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<li id="toc-Domestic_uranium_procurement_program" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Domestic_uranium_procurement_program"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Domestic uranium procurement program</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Domestic_uranium_procurement_program-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regulations_and_experiments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regulations_and_experiments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Regulations and experiments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regulations_and_experiments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Public_opinion_and_abolition_of_the_AEC" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Public_opinion_and_abolition_of_the_AEC"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Public opinion and abolition of the AEC</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Public_opinion_and_abolition_of_the_AEC-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-AEC_Chair" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#AEC_Chair"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>AEC Chair</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-AEC_Chair-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle AEC Chair subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-AEC_Chair-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Atomic_Energy_Commission_Commissioners[6]" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Atomic_Energy_Commission_Commissioners[6]"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Atomic Energy Commission Commissioners<sup><span>[</span>6<span>]</span></sup></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Atomic_Energy_Commission_Commissioners[6]-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relationship_with_science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relationship_with_science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Relationship with science</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Relationship_with_science-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Relationship with science subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Relationship_with_science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ecology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ecology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Ecology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ecology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arctic_ecology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arctic_ecology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Arctic ecology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arctic_ecology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reports" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reports"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Reports</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reports-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gallery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gallery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Gallery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gallery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">United States Atomic Energy Commission</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" 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Available in 31 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-31" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">31 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D9%8A%D8%A6%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%82%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B0%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%85%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%83%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="هيئة الطاقة الذرية الأمريكية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="هيئة الطاقة الذرية الأمريكية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%81%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%BF%D0%B0_%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B9_%D1%8D%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%96_%D0%97%D0%A8%D0%90" title="Камісія па атамнай энергіі ЗША – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Камісія па атамнай энергіі ЗША" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comissi%C3%B3_de_l%27Energia_At%C3%B2mica_dels_Estats_Units" title="Comissió de l'Energia Atòmica dels Estats Units – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Comissió de l'Energia Atòmica dels Estats Units" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission" title="United States Atomic Energy Commission – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="United States Atomic Energy Commission" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CF%80%CE%B9%CF%84%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%80%CE%AE_%CE%91%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BC%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE%CF%82_%CE%95%CE%BD%CE%AD%CF%81%CE%B3%CE%B5%CE%B9%CE%B1%CF%82_%CF%84%CF%89%CE%BD_%CE%97%CE%A0%CE%91" title="Επιτροπή Ατομικής Ενέργειας των ΗΠΑ – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Επιτροπή Ατομικής Ενέργειας των ΗΠΑ" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comisi%C3%B3n_de_Energ%C3%ADa_At%C3%B3mica_de_los_Estados_Unidos" title="Comisión de Energía Atómica de los Estados Unidos – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Comisión de Energía Atómica de los Estados Unidos" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usona_Atomenergia_Komisiono" title="Usona Atomenergia Komisiono – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Usona Atomenergia Komisiono" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B1%DA%98%DB%8C_%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%85%DB%8C_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%AF%D9%87_%D8%A2%D9%85%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%A7" title="کمیسیون انرژی اتمی ایالات متحده آمریکا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="کمیسیون انرژی اتمی ایالات متحده آمریکا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commission_de_l%27%C3%A9nergie_atomique_des_%C3%89tats-Unis" title="Commission de l'énergie atomique des États-Unis – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Commission de l'énergie atomique des États-Unis" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comisi%C3%B3n_da_Enerx%C3%ADa_At%C3%B3mica_dos_Estados_Unidos" title="Comisión da Enerxía Atómica dos Estados Unidos – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Comisión da Enerxía Atómica dos Estados Unidos" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%AF%B8%EA%B5%AD_%EC%9B%90%EC%9E%90%EB%A0%A5%EC%9C%84%EC%9B%90%ED%9A%8C" title="미국 원자력위원회 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="미국 원자력위원회" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komisi_Energi_Atom_Amerika_Serikat" title="Komisi Energi Atom Amerika Serikat – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Komisi Energi Atom Amerika Serikat" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commissione_per_l%27energia_atomica_degli_Stati_Uniti_d%27America" title="Commissione per l'energia atomica degli Stati Uniti d'America – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Commissione per l'energia atomica degli Stati Uniti d'America" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%95%D7%95%D7%A2%D7%93%D7%94_%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%A8%D7%92%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%90%D7%98%D7%95%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%A9%D7%9C_%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%A6%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%AA" title="הוועדה לאנרגיה אטומית של ארצות הברית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="הוועדה לאנרגיה אטומית של ארצות הברית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suruhanjaya_Tenaga_Atom_Amerika_Syarikat" title="Suruhanjaya Tenaga Atom Amerika Syarikat – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Suruhanjaya Tenaga Atom Amerika Syarikat" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission" title="United States Atomic Energy Commission – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="United States Atomic Energy Commission" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A2%E3%83%A1%E3%83%AA%E3%82%AB%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E5%8A%9B%E5%A7%94%E5%93%A1%E4%BC%9A" title="アメリカ原子力委員会 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="アメリカ原子力委員会" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_Energy_Commission" title="Atomic Energy Commission – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Atomic Energy Commission" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_Energy_Commission" title="Atomic Energy Commission – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Atomic Energy Commission" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comiss%C3%A3o_de_Energia_At%C3%B4mica_dos_Estados_Unidos" title="Comissão de Energia Atômica dos Estados Unidos – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Comissão de Energia Atômica dos Estados Unidos" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BF%D0%BE_%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D1%8D%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B8_%D0%A1%D0%A8%D0%90" title="Комиссия по атомной энергии США – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Комиссия по атомной энергии США" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komisioni_i_Shteteve_t%C3%AB_Bashkuara_p%C3%ABr_Energji_Atomike" title="Komisioni i Shteteve të Bashkuara për Energji Atomike – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Komisioni i Shteteve të Bashkuara për Energji Atomike" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission" title="United States Atomic Energy Commission – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="United States Atomic Energy Commission" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yhdysvaltain_atomienergiakomissio" title="Yhdysvaltain atomienergiakomissio – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Yhdysvaltain atomienergiakomissio" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_Energy_Commission" title="Atomic Energy Commission – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Atomic Energy Commission" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%90%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF_%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95_%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B4%E0%AF%81" title="ஐக்கிய அமெரிக்க அணுசக்திப் பொறுப்புக் குழு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="ஐக்கிய அமெரிக்க அணுசக்திப் பொறுப்புக் குழு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amerika_Birle%C5%9Fik_Devletleri_Atom_Enerjisi_Komisyonu" title="Amerika Birleşik Devletleri Atom Enerjisi Komisyonu – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Amerika Birleşik Devletleri Atom Enerjisi Komisyonu" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" 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class="infobox"><caption class="infobox-title" style="font-size: 125%;">United States Atomic Energy