project" title="Avalon Project">Avalon Project</a> at Yale Law School<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 16,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Variant+Texts+of+the+Virginia+Plan%2C+Presented+by+Edmund+Randolph+to+the+Federal+Convention&rft.pub=The+Avalon+Project+at+Yale+Law+School&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Favalon.law.yale.edu%2F18th_century%2Fvatexta.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AvalonNewJersey-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AvalonNewJersey_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AvalonNewJersey_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/debates_615.asp#1">"The Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787 reported by James Madison: on June 15"</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 16,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Debates+in+the+Federal+Convention+of+1787+reported+by+James+Madison%3A+on+June+15&rft.pub=The+Avalon+Project+at+Yale+Law+School&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Favalon.law.yale.edu%2F18th_century%2Fdebates_615.asp%231&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWarren1928231–232-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWarren1928231–232_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWarren1928">Warren 1928</a>, pp. 231–232.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERakove199658-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERakove199658_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERakove199658_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRakove1996">Rakove 1996</a>, p. 58.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman200967–68,_310–311-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman200967–68,_310–311_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman2009">Beeman 2009</a>, pp. 67–68, 310–311.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERakove199654-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERakove199654_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRakove1996">Rakove 1996</a>, p. 54.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier2010123-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaier2010123_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMaier2010">Maier 2010</a>, p. 123.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBernstein1987167,_177-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBernstein1987167,_177_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBernstein1987">Bernstein 1987</a>, pp. 167, 177.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009200–204-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009200–204_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman2009">Beeman 2009</a>, pp. 200–204.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmar200520–21,_310-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmar200520–21,_310_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAmar2005">Amar 2005</a>, pp. 20–21, 310.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFUnited_States_Senate1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">United States Senate</a> (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/GPO-CONAN-1992/pdf/GPO-CONAN-1992-7.pdf">"Amendments to the Constitution of the United States of America"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/wiki/The_Constitution_of_the_United_States_of_America:_Analysis_and_Interpretation" title="The Constitution of the United States of America: Analysis and Interpretation"><i>The Constitution of the United States of America: Analysis and Interpretation</i></a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 20,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Paoli%3A+Hero+of+the+Sons+of+Liberty&rft.pub=Journal+of+the+American+Revolution&rft.date=2016-05-11&rft.aulast=Ruppert&rft.aufirst=Bob&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fallthingsliberty.com%2F2016%2F05%2Fpaoli-hero-of-the-sons-of-liberty%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLaughlin193583–90,_124-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLaughlin193583–90,_124_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcLaughlin1935">McLaughlin 1935</a>, pp. 83–90, 124.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFritz2008" class="citation book cs1">Fritz, Christian G. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZpKCvUacmSwC&pg=RA1-PA168"><i>American Sovereigns: The People and America's Constitutional Tradition Before the Civil War</i></a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. p. 131. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-88188-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-88188-3"><bdi>978-0-521-88188-3</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>;</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Sovereigns%3A+The+People+and+America%27s+Constitutional+Tradition+Before+the+Civil+War&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=131&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-521-88188-3&rft.aulast=Fritz&rft.aufirst=Christian+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZpKCvUacmSwC%26pg%3DRA1-PA168&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> noting that "Madison, along with other Americans clearly understood" the Articles of Confederation "to be the first federal Constitution".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBernstein1987199-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBernstein1987199_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBernstein1987199_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBernstein1987">Bernstein 1987</a>, p. 199.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJensen195059-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJensen195059_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJensen1950">Jensen 1950</a>, p. 59.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood1969359-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWood1969359_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWood1969">Wood 1969</a>, p. 359.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-maier11-13-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-maier11-13_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-maier11-13_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-maier11-13_34-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-maier11-13_34-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-maier11-13_34-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMaier2010">Maier 2010</a>, pp. 11–13</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier201012–13,_19-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaier201012–13,_19_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMaier2010">Maier 2010</a>, pp. 12–13, 19.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowen1966129–130-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBowen1966129–130_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBowen1966">Bowen 1966</a>, pp. 129–130.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowen196631-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBowen196631_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBowen1966">Bowen 1966</a>, p. 31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier201015–16-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaier201015–16_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMaier2010">Maier 2010</a>, pp. 15–16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier201013-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaier201013_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMaier2010">Maier 2010</a>, p. 13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood1969356–367,_359-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWood1969356–367,_359_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWood1969">Wood 1969</a>, pp. 356–367, 359.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier201014,_30,_66-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaier201014,_30,_66_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMaier2010">Maier 2010</a>, pp. 14, 30, 66.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Dawes" title="Thomas Dawes">Dawes, Thomas</a>. <i>An Oration, Delivered July 4, 1787, at the Request of the Inhabitants of the Town of Boston, in Celebration of the Anniversary of American Independence,</i> pp.15–19, printed by Samuel Hall, Boston, 1787.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/documents/a7s1.html">"Resolution of Congress, 21 Feb. 1787"</a>. <i>The Founders' Constitution</i>. University of Chicago Press;</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Founders%27+Constitution&rft.atitle=Resolution+of+Congress%2C+21+Feb.+1787&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpress-pubs.uchicago.edu%2Ffounders%2Fdocuments%2Fa7s1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> The Congress of the Confederation thus echoed a previous resolution of a conference at Annapolis; see <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/annapoli.asp">"Proceedings of Commissioners to Remedy Defects of the Federal Government: 1786"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Proceedings+of+Commissioners+to+Remedy+Defects+of+the+Federal+Government%3A+1786&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Favalon.law.yale.edu%2F18th_century%2Fannapoli.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMaier2010">Maier 2010</a>, p. 21</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMaier2010">Maier 2010</a>, p. 27</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-committeest-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-committeest_46-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-committeest_46-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://teachingamericanhistory.org/convention/delegates/committee_table/">"Committee Assignments Chart and Commentary"</a>. Ashland, Ohio: TeachingAmericanHistory.org<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 16,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Committee+Assignments+Chart+and+Commentary&rft.place=Ashland%2C+Ohio&rft.pub=TeachingAmericanHistory.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fteachingamericanhistory.org%2Fconvention%2Fdelegates%2Fcommittee_table%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/debates_716.asp">"Madison Debates July 16"</a>. The Avalon Project at Yale Law School<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 31,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Madison+Debates+July+16&rft.pub=The+Avalon+Project+at+Yale+Law+School&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Favalon.law.yale.edu%2F18th_century%2Fdebates_716.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CCCs-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CCCs_48-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CCCs_48-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CCCs_48-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.usconstitution.net/constcmte.html">"Committees at the Constitutional Convention"</a>. U.S. Constitution Online<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 16,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Committees+at+the+Constitutional+Convention&rft.pub=U.S.+Constitution+Online&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.usconstitution.net%2Fconstcmte.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/debates_915.asp">"Madison Debates August 6"</a>. The Avalon Project at Yale Law School<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 16,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Madison+Debates+August+6&rft.pub=The+Avalon+Project+at+Yale+Law+School&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Favalon.law.yale.edu%2F18th_century%2Fdebates_915.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/debates_915.asp">"Madison Debates September 12"</a>. The Avalon Project at Yale Law School<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 16,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Madison+Debates+September+12&rft.pub=The+Avalon+Project+at+Yale+Law+School&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Favalon.law.yale.edu%2F18th_century%2Fdebates_915.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFVile2005" class="citation book cs1">Vile, John R. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oyFpDS8p33sC&q=Jacob+Shallus&pg=PA705"><i>The Constitutional Convention of 1787: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of America's Founding (Volume 1: A-M)</i></a>. ABC-CLIO. p. 705. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85109-669-8" title="Special:BookSources/1-85109-669-8"><bdi>1-85109-669-8</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 21,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Constitutional+Convention+of+1787%3A+A+Comprehensive+Encyclopedia+of+America%27s+Founding+%28Volume+1%3A+A-M%29&rft.pages=705&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=1-85109-669-8&rft.aulast=Vile&rft.aufirst=John+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DoyFpDS8p33sC%26q%3DJacob%2BShallus%26pg%3DPA705&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/debates_915.asp">"Madison Debates September 15"</a>. The Avalon Project at Yale Law School<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 16,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Madison+Debates+September+15&rft.pub=The+Avalon+Project+at+Yale+Law+School&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Favalon.law.yale.edu%2F18th_century%2Fdebates_915.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWrightMacGregor" class="citation book cs1">Wright, Robert K. Jr.; MacGregor, Morris J. Jr. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160421032736/http://www.history.army.mil/books/RevWar/ss/appa.htm">"Appendix A: The Annapolis Convention"</a>. <i>Soldier-Statesmen of the Constitution</i>. Washington D.C.: United States Army Center of Military History. p. 264. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/87001353">87001353</a>. CMH Pub 71-25. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.history.army.mil/books/RevWar/ss/appa.htm">the original</a> on April 21, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 16,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Appendix+A%3A+The+Annapolis+Convention&rft.btitle=Soldier-Statesmen+of+the+Constitution&rft.place=Washington+D.C.&rft.pages=264&rft.pub=United+States+Army+Center+of+Military+History&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F87001353&rft.aulast=Wright&rft.aufirst=Robert+K.+Jr.&rft.au=MacGregor%2C+Morris+J.+Jr.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.history.army.mil%2Fbooks%2FRevWar%2Fss%2Fappa.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllis2000160-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllis2000160_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEllis2000">Ellis 2000</a>, p. 160.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009215,_285-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009215,_285_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman2009">Beeman 2009</a>, pp. 215, 285.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowen1966209-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBowen1966209_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBowen1966">Bowen 1966</a>, p. 209.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERakove1996102-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERakove1996102_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRakove1996">Rakove 1996</a>, p. 102.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBernstein1987106,_160-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBernstein1987106,_160_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBernstein1987">Bernstein 1987</a>, pp. 106, 160.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWarren1928281–282-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWarren1928281–282_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWarren1928">Warren 1928</a>, pp. 281–282.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBernstein1987201–203-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBernstein1987201–203_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBernstein1987">Bernstein 1987</a>, pp. 201–203.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERakove1996108–110-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERakove1996108–110_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRakove1996">Rakove 1996</a>, pp. 108–110.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERakove1996106–108-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERakove1996106–108_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRakove1996">Rakove 1996</a>, pp. 106–108.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/ressub02.asp">"Resolution of Congress of September 28, 1787, Submitting the constitution to the Several States"</a>. 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(August 2014)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.senate.gov/civics/constitution_item/constitution.htm#amdt_2_(1791)">"US Senate Annotated Constitution"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Annenberg Classroom. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://constitutioncenter.org/constitution/the-amendments/amendment-27-limiting-congressional-pay-increases">the original</a> on July 25, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryof00mori/page/609">609</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+History+of+the+American+People&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=609&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1965&rft.aulast=Morison&rft.aufirst=Samuel+Eliot&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foxfordhistoryof00mori&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKilpatrick1961" class="citation book cs1">Kilpatrick, James J., ed. (1961). <i>The Constitution of the United States and Amendments Thereto</i>. 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(1998). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/americanconstitu0000grif"><i>American Constitutionalism: From Theory to Politics</i></a></span>. Princeton University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/americanconstitu0000grif/page/89">89</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-00240-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-00240-8"><bdi>978-0-691-00240-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Constitutionalism%3A+From+Theory+to+Politics&rft.pages=89&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-691-00240-8&rft.aulast=Griffin&rft.aufirst=Stephen+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Famericanconstitu0000grif&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35_years_after-186"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35_years_after_186-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2017/03/21/520962541/nevada-on-cusp-of-ratifying-equal-rights-amendment-35-years-after-deadline">"Nevada Ratifies The Equal Rights Amendment ... 35 Years After The Deadline"</a>. NPR<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 6,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Nevada+Ratifies+The+Equal+Rights+Amendment+...+35+Years+After+The+Deadline&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2Fsections%2Fthetwo-way%2F2017%2F03%2F21%2F520962541%2Fnevada-on-cusp-of-ratifying-equal-rights-amendment-35-years-after-deadline&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CREC-2018-09-12/pdf/CREC-2018-09-12-pt1-PgS6141-3.pdf#page=1">"Congressional Record—September 12, 2018"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Congressional+Record%E2%80%94September+12%2C+2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.govinfo.gov%2Fcontent%2Fpkg%2FCREC-2018-09-12%2Fpdf%2FCREC-2018-09-12-pt1-PgS6141-3.pdf%23page%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJCarollFoy2020" class="citation web cs1">@JCarollFoy (January 15, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://x.com/JCarollFoy/status/1217510690413514753">"BREAKING: The House of Delegates just passed HJ1, my resolution to have Virginia be the 38th and final state to ratify the Equal Rights Amendment"</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tweet_(social_media)" title="Tweet (social media)">Tweet</a>) – via <a href="/wiki/Twitter" title="Twitter">Twitter</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=BREAKING%3A+The+House+of+Delegates+just+passed+HJ1%2C+my+resolution+to+have+Virginia+be+the+38th+and+final+state+to+ratify+the+Equal+Rights+Amendment.&rft.date=2020-01-15&rft.au=JCarollFoy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fx.com%2FJCarollFoy%2Fstatus%2F1217510690413514753&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wtop.com/virginia/2020/01/virginia-becomes-38th-state-to-ratify-equal-rights-amendment-but-it-may-be-too-late/">Virginia becomes 38th state to ratify Equal Rights Amendment—but it may be too late</a>, <a href="/wiki/WTOP-FM" title="WTOP-FM">WTOP-FM</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Virginia v. Ferriero</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://casetext.com/case/virginia-v-ferriero-1">525 F. Supp. 2d 36</a> (D.D.C. 2021).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Illinois v. Ferriero</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://casetext.com/case/illinois-v-ferriero">60 F.4th 704</a> (D.C. Cir. 2023).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFImmerwahr2019" class="citation book cs1">Immerwahr, Daniel (2019). <i>How to Hide an Empire: A History of the Greater United States</i>. <a href="/wiki/Farrar,_Straus_and_Giroux" title="Farrar, Straus and Giroux">Farrar, Straus and Giroux</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-374-71512-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-374-71512-0"><bdi>978-0-374-71512-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1086608761">1086608761</a>. <q>The Constitution's references to 'the United States,' the argument continued, were meant in that narrow sense, to refer to the states alone. Territories thus had no right to constitutional protections, for the simple reason that the Constitution didn't apply to them. As one justice summarized the logic, the Constitution was 'the supreme law of the land,' but the territories were 'not part of the "land."'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span></q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+to+Hide+an+Empire%3A+A+History+of+the+Greater+United+States&rft.pub=Farrar%2C+Straus+and+Giroux&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1086608761&rft.isbn=978-0-374-71512-0&rft.aulast=Immerwahr&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPritchett1959134-195"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPritchett1959134_195-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPritchett1959">Pritchett 1959</a>, p. 134.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPritchett1959136-196"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPritchett1959136_196-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPritchett1959">Pritchett 1959</a>, p. 136.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPritchett1959137–138-197"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPritchett1959137–138_197-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPritchett1959">Pritchett 1959</a>, pp. 137–138.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPritchett1959138-198"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPritchett1959138_198-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPritchett1959138_198-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPritchett1959">Pritchett 1959</a>, p. 138.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPritchett1959142-199"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPritchett1959142_199-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPritchett1959142_199-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPritchett1959">Pritchett 1959</a>, p. 142.