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nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Dating by measuring unpaired electrons</div> <p><b>Electron spin resonance dating</b>, or <b>ESR dating</b>, is a technique used to date materials which <a href="/wiki/Radiocarbon_dating" title="Radiocarbon dating">radiocarbon dating</a> cannot, including minerals (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Carbonate" title="Carbonate">carbonates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Silicate" title="Silicate">silicates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sulfate" title="Sulfate">sulphates</a>), biological materials (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Tooth_enamel" title="Tooth enamel">tooth enamel</a>), archaeological materials (e.g., ceramics) and food.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Electron spin resonance dating was first introduced to the science community in 1975, when Japanese nuclear physicist <a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motoji_Ikeya" class="extiw" title="fr:Motoji Ikeya">Motoji Ikeya</a> dated a <a href="/wiki/Speleothem" title="Speleothem">speleothem</a> in <a href="/wiki/List_of_caves#Japan" title="List of caves">Akiyoshi Cave, Japan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ESR dating measures the amount of unpaired electrons in crystalline structures that were previously exposed to natural radiation. The age of a substance can be determined by measuring the dosage of radiation since the time of its formation.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electron_spin_resonance_dating&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Electron spin resonance dating is being used in fields like radiation chemistry, biochemistry, and as well as geology, archaeology, and anthropology.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ESR dating is used instead of <a href="/wiki/Radiocarbon_dating" title="Radiocarbon dating">radiocarbon dating</a> or <a href="/wiki/Radiometric_dating" title="Radiometric dating">radiometric dating</a> because ESR dating can be applied on materials different from other methods, as well as covering different age ranges.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ESR dating has been used to date fossilised teeth.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The dating of buried human teeth has served as the basis for the dating of human remains.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Studies have been used to date burnt <a href="/wiki/Flint" title="Flint">flint</a> and <a href="/wiki/Quartz" title="Quartz">quartz</a> found in certain ancient ceramics.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ESR dating has been widely applied to date <a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">hydrothermal vents</a><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:6_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and sometimes to <a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">mine</a> minerals.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Newer ESR dating applications include dating previous <a href="/wiki/Earthquake" title="Earthquake">earthquakes</a> from <a href="/wiki/Fault_gouge" title="Fault gouge">fault gouge</a>, past <a href="/wiki/Types_of_volcanic_eruptions" title="Types of volcanic eruptions">volcanic eruptions</a>, tectonic activity along coastlines,<sup id="cite_ref-:2_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> fluid flow in <a href="/wiki/Accretionary_wedge" title="Accretionary wedge">accretionary prisms</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">cold seeps</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>ESR dating can be applied to newly formed materials or previously heated samples,<sup id="cite_ref-:2_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as long the heating is below the <a href="/wiki/Closure_temperature" title="Closure temperature">closure temperature</a> or the heating time is much shorter than the characteristic decay time.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:8_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The closure temperature of <a href="/wiki/Quartz" title="Quartz">quartz</a> in granite is about 30–90 °C<sup id="cite_ref-:8_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and of <a href="/wiki/Baryte" title="Baryte">barite</a> is about 190–340 °C<sup id="cite_ref-:7_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for ESR dating. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dating_process">Dating process</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electron_spin_resonance_dating&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Dating process"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Electron spin resonance dating can be described as trapped charge dating. <a href="/wiki/Radioactivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactivity">Radioactivity</a> causes negatively charged <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a> to move from a <a href="/wiki/Ground_state" title="Ground state">ground state</a>, the valence band, to a higher energy level at the conduction band. After a short time, electrons eventually recombine with the positively charged holes left in the valence band.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The trapped electrons form para-magnetic centers and give rise to certain signals that can be detected by ESR spectrometry.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The amount of trapped electrons corresponds to the magnitude of the ESR signal. This ESR signal is directly proportional to the number of trapped electrons in the mineral, the dosage of radioactive substances, and the age.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Calculating_the_ESR_age">Calculating the ESR age</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electron_spin_resonance_dating&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Calculating the ESR age"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Electron_spin_resonance" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron spin resonance">electron spin resonance</a> age of a substance is found from the following equation: </p><p><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle D_{E}=\int _{0}^{T}D(t).dt}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>D</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>E</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <msubsup> <mo>∫</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>T</mi> </mrow> </msubsup> <mi>D</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>t</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>.</mo> <mi>d</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle D_{E}=\int _{0}^{T}D(t).dt}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/bbec946f59f86520bdce94c7e3668ca9f0371a07" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:18.414ex; height:6.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle D_{E}=\int _{0}^{T}D(t).dt}"></span> </p><p>where D<sub>E</sub> is the equivalent dose, or paleodose (in Gray or Gy), i.e. the amount of radiation a sample has received during the time elapsed between the zeroing of the ESR clock (t = 0) and the sampling (t = T). D(t) is the dose rate (usually in Gy/ka or microGy/a), which is the average dose absorbed by the sample in 1 year. If D(t) is considered constant over time, then, the equation may be expressed as follows: </p><p><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle T=D_{E}/D}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>T</mi> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>D</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>E</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mi>D</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle T=D_{E}/D}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/6ad748cbfa732ddc460e1c0d98b754abbfd1f36b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:11.234ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle T=D_{E}/D}"></span><sup id="cite_ref-:1_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In this scenario, T is the age of the sample, i.e. the time during which the sample has been exposed to natural radioactivity since the ESR signal has been last reset. This happens by releasing the trapped charge, i.e. usually by either dissolution/recrystallization, heat, optical bleaching, or mechanical stress.