Commission</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Seal_of_the_United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Seal_of_the_United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission.svg/220px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Seal_of_the_United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission.svg/330px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Seal_of_the_United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission.svg/440px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="617" data-file-height="617" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Seal of the AEC</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef">Independent agency overview</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Formed</th><td class="infobox-data">1946</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Dissolved</th><td class="infobox-data">1975</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Superseding Independent agency</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li style="text-indent: -1em; padding-left: 1em;"><a href="/wiki/Energy_Research_and_Development_Administration" title="Energy Research and Development Administration">Energy Research and Development Administration</a> (ERDA)<br /><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_Regulatory_Commission" title="Nuclear Regulatory Commission">Nuclear Regulatory Commission</a> (NRC)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Headquarters</th><td class="infobox-data">Washington, D.C. (1947–1957)<br /><a href="/wiki/Germantown,_Maryland" title="Germantown, Maryland">Germantown, Maryland</a> (1958–1975)<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>United States Atomic Energy Commission</b> (<b>AEC</b>) was an agency of the United States government established after <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> by the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Congress" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Congress">U.S. Congress</a> to foster and control the peacetime development of atomic science and technology.<sup id="cite_ref-Niehoff_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Niehoff-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> President <a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Harry S. Truman</a> signed the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_Energy_Act_of_1946" title="Atomic Energy Act of 1946">McMahon/Atomic Energy Act</a> on August 1, 1946, transferring the control of atomic energy from military to civilian hands, effective on January 1, 1947.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This shift gave the members of the AEC complete control of the plants, laboratories, equipment, and personnel assembled during the war to produce the atomic bomb.<sup id="cite_ref-Hewlett_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hewlett-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An increasing number of critics during the 1960s charged that the AEC's regulations were insufficiently rigorous in several important areas, including <a href="/wiki/Radiation_protection" title="Radiation protection">radiation protection</a> standards, <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">nuclear reactor</a> safety, plant siting, and environmental protection. </p><p>By 1974, the AEC's regulatory programs had come under such strong attack that the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Congress" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Congress">U.S. Congress</a> decided to abolish the AEC. The AEC was abolished by the <a href="/wiki/Energy_Reorganization_Act_of_1974" title="Energy Reorganization Act of 1974">Energy Reorganization Act of 1974</a>, which assigned its functions to two new agencies: the <a href="/wiki/Energy_Research_and_Development_Administration" title="Energy Research and Development Administration">Energy Research and Development Administration</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_Regulatory_Commission" title="Nuclear Regulatory Commission">Nuclear Regulatory Commission</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-AEC1974_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AEC1974-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On August 4, 1977, President <a href="/wiki/Jimmy_Carter" title="Jimmy Carter">Jimmy Carter</a> signed into law the <b>Department of Energy Organization Act</b>, which created the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Energy" title="United States Department of Energy">Department of Energy</a>. The new agency assumed the responsibilities of the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Energy_Administration" title="Federal Energy Administration">Federal Energy Administration</a> (FEA), the <a href="/wiki/Energy_Research_and_Development_Administration" title="Energy Research and Development Administration">Energy Research and Development Administration</a> (ERDA), the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Power_Commission" title="Federal Power Commission">Federal Power Commission</a> (FPC), and various other federal agencies. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In creating the AEC, Congress declared that atomic energy should be employed not only in the form of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">nuclear weapons</a> for the nation's defense, but also to promote world <a href="/wiki/Peace" title="Peace">peace</a>, improve the public welfare and strengthen free competition in private enterprise.<sup id="cite_ref-Buck_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buck-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the same time, the <a href="/wiki/McMahon_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="McMahon Act">McMahon Act</a> which created the AEC also gave it unprecedented powers of regulation over the entire field of nuclear science and technology. It furthermore explicitly prevented <a href="/wiki/Technology_transfer" title="Technology transfer">technology transfer</a> between the United States and other countries, and required <a href="/wiki/FBI" class="mw-redirect" title="FBI">FBI</a> investigations for all scientists or industrial contractors who wished to have access to any AEC controlled nuclear information. The signing was the culmination of long months of intensive debate among politicians, military planners and atomic scientists over the fate of this new energy source and the means by which it would be regulated. President Truman appointed <a href="/wiki/David_Lilienthal" class="mw-redirect" title="David Lilienthal">David Lilienthal</a> as the first Chairman of the AEC.<sup id="cite_ref-Niehoff_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Niehoff-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 91–92">: 91–92 </span></sup> Congress gave the new civilian AEC extraordinary power and considerable independence to carry out its mission. To provide the AEC exceptional freedom in hiring its scientists and engineers, AEC employees were exempt from the civil service system. The AEC's first order of business was to inspect the scattered empire of atomic plants and laboratories to be inherited from the U.S. Army.<sup id="cite_ref-Hewlett_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hewlett-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2014)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Because of the great need for security, all production facilities and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">nuclear reactors</a> would be government-owned, while all technical information and research results would be under AEC control. The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Energy_National_Labs" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Department of Energy National Labs">National Laboratory system</a> was established from the facilities created under the <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a>. <a href="/wiki/Argonne_National_Laboratory" title="Argonne National Laboratory">Argonne National Laboratory</a> was one of the first laboratories authorized under this legislation as a contractor-operated facility dedicated to fulfilling the new AEC's missions.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Argonne was the first of the regional laboratories to involve universities in the Chicago area. Others were the Clinton (CEW) labs and the <a href="/wiki/Brookhaven_National_Laboratory" title="Brookhaven National Laboratory">Brookhaven National Laboratory</a> in the Northeast, although a similar lab in Southern California did not eventuate.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 11 March 1948 Lilienthal and <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Nichols" title="Kenneth Nichols">Kenneth Nichols</a> were summoned to the White House where Truman told them "I know you two hate each other’s guts". He directed that "the primary objective of the AEC was to develop and produce atomic weapons", Nichols was appointed a major general and replaced <a href="/wiki/Leslie_Groves" title="Leslie Groves">Leslie Groves</a> as chief of the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project (AFSWP); previously Lilienthal had opposed his appointment. Lilienthal was told to "forgo your desire to place a bottle of milk on every doorstop and get down to the business of producing atomic weapons."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENichols1987257–259_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENichols1987257–259-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nichols became General Manager of the AEC on 2 November 1953.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENichols1987299_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENichols1987299-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The AEC was in charge of developing the U.S. nuclear arsenal, taking over these responsibilities from the wartime <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a>. In its first decade, the AEC oversaw the operation of <a href="/wiki/Los_Alamos_National_Laboratory" title="Los Alamos National Laboratory">Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory</a>, devoted primarily to weapons development, and in 1952, the creation of new second weapons laboratory in California, the <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Livermore_National_Laboratory" title="Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory">Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory</a>. The AEC also carried out the "crash program" to develop the <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen bomb">hydrogen bomb</a> (H-bomb), and the AEC played a key role in the prosecution of the <a href="/wiki/Julius_and_Ethel_Rosenberg" title="Julius and Ethel Rosenberg">Rosenbergs</a> for espionage. </p><p>The AEC also began a program of regular <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_testing" title="Nuclear weapons testing">nuclear weapons testing</a>, both in the faraway <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Proving_Grounds" title="Pacific Proving Grounds">Pacific Proving Grounds</a> and at the <a href="/wiki/Nevada_Test_Site" title="Nevada Test Site">Nevada Test Site</a> in the western United States. While the AEC also supported much basic research, the vast majority of its early budget was devoted to <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">nuclear weapons</a> development and production.