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-201"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFUnited_States_Senate" class="citation web cs1">United States Senate. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.senate.gov/about/powers-procedures/nominations/a-chief-justice-rejected.htm">"Chief Justice Nomination Rejected"</a>. <i>senate.gov</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPritchett1959148–149_212-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPritchett1959">Pritchett 1959</a>, pp. 148–149.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPritchett1959149-213"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPritchett1959149_213-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPritchett1959149_213-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPritchett1959">Pritchett 1959</a>, p. 149.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPritchett1959154-214"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPritchett1959154_214-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPritchett1959">Pritchett 1959</a>, p. 154.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPritchett1959150-216"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPritchett1959150_216-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a 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href="#CITEREFFarber2003">Farber 2003</a>, p. 198.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStacy2003436-230"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStacy2003436_230-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStacy2003">Stacy 2003</a>, p. 436.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalcolm1920109-232"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalcolm1920109_232-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMalcolm1920">Malcolm 1920</a>, p. 109.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEQing_Yu1988193-234"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQing_Yu1988193_234-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFQing_Yu1988">Qing Yu 1988</a>, p. 193.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-236"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-236">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 23,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journalist%27s+Resource&rft.atitle=The+Declining+Influence+of+the+United+States+Constitution&rft.date=2013-04-09&rft.aulast=Weigel&rft.aufirst=Margaret&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjournalistsresource.org%2Fstudies%2Fgovernment%2Ffederalstate%2Fdecline-influence-united-states-constitution%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-diusc-239"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-diusc_239-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-diusc_239-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLawVersteeg2012" class="citation journal cs1">Law, David S.; Versteeg, Mila (2012). 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National Archives. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/charters_of_freedom_13.html">the original</a> on July 6, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 21,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Online+Exhibit%3A+The+Charters+of+Freedom&rft.atitle=Expansion+of+Rights+and+Liberties%E2%80%94The+Right+of+Suffrage&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.archives.gov%2Fexhibits%2Fcharters%2Fcharters_of_freedom_13.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-241"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-241">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.infoplease.com/timelines/voting.html">"U.S. Voting Rights"</a>. Infoplease<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 21,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Colonial+Williamsburg&rft.atitle=Voting+in+Early+America&rft.volume=Spring+2007&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.history.org%2FFoundation%2Fjournal%2Fspring07%2Felections.cfm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-243"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-243">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFoner" class="citation web cs1">Foner, Eric. <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gilderlehrman.org/history-by-era/reconstruction/essays/reconstruction-amendments-official-documents-social-history">"The Reconstruction Amendments: Official Documents as Social History"</a></span>. The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 5,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Reconstruction+Amendments%3A+Official+Documents+as+Social+History&rft.pub=The+Gilder+Lehrman+Institute+of+American+History&rft.aulast=Foner&rft.aufirst=Eric&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gilderlehrman.org%2Fhistory-by-era%2Freconstruction%2Fessays%2Freconstruction-amendments-official-documents-social-history&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-244"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-244">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archives.gov/exhibits/featured_documents/amendment_19/">"The Constitution: The 19th Amendment"</a>. National Archives and Records Administration<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 5,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Constitution%3A+The+19th+Amendment&rft.pub=National+Archives+and+Records+Administration&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.archives.gov%2Fexhibits%2Ffeatured_documents%2Famendment_19%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-245"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-245">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMillhiser2024" class="citation web cs1">Millhiser, Ian (July 29, 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.vox.com/scotus/363557/supreme-court-biden-kamala-harris-reform-term-limits-ethics">"Biden's new Supreme Court reform proposals are mostly useless"</a>. <i>Vox</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 31,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Vox&rft.atitle=Biden%27s+new+Supreme+Court+reform+proposals+are+mostly+useless&rft.date=2024-07-29&rft.aulast=Millhiser&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.vox.com%2Fscotus%2F363557%2Fsupreme-court-biden-kamala-harris-reform-term-limits-ethics&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-246"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-246">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLevitskyZiblatt2023" class="citation book cs1">Levitsky, Steven; Ziblatt, Daniel (2023). "Chapter 7". <i>Tyranny of the Minority: why American democracy reached the breaking point</i>. New York: Crown. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-593-44307-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-593-44307-1"><bdi>978-0-593-44307-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+7&rft.btitle=Tyranny+of+the+Minority%3A+why+American+democracy+reached+the+breaking+point&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Crown&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-0-593-44307-1&rft.aulast=Levitsky&rft.aufirst=Steven&rft.au=Ziblatt%2C+Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-247"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-247">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#sesquicentennial">Smithsonian National Postal Museum, bulletin, Sesquicentennial</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-248"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-248">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#ratification">Smithsonian National Postal Museum, bulletin, Ratification</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-249"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-249">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBermanGuth2011" class="citation book cs1">Berman, Neil S.; Guth, Ron (March 1, 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-ceRKqjyfxcC"><i>Coin Collecting For Dummies</i></a>. John Wiley & Sons. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/Coin_Collecting_For_Dummies/-ceRKqjyfxcC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=1987+silver+dollar+constitution+coin&pg=PA188&printsec=frontcover">188</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-05218-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-118-05218-1"><bdi>978-1-118-05218-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Coin+Collecting+For+Dummies&rft.pages=188&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2011-03-01&rft.isbn=978-1-118-05218-1&rft.aulast=Berman&rft.aufirst=Neil+S.&rft.au=Guth%2C+Ron&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-ceRKqjyfxcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-250"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-250">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFUnited_States_Mint1987" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Mint" title="United States Mint">United States Mint</a> (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=H0BQ4SPQQXEC"><i>Annual Report of the Director of the Mint</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/U.S._Department_of_the_Treasury" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Department of the Treasury">U.S. Department of the Treasury</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/Annual_Report_of_the_Director_of_the_Min/H0BQ4SPQQXEC?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=silver%20dollar%20constitution%20coin">12</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Annual+Report+of+the+Director+of+the+Mint&rft.pages=12&rft.pub=U.S.+Department+of+the+Treasury&rft.date=1987&rft.au=United+States+Mint&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DH0BQ4SPQQXEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Bibliography of the United States Constitution">Bibliography of the United States Constitution</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAmar2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Akhil_Reed_Amar" title="Akhil Reed Amar">Amar, Akhil Reed</a> (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/americasconstitu00amar_0/page/n7/mode/2up"><i>America's Constitution: A Biography</i></a>. New York: Random House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4000-6262-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-4000-6262-4"><bdi>1-4000-6262-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=America%27s+Constitution%3A+A+Biography&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=1-4000-6262-4&rft.aulast=Amar&rft.aufirst=Akhil+Reed&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Famericasconstitu00amar_0%2Fpage%2Fn7%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBeeman2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Beeman" title="Richard Beeman">Beeman, Richard R.</a> (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/plainhonestmenm00beem/page/n7/mode/2up"><i>Plain, Honest Men: The Making of the American Constitution</i></a>. New York: Random House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4000-6570-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4000-6570-7"><bdi>978-1-4000-6570-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Plain%2C+Honest+Men%3A+The+Making+of+the+American+Constitution&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-4000-6570-7&rft.aulast=Beeman&rft.aufirst=Richard+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fplainhonestmenm00beem%2Fpage%2Fn7%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBerkin2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Carol_Berkin" title="Carol Berkin">Berkin, Carol</a> (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/brilliantsolutio00caro/mode/2up"><i>A Brilliant Solution: Inventing the American Constitution</i></a>. Orlando, FL: Harcourt. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-15-100948-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-15-100948-1"><bdi>0-15-100948-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Brilliant+Solution%3A+Inventing+the+American+Constitution&rft.place=Orlando%2C+FL&rft.pub=Harcourt&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-15-100948-1&rft.aulast=Berkin&rft.aufirst=Carol&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbrilliantsolutio00caro%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBernstein1987" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_B._Bernstein" title="Richard B. Bernstein">Bernstein, Richard B.</a> (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/arewetobenationm00bern"><i>Are We to Be a Nation? The Making of the Constitution</i></a>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-04475-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-04475-3"><bdi>978-0-674-04475-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Are+We+to+Be+a+Nation%3F+The+Making+of+the+Constitution&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-674-04475-3&rft.aulast=Bernstein&rft.aufirst=Richard+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Farewetobenationm00bern&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBickel1975" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Bickel" title="Alexander Bickel">Bickel, Alexander M.</a> (1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/moralityofconsen0000bick/"><i>The Morality of Consent</i></a>. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-01911-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-01911-4"><bdi>0-300-01911-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Morality+of+Consent&rft.place=New+Haven%2C+CT&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=0-300-01911-4&rft.aulast=Bickel&rft.aufirst=Alexander+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmoralityofconsen0000bick%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBillias2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/George_Athan_Billias" title="George Athan Billias">Billias, George</a> (2009). <i>American Constitutionalism Heard Round the World, 1776–1989: A Global Perspective</i>. New York: New York University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-9107-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-9107-3"><bdi>978-0-8147-9107-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Constitutionalism+Heard+Round+the+World%2C+1776%E2%80%931989%3A+A+Global+Perspective&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=New+York+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-8147-9107-3&rft.aulast=Billias&rft.aufirst=George&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBowen1966" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Catherine_Drinker_Bowen" title="Catherine Drinker Bowen">Bowen, Catherine Drinker</a> (1966). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/miracleatphilade0000unse_f0e8/page/n11/mode/2up"><i>Miracle at Philadelphia: The Story of the Constitutional Convention, May to September 1787</i></a>. New York: Little, Brown. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-316-10261-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-316-10261-2"><bdi>978-0-316-10261-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Miracle+at+Philadelphia%3A+The+Story+of+the+Constitutional+Convention%2C+May+to+September+1787&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Little%2C+Brown&rft.date=1966&rft.isbn=978-0-316-10261-2&rft.aulast=Bowen&rft.aufirst=Catherine+Drinker&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmiracleatphilade0000unse_f0e8%2Fpage%2Fn11%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="Callanan2014" class="citation journal cs1">Callanan, Keegan (September 2014). "Liberal Constitutionalism and Political Particularism in Montesquieu's "The Spirit of the Laws"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>". <i>Political Research Quarterly</i>. <b>67</b> (3). Sage Publications, Inc.: <span class="nowrap">589–</span>602. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1065912914525862">10.1177/1065912914525862</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24371894">24371894</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144988453">144988453</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Political+Research+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Liberal+Constitutionalism+and+Political+Particularism+in+Montesquieu%27s+%22The+Spirit+of+the+Laws%22&rft.volume=67&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E589-%3C%2Fspan%3E602&rft.date=2014-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144988453%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24371894%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F1065912914525862&rft.aulast=Callanan&rft.aufirst=Keegan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCampbell1969" class="citation book cs1">Campbell, Norine Dickson (1969). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/patrickhenrypatr0000camp/page/n5/mode/2up?q=%22second+continental+congress%22"><i>Patrick Henry: Patriot and Statesman</i></a>. New York: Devin-Adair Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8159-6501-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8159-6501-5"><bdi>978-0-8159-6501-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Patrick+Henry%3A+Patriot+and+Statesman&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Devin-Adair+Co.&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=978-0-8159-6501-5&rft.aulast=Campbell&rft.aufirst=Norine+Dickson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpatrickhenrypatr0000camp%2Fpage%2Fn5%2Fmode%2F2up%3Fq%3D%2522second%2Bcontinental%2Bcongress%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEllis2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_J._Ellis" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph J. Ellis">Ellis, Joseph J.</a> (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/foundingbrothers0000elli_s9z2"><i>Founding Brothers: The Revolutionary Generation</i></a>. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-375-40544-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-375-40544-0"><bdi>978-0-375-40544-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Founding+Brothers%3A+The+Revolutionary+Generation&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Alfred+A.+Knopf&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-375-40544-0&rft.aulast=Ellis&rft.aufirst=Joseph+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffoundingbrothers0000elli_s9z2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFarber2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Daniel_A._Farber" title="Daniel A. Farber">Farber, Daniel</a> (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lincolnsconstitu00farb"><i>Lincoln's Constitution</i></a>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-23793-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-23793-0"><bdi>978-0-226-23793-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lincoln%27s+Constitution&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-226-23793-0&rft.aulast=Farber&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flincolnsconstitu00farb&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="franklin2010" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin, Benjamin</a> (Spring 2010). "Constitutional Convention Speech". <i>Litigation</i>. <b>36</b> (3). American Bar Association: 64. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/29760791">29760791</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Litigation&rft.atitle=Constitutional+Convention+Speech&rft.ssn=spring&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=64&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F29760791%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Franklin&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="greene1994" class="citation journal cs1">Greene, Francis R. (Winter 1994). "Madison's View of Federalism in "The Federalist"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>". <i>Publius</i>. <b>24</b> (1). Oxford University Press: <span class="nowrap">47–</span>61. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3330704">3330704</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Publius&rft.atitle=Madison%27s+View+of+Federalism+in+%22The+Federalist%22&rft.ssn=winter&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E47-%3C%2Fspan%3E61&rft.date=1994&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3330704%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Greene&rft.aufirst=Francis+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="grinde1995" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Donald_A._Grinde_Jr." title="Donald A. Grinde Jr.">Grinde, Donald A. Jr.</a> (Spring 1995). "The Iroquois and the Development of American Government". <i>Historical Reflections</i>. <b>21</b> (2). 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(1969). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/creationofameri00wood/page/n3/mode/2up"><i>The Creation of the American Republic, 1776–1787</i></a></span>. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-807-84723-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-807-84723-7"><bdi>978-0-807-84723-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Creation+of+the+American+Republic%2C+1776%E2%80%931787&rft.place=Chapel+Hill&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=978-0-807-84723-7&rft.aulast=Wood&rft.aufirst=Gordon+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcreationofameri00wood%2Fpage%2Fn3%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="zeydel1966" class="citation journal cs1">Zeydel, Walter H. (October 1966). "Sir William Blackstone and His Commentaries". <i>The Quarterly Journal of the Library of Congress</i>. <b>23</b> (4). Library of Congress: <span class="nowrap">302–</span>312. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/29781237">29781237</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Quarterly+Journal+of+the+Library+of+Congress&rft.atitle=Sir+William+Blackstone+and+His+Commentaries&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E302-%3C%2Fspan%3E312&rft.date=1966-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F29781237%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Zeydel&rft.aufirst=Walter+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFZink2009" class="citation journal cs1">Zink, James R. (2009). "The Language of Liberty and Law: James Wilson on America's Written Constitution". <i>The American Political Science Review</i>. <b>103</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">442–</span>445. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0003055409990086">10.1017/S0003055409990086</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27798515">27798515</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145568103">145568103</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Political+Science+Review&rft.atitle=The+Language+of+Liberty+and+Law%3A+James+Wilson+on+America%27s+Written+Constitution&rft.volume=103&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E442-%3C%2Fspan%3E445&rft.date=2009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145568103%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F27798515%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0003055409990086&rft.aulast=Zink&rft.aufirst=James+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="magnacarta'loc" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/magna-carta-muse-and-mentor/magna-carta-and-the-us-constitution.html">"Magna Carta: Muse and Mentor; Magna Carta and the U.S. Constitution"</a>. Library of Congress. November 6, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 10,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Magna+Carta%3A+Muse+and+Mentor%3B+Magna+Carta+and+the+U.S.+Constitution&rft.pub=Library+of+Congress&rft.date=2014-11-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.loc.gov%2Fexhibits%2Fmagna-carta-muse-and-mentor%2Fmagna-carta-and-the-us-constitution.