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Determining_the_accumulated_dose">Determining the accumulated dose</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electron_spin_resonance_dating&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Determining the accumulated dose"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The accumulated dose is found by the additive dose method<sup id="cite_ref-:4_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and by an electron spin resonance (ESR) spectrometry.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_2-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This when a sample is put into an external magnetic field and irradiated with certain dosages of microwaves<sup id="cite_ref-:1_2-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that changes the energy level of the magnetic centers (changes the spin rotation) either to the same or opposite of the surrounding magnetic field.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The change in magnetic properties only happens at specific energy levels and, for certain microwave frequencies, there are specific magnetic strengths that cause these changes to occur (resonance).<sup id="cite_ref-:1_2-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Positioning an ESR line in a spectrum corresponds to the proportion (g-value) of the microwave frequency to magnetic field strength used in the spectrometry.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_2-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the extrapolation toward zero of the ESR intensity occurs, the accumulated dose can then be determined.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Determining_the_annual_dose_rate">Determining the annual dose rate</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electron_spin_resonance_dating&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Determining the annual dose rate"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The dose rate is found from the summation of the concentrations of radioactive materials in the sample (internal dose rate) and its surrounding environment (external dose rate). The dosages of internal and external radioactivity must be calculated separately because of the varying differences between the two.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_2-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Factors to include in calculating the radioactivity: </p> <ul><li>Uranium, thorium and potassium concentration<sup id="cite_ref-:4_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decay_energy" title="Decay energy">Energies</a> for alpha, beta, and gamma rays of <a href="/wiki/Uranium-238" title="Uranium-238">uranium-238</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thorium-232" title="Thorium-232">thorium-232</a><sup id="cite_ref-:0_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Correction factors related to the water content, the geometry of the sample, its thickness and density</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_ray" title="Cosmic ray">Cosmic ray</a> dose rates – dependent on geographical position and thickness of covering sediments (300 pGy/a at sea level)<sup id="cite_ref-:1_2-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reliability">Reliability</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electron_spin_resonance_dating&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Reliability"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Trapped electrons only have a limited time frame when they are within the intermediate energy level stages. After a certain time range, or temperature fluctuations, trapped electrons will return to their energy states and recombine with holes.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_2-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The recombination of electrons with their holes is only negligible if the average life is ten times higher than the age of the sample being dated.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_2-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> New heating events may erase previous ESR ages<sup id="cite_ref-:7_12-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:8_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> so in environments with multiple episodes of heating, such as in <a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">hydrothermal vents</a>, maybe only newly formed minerals can be dated with ESR dating but not older minerals. This explains why samples from the same hydrothermal vent may give different ESR ages.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In environments with multiple phases of <a href="/wiki/Mineral" title="Mineral">mineral</a> formation, generally, ESR dating gives the average age of the bulk mineral while <a href="/wiki/Radiometric_dating" title="Radiometric dating">radiometric dates</a> are biased to the ages of younger phases because of the decay of <a href="/wiki/Parent_nuclide" class="mw-redirect" title="Parent nuclide">parent nuclei</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:7_12-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electron_spin_resonance_dating&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electron_paramagnetic_resonance" title="Electron paramagnetic resonance">Electron paramagnetic resonance</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electron_spin_resonance_dating&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:5-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:5_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFIkeya1989" class="citation journal cs1">Ikeya, Motoji (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/analsci1985/5/1/5_1_5/_article">"Use of Electron Spin Resonance Spectrometry in Microscopy, Dating and Dosimetry A Review"</a>. <i>Analytical Sciences</i>. <b>5</b> (1): 5–12. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2116%2Fanalsci.5.5">10.2116/analsci.5.5</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Analytical+Sciences&rft.atitle=Use+of+Electron+Spin+Resonance+Spectrometry+in+Microscopy%2C+Dating+and+Dosimetry+A+Review&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=5-12&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2116%2Fanalsci.5.5&rft.aulast=Ikeya&rft.aufirst=Motoji&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstage.jst.go.jp%2Farticle%2Fanalsci1985%2F5%2F1%2F5_1_5%2F_article&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectron+spin+resonance+dating" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_2-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-10-20</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=in-africa.org&rft.atitle=Electron+spin+resonance+dating+and+the+evolution+of+modern+humans&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Grun&rft.aufirst=Rainer&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fin-africa.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2012%2F12%2FGrun-R-Stringer-1991-Archaeometry-ESR_AMH-origins.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectron+spin+resonance+dating" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRadtkeGrünSchwarcz1988" class="citation journal cs1">Radtke, Ulrich; Grün, Rainer; Schwarcz, Henry P. (1988). 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