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>After serving as director of the <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Los_Alamos_Laboratory" class="mw-redirect" title="Los Alamos Laboratory">Los Alamos Laboratory</a>, physicist <a href="/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer" title="J. Robert Oppenheimer">J. Robert Oppenheimer</a> voiced strong opinions to the AEC, as chairman of its general advisory board of nuclear scientists, against development of the "super" or <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen bomb">hydrogen bomb</a> along with Lilienthal. Subsequently, Lilienthal left the AEC at the White House's request in 1950 and Oppenheimer's appointment to the board was not renewed in 1952. With them removed, President Truman announced his decision to develop and produce the hydrogen bomb. The first test firing of an experimental H-bomb ("<a href="/wiki/Ivy_Mike" title="Ivy Mike">Ivy Mike</a>") was carried out in the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">Central Pacific</a> on November 1, 1952, under President Truman. Furthermore, <a href="/wiki/U.S._Navy" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Navy">U.S. Navy</a> Admiral <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Strauss" title="Lewis Strauss">Lewis W. Strauss</a> was appointed in 1953 by the new <a href="/wiki/President_Eisenhower" class="mw-redirect" title="President Eisenhower">President Eisenhower</a> as the Chairman of the AEC, to carry out the military development and production of the H-bomb.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Lilienthal wanted to give high priority to peaceful uses, especially with <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_plant" title="Nuclear power plant">nuclear power plants</a>. However, coal was still cheap, and the <a href="/wiki/Electric_power" title="Electric power">electric power</a> industry was not interested. The first experimental nuclear power plant was started in Pennsylvania under President Eisenhower in 1954.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Domestic_uranium_procurement_program">Domestic uranium procurement program</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Domestic uranium procurement program"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The AEC developed a program for sourcing uranium domestically. Before 1947, the main sources for the mineral had been Canada and (what was then) the Belgian Congo, though the Manhattan Project also secretly processed uranium from the tailings of vanadium plants in the US West during World War II. The Colorado Plateau was known to contain veins of carnotite ore, which contains both vanadium and uranium. The AEC developed its program in accordance with the principle of free enterprise.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rather than discovering, mining, and processing the ore itself, the federal government provided geological information, built roads, and set a fixed rate for purchasing ore through one of the mills in the area.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This prompted individuals to discover and produce the ore, which the government would then buy. The AEC was the only legal buyer of uranium from the beginning of the program in 1947 through 1966. From 1966 to the end of the program in 1970, the AEC continued to buy uranium to support the market until private industry could develop sufficiently. </p><p>Because the government itself was not producing ore, it claimed that it had no obligation to regulate miner safety. A congressional report published in 1995 concluded that, "The government failed to act to require the reduction of the hazard by ventilating the mines, and it failed to adequately warn the miners of the hazard to which they were being exposed."<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Radiation Exposure Compensation Act of 1990 sought to compensate miners and families who developed cancer as a result of exposure to radon gas in uranium mines. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Regulations_and_experiments">Regulations and experiments</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Regulations and experiments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The AEC was connected with the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Department_of_Defense" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Department of Defense">U.S. Department of Defense</a> by a "Military Liaison Committee"'. The <a href="/wiki/Joint_Committee_on_Atomic_Energy" class="mw-redirect" title="Joint Committee on Atomic Energy">Joint Committee on Atomic Energy</a> exercised congressional oversight over the AEC and had considerable power in influencing AEC decisions and policy.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The AEC's far-reaching powers and control over a subject matter which had far-reaching social, public health, and military implications made it an extremely controversial organization. One of the drafters of the McMahon Act, <a href="/wiki/James_R._Newman" title="James R. Newman">James R. Newman</a>, famously concluded that the bill made "the field of atomic energy [an] island of socialism in the midst of a free-enterprise economy".<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Before the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_Regulatory_Commission" title="Nuclear Regulatory Commission">Nuclear Regulatory Commission</a> (NRC) was created, nuclear regulation was the responsibility of the AEC, which Congress first established in the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_Energy_Act_of_1946" title="Atomic Energy Act of 1946">Atomic Energy Act of 1946</a>. Eight years later, Congress replaced that law with the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_Energy_Act_of_1954" title="Atomic Energy Act of 1954">Atomic Energy Act of 1954</a>, which for the first time made the development of commercial <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">nuclear power</a> possible, and resolved a number of other outstanding problems in implementing the first Atomic Energy Act. The act assigned the AEC the functions of both encouraging the use of nuclear power and regulating its <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_safety" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear safety">safety</a>. The AEC's regulatory programs sought to ensure public health and safety from the hazards of nuclear power without imposing excessive requirements that would inhibit the growth of the industry. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> This was a difficult goal to achieve, especially in a new industry, and within a short time the AEC's programs stirred considerable controversy. <a href="/wiki/Stephanie_Cooke" title="Stephanie Cooke">Stephanie Cooke</a> has written that: </p> <blockquote><p>the AEC had become an oligarchy controlling all facets of the military and civilian sides of nuclear energy, promoting them and at the same time attempting to regulate them, and it had fallen down on the regulatory side ... a growing legion of critics saw too many inbuilt conflicts of interest.<sup id="cite_ref-cooke_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cooke-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 252">: 252 </span></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The AEC had a history of involvement in experiments involving <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_iodine" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactive iodine">radioactive iodine</a>. In a 1949 operation called the "<a href="/wiki/Green_Run" title="Green Run">Green Run</a>", the AEC released <a href="/wiki/Iodine-131" title="Iodine-131">iodine-131</a> and <a href="/wiki/Xenon-133" class="mw-redirect" title="Xenon-133">xenon-133</a> to the atmosphere which contaminated a 500,000-acre (2,000 km<sup>2</sup>) area containing three small towns near the <a href="/wiki/Hanford_site" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanford site">Hanford site</a> in Washington.<sup id="cite_ref-goliszek_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-goliszek-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 130–131">: 130–131 </span></sup> In 1953, the AEC ran several studies on the health effects of radioactive iodine in newborns and pregnant women at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Iowa" title="University of Iowa">University of Iowa</a>. Also in 1953, the AEC sponsored a study to discover if radioactive iodine affected <a href="/wiki/Premature_birth" class="mw-redirect" title="Premature birth">premature</a> babies differently from full-term babies. In the experiment, researchers from Harper Hospital in Detroit orally administered iodine-131 to 65 premature and full-term infants who weighed from 2.1 to 5.5 pounds (0.95 to 2.49 kg).<sup id="cite_ref-goliszek_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-goliszek-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 132–134">: 132–134 </span></sup> In another AEC study, researchers at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Nebraska_College_of_Medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Nebraska College of Medicine">University of Nebraska College of Medicine</a> fed iodine-131 to 28 healthy infants through a gastric tube to test the concentration of iodine in the infants' thyroid glands.<sup id="cite_ref-goliszek_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-goliszek-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 132–134">: 132–134 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Public_opinion_and_abolition_of_the_AEC">Public opinion and abolition of the AEC</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Public opinion and abolition of the AEC"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the 1960s and early 1970s, the Atomic Energy Commission came under fire from opposition concerned with more fundamental ecological problems such as the pollution of air and water.<sup id="cite_ref-seaborg_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-seaborg-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 113">: 113 </span></sup> Under the Nixon Administration, environmental consciousness grew exponentially and the first <a href="/wiki/Earth_Day" title="Earth Day">Earth Day</a> was held on April 22, 1970.<sup id="cite_ref-seaborg_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-seaborg-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 113">: 113 </span></sup> Along with rising environmental awareness came a growing suspicion of the AEC and public hostility for their projects increased. In the public eye, there was a strong association between nuclear power and nuclear weapons, and even though the AEC had made a push in the late 1960s, to portray their efforts as being geared toward peaceful uses of atomic energy, criticism of the agency grew. The AEC was chiefly held responsible for the health problems of people living near atmospheric test sites from the early 1960s, and there was a strong association of nuclear energy with the radioactive fallout from these tests.<sup id="cite_ref-seaborg_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-seaborg-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 115">: 115 </span></sup> Around the same time, the AEC was also struggling with opposition to nuclear power plant siting as well as nuclear testing. An organized push was finally made to curb the power held by the AEC, and in 1970 the AEC was forced to prepare an <a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_statement" title="Environmental impact statement">Environmental impact statement</a> (EIS) for a nuclear test in northwestern Colorado as part of the initial preparation for <a href="/wiki/Project_Rio_Blanco" title="Project Rio Blanco">Project Rio Blanco</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hacker_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hacker-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 244">: 244 </span></sup> </p><p>In 1973, the AEC predicted that, by the turn of the century, one thousand reactors would be needed producing electricity for homes and businesses across the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, after 1973, orders for nuclear reactors declined sharply as electricity demand fell and construction costs rose. Some partially completed nuclear power plants in the U.S. were stricken, and many planned nuclear plants were canceled.