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="sesquicentennial" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://postalmuseum.si.edu/exhibition/about-us-stamps-bureau-period-1894-1939-commemorative-issues-1936-1937/constitution">"Constitution Sesquicentennial Issue"</a>. Smithsonian National Postal Museum<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 28,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Constitution+Sesquicentennial+Issue&rft.pub=Smithsonian+National+Postal+Museum&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpostalmuseum.si.edu%2Fexhibition%2Fabout-us-stamps-bureau-period-1894-1939-commemorative-issues-1936-1937%2Fconstitution&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="ratification" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://postalmuseum.si.edu/exhibition/about-us-stamps-bureau-period-1894-1939-commemorative-issues-1938-1939/constitution">"Constitution Ratification Issue"</a>. Smithsonian National Postal Museum<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 28,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Constitution+Ratification+Issue&rft.pub=Smithsonian+National+Postal+Museum&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpostalmuseum.si.edu%2Fexhibition%2Fabout-us-stamps-bureau-period-1894-1939-commemorative-issues-1938-1939%2Fconstitution&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316" /><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBailyn1993" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Bailyn" title="Bernard Bailyn">Bailyn, Bernard</a>, ed. (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/debateonconstitu00bail/page/n5/mode/2up"><i>The Debate on the Constitution: Federalist and Antifederalist Speeches, Articles, and Letters During the Struggle for Ratification</i></a>. Vol. Part One: September 1787 to February 1788. The Library of America.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Debate+on+the+Constitution%3A+Federalist+and+Antifederalist+Speeches%2C+Articles%2C+and+Letters+During+the+Struggle+for+Ratification&rft.pub=The+Library+of+America&rft.date=1993&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdebateonconstitu00bail%2Fpage%2Fn5%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBailyn1993" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">——, ed. (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/debateonconstit00bail/page/n7/mode/2up"><i>The Debate on the Constitution: Federalist and Antifederalist Speeches, Articles, and Letters During the Struggle for Ratification</i></a>. Vol. Part Two: January to August 1788. The Library of America. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-940450-64-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-940450-64-X"><bdi>0-940450-64-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Debate+on+the+Constitution%3A+Federalist+and+Antifederalist+Speeches%2C+Articles%2C+and+Letters+During+the+Struggle+for+Ratification&rft.pub=The+Library+of+America&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0-940450-64-X&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdebateonconstit00bail%2Fpage%2Fn7%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBordewich2016" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Fergus_M._Bordewich" class="mw-redirect" title="Fergus M. Bordewich">Bordewich, Fergus M.</a> (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/firstcongresshow0000bord/page/n7/mode/2up"><i>The First Congress: How James Madison, George Washington, and A Group of Extraordinary Men Invented the Government</i></a>. New York: Simon & Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4516-9193-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4516-9193-1"><bdi>978-1-4516-9193-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+First+Congress%3A+How+James+Madison%2C+George+Washington%2C+and+A+Group+of+Extraordinary+Men+Invented+the+Government&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-4516-9193-1&rft.aulast=Bordewich&rft.aufirst=Fergus+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffirstcongresshow0000bord%2Fpage%2Fn7%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="bradford1994" class="citation book cs1">Bradford, Melvin Eustace (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/foundingfathersb0000brad/mode/2up"><i>Founding Fathers: Brief Lives of the Framers of the United States Constitution</i></a>. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7006-0656-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7006-0656-6"><bdi>978-0-7006-0656-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Founding+Fathers%3A+Brief+Lives+of+the+Framers+of+the+United+States+Constitution&rft.place=Lawrence&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Kansas&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-7006-0656-6&rft.aulast=Bradford&rft.aufirst=Melvin+Eustace&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffoundingfathersb0000brad%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBrown1993" class="citation book cs1">Brown, Roger H. (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/redeemingrepubli0000brow"><i>Redeeming the Republic: Federalists, Taxation, and the Origins of the Constitution</i></a>. Johns Hopkins University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-6355-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-6355-4"><bdi>978-0-8018-6355-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Redeeming+the+Republic%3A+Federalists%2C+Taxation%2C+and+the+Origins+of+the+Constitution&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-8018-6355-4&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Roger+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fredeemingrepubli0000brow&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBryce1891" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_Bryce,_1st_Viscount_Bryce" title="James Bryce, 1st Viscount Bryce">Bryce, James</a> (1891). <i>The American Commonwealth</i>. Vol. 1 (2nd ed.). London: Macmillan and Co. pp. [350]–397, [636]–645, <span class="nowrap">669–</span>682, <i>et passim</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+American+Commonwealth&rft.place=London&rft.pages=350-397%2C+636-645%2C+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E669-%3C%2Fspan%3E682%2C+%27%27et+passim%27%27&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Macmillan+and+Co.&rft.date=1891&rft.aulast=Bryce&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCasey1974" class="citation journal cs1">Casey, Gregory (Spring 1974). "The Supreme Court and Myth: An Empirical Investigation". <i>Law & Society Review</i>. <b>8</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">385–</span>420. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3053081">10.2307/3053081</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3053081">3053081</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Law+%26+Society+Review&rft.atitle=The+Supreme+Court+and+Myth%3A+An+Empirical+Investigation&rft.ssn=spring&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E385-%3C%2Fspan%3E420&rft.date=1974&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3053081&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3053081%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Casey&rft.aufirst=Gregory&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCollierCollier1986" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Collier_(historian)" title="Christopher Collier (historian)">Collier, Christopher</a>; <a href="/wiki/James_Lincoln_Collier" title="James Lincoln Collier">Collier, James Lincoln</a> (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/decisioninphilad0000coll/page/n7/mode/2up"><i>Decision in Philadelphia: The Constitutional Convention of 1787</i></a>. New York: Random House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0394-52346-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0394-52346-0"><bdi>978-0394-52346-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Decision+in+Philadelphia%3A+The+Constitutional+Convention+of+1787&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0394-52346-0&rft.aulast=Collier&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft.au=Collier%2C+James+Lincoln&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdecisioninphilad0000coll%2Fpage%2Fn7%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Dippel, Horst, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/models-and-stereotypes/anglophilia/horst-dippel-british-and-american-constitutional-and-democratic-models-18th-20th-century?set_language=en&-C="><i>British and American Constitutional and Democratic Models (18th–20th Century)</i></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ieg-ego.eu/">EGO – European History Online</a>, Mainz: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ieg-mainz.de/likecms/index.php">Institute of European History</a>, 2018, retrieved: March 8, 2021 (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/1175587575/34">pdf</a>).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFElliot" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Elliot_(historian)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jonathan Elliot (historian)">Elliot, Jonathan</a>. <i>The Debates in the Several State Conventions of the Adoption of the Federal Constitution</i>. Vol. 1: <i>Constitution, Declaration of Independence, Articles of Confederation, Journal of Federal Convention</i>, Vol. 2: <i>State Conventions Massachusetts, Connecticut, New Hampshire, New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland</i>, Vol. 3: <i>Virginia</i>, Vol. 4: <i>North and South Carolina, Resolutions, Tariffs, Banks, Debt</i>, Vol. 5: <i>Debates in Congress, Madison's Notes, Misc. Letters</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Debates+in+the+Several+State+Conventions+of+the+Adoption+of+the+Federal+Constitution&rft.aulast=Elliot&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEllis2015" class="citation book cs1">Ellis, Joseph J. (2015). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/quartetorchestra0000elli_e0g0/page/n9/mode/2up"><i>The Quartet: Orchestrating the Second American Revolution, 1783–1789</i></a></span>. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0385353403" title="Special:BookSources/978-0385353403"><bdi>978-0385353403</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/929123909">929123909</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 1,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Quartet%3A+Orchestrating+the+Second+American+Revolution%2C+1783%E2%80%931789&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Alfred+A.+Knopf&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F929123909&rft.isbn=978-0385353403&rft.aulast=Ellis&rft.aufirst=Joseph+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fquartetorchestra0000elli_e0g0%2Fpage%2Fn9%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFarrand1921" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Max_Farrand" title="Max Farrand">Farrand, Max</a> (1921). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fathersofconstit00farr/mode/2up"><i>The Fathers of the Constitution</i></a>. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Fathers+of+the+Constitution&rft.place=New+Haven%2C+CT&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1921&rft.aulast=Farrand&rft.aufirst=Max&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffathersofconstit00farr%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFarrand1913" class="citation book cs1">—— (1913). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/framingofconstit0000farr_c4j2/page/n3/mode/2up"><i>The Framing of the Constitution of the United States</i></a>. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-00445-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-00445-8"><bdi>978-0-300-00445-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Framing+of+the+Constitution+of+the+United+States&rft.place=New+Haven%2C+CT&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1913&rft.isbn=978-0-300-00445-8&rft.aulast=Farrand&rft.aufirst=Max&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fframingofconstit0000farr_c4j2%2Fpage%2Fn3%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFord1888" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Leicester_Ford" title="Paul Leicester Ford">Ford, Paul Leicester</a>, ed. (1888). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cu31924020874099"><i>Pamphlets on the Constitution of the United States, Published During its Discussion by the People, 1787–1788</i></a>. Brooklyn, NY: Brooklyn, N.Y;</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pamphlets+on+the+Constitution+of+the+United+States%2C+Published+During+its+Discussion+by+the+People%2C+1787%E2%80%931788&rft.place=Brooklyn%2C+NY&rft.pub=Brooklyn%2C+N.Y.&rft.date=1888&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcu31924020874099&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> Pamphlets written between 1787 and 1788 by Elbridge Gerry, Noah Webster, John Jay, Melancthon Smith, Pelatiah Webster, Tench Coxe, James Wilson, John Dickinson, Alexander Contee Hanson, Edmund Randolph, Richard Henry Lee, George Mason, and David Ramsay. The essay attributed to Gerry was in fact written by Mercy Otis Warren.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFritz2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Christian_G._Fritz" title="Christian G. Fritz">Fritz, Christian G.</a> (2008). <i>American Sovereigns: The People and America's Constitutional Tradition Before the Civil War</i>. Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Sovereigns%3A+The+People+and+America%27s+Constitutional+Tradition+Before+the+Civil+War&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Fritz&rft.aufirst=Christian+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="garvey1989" class="citation book cs1">Garvey, John H.; Aleinikoff, T. Alexander, eds. (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/modernconstituti0000unse/mode/2up"><i>Modern Constitutional Theory: A Reader</i></a>. St. Paul, MN: West Publishing Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-314-51813-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-314-51813-4"><bdi>0-314-51813-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+Constitutional+Theory%3A+A+Reader&rft.place=St.+Paul%2C+MN&rft.pub=West+Publishing+Co.&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=0-314-51813-4&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmodernconstituti0000unse%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHall1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kermit_L._Hall" title="Kermit L. Hall">Hall, Kermit</a> (1992). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00hall"><i>The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States</i></a></span>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-505835-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-505835-2"><bdi>978-0-19-505835-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Companion+to+the+Supreme+Court+of+the+United+States&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-19-505835-2&rft.aulast=Hall&rft.aufirst=Kermit&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foxfordcompaniont00hall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="jensen1964" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Merrill_Jensen" title="Merrill Jensen">Jensen, Merrill</a> (1964). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/makingofamerican0000jens/page/n1/mode/2up"><i>The Making of the American Constitution</i></a>. Princeton, NJ: Van Nostrand. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-442-00075-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-442-00075-8"><bdi>0-442-00075-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Making+of+the+American+Constitution&rft.place=Princeton%2C+NJ&rft.pub=Van+Nostrand&rft.date=1964&rft.isbn=0-442-00075-8&rft.aulast=Jensen&rft.aufirst=Merrill&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmakingofamerican0000jens%2Fpage%2Fn1%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJillson1988" class="citation book cs1">Jillson, Calvin C. (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/constitutionmaki0000jill/page/n3/mode/2up"><i>Constitution Making: Conflict and Consensus in the Federal Convention of 1787</i></a>. New York: Agathon Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87586-081-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-87586-081-8"><bdi>0-87586-081-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Constitution+Making%3A+Conflict+and+Consensus+in+the+Federal+Convention+of+1787&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Agathon+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=0-87586-081-8&rft.aulast=Jillson&rft.aufirst=Calvin+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fconstitutionmaki0000jill%2Fpage%2Fn3%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKaminskiSaladinoLefflerSchoenleber1976" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Kaminski, John P.; Saladino, Gaspare J.; Leffler, Richard; Schoenleber, Charles H. & Hogan, Margaret A., eds. (1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wisconsinhistory.org/ratification"><i>Documentary History of the Ratification of the Constitution, 1976-</i></a>. Vol. Published volumes 1–10, <span class="nowrap">13–</span>23, forthcoming volumes 11–12, 24–29. Most recent volume: <i>The Documentary History of the Ratification of the Constitution, Vol. 23, Ratification by the States: New York, No. 5</i>. Madison: The State Historical Society of Wisconsin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87020-439-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87020-439-5"><bdi>978-0-87020-439-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Documentary+History+of+the+Ratification+of+the+Constitution%2C+1976-&rft.place=Madison&rft.pub=The+State+Historical+Society+of+Wisconsin&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-0-87020-439-5&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wisconsinhistory.org%2Fratification&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKlos2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stanley_L._Klos" title="Stanley L. Klos">Klos, Stanley L.</a> (2004). <i>President Who? Forgotten Founders</i>. Pittsburgh, PA: Evisum. p. 261. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9752627-5-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-9752627-5-0"><bdi>0-9752627-5-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=President+Who%3F+Forgotten+Founders&rft.place=Pittsburgh%2C+PA&rft.pages=261&rft.pub=Evisum&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-9752627-5-0&rft.aulast=Klos&rft.aufirst=Stanley+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKurlandLerner1987" class="citation book cs1">Kurland, Philip B. & Lerner, Ralph, eds. (1987). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/foundersconstitu0003unse"><i>The Founders' Constitution</i></a></span>. University of Chicago Press and the Liberty Fund. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-86597-279-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-86597-279-6"><bdi>0-86597-279-6</bdi></a>;</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Founders%27+Constitution&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press+and+the+Liberty+Fund&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=0-86597-279-6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffoundersconstitu0003unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLevyKarstWest1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Levy" class="mw-redirect" title="Leonard Levy">Levy, Leonard W.</a>; Karst, Kenneth L. & West, John G., eds. (1992). <i>Encyclopedia of the American Constitution</i>. New York: Macmillan.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+American+Constitution&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1992&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMadison1966" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison, James</a> (1966) [1840]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/notesofdebatesin00unit/page/n5/mode/2up"><i>Notes of Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787</i></a>. Athens: Ohio University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8214-0011-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8214-0011-1"><bdi>978-0-8214-0011-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Notes+of+Debates+in+the+Federal+Convention+of+1787&rft.place=Athens&rft.pub=Ohio+University+Press&rft.date=1966&rft.isbn=978-0-8214-0011-1&rft.aulast=Madison&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnotesofdebatesin00unit%2Fpage%2Fn5%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMasonBeaney1972" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alpheus_T._Mason" title="Alpheus T. Mason">Mason, Alpheus Thomas</a>; Beaney, William M. (1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/americanconstitu0000maso_5"><i>Constitutional Law: Introductory Essays and Selected Cases</i></a> (Fifth ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-13-024752-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-13-024752-9"><bdi>0-13-024752-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Constitutional+Law%3A+Introductory+Essays+and+Selected+Cases&rft.place=Englewood+Cliffs%2C+NJ&rft.edition=Fifth&rft.pub=Prentice-Hall&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=0-13-024752-9&rft.aulast=Mason&rft.aufirst=Alpheus+Thomas&rft.au=Beaney%2C+William+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Famericanconstitu0000maso_5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMcDonald1958" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Forrest_McDonald" title="Forrest McDonald">McDonald, Forrest</a> (1958). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/wepeopleeconomic0000mcdo_z0q3/page/n5/mode/2up"><i>We the People: The Economic Origins of the Constitution</i></a></span>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=We+the+People%3A+The+Economic+Origins+of+the+Constitution&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1958&rft.aulast=McDonald&rft.aufirst=Forrest&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwepeopleeconomic0000mcdo_z0q3%2Fpage%2Fn5%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Menand" title="Louis Menand">Menand, Louis</a>, "Move to Trash: Is it time for a new Constitution?", <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_Yorker" title="The New Yorker">The New Yorker</a></i>, 30 September 2024, pp. 57–62.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRakove2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jack_N._Rakove" title="Jack N. Rakove">Rakove, Jack N.</a> (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/revolutionariesi0000rako"><i>Revolutionaries: Inventing an American Nation</i></a>. London: William Heinemann. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-434-01057-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-434-01057-8"><bdi>978-0-434-01057-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Revolutionaries%3A+Inventing+an+American+Nation&rft.place=London&rft.pub=William+Heinemann&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-434-01057-8&rft.aulast=Rakove&rft.aufirst=Jack+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frevolutionariesi0000rako&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRobertson2013" class="citation book cs1">Robertson, David Brian (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/originalcompromi0000robe/page/n5/mode/2up"><i>The Original Compromise: What the Constitutional Framers Were Really Thinking</i></a>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-979629-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-979629-8"><bdi>978-0-19-979629-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Original+Compromise%3A+What+the+Constitutional+Framers+Were+Really+Thinking&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-19-979629-8&rft.aulast=Robertson&rft.aufirst=David+Brian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foriginalcompromi0000robe%2Fpage%2Fn5%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Rosenfeld, Sam, "The Cracked Foundation: Steven Levitsky and Daniel Ziblatt explained <i>How Democracies Die</i>. But the problems went deeper than they thought" (review of <a href="/wiki/Steven_Levitsky" title="Steven Levitsky">Steven Levitsky</a> and <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Ziblatt" title="Daniel Ziblatt">Daniel Ziblatt</a>, <i>Tyranny of the Minority: Why American Democracy Reached the Breaking Point</i>, Crown, 2023, 384 pp.), <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_Republic" title="The New Republic">The New Republic</a></i>, December 2023, pp. 48–54. "In the name of jettisoning the system's <a href="/wiki/Counter-majoritarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Counter-majoritarian">counter-majoritarian</a> vestiges, [the authors] advocate such modest reforms as the end of equal representation of states in the <a href="/wiki/US_Senate" class="mw-redirect" title="US Senate">Senate</a>; abolition of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Electoral_College" title="United States Electoral College">Electoral College</a>; <a href="/wiki/Cloture" title="Cloture">cloture</a> reform to eliminate the <a href="/wiki/Senate_filibuster" class="mw-redirect" title="Senate filibuster">Senate filibuster</a>; sweeping new <a href="/wiki/Voting_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Voting rights">voting rights</a> legislation under the aegis of a new <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_amendment" title="Constitutional amendment">constitutional amendment</a> affirming a positive right to vote; and <a href="/wiki/Term_limits" class="mw-redirect" title="Term limits">term limits</a> and regularized appointment schedules for <a href="/wiki/US_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="US Supreme Court">Supreme Court</a> justices. Having documented the... difficulty of enacting constitutional change under the U.S. amendment process (the reform of which is <i>also</i> on their prescriptive wish list), [the authors] acknowledge the steep odds that such an undertaking faces." (p. 54.)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTribe1988" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Laurence_Tribe" title="Laurence Tribe">Tribe, Laurence H.</a> (1988) [1st published 1977]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/americanconstitu00trib/page/n5/mode/2up"><i>American Constitutional Law</i></a>. Mineola, NY: Foundation Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0882-77601-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0882-77601-9"><bdi>978-0882-77601-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Constitutional+Law&rft.place=Mineola%2C+NY&rft.pub=Foundation+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0882-77601-9&rft.aulast=Tribe&rft.aufirst=Laurence+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Famericanconstitu00trib%2Fpage%2Fn5%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFYale_Law_School" class="citation web cs1">Yale Law School. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://avalon.law.yale.edu/subject_menus/debcont.asp">"The Avalon Project: Notes on the Debates in the Federal Convention"</a>. <i>The Avalon Project</i>. Yale Law School<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 8,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Avalon+Project&rft.atitle=The+Avalon+Project%3A+Notes+on+the+Debates+in+the+Federal+Convention&rft.au=Yale+Law+School&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Favalon.law.yale.edu%2Fsubject_menus%2Fdebcont.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFYates1821" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Yates_(politician)" title="Robert Yates (politician)">Yates, Robert</a> (1821). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/secretproceedin01convgoog/page/n14/mode/2up"><i>Secret Proceedings and Debates of the Convention Assembled at Philadelphia, in the Year 1787: For the Purpose of Forming the United States of America</i></a>. Albany: Websters and Skinners.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Secret+Proceedings+and+Debates+of+the+Convention+Assembled+at+Philadelphia%2C+in+the+Year+1787%3A+For+the+Purpose+of+Forming+the+United+States+of+America&rft.place=Albany&rft.pub=Websters+and+Skinners&rft.date=1821&rft.aulast=Yates&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsecretproceedin01convgoog%2Fpage%2Fn14%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitution+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output 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projects"><span id="sister-projects">sister projects</span></a></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="extiw" title="c:United States Constitution">Media</a> from Commons</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/23px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="27" 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href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States_of_America" class="extiw" title="s:Constitution of the United States of America">Texts</a> from Wikisource</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/27px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/41px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/54px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/United_States_Government/The_Constitution_and_Amendments" class="extiw" title="b:United States Government/The Constitution and Amendments">Textbooks</a> from Wikibooks</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/27px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/41px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/54px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="590" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11698" class="extiw" title="d:Q11698">Data</a> from Wikidata</span></li></ul></div></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="U.S._government_sources">U.S. government sources</h3></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.senate.gov/civics/constitution_item/constitution.htm">Constitution of the United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/U.S._Senate" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Senate">U.S. Senate</a>: Original text with explanations of each section's meaning over time</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Non-governmental_sources">Non-governmental sources</h3></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bri-docs.s3.amazonaws.com/Branded-Constitution.pdf">Constitution of the United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bill_of_Rights_Institute" title="Bill of Rights Institute">Bill of Rights Institute</a>, PDF document of full text without explication</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//uscon.mobi/">The Constitution of the United States of America</a>, mobile-friendly plain text version</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080531072633/http://www.law.uchicago.edu/constitution">The Constitution of the United States Audio reading</a>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Law_School" title="University of Chicago Law School">University of Chicago Law School</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mp3" class="mw-redirect" title="Mp3">mp3</a> recordings of entire document and individual sections</li></ul> <p><br /> </p> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output 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dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Constitution_of_the_United_States256" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Template:Constitution of the United States"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Template talk:Constitution of the United States"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Constitution of the United States"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Constitution_of_the_United_States256" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Constitution of the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Preamble_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Preamble to the United States Constitution">Preamble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Three_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Three of the United States Constitution">III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Four_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Four of the United States Constitution">IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Five_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Five of the United States Constitution">V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Six_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Six of the United States Constitution">VI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Seven_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Seven of the United States Constitution">VII</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="List of amendments to the Constitution of the United States">Amendments</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Second Amendment to the United States Constitution">2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Third Amendment to the United States Constitution">3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution">6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution">8</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ninth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Ninth Amendment to the United States Constitution">9</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">10</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1795–1804</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eleventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eleventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">11</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twelfth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution">12</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Reconstruction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">13</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">14</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">15</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sixteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">16</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seventeenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">17</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">18</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nineteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">19</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twentieth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twentieth Amendment to the United States Constitution">20</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-first_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution">21</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution">22</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-third_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution">23</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">24</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">25</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-sixth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution">26</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-seventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">27</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="List of amendments to the Constitution of the United States">Unratified</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Apportionment_Amendment" title="Congressional Apportionment Amendment">Congressional Apportionment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titles_of_Nobility_Amendment" title="Titles of Nobility Amendment">Titles of Nobility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corwin_Amendment" title="Corwin Amendment">Corwin Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_Labor_Amendment" title="Child Labor Amendment">Child Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_Rights_Amendment" title="Equal Rights Amendment">Equal Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia_Voting_Rights_Amendment" title="District of Columbia Voting Rights Amendment">District of Columbia Voting Rights</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_proposed_amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="List of proposed amendments to the Constitution of the United States">Proposed</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balanced_budget_amendment" title="Balanced budget amendment">Balanced budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaine_Amendment" title="Blaine Amendment">Blaine amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bricker_Amendment" title="Bricker Amendment">Bricker amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_finance_reform_amendment" title="Campaign finance reform amendment">Campaign finance reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_amendment" title="Christian amendment">Christian amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crittenden_Compromise" title="Crittenden Compromise">Crittenden Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_College_abolition_amendment" title="Electoral College abolition amendment">Electoral College abolition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_Opportunity_to_Govern_Amendment" title="Equal Opportunity to Govern Amendment">Equal Opportunity to Govern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Marriage_Amendment" title="Federal Marriage Amendment">Federal Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_Desecration_Amendment" title="Flag Desecration Amendment">Flag Desecration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_Life_Amendment" title="Human Life Amendment">Human Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proposed_%22Liberty%22_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Proposed "Liberty" Amendment to the United States Constitution">"Liberty" amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludlow_Amendment" title="Ludlow Amendment">Ludlow amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parental_Rights_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Parental Rights Amendment to the United States Constitution">Parental Rights amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_Prayer_Amendment" title="School Prayer Amendment">School Prayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single_subject_amendment" title="Single subject amendment">Single subject</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victims%27_Rights_Amendment" title="Victims' Rights Amendment">Victims' Rights</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Convention_to_propose_amendments_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Convention to propose amendments to the United States Constitution">Convention to propose amendments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_ratifying_conventions" title="State ratifying conventions">State ratifying conventions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Formation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="History of the United States Constitution">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Vernon_Conference" title="Mount Vernon Conference">Mount Vernon Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annapolis_Convention_(1786)" title="Annapolis Convention (1786)">Annapolis Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)" title="Constitutional Convention (United States)">Philadelphia Convention</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Plan" title="Virginia Plan">Virginia Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Jersey_Plan" title="New Jersey Plan">New Jersey Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connecticut_Compromise" title="Connecticut Compromise">Connecticut Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-fifths_Compromise" title="Three-fifths Compromise">Three-fifths Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Detail" title="Committee of Detail">Committee of Detail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Framers" class="mw-redirect" title="Framers">List of Framers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signing_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Signing of the United States Constitution">Signing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Printing_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Printing of the United States Constitution">Printing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independence_Hall" title="Independence Hall">Independence Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syng_inkstand" title="Syng inkstand">Syng inkstand</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Federalist_Papers" title="The Federalist Papers">The Federalist Papers</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Federalist_Papers" title="Anti-Federalist Papers">Anti-Federalist Papers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Compromise" title="Massachusetts Compromise">Massachusetts Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Ratifying_Convention" title="Virginia Ratifying Convention">Virginia Ratifying Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_Circular_Letter" title="New York Circular Letter">New York Circular Letter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hillsborough_Convention" title="Hillsborough Convention">Hillsborough Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fayetteville_Convention" title="Fayetteville Convention">Fayetteville Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ratification_of_the_United_States_Constitution_by_Rhode_Island" title="Ratification of the United States Constitution by Rhode Island">Rhode Island ratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_drafting_and_ratification_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Timeline of drafting and ratification of the United States Constitution">Drafting and ratification timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_clauses_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="List of clauses of the United States Constitution">Clauses</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Admission_to_the_Union" title="Admission to the Union">Admission to the Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appointments_Clause" title="Appointments Clause">Appointments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appropriations_bill_(United_States)" title="Appropriations bill (United States)">Appropriations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_petition_in_the_United_States" title="Right to petition in the United States">Assemble and Petition Clause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assistance_of_Counsel_Clause" title="Assistance of Counsel Clause">Assistance of Counsel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case_or_Controversy_Clause" title="Case or Controversy Clause">Case or Controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizenship_Clause" title="Citizenship Clause">Citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commerce_Clause" title="Commerce Clause">Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interstate_compact" title="Interstate compact">Compact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compulsory_Process_Clause" title="Compulsory Process Clause">Compulsory Process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confrontation_Clause" title="Confrontation Clause">Confrontation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_power_of_enforcement" title="Congressional power of enforcement">Congressional enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contingent_election" title="Contingent election">Contingent Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contract_Clause" title="Contract Clause">Contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_Clause" title="Copyright Clause">Copyright and Patent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_Jeopardy_Clause" title="Double Jeopardy Clause">Double Jeopardy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Due_Process_Clause" title="Due Process Clause">Due Process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_clause" class="mw-redirect" title="Elections clause">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engagements_Clause" title="Engagements Clause">Engagements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause" title="Equal Protection Clause">Equal Protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Establishment_Clause" title="Establishment Clause">Establishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Three_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Original_and_appellate_jurisdiction" title="Article Three of the United States Constitution">Exceptions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Excessive_Bail_Clause" title="Excessive Bail Clause">Excessive Bail</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ex_post_facto_law#United_States" title="Ex post facto law">Ex Post Facto</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extradition_Clause" title="Extradition Clause">Extradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Exercise_Clause" title="Free Exercise Clause">Free Exercise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press_in_the_United_States" title="Freedom of the press in the United States">Freedom of the Press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech_in_the_United_States" title="Freedom of speech in the United States">Freedom of Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Clause" title="Fugitive Slave Clause">Fugitive Slave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Full_Faith_and_Credit_Clause" title="Full Faith and Credit Clause">Full Faith and Credit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxing_and_Spending_Clause#General_Welfare_Clause" title="Taxing and Spending Clause">General Welfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guarantee_Clause" title="Guarantee Clause">Guarantee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_congressional_apportionment" title="United States congressional apportionment">House Apportionment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_impeachment_in_the_United_States" title="Federal impeachment in the United States">Impeachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Import-Export_Clause" title="Import-Export Clause">Import-Export</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ineligibility_Clause" title="Ineligibility Clause">Ineligibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Section_8" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">Militia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural-born-citizen_clause_(United_States)" title="Natural-born-citizen clause (United States)">Natural-born citizen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necessary_and_Proper_Clause" title="Necessary and Proper Clause">Necessary and Proper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_Religious_Test_Clause" title="No Religious Test Clause">No Religious Test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oath_of_office_of_the_president_of_the_United_States" title="Oath of office of the president of the United States">Oath or Affirmation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_jurisdiction_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Original jurisdiction of the Supreme Court of the United States">Original Jurisdiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origination_Clause" title="Origination Clause">Origination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_pardons_in_the_United_States" title="Federal pardons in the United States">Pardon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postal_Clause" title="Postal