<sup id="cite_ref-cooke_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cooke-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 283">: 283 </span></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This claim needs references to better sources. (January 2019)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>By 1974, the AEC's regulatory programs had come under such strong attack that Congress decided to abolish the agency. Supporters and critics of nuclear power agreed that the promotional and regulatory duties of the AEC should be assigned to different agencies. The <a href="/wiki/Energy_Reorganization_Act_of_1974" title="Energy Reorganization Act of 1974">Energy Reorganization Act of 1974</a> transferred the regulatory functions of the AEC to the new <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_Regulatory_Commission" title="Nuclear Regulatory Commission">Nuclear Regulatory Commission</a> (NRC), which began operations on January 19, 1975. Promotional functions went to the <a href="/wiki/Energy_Research_and_Development_Administration" title="Energy Research and Development Administration">Energy Research and Development Administration</a> which was later incorporated into the United States Department of Energy.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Lasting through the mid-1970s, the AEC, along with other entities including the Department of Defense, National Institutes of Health, the American Cancer Society, the Manhattan Project, and various universities funded or conducted <a href="/wiki/Human_radiation_experiments" title="Human radiation experiments">human radiation experiments</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The government covered up most of these radiation mishaps until 1993, when <a href="/wiki/President_Bill_Clinton" class="mw-redirect" title="President Bill Clinton">President Bill Clinton</a> ordered a change of policy. <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear radiation">Nuclear radiation</a> was known to be dangerous and deadly (from the atomic bombings of <a href="/wiki/Hiroshima" title="Hiroshima">Hiroshima</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nagasaki" title="Nagasaki">Nagasaki</a> in 1945), and the experiments were designed to ascertain the detailed effect of radiation on human health.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-rcl_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rcl-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Oregon, 67 prisoners with inadequate consent to vasectomies had their testicles exposed to irradiation.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Chicago, 102 volunteers with unclear consent received injections of strontium and cesium solutions to simulate radioactive fallout.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="AEC_Chair">AEC Chair</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: AEC Chair"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Image </th> <th>Name </th> <th>Term </th> <th>President(s) served </th></tr> <tr> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:David_E_Lilienthal_c1947.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/David_E_Lilienthal_c1947.jpg/80px-David_E_Lilienthal_c1947.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="98" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/David_E_Lilienthal_c1947.jpg/120px-David_E_Lilienthal_c1947.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/David_E_Lilienthal_c1947.jpg/160px-David_E_Lilienthal_c1947.jpg 2x" data-file-width="236" data-file-height="288" /></a></span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/David_E._Lilienthal" title="David E. Lilienthal">David E. Lilienthal</a> </td> <td>1946–1950 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Harry S. Truman</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gordon_Evans_Dean.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Gordon_Evans_Dean.jpg/80px-Gordon_Evans_Dean.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="82" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Gordon_Evans_Dean.jpg/120px-Gordon_Evans_Dean.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Gordon_Evans_Dean.jpg/160px-Gordon_Evans_Dean.jpg 2x" data-file-width="221" data-file-height="227" /></a></span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Gordon_Dean_(lawyer)" title="Gordon Dean (lawyer)">Gordon Dean</a> </td> <td>1950–1953 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Harry S. Truman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Lewis_Lichtenstein_Strauss_pers0164.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Lewis_Lichtenstein_Strauss_pers0164.jpg/80px-Lewis_Lichtenstein_Strauss_pers0164.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="105" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Lewis_Lichtenstein_Strauss_pers0164.jpg/120px-Lewis_Lichtenstein_Strauss_pers0164.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Lewis_Lichtenstein_Strauss_pers0164.jpg/160px-Lewis_Lichtenstein_Strauss_pers0164.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1064" data-file-height="1393" /></a></span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Lewis_Strauss" title="Lewis Strauss">Lewis Strauss</a> </td> <td>1953–1958 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:John_McCone.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/John_McCone.jpg/80px-John_McCone.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="89" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/John_McCone.jpg/120px-John_McCone.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/John_McCone.jpg/160px-John_McCone.jpg 2x" data-file-width="584" data-file-height="652" /></a></span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/John_A._McCone" title="John A. McCone">John A. McCone</a> </td> <td>1958–1961 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Glenn_Seaborg_1964.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Glenn_Seaborg_1964.jpg/80px-Glenn_Seaborg_1964.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="101" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Glenn_Seaborg_1964.jpg/120px-Glenn_Seaborg_1964.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Glenn_Seaborg_1964.jpg/160px-Glenn_Seaborg_1964.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2244" data-file-height="2822" /></a></span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Glenn_T._Seaborg" title="Glenn T. Seaborg">Glenn T. Seaborg</a> </td> <td>1961–1971 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Lyndon B. Johnson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:James_Schlesinger_official_DoD_photo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/James_Schlesinger_official_DoD_photo.jpg/80px-James_Schlesinger_official_DoD_photo.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="98" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/James_Schlesinger_official_DoD_photo.jpg/120px-James_Schlesinger_official_DoD_photo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/James_Schlesinger_official_DoD_photo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="160" /></a></span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/James_R._Schlesinger" title="James R. Schlesinger">James R. Schlesinger</a> </td> <td>1971–1973 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Dixy_Lee_Ray_(color_cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Dixy_Lee_Ray_%28color_cropped%29.jpg/80px-Dixy_Lee_Ray_%28color_cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="105" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Dixy_Lee_Ray_%28color_cropped%29.jpg/120px-Dixy_Lee_Ray_%28color_cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Dixy_Lee_Ray_%28color_cropped%29.jpg/160px-Dixy_Lee_Ray_%28color_cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="403" data-file-height="527" /></a></span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Dixy_Lee_Ray" title="Dixy Lee Ray">Dixy Lee Ray</a> </td> <td>1973–1975 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gerald_Ford" title="Gerald Ford">Gerald Ford</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Atomic_Energy_Commission_Commissioners[6]"><span id="Atomic_Energy_Commission_Commissioners.5B6.5D"></span>Atomic Energy Commission Commissioners<sup id="cite_ref-Buck_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buck-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Atomic Energy Commission Commissioners[6]"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sumner_Pike" title="Sumner Pike">Sumner Pike</a>: October 31, 1946 – December 15, 1951</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_E._Lilienthal" title="David E. Lilienthal">David E. Lilienthal</a>, Chairman: November 1, 1946 – February 15, 1950</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Bacher" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert F. Bacher">Robert F. Bacher</a>: November 1, 1946 – May 10, 1949</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=William_W._Waymack&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="William W. Waymack (page does not exist)">William W. Waymack</a>: November 5, 1946 – December 21, 1948</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewis_L._Strauss" class="mw-redirect" title="Lewis L. Strauss">Lewis L. Strauss</a>: November 12, 1946 – April 15, 1950; Chairman: July 2, 1953 – June 30, 1958</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gordon_Dean_(lawyer)" title="Gordon Dean (lawyer)">Gordon Dean</a>: May 24, 1949 – June 30, 1953; Chairman: July 11, 1950 – June 30, 1953</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_DeWolf_Smyth" title="Henry DeWolf Smyth">Henry DeWolf Smyth</a>: May 30, 1949 – September 30, 1954</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_E._Murray" title="Thomas E. Murray">Thomas E. Murray</a>: May 9, 1950 – June 30, 1957</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Keith_Glennan" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Keith Glennan">Thomas Keith Glennan</a>: October 2, 1950 – November 1, 1952</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_M._Zuckert" title="Eugene M. Zuckert">Eugene M. Zuckert</a>: February 25, 1952 – June 30, 1954</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Campbell_(accountant)" title="Joseph Campbell (accountant)">Joseph Campbell</a>: July 27, 1953 – November 30, 1954</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_F._Libby" class="mw-redirect" title="Willard F. Libby">Willard F. Libby</a>: October 5, 1954 – June 30, 1959</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_von_Neumann" title="John von Neumann">John von Neumann</a>: March 15, 1955 – February 8, 1957</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_S._Vance" class="mw-redirect" title="Harold S. Vance">Harold S. Vance</a>: October 31, 1955 – August 31, 1959</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stephens_Graham" title="John Stephens Graham">John Stephens Graham</a>: September 12, 1957 – June 30, 1962</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Forrest_Floberg" class="mw-redirect" title="John Forrest Floberg">John Forrest Floberg</a>: October 1, 1957 – June 23, 1960</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_A._McCone" title="John A. McCone">John A. McCone</a>, Chairman: July 14, 1958 – January 20, 1961</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Harry_Williams" title="John Harry Williams">John H. Williams</a>: August 13, 1959 – June 30, 1960</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Wilson" title="Robert E. Wilson">Robert E. Wilson</a>: March 22, 1960 – January 31, 1964</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Loren_K._Olson&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Loren K. Olson (page does not exist)">Loren K. Olson</a>: June 23, 1960 – June 30, 1962</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glenn_T._Seaborg" title="Glenn T. Seaborg">Glenn T. Seaborg</a>, Chairman: March 1, 1961 – August 16, 1971</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leland_J._Haworth" class="mw-redirect" title="Leland J. Haworth">Leland J. Haworth</a>: April 17, 1961 – June 30, 1963</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Gorham_Palfrey_(academic)" title="John Gorham Palfrey (academic)">John G. Palfrey</a>: August 31, 1962 – June 30, 1966</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_T._Ramey" title="James T. Ramey">James T. Ramey</a>: August 31, 1962 – June 30, 1973</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerald_F._Tape" title="Gerald F. Tape">Gerald F. Tape</a>: July 15, 1963 – April 30, 1969</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_I._Bunting" class="mw-redirect" title="Mary I. Bunting">Mary I. Bunting</a>: June 29, 1964 – June 30, 1965</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wilfrid_E._Johnson&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wilfrid E. Johnson (page does not exist)">Wilfrid E. Johnson</a>: August 1, 1966 – June 30, 1972</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_M._Nabrit" title="Samuel M. Nabrit">Samuel M. Nabrit</a>: August 1, 1966 – August 1, 1967</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Francesco_Costagliola&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Francesco Costagliola (page does not exist)">Francesco Costagliola</a>: October 1, 1968 – June 30, 1969</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Theos_J._Thompson&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Theos J. Thompson (page does not exist)">Theos J. Thompson</a>: June 12, 1969 – November 25, 1970</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clarence_E._Larson" class="mw-redirect" title="Clarence E. Larson">Clarence E. Larson</a>: September 2, 1969 – June 30, 1974</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_R._Schlesinger" title="James R. Schlesinger">James R. Schlesinger</a>, Chairman: August 17, 1971 – January 26, 1973</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_O._Doub" class="mw-redirect" title="William O. Doub">William O. Doub</a>: August 17, 1971 – August 17, 1974</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dixy_Lee_Ray" title="Dixy Lee Ray">Dixy Lee Ray</a>: August 8, 1972; Chairman: February 6, 1973 – January 18, 1975</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=William_E._Kriegsma&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="William E. Kriegsma (page does not exist)">William E. Kriegsman</a>: June 12, 1973 – January 18, 1975</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_A._Anders" class="mw-redirect" title="William A. Anders">William A. Anders</a>: August 6, 1973 – January 18, 1975</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Relationship_with_science">Relationship with science</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Relationship with science"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ecology">Ecology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Ecology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>For many years, the AEC provided the most conspicuous example of the benefit of atomic age technologies to biology and medicine.<sup id="cite_ref-creager_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-creager-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 649–684">: 649–684 </span></sup> Shortly after the Atomic Energy Commission was established, its Division of Biology and Medicine began supporting diverse programs of research in the life sciences, mainly the fields of genetics, physiology, and ecology.<sup id="cite_ref-Hagen_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hagen-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Specifically concerning the AEC's relationship with the field of ecology, one of the first approved funding grants went to <a href="/wiki/Eugene_Odum" title="Eugene Odum">Eugene Odum</a> in 1951.<sup id="cite_ref-Hagen_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hagen-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This grant sought to observe and document the effects of radiation emission on the environment from a recently built nuclear facility on the <a href="/wiki/Savannah_River" title="Savannah River">Savannah River</a> in South Carolina. Odum, a professor at the University of Georgia, initially submitted a proposal requesting annual funding of $267,000, but the AEC rejected the proposal and instead offered to fund a $10,000 project to observe local animal populations and the effects of secondary succession on abandoned farmland around the nuclear plant.<sup id="cite_ref-Hagen_27-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hagen-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1961, AEC chairman <a href="/wiki/Glenn_T._Seaborg" title="Glenn T. Seaborg">Glenn T. Seaborg</a> established the Technical Analysis Branch (to be directed by Hal Hollister) to study the long-term biological and ecological effects of nuclear war.<sup id="cite_ref-nsarchive2_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nsarchive2-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Throughout the early 1960s, this group of scientists conducted several studies to determine nuclear weapons' ecological consequences and their implications for human life. As a result, during the 1950s and 1960s, the U.S. government placed emphasis on the development and potential use of "clean" nuclear weapons to mitigate these effects.<sup id="cite_ref-nsarchive2_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nsarchive2-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In later years,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The time period mentioned near this tag is ambiguous. (May 2014)">when?</span></a></i>]</sup> the AEC began providing increased research opportunities to scientists by approving funding for ecological studies at various nuclear testing sites, most notably at <a href="/wiki/Eniwetok" class="mw-redirect" title="Eniwetok">Eniwetok</a>, which was part of the <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Islands" title="Marshall Islands">Marshall Islands</a>. Through their support of nuclear testing, the AEC gave ecologists a unique opportunity to study the effects of radiation on whole populations and entire ecological systems in the field.<sup id="cite_ref-Hagen_27-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hagen-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prior to 1954, no one had investigated a complete ecosystem with the intent to measure its overall metabolism, but the AEC provided the means as well as the funding to do so. Ecological development was further spurred by environmental concerns about radioactive waste from nuclear energy and postwar atomic weapons production. In the 1950s, such concerns led the AEC to build a large ecology research group at their <a href="/wiki/Oak_Ridge_National_Laboratory" title="Oak Ridge National Laboratory">Oak Ridge National Laboratory</a>, which was instrumental in the development of <a href="/wiki/Radioecology" title="Radioecology">radioecology</a>. A wide variety of research efforts in biology and medicine took place under the umbrella of the AEC at national laboratories and at some universities with agency sponsorship and funding.<sup id="cite_ref-creager_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-creager-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 649–684">: 649–684 </span></sup> As a result of increased funding as well as the increased opportunities given to scientists and the field of ecology in general, a plethora of new techniques were developed which led to rapid growth and expansion of the field as a whole. One of these techniques afforded to ecologists involved the use of radiation, namely in ecological dating and to study the effects of stresses on the environment.<sup id="cite_ref-Hagen_27-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hagen-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1969, the AEC's relationship with science and the environment was brought to the forefront of a growing public controversy that had been building since 1965. In search for an ideal location for a large-yield nuclear test, the AEC settled upon the island of <a href="/wiki/Amchitka" title="Amchitka">Amchitka</a>, part of the <a href="/wiki/Aleutian_Islands" title="Aleutian Islands">Aleutian Islands</a> National Wildlife Refuge in Alaska.<sup id="cite_ref-Hacker_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hacker-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 246">: 246 </span></sup> The main public concern was about their location choice, as there was a large colony of endangered sea otters in close proximity. To help defuse the issue, the AEC sought a formal agreement with the <a href="/wiki/Department_of_the_Interior" class="mw-redirect" title="Department of the Interior">Department of the Interior</a> and the U.S. state of Alaska to help transplant the colony of sea otters to other former habitats along the West Coast.<sup id="cite_ref-Hacker_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hacker-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 247">: 247 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arctic_ecology">Arctic ecology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Arctic ecology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The AEC played a role in expanding the field of <a href="/wiki/Arctic_ecology" title="Arctic ecology">arctic ecology</a>. From 1959 to 1962, the Commission's interest in this type of research peaked. For the first time, extensive effort was placed by a national agency on funding bio-environmental research in the Arctic. Research took place at <a href="/wiki/Cape_Thompson" title="Cape Thompson">Cape Thompson</a> on the northwest coast of Alaska, and was tied to an excavation proposal named <a href="/wiki/Project_Chariot" title="Project Chariot">Project Chariot</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Wolfe_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wolfe-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 22">: 22 </span></sup> The excavation project was to involve a series of underground nuclear detonations that would create an artificial harbor, consisting of a channel and circular terminal basin, which would fill with water. This would have allowed for enhanced ecological research of the area in conjunction with any nuclear testing that might occur, as it essentially would have created a controlled environment where levels and patterns of radioactive fallout resulting from weapons testing could be measured.<sup id="cite_ref-Wolfe_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wolfe-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 23">: 23 </span></sup> The proposal never went through, but it evidenced the AEC's interest in Arctic research and development. </p><p>The simplicity of biotic compositions and ecological processes in the arctic regions of the globe made ideal locations in which to pursue ecological research, especially since at the time there was minimal human modification of the landscape.