Clause">Postal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presentment_Clause" title="Presentment Clause">Presentment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Electoral_College" title="United States Electoral College">Presidential Electors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_line_of_succession" title="United States presidential line of succession">Presidential succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privileges_and_Immunities_Clause" title="Privileges and Immunities Clause">Privileges and Immunities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privileges_or_Immunities_Clause" title="Privileges or Immunities Clause">Privileges or Immunities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recess_appointment" title="Recess appointment">Recess appointment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_2:_Making_recommendations_to_Congress" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">Recommendation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#Self-incrimination" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Self-Incrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech_or_Debate_Clause" title="Speech or Debate Clause">Speech or Debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speedy_Trial_Clause" title="Speedy Trial Clause">Speedy Trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_1:_State_of_the_Union" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">State of the Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supremacy_Clause" title="Supremacy Clause">Supremacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Section_9" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">Suspension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_5:_Caring_for_the_faithful_execution_of_the_law" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">Take Care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#Eminent_domain" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Takings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxing_and_Spending_Clause" title="Taxing and Spending Clause">Taxing and Spending</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Four_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Federal_property_and_the_Territorial_Clause" title="Article Four of the United States Constitution">Territorial</a></li> <li>Title of Nobility (<a href="/wiki/Foreign_Emoluments_Clause" title="Foreign Emoluments Clause">Foreign Emoluments</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_Clause" title="Treaty Clause">Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jury_trial#United_States" title="Jury trial">Trial by Jury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vesting_Clauses" title="Vesting Clauses">Vesting</a> (<a href="/wiki/Legislative_Vesting_Clause" title="Legislative Vesting Clause">Legislative</a> / <a href="/wiki/Executive_Vesting_Clause" title="Executive Vesting Clause">Executive</a> / <a href="/wiki/Judicial_Vesting_Clause" title="Judicial Vesting Clause">Judicial</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vicinage_Clause" title="Vicinage Clause">Vicinage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_Powers_Clause" title="War Powers Clause">War Powers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Interpretation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_power_(federalism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Balance of power (federalism)">Balance of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concurrent_powers" title="Concurrent powers">Concurrent powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_law_of_the_United_States" title="Constitutional law of the United States">Constitutional law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_constitutional_criminal_procedure" title="United States constitutional criminal procedure">Criminal procedure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_constitutional_sentencing_law" title="United States constitutional sentencing law">Criminal sentencing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dormant_Commerce_Clause" title="Dormant Commerce Clause">Dormant Commerce Clause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enumerated_powers_(United_States)" title="Enumerated powers (United States)">Enumerated powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_footing" title="Equal footing">Equal footing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_privilege" title="Executive privilege">Executive privilege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Implied_powers" title="Implied powers">Implied powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incorporation_of_the_Bill_of_Rights" title="Incorporation of the Bill of Rights">Incorporation of the Bill of Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_review_in_the_United_States" title="Judicial review in the United States">Judicial review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nondelegation_doctrine#United_States" title="Nondelegation doctrine">Nondelegation doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plenary_power" title="Plenary power">Plenary power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_preemption" title="Federal preemption">Preemption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reserved_powers" title="Reserved powers">Reserved powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saxbe_fix" title="Saxbe fix">Saxbe fix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States" title="Separation of church and state in the United States">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers_under_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Separation of powers under the United States Constitution">Separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symmetric_federalism" title="Symmetric federalism">Symmetric federalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_protester_constitutional_arguments" title="Tax protester constitutional arguments">Taxation power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unitary_executive_theory" title="Unitary executive theory">Unitary executive theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Framers" class="mw-redirect" title="Framers">Signatories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Convention President</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New Hampshire</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Langdon_(politician)" title="John Langdon (politician)">John Langdon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Gilman" title="Nicholas Gilman">Nicholas Gilman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Massachusetts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Gorham" title="Nathaniel Gorham">Nathaniel Gorham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rufus_King" title="Rufus King">Rufus King</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Connecticut</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Samuel_Johnson" title="William Samuel Johnson">William Samuel Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Sherman" title="Roger Sherman">Roger Sherman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New York</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New Jersey</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Livingston" title="William Livingston">William Livingston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Brearley" title="David Brearley">David Brearley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Paterson_(judge)" title="William Paterson (judge)">William Paterson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Dayton" title="Jonathan Dayton">Jonathan Dayton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pennsylvania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Mifflin" title="Thomas Mifflin">Thomas Mifflin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Morris_(financier)" title="Robert Morris (financier)">Robert Morris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Clymer" title="George Clymer">George Clymer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Fitzsimons" title="Thomas Fitzsimons">Thomas Fitzsimons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jared_Ingersoll" title="Jared Ingersoll">Jared Ingersoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Wilson_(Founding_Father)" title="James Wilson (Founding Father)">James Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gouverneur_Morris" title="Gouverneur Morris">Gouverneur Morris</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Delaware</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Read_(American_politician,_born_1733)" title="George Read (American politician, born 1733)">George Read</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunning_Bedford_Jr." title="Gunning Bedford Jr.">Gunning Bedford Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dickinson" title="John Dickinson">John Dickinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Bassett_(Delaware_politician)" title="Richard Bassett (Delaware politician)">Richard Bassett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Broom" title="Jacob Broom">Jacob Broom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Maryland</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_McHenry" title="James McHenry">James McHenry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_of_St._Thomas_Jenifer" title="Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer">Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Carroll" title="Daniel Carroll">Daniel Carroll</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Virginia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Blair_Jr." title="John Blair Jr.">John Blair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North Carolina</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Blount" title="William Blount">William Blount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Dobbs_Spaight" title="Richard Dobbs Spaight">Richard Dobbs Spaight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Williamson" title="Hugh Williamson">Hugh Williamson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South Carolina</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Rutledge" title="John Rutledge">John Rutledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Cotesworth_Pinckney" title="Charles Cotesworth Pinckney">Charles Cotesworth Pinckney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Pinckney_(governor)" title="Charles Pinckney (governor)">Charles Pinckney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierce_Butler_(American_politician)" title="Pierce Butler (American politician)">Pierce Butler</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Georgia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Few" title="William Few">William Few</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Baldwin" title="Abraham Baldwin">Abraham Baldwin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Convention Secretary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Jackson_(secretary)" title="William Jackson (secretary)">William Jackson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Notes_of_Debates_in_the_Federal_Convention_of_1787" title="Notes of Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787">Notes of Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Shallus" title="Jacob Shallus">Jacob Shallus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lambert_(writer)" title="William Lambert (writer)">William Lambert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Bibliography of the United States Constitution">Bibliography of the United States Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Founding Fathers of the United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Display<br />and legacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Archives_Building" title="National Archives Building">National Archives</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charters_of_Freedom" title="Charters of Freedom">Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independence_Mall_(Philadelphia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Independence Mall (Philadelphia)">Independence Mall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_Day_and_Citizenship_Day" title="Constitution Day and Citizenship Day">Constitution Day and Citizenship Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_Gardens" title="Constitution Gardens">Constitution Gardens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_Week" title="Constitution Week">Constitution Week</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Constitution_Center" title="National Constitution Center">National Constitution Center</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Scene_at_the_Signing_of_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Scene at the Signing of the Constitution of the United States">Scene at the Signing of the Constitution</a></i> (painting)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_More_Perfect_Union_(film)" title="A More Perfect Union (film)">A More Perfect Union</a></i> (film)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worldwide_influence_of_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Worldwide influence of the Constitution of the United States">Worldwide influence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="United_States565" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:United_States_topics" title="Template:United States topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:United_States_topics" title="Template talk:United States topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:United_States_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:United States topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="United_States565" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> </div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States" title="History of the United States">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By period</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1776%E2%80%931789)" title="History of the United States (1776–1789)">1776–1789</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1789%E2%80%931815)" title="History of the United States (1789–1815)">1789–1815</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1815%E2%80%931849)" title="History of the United States (1815–1849)">1815–1849</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1849%E2%80%931865)" title="History of the United States (1849–1865)">1849–1865</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1865%E2%80%931917)" title="History of the United States (1865–1917)">1865–1917</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1917%E2%80%931945)" title="History of the United States (1917–1945)">1917–1945</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1945%E2%80%931964)" title="History of the United States (1945–1964)">1945–1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1964%E2%80%931980)" title="History of the United States (1964–1980)">1964–1980</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1980%E2%80%931991)" title="History of the United States (1980–1991)">1980–1991</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1991%E2%80%932016)" title="History of the United States (1991–2016)">1991–2016</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(2016-present)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the United States (2016-present)">2016–present</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By event</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_era" title="Pre-Columbian era">Pre-colonial era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Colonial history of the United States">Colonial era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stamp_Act_Congress" title="Stamp Act Congress">Stamp Act Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">Thirteen Colonies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Congress" title="Continental Congress">Continental Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Association" title="Continental Association">Continental Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Colonies" title="United Colonies">United Colonies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_American_military_history" title="Colonial American military history">military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Founding Fathers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halifax_Resolves" title="Halifax Resolves">Halifax Resolves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee_Resolution" title="Lee Resolution">Lee Resolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">Declaration of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1783)" title="Treaty of Paris (1783)">Treaty of Paris</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_Union" title="Perpetual Union">Perpetual Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederation_period" title="Confederation period">Confederation period</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_frontier" title="American frontier">American frontier</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Constitution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_drafting_and_ratification_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Timeline of drafting and ratification of the United States Constitution">drafting and ratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalist_Era" title="Federalist Era">Federalist Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_the_United_States" title="Territorial evolution of the United States">Territorial evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War" title="Mexican–American War">Mexican–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Wars" title="American Indian Wars">Indian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_genocide_in_the_United_States" title="Native American genocide in the United States">Native genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilded_Age" title="Gilded Age">Gilded Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Era" title="Progressive Era">Progressive Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_the_United_States" title="Women's suffrage in the United States">Women's suffrage</a></li> <li>Civil rights movement <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)" title="Civil rights movement (1865–1896)">1865–1896</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)" title="Civil rights movement (1896–1954)">1896–1954</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">1954–1968</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_imperialism" class="mw-redirect" title="American imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_in_World_War_I" title="United States in World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roaring_Twenties" title="Roaring Twenties">Roaring Twenties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United States during World War II">World War II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="United States home front during World War II">home front</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Century" title="American Century">American Century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-wave_feminism" title="Second-wave feminism">Feminist Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_liberation" title="Gay liberation">LGBT Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1991%E2%80%932008)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the United States (1991–2008)">Post-Cold War (1991–2008)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/September_11_attacks" title="September 11 attacks">September 11 attacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on Terror</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Afghanistan_(2001%E2%80%932021)" title="War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)">War in Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_War" title="Iraq War">Iraq War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_the_United_States" title="Great Recession in the United States">Great Recession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States" title="COVID-19 pandemic in the United States">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By topic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_history_of_the_United_States" title="Outline of the history of the United States">Outline of U.S. history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Demographic history of the United States">Demographic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_discoveries" title="Timeline of United States discoveries">Discoveries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Economic history of the United States">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions" title="Timeline of United States inventions">Inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States" title="Military history of the United States">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_the_United_States" title="Postage stamps and postal history of the United States">Postal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Technological and industrial history of the United States">Technological and industrial</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_the_United_States" title="Geography of the United States">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/U.S._territorial_sovereignty" title="U.S. territorial sovereignty">Territory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Contiguous_United_States" title="Contiguous United States">Contiguous United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_(United_States)" title="County (United States)">counties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">federal district</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_enclave" title="Federal enclave">federal enclaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_reservation" title="Indian reservation">Indian reservations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territories_of_the_United_States" title="Territories of the United States">insular zones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Minor_Outlying_Islands" title="United States Minor Outlying Islands">minor outlying islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_populated_places_in_the_United_States" title="Lists of populated places in the United States">populated places</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._state" title="U.S. state">states</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_the_United_States" title="List of earthquakes in the United States">Earthquakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extreme_points_of_the_United_States" title="List of extreme points of the United States">Extreme points</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_the_United_States" title="List of islands of the United States">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountains_of_the_United_States" title="List of mountains of the United States">Mountains</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountain_peaks_of_the_United_States" title="List of mountain peaks of the United States">peaks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountain_ranges#United_States" title="List of mountain ranges">ranges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appalachian_Mountains" title="Appalachian Mountains">Appalachian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rocky_Mountains" title="Rocky Mountains">Rocky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Nevada" title="Sierra Nevada">Sierra Nevada</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Park_Service" title="National Park Service">National Park Service</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_areas_in_the_United_States_National_Park_System" title="List of areas in the United States National