<sup id="cite_ref-Wolfe_29-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wolfe-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 25">: 25 </span></sup> All investigations conducted by the AEC produced new data from the Arctic, but few or none of them were supported solely on that basis.<sup id="cite_ref-Wolfe_29-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wolfe-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 25">: 25 </span></sup> While the development of ecology and other sciences was not always the primary objective of the AEC, support was often given to research in these fields indirectly as an extension of their efforts for peaceful applications of nuclear energy.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reports">Reports</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Reports"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The AEC issued a large number of <a href="/wiki/Technical_report" title="Technical report">technical reports</a> through their technical information service and other channels. These had many numbering schemes, often associated with the lab from which the report was issued. AEC report numbers included AEC-AECU (unclassified), AEC-AECD (declassified), AEC-BNL (<a href="/wiki/Brookhaven_National_Lab" class="mw-redirect" title="Brookhaven National Lab">Brookhaven National Lab</a>), AEC-HASL (Health and Safety Laboratory), AEC-HW (Hanford Works), AEC-IDO (Idaho Operations Office), AEC-LA (Los Alamos), AEC-MDCC (Manhattan District), AEC-TID (Technical Information Division), and others. Today, these reports can be found in library collections that received government documents, through the <a href="/wiki/National_Technical_Information_Service" title="National Technical Information Service">National Technical Information Service</a> (NTIS), and through public domain digitization projects such as the <a href="/wiki/Technical_Report_Archive_%26_Image_Library" title="Technical Report Archive & Image Library">Technical Report Archive & Image Library</a>, which are available via <a href="/wiki/HathiTrust" title="HathiTrust">HathiTrust</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gallery">Gallery</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Gallery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional center"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Atomic_Energy_Act_of_1946_signing.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="President Harry S. Truman signs the Atomic Energy Act of 1946"><img alt="President Harry S. Truman signs the Atomic Energy Act of 1946" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Atomic_Energy_Act_of_1946_signing.jpg/120px-Atomic_Energy_Act_of_1946_signing.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="93" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Atomic_Energy_Act_of_1946_signing.jpg/180px-Atomic_Energy_Act_of_1946_signing.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Atomic_Energy_Act_of_1946_signing.jpg/240px-Atomic_Energy_Act_of_1946_signing.jpg 2x" data-file-width="830" data-file-height="640" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">President <a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Harry S. Truman</a> signs the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_Energy_Act_of_1946" title="Atomic Energy Act of 1946">Atomic Energy Act of 1946</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:David_E_Lilienthal_c1947.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="David E. Lilienthal, who chaired the AEC from its creation until 1950"><img alt="David E. Lilienthal, who chaired the AEC from its creation until 1950" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/David_E_Lilienthal_c1947.jpg/98px-David_E_Lilienthal_c1947.jpg" decoding="async" width="98" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/David_E_Lilienthal_c1947.jpg/147px-David_E_Lilienthal_c1947.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/David_E_Lilienthal_c1947.jpg/197px-David_E_Lilienthal_c1947.jpg 2x" data-file-width="236" data-file-height="288" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/David_E._Lilienthal" title="David E. Lilienthal">David E. Lilienthal</a>, who chaired the AEC from its creation until 1950</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gordon_Evans_Dean.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Gordon Dean, who chaired the AEC from 1950 to 1953"><img alt="Gordon Dean, who chaired the AEC from 1950 to 1953" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Gordon_Evans_Dean.jpg/117px-Gordon_Evans_Dean.jpg" decoding="async" width="117" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Gordon_Evans_Dean.jpg/175px-Gordon_Evans_Dean.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/Gordon_Evans_Dean.jpg 2x" data-file-width="221" data-file-height="227" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Gordon_Dean_(lawyer)" title="Gordon Dean (lawyer)">Gordon Dean</a>, who chaired the AEC from 1950 to 1953</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Eisenhower_and_Strauss.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="President Dwight D. Eisenhower with AEC chair Lewis Strauss in 1954"><img alt="President Dwight D. Eisenhower with AEC chair Lewis Strauss in 1954" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Eisenhower_and_Strauss.jpg/120px-Eisenhower_and_Strauss.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="95" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Eisenhower_and_Strauss.jpg/180px-Eisenhower_and_Strauss.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Eisenhower_and_Strauss.jpg/240px-Eisenhower_and_Strauss.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1401" data-file-height="1108" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">President <a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a> with AEC chair <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Strauss" title="Lewis Strauss">Lewis Strauss</a> in 1954</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Seaborg_McCone_1959.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="AEC chair John A. McCone presents the Enrico Fermi Award to Glenn T. Seaborg in 1959. Seaborg succeeded McCone as AEC chair in 1961."><img alt="AEC chair John A. McCone presents the Enrico Fermi Award to Glenn T. Seaborg in 1959. Seaborg succeeded McCone as AEC chair in 1961." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Seaborg_McCone_1959.jpg/96px-Seaborg_McCone_1959.jpg" decoding="async" width="96" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Seaborg_McCone_1959.jpg/144px-Seaborg_McCone_1959.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Seaborg_McCone_1959.jpg/192px-Seaborg_McCone_1959.jpg 2x" data-file-width="230" data-file-height="288" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">AEC chair <a href="/wiki/John_A._McCone" title="John A. McCone">John A. McCone</a> presents the <a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi_Award" title="Enrico Fermi Award">Enrico Fermi Award</a> to <a href="/wiki/Glenn_T._Seaborg" title="Glenn T. Seaborg">Glenn T. Seaborg</a> in 1959. Seaborg succeeded McCone as AEC chair in 1961.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Seaborg_JFK_1961.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="AEC chair Glenn T. Seaborg with President John F. Kennedy in 1961"><img alt="AEC chair Glenn T. Seaborg with President John F. Kennedy in 1961" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Seaborg_JFK_1961.jpg/120px-Seaborg_JFK_1961.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="93" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Seaborg_JFK_1961.jpg/180px-Seaborg_JFK_1961.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Seaborg_JFK_1961.jpg/240px-Seaborg_JFK_1961.jpg 2x" data-file-width="598" data-file-height="464" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">AEC chair <a href="/wiki/Glenn_T._Seaborg" title="Glenn T. Seaborg">Glenn T. Seaborg</a> with President <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a> in 1961</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:SchlesingerNixon.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="AEC chair James R. Schlesinger with President Richard M. Nixon and First Lady Pat Nixon at the AEC's Hanford Site in 1971"><img alt="AEC chair James R. Schlesinger with President Richard M. Nixon and First Lady Pat Nixon at the AEC's Hanford Site in 1971" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/SchlesingerNixon.jpg/96px-SchlesingerNixon.jpg" decoding="async" width="96" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/SchlesingerNixon.jpg/144px-SchlesingerNixon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/SchlesingerNixon.jpg/192px-SchlesingerNixon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="231" data-file-height="288" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">AEC chair <a href="/wiki/James_R._Schlesinger" title="James R. Schlesinger">James R. Schlesinger</a> with President <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard M. Nixon</a> and First Lady <a href="/wiki/Pat_Nixon" title="Pat Nixon">Pat Nixon</a> at the AEC's <a href="/wiki/Hanford_Site" title="Hanford Site">Hanford Site</a> in 1971</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Dixy_Lee_Ray_and_Robert_Sachs.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Dixy Lee Ray, last person to chair the AEC, with Robert G. Sachs, director of the Argonne National Laboratory"><img alt="Dixy Lee Ray, last person to chair the AEC, with Robert G. Sachs, director of the Argonne National Laboratory" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Dixy_Lee_Ray_and_Robert_Sachs.jpg/120px-Dixy_Lee_Ray_and_Robert_Sachs.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Dixy_Lee_Ray_and_Robert_Sachs.jpg/180px-Dixy_Lee_Ray_and_Robert_Sachs.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Dixy_Lee_Ray_and_Robert_Sachs.jpg/240px-Dixy_Lee_Ray_and_Robert_Sachs.jpg 2x" data-file-width="432" data-file-height="289" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Dixy_Lee_Ray" title="Dixy Lee Ray">Dixy Lee Ray</a>, last person to chair the AEC, with <a href="/wiki/Robert_G._Sachs" title="Robert G. Sachs">Robert G. Sachs</a>, director of the <a href="/wiki/Argonne_National_Laboratory" title="Argonne National Laboratory">Argonne National Laboratory</a></div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement_in_the_United_States" title="Anti-nuclear movement in the United States">Anti-nuclear movement in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombing_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Hodge" title="Harold Hodge">Harold Hodge</a>, administrator and researcher for the <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_anti-nuclear_groups_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="List of anti-nuclear groups in the United States">List of anti-nuclear groups in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_waste" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear waste">Nuclear waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Plowshare" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Plowshare">Operation Plowshare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Price-Anderson_Nuclear_Industries_Indemnity_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Price-Anderson Nuclear Industries Indemnity Act">Price-Anderson Nuclear Industries Indemnity Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Radkowsky" title="Alvin Radkowsky">Alvin Radkowsky</a> (Chief Scientist, Office of Naval Reactors from 1950 to 1972)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Cult_of_the_Atom" title="The Cult of the Atom">The Cult of the Atom</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/We_Almost_Lost_Detroit" title="We Almost Lost Detroit">We Almost Lost Detroit</a></i></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://science.energy.gov/bes/about/bes-organizational-history/germantown-natural-history/germantown-site-history/">"U.S. Department of Energy: Germantown Site History"</a>. <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Energy" title="United States Department of Energy">United States Department of Energy</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 13,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=U.S.+Department+of+Energy%3A+Germantown+Site+History&rft.pub=United+States+Department+of+Energy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscience.energy.gov%2Fbes%2Fabout%2Fbes-organizational-history%2Fgermantown-natural-history%2Fgermantown-site-history%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Atomic+Energy+Commission" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Niehoff-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Niehoff_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Niehoff_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNiehoff,_Richard1948" class="citation journal cs1">Niehoff, Richard (1948). "Organization and Administration of the United States Atomic Energy Commission". <i><a href="/wiki/Public_Administration_Review" title="Public Administration Review">Public Administration Review</a></i>. <b>8</b> (2): 91–102. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F972379">10.2307/972379</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/972379">972379</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Public+Administration+Review&rft.atitle=Organization+and+Administration+of+the+United+States+Atomic+Energy+Commission&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=91-102&rft.date=1948&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F972379&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F972379%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Niehoff%2C+Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Atomic+Energy+Commission" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Atomic_Energy_Act_of_1946" title="Atomic Energy Act of 1946">Atomic Energy Act of 1946</a> (<a href="/wiki/Act_of_Congress#Public_law,_private_law,_designation" title="Act of Congress"><abbr title="Public Law">Pub. L.</abbr></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://uslaw.link/citation/us-law/public/79/585">79–585</a>, 60 <a href="/wiki/United_States_Statutes_at_Large" title="United States Statutes at Large">Stat.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://legislink.org/us/stat-60-755">755</a>, enacted <span data-sort-value="000000001946-08-01-0000" style="white-space:nowrap">August 1, 1946</span>)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hewlett-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hewlett_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hewlett_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHewlett,_Richard_G.Oscar_E._Anderson1962" class="citation book cs1">Hewlett, Richard G. & Oscar E. Anderson (1962). <i>A History of the United States Atomic Energy Commission</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-11-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Atomic+Energy+Commission&rft.pub=Nuclear+Regulatory+Commission&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nrc.gov%2Freading-rm%2Fbasic-ref%2Fglossary%2Fatomic-energy-commission.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Atomic+Energy+Commission" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Buck-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Buck_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Buck_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBuck,_Alice_L.1983" class="citation book cs1">Buck, Alice L. 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New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Entangled+Bank%3A+The+Origins+of+Ecosystem+Ecology&rft.place=New+Brunswick%2C+N.J.&rft.pub=Rutgers+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.au=Hagen%2C+Joel+Bartholemew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Atomic+Energy+Commission" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nsarchive2-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nsarchive2_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nsarchive2_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nsarchive2.gwu.edu//dc.html?doc=3983216-Document-02-Atomic-Energy-Commission-Studies-of">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Atomic Energy Commission, Studies of Biological Consequences of Nuclear War" 13 December 1961"</a>. National Security Archive. August 30, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%22Atomic+Energy+Commission%2C+Studies+of+Biological+Consequences+of+Nuclear+War%22+13+December+1961&rft.pub=National+Security+Archive&rft.date=2017-08-30&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnsarchive2.gwu.edu%2F%2Fdc.html%3Fdoc%3D3983216-Document-02-Atomic-Energy-Commission-Studies-of&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Atomic+Energy+Commission" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wolfe-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wolfe_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wolfe_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wolfe_29-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wolfe_29-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWolfe,_John_N1964" class="citation journal cs1">Wolfe, John N (1964). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fas.org/sgp/othergov/doe/lanl/lib-www/la-pubs/00390244.pdf">"National Agency Programs and Support of Arctic Biology in the United States: Atomic Energy Commission"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>BioScience</i>. <b>14</b> (5): 22–25. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1293192">10.2307/1293192</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1293192">1293192</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BioScience&rft.atitle=National+Agency+Programs+and+Support+of+Arctic+Biology+in+the+United+States%3A+Atomic+Energy+Commission&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=22-25&rft.date=1964&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1293192&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1293192%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Wolfe%2C+John+N&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fas.org%2Fsgp%2Fothergov%2Fdoe%2Flanl%2Flib-www%2Fla-pubs%2F00390244.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Atomic+Energy+Commission" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/ls?field1=ocr;q1=AEC;a=srchls;lmt=ft&facet=authorStr:%22U.S.%20Atomic%20Energy%20Commission.%22">Hathitrust search for "Atomic Energy Commission"</a>. Accessed May 23, 2013.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Clarfield, Gerard H., and William M. Wiecek. <i>Nuclear America: military and civilian nuclear power in the United States, 1940–1980</i> (Harpercollins, 1984).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_G._Hewlett" title="Richard G. Hewlett">Richard G. Hewlett</a>; Oscar E. Anderson. <i>The New World, 1939–1946.</i> University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1962.</li> <li>Richard G. Hewlett; Francis Duncan. <i>Atomic Shield, 1947–1952.</i> University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1969.</li> <li>Richard G. Hewlett; Jack M. Holl. <i>Atoms for Peace and War, 1953–1961: Eisenhower and the Atomic Energy Commission.</i> Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989.</li> <li>Rebecca S. Lowen. "Entering the Atomic Power Race: Science, Industry, and Government," <i>Political Science Quarterly</i> 102#3 (1987), pp. 459–479 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2151403">in JSTOR</a></li> <li>Mazuzan, George T., and J. Samuel Walker. <i>Controlling the atom: The beginnings of nuclear regulation, 1946–1962</i> (Univ of California Press, 1985) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OBfwF6gMzOgC&pg=PR7">online</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:United States Atomic Energy Commission">United States Atomic Energy Commission</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/United States Atomic Energy Commission">United States Atomic Energy Commission</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/basic-ref/glossary/atomic-energy-commission.html">U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission Glossary: "Atomic Energy Commission"</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.eisenhower.archives.gov/listofholdingshtml/finding_aids_g.html">Diary of T. 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Lilienthal">David E. Lilienthal</a> (1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gordon_Dean_(lawyer)" title="Gordon Dean (lawyer)">Gordon Dean</a> (1950)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewis_Strauss" title="Lewis Strauss">Lewis Strauss</a> (1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_A._McCone" title="John A. McCone">John A. McCone</a> (1958)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glenn_T._Seaborg" title="Glenn T. Seaborg">Glenn T. Seaborg</a> (1961)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_R._Schlesinger" title="James R. Schlesinger">James R. Schlesinger</a> (1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dixy_Lee_Ray" title="Dixy Lee Ray">Dixy Lee Ray</a> (1973)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Nuclear_weapons_tests_conducted_by_the_United_States" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nuclear_weapons_tests_of_the_United_States" title="Template:Nuclear weapons tests of the United States"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nuclear_weapons_tests_of_the_United_States" title="Template talk:Nuclear weapons tests of the United States"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nuclear_weapons_tests_of_the_United_States" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nuclear weapons tests of the United States"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Nuclear_weapons_tests_conducted_by_the_United_States" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_nuclear_weapons_tests" title="List of United States nuclear weapons tests">Nuclear weapons tests conducted by the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Operations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Operation_Anvil_(nuclear_test)" title="Operation Anvil (nuclear test)">Anvil</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Operation_Aqueduct" title="Operation Aqueduct">Aqueduct</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Operation_Arbor" title="Operation Arbor">Arbor</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Operation_Argus" title="Operation Argus">Argus</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Operation_Bedrock" title="Operation Bedrock">Bedrock</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Operation_Bowline" title="Operation Bowline">Bowline</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Operation_Buster%E2%80%93Jangle" title="Operation Buster–Jangle">Buster–Jangle</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Operation_Castle" title="Operation Castle">Castle</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Operation_Charioteer" title="Operation Charioteer">Charioteer</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Operation_Cornerstone" title="Operation Cornerstone">Cornerstone</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Operation_Cresset" title="Operation Cresset">Cresset</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Operation_Crossroads" title="Operation