Park System">National Parks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_regions_of_the_United_States" title="List of regions of the United States">Regions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="East Coast of the United States">East Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="West Coast of the United States">West Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Plains" title="Great Plains">Great Plains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="Gulf Coast of the United States">Gulf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-Atlantic_(United_States)" title="Mid-Atlantic (United States)">Mid-Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midwestern_United_States" title="Midwestern United States">Midwestern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_England" title="New England">New England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="West Coast of the United States">Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_United_States" title="Central United States">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_United_States" title="Eastern United States">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_United_States" title="Northern United States">Northern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeastern_United_States" title="Northeastern United States">Northeastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwestern_United_States" title="Northwestern United States">Northwestern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">Southern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeastern_United_States" title="Southeastern United States">Southeastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_United_States" title="Southwestern United States">Southwestern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_United_States" title="Western United States">Western</a></li></ul></li> <li>Longest <a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_the_United_States" title="List of rivers of the United States">rivers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arkansas_River" title="Arkansas River">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colorado_River" title="Colorado River">Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbia_River" title="Columbia River">Columbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_River" title="Mississippi River">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missouri_River" title="Missouri River">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_River_of_the_South" title="Red River of the South">Red (South)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rio_Grande" title="Rio Grande">Rio Grande</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yukon_River" title="Yukon River">Yukon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_in_the_United_States" title="Time in the United States">Time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_the_United_States" title="Water supply and sanitation in the United States">Water supply and sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_the_United_States" title="List of World Heritage Sites in the United States">World Heritage Sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_United_States" title="Politics of the United States">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">Federal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Executive</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Powers_of_the_president_of_the_United_States" title="Powers of the president of the United States">powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Office_of_the_President_of_the_United_States" title="Executive Office of the President of the United States">Executive Office</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States" title="Vice President of the United States">Vice President</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_the_United_States" title="Cabinet of the United States">Cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_federal_executive_departments" title="United States federal executive departments">Executive departments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_agencies_of_the_United_States_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Independent agencies of the United States government">Independent agencies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Intelligence_Community" title="United States Intelligence Community">Intelligence Community</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Director_of_National_Intelligence" title="Director of National Intelligence">Director of National Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Security_Agency" title="National Security Agency">National Security Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Reconnaissance_Office" title="National Reconnaissance Office">National Reconnaissance Office</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_law_enforcement_in_the_United_States" title="Federal law enforcement in the United States">Law enforcement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Alcohol,_Tobacco,_Firearms_and_Explosives" title="Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives">ATF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._Customs_and_Border_Protection" title="U.S. Customs and Border Protection">CBP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Diplomatic_Security" title="Bureau of Diplomatic Security">Diplomatic Security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_Enforcement_Administration" title="Drug Enforcement Administration">DEA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation" title="Federal Bureau of Investigation">FBI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._Immigration_and_Customs_Enforcement" title="U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement">ICE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Marshals_Service" title="United States Marshals Service">Marshals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secret_Service" title="United States Secret Service">Secret Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_Security_Administration" title="Transportation Security Administration">TSA</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Office_of_Inspector_General_(United_States)" title="Office of Inspector General (United States)">Inspector generals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_federal_civil_service" title="United States federal civil service">Civil service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Public policy of the United States">Public policy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Legislative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">House of Representatives</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_members_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" class="mw-redirect" title="List of current members of the United States House of Representatives">current members</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speaker_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Speaker of the United States House of Representatives">Speaker</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">Senate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_United_States_senators" title="List of current United States senators">current members</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_pro_tempore_of_the_United_States_Senate" title="President pro tempore of the United States Senate">President pro tempore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States#President_of_the_United_States_Senate" title="Vice President of the United States">President</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Capitol_Police" title="United States Capitol Police">Capitol Police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Budget_Office" title="Congressional Budget Office">Congressional Budget Office</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_Accountability_Office" title="Government Accountability Office">Government Accountability Office</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Government_Publishing_Office" title="United States Government Publishing Office">Government Publishing Office</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Federal_judiciary_of_the_United_States" title="Federal judiciary of the United States">Judicial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_the_United_States" title="Chief Justice of the United States">Chief Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Associate_Justice_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States">Associate Justices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_justices_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="List of justices of the Supreme Court of the United States">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_courts_of_appeals" title="United States courts of appeals">Courts of appeals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_United_States_circuit_judges" title="List of current United States circuit judges">list of judges</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_district_court" title="United States district court">District courts</a>/<a href="/wiki/United_States_territorial_court" title="United States territorial court">Territorial courts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_district_and_territorial_courts" title="List of United States district and territorial courts">list of courts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_United_States_district_judges" title="List of current United States district judges">list of judges</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_tribunals_in_the_United_States" title="Federal tribunals in the United States">Other tribunals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Attorney" title="United States Attorney">U.S. attorney</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_United_States" title="Law of the United States">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties_in_the_United_States" title="Civil liberties in the United States">civil liberties</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_of_Federal_Regulations" title="Code of Federal Regulations">Code of Federal Regulations</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Constitution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Federalism_in_the_United_States" title="Federalism in the United States">federalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_preemption" title="Federal preemption">preemption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers_under_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Separation of powers under the United States Constitution">separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">civil rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Code" title="United States Code">United States Code</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Uniformed_services_of_the_United_States" title="Uniformed services of the United States">Uniformed</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Armed_Forces" title="United States Armed Forces">Armed Forces</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Army" title="United States Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps" title="United States Marine Corps">Marine Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Air_Force" title="United States Air Force">Air Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Space_Force" title="United States Space Force">Space Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard" title="United States Coast Guard">Coast Guard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Guard_(United_States)" title="National Guard (United States)">National Guard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NOAA_Commissioned_Officer_Corps" title="NOAA Commissioned Officer Corps">NOAA Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Public_Health_Service_Commissioned_Corps" title="United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps">Public Health Service Corps</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/State_governments_of_the_United_States" title="State governments of the United States">State</a>,<br /><a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_District_of_Columbia" title="Government of the District of Columbia">Federal District</a>,<br />and <a href="/wiki/Territories_of_the_United_States" title="Territories of the United States">Territorial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/State_constitutional_officer" title="State constitutional officer">Executive</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Governor_(United_States)" title="Governor (United States)">Governor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_United_States_governors" title="List of current United States governors">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lieutenant_governor_(United_States)" title="Lieutenant governor (United States)">Lieutenant governor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_United_States_lieutenant_governors" title="List of current United States lieutenant governors">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secretary_of_state_(U.S._state_government)" title="Secretary of state (U.S. state government)">Secretary of state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_attorney_general" title="State attorney general">Attorney general</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_treasurer" title="State treasurer">Treasurer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_auditor" title="State auditor">Auditor/Comptroller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_commissioner" title="Agriculture commissioner">Agriculture commissioner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurance_commissioner" title="Insurance commissioner">Insurance commissioner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_utilities_commission" title="Public utilities commission">Public utilities commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_police_(United_States)" title="State police (United States)">State police</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_state_and_local_law_enforcement_agencies" title="List of United States state and local law enforcement agencies">list</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/State_legislature_(United_States)" title="State legislature (United States)">Legislative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_state_legislatures" title="List of United States state legislatures">List of legislatures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._state_legislators" title="List of U.S. state legislators">List of legislators</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/State_court_(United_States)" title="State court (United States)">Judicial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_supreme_court" title="State supreme court">Supreme courts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_state_chief_justices" title="List of state chief justices">Chief justices</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_attorney" title="District attorney">District attorney</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_district_attorneys_by_county" class="mw-redirect" title="List of district attorneys by county">list</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/State_law_(United_States)" title="State law (United States)">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_constitutions_in_the_United_States" title="State constitutions in the United States">State constitutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._state_statutory_codes" title="List of U.S. state statutory codes">Statutory codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniform_act" title="Uniform act">Uniform act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_U.S._state_and_territory_governments" title="Comparison of U.S. state and territory governments">Comparison of governments</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Tribe_(Native_American)" title="Tribe (Native American)">Tribal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_sovereignty_in_the_United_States" title="Tribal sovereignty in the United States">Tribal sovereignty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_recognition_in_the_United_States" title="Native American recognition in the United States">Native American recognition in the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federally_recognized_tribes_in_the_contiguous_United_States" title="List of federally recognized tribes in the contiguous United States">Federally recognized tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Alaska_Native_tribal_entities" title="List of Alaska Native tribal entities">Federally recognized Alaska Native tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State-recognized_tribes_in_the_United_States" title="State-recognized tribes in the United States">State-recognized tribes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_reservation" title="Indian reservation">Indian reservation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_reservations_in_the_United_States" title="List of Indian reservations in the United States">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_home_land" title="Hawaiian home land">Hawaiian home land</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Local_government_in_the_United_States" title="Local government in the United States">Local</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/County_(United_States)" title="County (United States)">County</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_counties_and_county_equivalents" title="List of United States counties and county equivalents">List of counties and county equivalents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_executive" title="County executive">County executive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheriffs_in_the_United_States" title="Sheriffs in the United States">Sheriff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_clerk" title="Municipal clerk">Clerk</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consolidated_city-county" title="Consolidated city-county">Consolidated city-county</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_city_(United_States)" title="Independent city (United States)">Independent city</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coterminous_municipality" title="Coterminous municipality">Coterminous municipality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_charter#United_States" title="Municipal charter">Charter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mayor%E2%80%93council_government" title="Mayor–council government">Mayor–council government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council%E2%80%93manager_government" title="Council–manager government">Council–manager government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/City_commission_government" title="City commission government">City commission government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mayoralty_in_the_United_States" title="Mayoralty in the United States">Mayor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/City_manager" title="City manager">City manager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_council#United_States" title="Municipal council">City council</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Minor_civil_division" title="Minor civil division">Minor divisions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_township" title="Civil township">Township</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Town_meeting" title="Town meeting">Town meeting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Special_district_(United_States)" title="Special district (United States)">Special district</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/School_district" title="School district">School district</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_school_districts_in_the_United_States" title="Lists of school districts in the United States">list</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_the_United_States" title="Corruption in the United States">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_the_United_States" title="Elections in the United States">Elections</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Electoral_College" title="United States Electoral College">Electoral College</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_states_and_blue_states" title="Red states and blue states">Red states and blue states</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_United_States" title="Foreign relations of the United States">Foreign relations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Foreign policy of the United States">foreign policy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_presidency" title="Imperial presidency">Imperial presidency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ideologies_in_the_United_States" title="Political ideologies in the United States">Ideologies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Americanism" title="Anti-Americanism">Anti-Americanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_exceptionalism" title="American exceptionalism">exceptionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_nationalism" title="American nationalism">nationalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_parties_in_the_United_States" title="Political parties in the United States">Parties</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_party_(U.S._politics)" title="Third party (U.S. politics)">Third parties</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_political_scandals_in_the_United_States" title="List of federal political scandals in the United States">Scandals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_United_States" title="Economy of the United States">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_United_States_by_sector" title="Economy of the United States by sector">By sector</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="Agriculture in the United States">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_the_United_States" title="Banking in the United States">Banking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communications_in_the_United_States" title="Communications in the United States">Communications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_the_United_States_by_state" title="List of companies of the United States by state">Companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_the_United_States" title="Energy in the United States">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurance_in_the_United_States" title="Insurance in the United States">Insurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manufacturing_in_the_United_States" title="Manufacturing in the United States">Manufacturing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_in_the_United_States" title="Mining in the United States">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_the_United_States" title="Science and technology in the United States">Science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_the_United_States" title="Tourism in the United States">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_trade_of_the_United_States" title="Foreign trade of the United States">Trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_the_United_States_by_state" title="List of companies of the United States by state">by state</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_dollar" title="United States dollar">Currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exports_of_the_United_States" title="List of exports of the United States">Exports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_federal_budget" title="United States federal budget">Federal budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States" title="Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States">Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Reserve" title="Federal Reserve">Federal Reserve System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_position_of_the_United_States" title="Financial position of the United States">Financial position</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_unions_in_the_United_States" title="Labor unions in the United States">Labor unions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_debt_of_the_United_States" title="National debt of the United States">Public debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_programs_in_the_United_States" title="Social programs in the United States">Social welfare programs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_the_United_States" title="Taxation in the United States">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unemployment_in_the_United_States" title="Unemployment in the United States">Unemployment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wall_Street" title="Wall Street">Wall Street</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Transport in the United States">Transport</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_in_the_United_States" title="Aviation in the United States">Aviation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Driving_in_the_United_States" title="Driving in the United States">Driving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_transportation_in_the_United_States" title="Public transportation in the United States">Public transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_transportation_in_the_United_States" title="Rail transportation in the United States">Rail transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Transportation policy of the United States">Transportation policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_safety_in_the_United_States" title="Transportation safety in the United States">Transportation safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trucking_industry_in_the_United_States" title="Trucking industry in the United States">Trucking industry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_the_United_States" title="Category:Society of the United States">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_United_States" title="Culture of the United States">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Americana_(culture)" title="Americana (culture)">Americana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_in_the_United_States" title="Architecture in the United States">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_the_United_States" title="Cinema of the United States">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_the_United_States" title="Crime in the United States">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_cuisine" title="American cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dance_in_the_United_States" title="Dance in the United States">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_United_States" title="Demographics of the United States">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_United_States" title="Economy of the United States">Economic issues</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affluence_in_the_United_States" title="Affluence in the United States">affluence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eviction_in_the_United_States" title="Eviction in the United States">eviction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeownership_in_the_United_States" title="Homeownership in the United States">homeownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Household_income_in_the_United_States" title="Household income in the United States">household income</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Income_inequality_in_the_United_States" title="Income inequality in the United States">income inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_middle_class" title="American middle class">middle class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_income_in_the_United_States" title="Personal income in the United States">personal income</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_the_United_States" title="Poverty in the United States">poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_of_living_in_the_United_States" title="Standard of living in the United States">standard of living</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affluence_in_the_United_States" title="Affluence in the United States">wealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Working_class_in_the_United_States" title="Working class in the United States">working class</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_United_States" title="Education in the United States">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Educational_attainment_in_the_United_States" title="Educational attainment in the United States">attainment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literacy_in_the_United_States" title="Literacy in the United States">literacy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_in_the_United_States" title="Family in the United States">Family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fashion_in_the_United_States" title="Fashion in the United States">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_United_States" title="Flag of the United States">Flag</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_flags_of_the_United_States" title="List of flags of the United States">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folklore_of_the_United_States" title="Folklore of the United States">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_the_United_States" title="Public holidays in the United States">Holidays</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Federal_holidays_in_the_United_States" title="Federal holidays in the United States">Federal holidays</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_the_United_States" title="Homelessness in the United States">Homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_in_the_United_States" title="Housing in the United States">Housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Human rights in the United States">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_United_States" title="Languages of the United States">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">American English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">Indigenous languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Sign_Language" title="American Sign Language">ASL</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_literature" title="American literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_the_United_States" title="Mass media in the United States">Media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_journalism" title="History of American journalism">journalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_in_the_United_States" title="Internet in the United States">internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_newspapers" title="History of American newspapers">newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_in_the_United_States" title="Radio in the United States">radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_in_the_United_States" title="Television in the United States">television</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_the_United_States" title="Music of the United States">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naming_in_the_United_States" title="Naming in the United States">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Star-Spangled_Banner" title="The Star-Spangled Banner">National anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_symbols_of_the_United_States" title="National symbols of the United States">National symbols</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Columbia_(personification)" title="Columbia (personification)">Columbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Rushmore" title="Mount Rushmore">Mount Rushmore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Liberty" title="Statue of Liberty">Statue of Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uncle_Sam" title="Uncle Sam">Uncle Sam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Americans" title="Americans">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_philosophy" title="American philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ideologies_in_the_United_States" title="Political ideologies in the United States">Political ideologies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States" title="Race and ethnicity in the United States">Race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_United_States" title="Religion in the United States">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_in_the_United_States" title="Sexuality in the United States">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_the_United_States" title="Social class in the United States">Social class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_of_the_United_States" title="Society of the United States">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sports_in_the_United_States" title="Sports in the United States">Sports</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sports_in_the_United_States" title="History of sports in the United States">history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theater_in_the_United_States" title="Theater in the United States">Theater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_in_the_United_States" title="Transportation in the United States">Transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_games_in_the_United_States" title="Video games in the United States">Video games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_art_of_the_United_States" title="Visual art of the United States">Visual art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_the_United_States" title="Social class in the United States">Social class</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affluence_in_the_United_States" title="Affluence in the United States">Affluence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Dream" title="American Dream">American Dream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_attainment_in_the_United_States" title="Educational attainment in the United States">Educational attainment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_the_United_States" title="Homelessness in the United States">Homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeownership_in_the_United_States" title="Homeownership in the United States">Homeownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Household_income_in_the_United_States" title="Household income in the United States">Household income</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Income_inequality_in_the_United_States" title="Income inequality in the United States">Income inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_middle_class" title="American middle class">Middle class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_income_in_the_United_States" title="Personal income in the United States">Personal income</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_the_United_States" title="Poverty in the United States">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_of_living_in_the_United_States" title="Standard of living in the United States">Standard of living</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Health_in_the_United_States" title="Health in the United States">Health</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aging_of_the_United_States" title="Aging of the United States">Aging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_the_United_States" title="Healthcare in the United States">Healthcare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_the_United_States" title="Abortion in the United States">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birth_control_in_the_United_States" title="Birth control in the United States">Birth control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prenatal_care_in_the_United_States" title="Prenatal care in the United States">Prenatal care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hospice_care_in_the_United_States" title="Hospice care in the United States">Hospice care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigrant_health_care_in_the_United_States" title="Immigrant health care in the United States">Immigrant health care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_rationing_in_the_United_States" title="Healthcare rationing in the United States">Rationing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_care_finance_in_the_United_States" title="Health care finance in the United States">Health care finance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Health_insurance_costs_in_the_United_States" title="Health insurance costs in the United States">Health insurance costs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_care_prices_in_the_United_States" title="Health care prices in the United States">Health care prices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prescription_drug_prices_in_the_United_States" title="Prescription drug prices in the United States">Prescription drug prices</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_in_the_United_States" title="Disability in the United States">Disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_insurance_in_the_United_States" title="Health insurance in the United States">Health insurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety_in_the_United_States" title="Food safety in the United States">Food safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physician_shortage_in_the_United_States" title="Physician shortage in the United States">Physician shortage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_and_health_in_the_United_States" title="Poverty and health in the United States">Poverty and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_health_in_the_United_States" title="Race and health in the United States">Race and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obesity_in_the_United_States" title="Obesity in the United States">Obesity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_deserts_in_the_United_States" title="Medical deserts in the United States">Medical deserts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_reproductive_health_in_the_United_States" title="Women's reproductive health in the United States">Women's reproductive health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_and_territories_by_life_expectancy" title="List of U.S. states and territories by life expectancy">Life expectancy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Issues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_in_the_United_States" title="Capital punishment in the United States">Capital punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_the_United_States" title="Crime in the United States">Crime</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Incarceration_in_the_United_States" title="Incarceration in the United States">incarceration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_the_United_States_government" title="Criticism of the United States government">Criticism of government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_in_the_United_States" title="Discrimination in the United States">Discrimination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States" title="Affirmative action in the United States">affirmative action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_the_United_States" title="Antisemitism in the United States">antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Intersex rights in the United States">intersex rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamophobia_in_the_United_States" title="Islamophobia in the United States">Islamophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in the United States">LGBT rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_United_States" title="Racism in the United States">racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Racism against Native Americans in the United States">Native American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_African_Americans" title="Racism against African Americans">African American</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Energy policy of the United States">Energy policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_the_United_States" title="Environmental issues in the United States">Environmental issues</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_movement_in_the_United_States" title="Environmental movement in the United States">Environmental movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change in the United States">Climate change</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun_politics_in_the_United_States" title="Gun politics in the United States">Gun politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_shootings_in_the_United_States" title="Mass shootings in the United States">Mass shootings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunger_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Hunger in the United States">Hunger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tobacco_in_the_United_States" title="Tobacco in the United States">Smoking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Human rights in the United States">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_the_United_States" title="Immigration to the United States">Immigration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_immigration_to_the_United_States" title="Illegal immigration to the United States">illegal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_security_of_the_United_States" title="National security of the United States">National security</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Terrorism_in_the_United_States" title="Terrorism in the United States">Terrorism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opioid_epidemic_in_the_United_States" title="Opioid epidemic in the United States">Opioid epidemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States" title="Separation of church and state in the United States">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophobia_in_the_United_States" title="Xenophobia in the United States">Xenophobia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;;font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_United_States" title="Outline of the United States">Outline</a></span></li><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_United_States" title="Outline of the United States">Index</a></span></li></ul></div> <a href="/wiki/Category:United_States" title="Category:United States">Category</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="James_Madison1091" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:James_Madison" title="Template:James Madison"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:James_Madison" title="Template talk:James Madison"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:James_Madison" title="Special:EditPage/Template:James Madison"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="James_Madison1091" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="List of presidents of the United States">4th</a> <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a> (1809–1817)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_secretaries_of_state_of_the_United_States" title="List of secretaries of state of the United States">5th</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_State" title="United States Secretary of State">U.S. Secretary of State</a> (1801–1809)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">United States House of Representatives</a> (1789–1797)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_the_Confederation" title="Congress of the Confederation">Congress of the Confederation</a> (1781–1783)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Virginia_House_of_Delegates" title="Virginia House of Delegates">Virginia House of Delegates</a> (1776–1779, 1784–1786)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Virginia_Convention" title="Fifth Virginia Convention">Delegate, Fifth Virginia Convention</a> (1776)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/James_Madison_as_Father_of_the_Constitution" title="James Madison as Father of the Constitution">"Father of the <br />Constitution"</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Constitution#1776" class="mw-redirect" title="Virginia Constitution">Co-wrote, 1776 Virginia Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annapolis_Convention_(1786)" title="Annapolis Convention (1786)">1786 Annapolis Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)#James_Madison's_blueprint" title="Constitutional Convention (United States)">1787 Constitutional Convention</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Plan" title="Virginia Plan">Virginia Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="History of the United States Constitution">Constitution of the United States</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Notes_of_Debates_in_the_Federal_Convention_of_1787" title="Notes of Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787">Notes of Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Department_of_State" class="mw-redirect" title="Department of State">Department of Foreign Affairs</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Federalist_Papers" title="The Federalist Papers">The Federalist Papers</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Federalist_Papers_by_James_Madison" title="Category:Federalist Papers by James Madison">written by Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalist_No._10" title="Federalist No. 10">No. 10</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalist_No._51" title="Federalist No. 51">No. 51</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Ratifying_Convention" title="Virginia Ratifying Convention">Virginia Ratifying Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">United States Bill of Rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-seventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">27th amendment</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_drafting_and_ratification_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Timeline of drafting and ratification of the United States Constitution">Constitution drafting and ratification timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tariff_of_1789" title="Tariff of 1789">Tariff of 1789</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Founding Fathers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_James_Madison" title="Presidency of James Madison">Presidency</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_inauguration_of_James_Madison" title="First inauguration of James Madison">First inauguration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_inauguration_of_James_Madison" title="Second inauguration of James Madison">Second inauguration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tecumseh%27s_War" title="Tecumseh's War">Tecumseh's War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tippecanoe" title="Battle of Tippecanoe">Battle of Tippecanoe</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_War_of_1812" title="Origins of the War of 1812">origins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_letters" title="Henry letters">Henry letters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burning_of_Washington" title="Burning of Washington">Burning of Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Octagon_House" title="The Octagon House">The Octagon House</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Ghent" title="Treaty of Ghent">Treaty of Ghent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Buildings" title="Seven Buildings">Seven Buildings residence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Results_of_the_War_of_1812" title="Results of the War of 1812">results</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Barbary_War" title="Second Barbary War">Second Barbary War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Era_of_Good_Feelings" title="Era of Good Feelings">Era of Good Feelings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bank_of_the_United_States" title="Second Bank of the United States">Second Bank of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1810_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1810 State of the Union Address">State of the Union Address (1810</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1814_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1814 State of the Union Address">1814</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1815_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1815 State of the Union Address">1815</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1816_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1816 State of the Union Address"> 1816)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison#Administration_and_cabinet" title="James Madison">Cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_James_Madison" title="List of federal judges appointed by James Madison">Federal judiciary appointments</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other noted<br />accomplisments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Whig%E2%80%93Cliosophic_Society" title="American Whig–Cliosophic Society">Co-founder, American Whig Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington%27s_Farewell_Address" title="George Washington's Farewell Address">Co-author, George Washington's Farewell Address</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Purchase" title="Louisiana Purchase">Supervised the Louisiana Purchase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Administration_party" title="Anti-Administration party">Anti-Administration party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Residence_Act" title="Residence Act">Residence Act</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1790" title="Compromise of 1790">Compromise of 1790</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic-Republican_Party" title="Democratic-Republican Party">Democratic-Republican Party</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Party_System" title="First Party System">First Party System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_States" title="Republicanism in the United States">republicanism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress#History" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_J._Bunche_Library" title="Ralph J. Bunche Library">Library of the State Department</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kentucky_and_Virginia_Resolutions" title="Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions">Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Report_of_1800" title="Report of 1800">Report of 1800</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other writings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pacificus-Helvidius_Debates" title="Pacificus-Helvidius Debates">Pacificus-Helvidius Debates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Papers_of_James_Madison" title="The Papers of James Madison">The Papers of James Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Founders_Online" title="Founders Online">Founders Online</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Life</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison#Early_life_and_career" title="James Madison">Early life and career</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison_and_slavery" title="James Madison and slavery">James Madison and slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belle_Grove_(Port_Conway,_Virginia)" title="Belle Grove (Port Conway, Virginia)">Belle Grove Plantation, birthplace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montpelier_(Orange,_Virginia)" title="Montpelier (Orange, Virginia)">Montpelier</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Elections</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1789_Virginia%27s_5th_congressional_district_election" title="1789 Virginia's 5th congressional district election">1789 Virginia's 5th congressional district election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1790_and_1791_United_States_House_of_Representatives_elections" class="mw-redirect" title="1790 and 1791 United States House of Representatives elections">1790</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1792_and_1793_United_States_House_of_Representatives_elections" class="mw-redirect" title="1792 and 1793 United States House of Representatives elections">1792</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1794_and_1795_United_States_House_of_Representatives_elections" class="mw-redirect" title="1794 and 1795 United States House of Representatives elections">1794</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1808_United_States_presidential_election" title="1808 United States presidential election">U.S. presidential election, 1808</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1812_United_States_presidential_election" title="1812 United States presidential election">1812</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legacy and<br />popular culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_James_Madison" title="Bibliography of James Madison">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_memorials_to_James_Madison" title="List of memorials to James Madison">Memorials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison_Memorial_Building" title="James Madison Memorial Building">James Madison Memorial Building</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_James_Madison" title="Statue of James Madison">statue</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison_University" title="James Madison University">James Madison University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison_College" class="mw-redirect" title="James Madison College">James Madison College</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madison,_Wisconsin" title="Madison, Wisconsin">Madison, Wisconsin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison_Park" title="James Madison Park">James Madison Park</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madison_Square_and_Madison_Square_Park" title="Madison Square and Madison Square Park">Madison Square</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Madison_Square_Garden" title="Madison Square Garden">Madison Square Garden</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madison_River" title="Madison River">Madison River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Madison" title="Mount Madison">Mount Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madison_Street_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Madison Street (disambiguation)">Madison Street</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidents_of_the_United_States_on_U.S._postage_stamps#James_Madison" title="Presidents of the United States on U.S. postage stamps">U.S. postage stamps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison_Memorial_Fellowship_Foundation" title="James Madison Memorial Fellowship Foundation">James Madison Memorial Fellowship Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison_Freedom_of_Information_Award" title="James Madison Freedom of Information Award">James Madison Freedom of Information Award</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison_Award" title="James Madison Award">James Madison Award</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison_Institute" title="James Madison Institute">James Madison Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison_Museum" title="James Madison Museum">James Madison Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USRC_James_Madison_(1807)" class="mw-redirect" title="USRC James Madison (1807)">USRC <i>James Madison</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_Madison_(1812)" title="USS Madison (1812)">USS <i>Madison</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_James_Madison_(SSBN-627)" class="mw-redirect" title="USS James Madison (SSBN-627)">USS <i>James Madison</i></a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Magnificent_Doll" title="Magnificent Doll">Magnificent Doll</a></i> (1946 film)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_More_Perfect_Union_(film)" title="A More Perfect Union (film)"><i>A More Perfect Union</i> (1989 film)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty%27s_Kids" title="Liberty's Kids"><i>Liberty's Kids</i> (2002 series)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hamilton_(musical)" title="Hamilton (musical)">Hamilton</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Hamilton_(musical)" title="Hamilton (musical)">musical</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hamilton_(2020_film)" title="Hamilton (2020 film)">film</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington_(miniseries)" title="Washington (miniseries)"><i>Washington</i> (2020 miniseries)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Enlightenment" title="American Enlightenment">American Enlightenment</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Marbury_v._Madison" title="Marbury v. Madison">Marbury v. Madison</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/National_Gazette" title="National Gazette">National Gazette</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Jennings_(slave)" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul Jennings (slave)">Paul Jennings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madisonian_model" title="Madisonian model">Madisonian model</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_Madisonianism" title="Cognitive Madisonianism">Cognitive Madisonianism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Philosophical_Society" title="American Philosophical Society">American Philosophical Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_American_Museum_(magazine)" title="The American Museum (magazine)"><i>The American Museum</i> magazine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_dynasty" title="Virginia dynasty">Virginia dynasty</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Family</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dolley_Madison" title="Dolley Madison">Dolley Madison</a> (wife)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Payne_Todd" title="John Payne Todd">John Payne Todd</a> (stepson)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison_Sr." title="James Madison Sr.">James Madison Sr.</a> (father)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleanor_Madison" title="Eleanor Madison">Eleanor Madison</a> (mother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Madison" title="William Madison">William Madison</a> (brother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambrose_Madison" title="Ambrose Madison">Ambrose Madison</a> (grandfather)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">← Thomas Jefferson</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/James_Monroe" title="James Monroe">James Monroe →</a></b></li> <li><b><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:James_Madison" title="Category:James Madison">Category:James Madison</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Gouverneur_Morris441" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Gouverneur_Morris" title="Template:Gouverneur Morris"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Gouverneur_Morris" title="Template talk:Gouverneur Morris"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Gouverneur_Morris" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Gouverneur Morris"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Gouverneur_Morris441" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Gouverneur_Morris" title="Gouverneur Morris">Gouverneur Morris</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Senator" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Senator">U.S. Senator from New York, 1800–1803</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_ambassadors_of_the_United_States_to_France" title="List of ambassadors of the United States to France">Minister to the Court of Versailles, 1792–1794</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Second_Continental_Congress" title="Second Continental Congress">Second Continental Congress, 1778–1779</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">United States<br />Founding events</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Signed, Articles of Confederation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_New_York" title="Constitution of New York">New York Constitution</a> (1777)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preamble_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Preamble to the United States Constitution">Wrote, Preamble to the United States Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)" title="Constitutional Convention (United States)">Co-wrote, signed,</a> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">United States Constitution</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Constitution_We_the_People.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Constitution_We_the_People.jpg/250px-Constitution_We_the_People.jpg" decoding="async" width="159" height="58" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Constitution_We_the_People.jpg/330px-Constitution_We_the_People.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1461" data-file-height="530" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Namesakes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gouverneur,_New_York" title="Gouverneur, New York">Town of Gouverneur, New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gouverneur_(village),_New_York" title="Gouverneur (village), New York">Village of Gouverneur, New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SS_Gouverneur_Morris" title="SS Gouverneur Morris">SS <i>Gouverneur Morris</i></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Founding Fathers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gouverneur_Morris_Jr." title="Gouverneur Morris Jr.">Gouverneur Morris, Jr. (son)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewis_Morris_(speaker)" title="Lewis Morris (speaker)">Lewis Morris (father)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewis_Morris" title="Lewis Morris">Lewis Morris (brother)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Staats_Long_Morris" title="Staats Long Morris">Staats Long Morris (brother)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Morris_(New_York_judge)" title="Richard Morris (New York judge)">Richard Morris (brother)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewis_Morris_(governor)" title="Lewis Morris (governor)">Lewis Morris (grandfather)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_More_Perfect_Union_(film)" title="A More Perfect Union (film)"><i>A More Perfect Union</i> (1989 film)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Constitutions_of_states_and_dependencies_in_the_Americas411" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Americas_topic" title="Template:Americas topic"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Americas_topic" title="Template talk:Americas topic"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Americas_topic" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Americas topic"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Constitutions_of_states_and_dependencies_in_the_Americas411" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Constitutions of states and dependencies in the Americas</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states_in_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="List of sovereign states in the Americas">Sovereign<br />states</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Antigua_and_Barbuda" title="Constitution of Antigua and Barbuda">Antigua and Barbuda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Argentina" title="Constitution of Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitution_of_the_Bahamas&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Constitution of the Bahamas (page does not exist)">Bahamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Barbados" title="Constitution of Barbados">Barbados</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Belize" title="Constitution of Belize">Belize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Bolivia" title="Constitution of Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Brazil" title="Constitution of Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Canada" title="Constitution of Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Chile" title="Constitution of Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Colombia" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution of Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Costa_Rica" title="Constitution of Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Cuba" title="Constitution of Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Dominica" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution of Dominica">Dominica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Constitution of the Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Ecuador" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution of Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_El_Salvador" title="Constitution of El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitution_of_Grenada&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Constitution of Grenada (page does not exist)">Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Guatemala" title="Constitution of Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Guyana" title="Constitution of Guyana">Guyana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Haiti" title="Constitution of Haiti">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Honduras" title="Constitution of Honduras">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Jamaica" title="Constitution of Jamaica">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Mexico" title="Constitution of Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Nicaragua" title="Constitution of Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Panama" title="Constitution of Panama">Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Paraguay" title="Constitution of Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Peru" title="Constitution of Peru">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis" title="Constitution of Saint Kitts and Nevis">Saint Kitts and Nevis</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitution_of_Saint_Lucia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Constitution of Saint Lucia (page does not exist)">Saint Lucia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitution_of_Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Constitution of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines (page does not exist)">Saint Vincent and the Grenadines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Suriname" title="Constitution of Suriname">Suriname</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitution_of_Trinidad_and_Tobago&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Constitution of Trinidad and Tobago (page does not exist)">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Uruguay" title="Constitution of Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Venezuela" title="Constitution of Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">Dependencies</a><br />and <a href="/wiki/Territory" title="Territory">territories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitution_of_Anguilla&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Constitution of Anguilla (page does not exist)">Anguilla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Aruba" title="Constitution of Aruba">Aruba</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitution_of_Bermuda&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Constitution of Bermuda (page does not exist)">Bermuda</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitution_of_Bonaire&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Constitution of Bonaire (page does not exist)">Bonaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_British_Virgin_Islands" title="Constitution of the British Virgin Islands">British Virgin Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Cayman_Islands" title="Constitution of the Cayman Islands">Cayman Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Cura%C3%A7ao" title="Constitution of Curaçao">Curaçao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Falkland_Islands" title="Constitution of the Falkland Islands">Falkland Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitution_of_French_Guiana&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Constitution of French Guiana (page does not exist)">French Guiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Greenland" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution of Greenland">Greenland</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitution_of_Guadeloupe&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Constitution of Guadeloupe (page does not exist)">Guadeloupe</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitution_of_Martinique&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Constitution of Martinique (page does not exist)">Martinique</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitution_of_Montserrat&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Constitution of Montserrat (page does not exist)">Montserrat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Puerto_Rico" title="Constitution of Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitution_of_Saba_(island)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Constitution of Saba (island) (page does not exist)">Saba</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitution_of_Saint_Barth%C3%A9lemy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Constitution of Saint Barthélemy (page does not exist)">Saint Barthélemy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitution_of_the_Collectivity_of_Saint_Martin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Constitution of the Collectivity of Saint Martin (page does not exist)">Saint Martin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitution_of_Saint_Pierre_and_Miquelon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Constitution of Saint Pierre and Miquelon (page does not exist)">Saint Pierre and Miquelon</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitution_of_Sint_Eustatius&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Constitution of Sint Eustatius (page does not exist)">Sint Eustatius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Sint_Maarten" title="Constitution of Sint Maarten">Sint Maarten</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitution_of_South_Georgia_and_the_South_Sandwich_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Constitution of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands (page does not exist)">South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Turks_and_Caicos_Islands" title="Constitution of the Turks and Caicos Islands">Turks and Caicos Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States_Virgin_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution of the United States Virgin Islands">U.S. Virgin Islands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitution_of_North_America&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Constitution of North 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