Crossroads">Crossroads</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Operation_Crosstie" title="Operation Crosstie">Crosstie</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Operation_Dominic" title="Operation Dominic">Dominic</a>" <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Starfish_Prime" title="Starfish Prime">Starfish Prime</a>"</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Operation_Emery" title="Operation Emery">Emery</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Operation_Fishbowl" title="Operation Fishbowl">Fishbowl</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Operation_Flintlock_(nuclear_test)" title="Operation Flintlock (nuclear test)">Flintlock</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Operation_Fulcrum" title="Operation Fulcrum">Fulcrum</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Operation_Fusileer" title="Operation Fusileer">Fusileer</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Operation_Greenhouse" title="Operation Greenhouse">Greenhouse</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Operation_Grenadier" title="Operation Grenadier">Grenadier</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Operation_Grommet" title="Operation Grommet">Grommet</a>" <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cannikin" title="Cannikin">Cannikin</a></li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Operation_Guardian" title="Operation Guardian">Guardian</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Operation_Hardtack_I" title="Operation Hardtack I">Hardtack I</a>" <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Hardtack_Teak" title="Hardtack Teak">Hardtack Teak</a>"</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Operation_Hardtack_II" title="Operation Hardtack II">Hardtack II</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Operation_Ivy" title="Operation Ivy">Ivy</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Operation_Julin" title="Operation Julin">Julin</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Operation_Latchkey" title="Operation Latchkey">Latchkey</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Little_Feller_(nuclear_tests)" title="Little Feller (nuclear tests)">Little Feller</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Operation_Mandrel" title="Operation Mandrel">Mandrel</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Operation_Musketeer_(nuclear_test)" title="Operation Musketeer (nuclear test)">Musketeer</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Operation_Niblick" title="Operation Niblick">Niblick</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Operation_Nougat" title="Operation Nougat">Nougat</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Operation_Phalanx" title="Operation Phalanx">Phalanx</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Operation_Plumbbob" title="Operation Plumbbob">Plumbbob</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Operation_Praetorian" title="Operation Praetorian">Praetorian</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_56_(nuclear_test)" title="Project 56 (nuclear test)">Project 56</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_57" title="Project 57">Project 57</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_58/58A" title="Project 58/58A">Project 58/58A</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Operation_Quicksilver_(1978)" title="Operation Quicksilver (1978)">Quicksilver</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Operation_Ranger" title="Operation Ranger">Ranger</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Operation_Redwing" title="Operation Redwing">Redwing</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Operation_Roller_Coaster" title="Operation Roller Coaster">Roller Coaster</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Operation_Sandstone" title="Operation Sandstone">Sandstone</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Operation_Sculpin" title="Operation Sculpin">Sculpin</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Operation_Storax" title="Operation Storax">Storax</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Operation_Sunbeam" title="Operation Sunbeam">Sunbeam</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Operation_Teapot" title="Operation Teapot">Teapot</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Operation_Tinderbox" title="Operation Tinderbox">Tinderbox</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Operation_Toggle" title="Operation Toggle">Toggle</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Operation_Touchstone" title="Operation Touchstone">Touchstone</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Trinity_(nuclear_test)" title="Trinity (nuclear test)">Trinity</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Operation_Tumbler%E2%80%93Snapper" title="Operation Tumbler–Snapper">Tumbler–Snapper</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Operation_Upshot%E2%80%93Knothole" title="Operation Upshot–Knothole">Upshot–Knothole</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Operation_Whetstone" title="Operation Whetstone">Whetstone</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Operation_Wigwam" title="Operation Wigwam">Wigwam</a>"</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Test<br />areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">New Mexico</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/White_Sands_Missile_Range" title="White Sands Missile Range">Alamogordo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Gnome_(nuclear_test)" title="Project Gnome (nuclear test)">Carlsbad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Gasbuggy" title="Project Gasbuggy">Carson National Forest</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Nevada</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nevada_Test_Site" title="Nevada Test Site">Nevada Test Site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frenchman_Flat" title="Frenchman Flat">Frenchman Flat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pahute_Mesa" title="Pahute Mesa">Pahute Mesa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rainier_Mesa" title="Rainier Mesa">Rainier Mesa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yucca_Flat" title="Yucca Flat">Yucca Flat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Crosstie" title="Operation Crosstie">Central Nevada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Shoal" title="Project Shoal">Sand Springs Range</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nevada_Test_and_Training_Range" title="Nevada Test and Training Range">Nevada Test and Training Range</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Mississippi</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Salmon_Site" title="Salmon Site">Salmon Site</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Alaska</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amchitka#Nuclear_testing" title="Amchitka">Amchitka</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Colorado</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Project_Rulison" title="Project Rulison">Parachute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Rio_Blanco" title="Project Rio Blanco">Rifle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Proving_Grounds" title="Pacific Proving Grounds">Pacific Proving Grounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Argus" title="Operation Argus">South Atlantic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related<br />topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Atomic_Testing_Museum" title="National Atomic Testing Museum">National Atomic Testing Museum</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fallout:_An_American_Nuclear_Tragedy" title="Fallout: An American Nuclear Tragedy">Fallout: An American Nuclear Tragedy</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_C._Graves" title="Alvin C. Graves">Alvin C. Graves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reed_Hadley" title="Reed Hadley">Reed Hadley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuck_Hansen" title="Chuck Hansen">Chuck Hansen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corbin_Harney" title="Corbin Harney">Corbin Harney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desert_Rock_exercises" title="Desert Rock exercises">Desert Rock exercises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unethical_human_experimentation_in_the_United_States" title="Unethical human experimentation in the United States">Unethical human experimentation in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Day_against_Nuclear_Tests" title="International Day against Nuclear Tests">International Day against Nuclear Tests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nevada_Desert_Experience" title="Nevada Desert Experience">Nevada Desert Experience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_testing" title="Nuclear weapons testing">Nuclear weapons testing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Plowshare" title="Project Plowshare">Project Plowshare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_Exposure_Compensation_Act" title="Radiation Exposure Compensation Act">Radiation Exposure Compensation Act</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Atomic_Cafe" title="The Atomic Cafe">The Atomic Cafe</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Radio_Bikini" title="Radio Bikini">Radio Bikini</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reactor-grade_plutonium_nuclear_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Reactor-grade plutonium nuclear test">Reactor-grade plutonium nuclear test</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Trinity_and_Beyond:_The_Atomic_Bomb_Movie" class="mw-redirect" title="Trinity and Beyond: The Atomic Bomb Movie">Trinity and Beyond: The Atomic Bomb Movie</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vela_Uniform" title="Vela Uniform">Vela Uniform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Vitale" title="Louis Vitale">Louis Vitale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_testing_at_Bikini_Atoll" title="Nuclear testing at Bikini Atoll">Nuclear testing at Bikini Atoll</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q939090#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div 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href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ko2003203476&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.bnportugal.gov.pt/aut/catbnp/131046">Portugal</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/90207172">Norway</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.nlg.gr/cgi-bin/koha/opac-authoritiesdetail.pl?authid=234151">Greece</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libris.kb.se/b8nqnsfv4wvkwqp">Sweden</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810582518605606">Poland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007269265205171">Israel</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cantic.bnc.cat/registre/981058507682906706">Catalonia</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA00637799?l=en">CiNii</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/029676991">IdRef</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10472378">NARA</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w6cv85zh">SNAC</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission&oldid=1256271691">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission&oldid=1256271691</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a 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