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</a> <ul id="toc-Settling_of_Normandy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conquests_and_military_offensives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conquests_and_military_offensives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Conquests and military offensives</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Conquests_and_military_offensives-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Conquests and military offensives subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Conquests_and_military_offensives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Italy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Italy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Italy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Italy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Iberian_Peninsula" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Iberian_Peninsula"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>The Iberian Peninsula</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Iberian_Peninsula-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-North_Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#North_Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>North Africa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-North_Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Byzantium" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Byzantium"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Byzantium</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Byzantium-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-England" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#England"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>England</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-England-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ireland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ireland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Ireland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ireland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scotland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scotland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Scotland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scotland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wales" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wales"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.8</span> <span>Wales</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wales-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-On_crusade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#On_crusade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.9</span> <span>On crusade</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-On_crusade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anglo-Norman_conquest_of_Cyprus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anglo-Norman_conquest_of_Cyprus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.10</span> <span>Anglo-Norman conquest of Cyprus</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anglo-Norman_conquest_of_Cyprus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Canary_Islands" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Canary_Islands"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.11</span> <span>Canary Islands</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Canary_Islands-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Culture</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Culture subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Language" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Language</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Norman_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Norman_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Norman law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Norman_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Architecture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Architecture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Architecture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Architecture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Visual_arts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Visual_arts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Visual arts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Visual_arts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Music" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Music"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Music</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Music-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rulers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rulers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Rulers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rulers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Sources-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Sources subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Primary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Primary</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Secondary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Secondary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Secondary</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Secondary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Normans</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 88 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-88" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">88 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normandi%C3%ABrs" title="Normandiërs – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Normandiërs" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normannen" title="Normannen – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Normannen" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86" title="نورمان – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="نورمان" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normandos" title="Normandos – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Normandos" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normandos" title="Normandos – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Normandos" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normanlar" title="Normanlar – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Normanlar" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%85%D9%86%D9%84%D8%B1" title="نورمنلر – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="نورمنلر" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF" title="নর্মান জাতি – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="নর্মান জাতি" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norman_L%C3%A2ng" title="Norman Lâng – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Norman Lâng" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8B" title="Нарманы – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Нарманы" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8" title="Нормани – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Нормани" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normani" title="Normani – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Normani" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normaned" title="Normaned – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Normaned" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normands" title="Normands – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Normands" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norman%C3%A9" title="Normané – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Normané" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normaniaid" title="Normaniaid – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Normaniaid" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normannere" title="Normannere – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Normannere" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normannen" title="Normannen – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Normannen" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normannid" title="Normannid – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Normannid" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9D%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%BC%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B4%CE%BF%CE%AF" title="Νορμανδοί – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Νορμανδοί" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normandos" title="Normandos – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Normandos" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normandoj" title="Normandoj – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Normandoj" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normandiar" title="Normandiar – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Normandiar" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%85%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7" title="نورمن‌ها – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="نورمن‌ها" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normands" title="Normands – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Normands" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normandjers" title="Normandjers – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Normandjers" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normans" title="Normans – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Normans" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Furlan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normannaigh" title="Normannaigh – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Normannaigh" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normandos" title="Normandos – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Normandos" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%85%B8%EB%A5%B4%EB%A7%8C%EC%9D%B8" title="노르만인 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="노르만인" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%86%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Նորմաններ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Նորմաններ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8" title="नॉर्मन – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="नॉर्मन" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normani" title="Normani – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Normani" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orang_Norman" title="Orang Norman – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Orang Norman" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normannos" title="Normannos – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Normannos" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normannar" title="Normannar – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Normannar" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normanni" title="Normanni – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Normanni" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%9E%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%9D" title="נורמנים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="נורמנים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9C%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98" title="ნორმანები – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ნორმანები" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Нормандар – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Нормандар" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Норманндар – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Норманндар" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normanni" title="Normanni – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Normanni" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norma%C5%86i" title="Normaņi – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Normaņi" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normanai" title="Normanai – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Normanai" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normande" title="Normande – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Normande" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normands" title="Normands – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Normands" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normannok" title="Normannok – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Normannok" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8" title="Нормани – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Нормани" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%B4rmana_(vahoaka)" title="Nôrmana (vahoaka) – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Nôrmana (vahoaka)" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8B%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%BB_(%E0%B4%9C%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%A4)" title="നോർമൻ (ജനത) – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="നോർമൻ (ജനത)" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normanni" title="Normanni – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Normanni" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9C%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98" title="ნორმანეფი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ნორმანეფი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86" title="نورمان – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="نورمان" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orang_Norman" title="Orang Norman – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Orang Norman" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normandi%C3%ABrs" title="Normandiërs – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Normandiërs" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%8E%E3%83%AB%E3%83%9E%E3%83%B3%E4%BA%BA" title="ノルマン人 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ノルマン人" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normannere" title="Normannere – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Normannere" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normannarar" title="Normannarar – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Normannarar" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm mw-list-item"><a href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normaunds" title="Normaunds – Norman" lang="nrf" hreflang="nrf" data-title="Normaunds" data-language-autonym="Nouormand" data-language-local-name="Norman" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nouormand</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normannlar" title="Normannlar – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Normannlar" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%86" title="نورمین – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="نورمین" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normanowie" title="Normanowie – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Normanowie" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normandos" title="Normandos – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Normandos" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normanzi" title="Normanzi – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Normanzi" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Нормане – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Нормане" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B" title="Норманны – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Норманны" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normannos" title="Normannos – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Normannos" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normandier" title="Normandier – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Normandier" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Seeltersk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nurmanni" title="Nurmanni – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Nurmanni" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normans" title="Normans – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Normans" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normani_(Normandia)" title="Normani (Normandia) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Normani (Normandia)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normani" title="Normani – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Normani" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8" title="Нормани – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Нормани" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normani" title="Normani – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Normani" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normannit" title="Normannit – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Normannit" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normander" title="Normander – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Normander" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mga_Normando" title="Mga Normando – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Mga Normando" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D" title="நோர்மானியர் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="நோர்மானியர்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Норманнар – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Норманнар" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%99" title="นอร์มัน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="นอร์มัน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normanlar" title="Normanlar – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Normanlar" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8" title="Нормани – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Нормани" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%85%D9%86_%D9%82%D9%88%D9%85" title="نارمن قوم – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="نارمن قوم" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ng%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Di_Norman" title="Người Norman – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Người Norman" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norman" title="Norman – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Norman" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%AF%BA%E6%9B%BC%E4%BA%BA" title="诺曼人 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="诺曼人" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%AB%BE%E6%9B%BC%E4%BA%BA" title="諾曼人 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="諾曼人" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%AB%BE%E6%9B%BC%E4%BA%BA" title="諾曼人 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="諾曼人" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q83418#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div 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.hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the early medieval Normans. For modern Normans, see <a href="/wiki/Normandy" title="Normandy">Normandy</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Norman_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Norman (disambiguation)">Norman</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Ethnic group</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><caption class="infobox-title fn org">Normans</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:BayeuxTapestry39.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/BayeuxTapestry39.jpg/220px-BayeuxTapestry39.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="84" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/BayeuxTapestry39.jpg/330px-BayeuxTapestry39.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/BayeuxTapestry39.jpg/440px-BayeuxTapestry39.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1641" data-file-height="627" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Arrival in England scene from the <a href="/wiki/Bayeux_Tapestry" title="Bayeux Tapestry">Bayeux Tapestry</a>, depicting Normans using <a href="/wiki/Longship" title="Longship">longships</a></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de;">Languages</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norman" title="Old Norman">Old Norman</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse" title="Old Norse">Old Norse</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de;">Religion</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Norse_paganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Norse paganism">Norse paganism</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de;">Related ethnic groups</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">Historical: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Norse_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Norse people">Norse</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Gallo-Romans" class="mw-redirect" title="Gallo-Romans">Gallo-Romans</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Franks</a></li></ul></div>Modern: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Danes" title="Danes">Danes</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Norwegians" title="Norwegians">Norwegians</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Swedes" title="Swedes">Swedes</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Icelanders" title="Icelanders">Icelanders</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Faroe_Islanders" title="Faroe Islanders">Faroe Islanders</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Channel_Islands" title="Channel Islands">Channel Islanders</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/French_people" title="French people">French</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Walloons" title="Walloons">Walloons</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/English_people" title="English people">English</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_people" title="Scottish people">Scots</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_people" title="Welsh people">Welsh</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Irish_people" title="Irish people">Irish</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Sicilians" title="Sicilians">Sicilians</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Maltese_people" title="Maltese people">Maltese</a></li></ul></div> </td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output 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0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist" style="width:16.0em"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Norsemen" title="Category:Norsemen">a series</a> on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Norsemen" title="Norsemen">Norsemen</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Old_norse,_ca_900.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Old_norse%2C_ca_900.svg/200px-Old_norse%2C_ca_900.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Old_norse%2C_ca_900.svg/300px-Old_norse%2C_ca_900.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Old_norse%2C_ca_900.svg/400px-Old_norse%2C_ca_900.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="299" /></a></span><div class="sidebar-caption">Extent of <a href="/wiki/Norse_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Norse language">Norse language</a> in CE 900: <i>Western Norse</i> in red and <i>Eastern Norse</i> in orange. Yellow and green denote related Germanic languages.</div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Scandinavia" title="History of Scandinavia">History</a></li></ul></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa; background:#d6dbbe; font-size:110%; text-align:left;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Scandinavia" title="History of Scandinavia">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_Stone_Age" title="Nordic Stone Age">Nordic Stone Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_Bronze_Age" title="Nordic Bronze Age">Nordic Bronze Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Roman_Iron_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Roman Iron Age">Pre-Roman Iron Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Iron_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Iron Age">Roman Iron Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_Iron_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic Iron Age">Germanic Iron Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norse%E2%80%93Gaels" title="Norse–Gaels">Norse–Gaels</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Normans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Scandinavia" title="Christianization of Scandinavia">Christianization</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa; background:#d6dbbe; font-size:110%; text-align:left;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_religion" title="Old Norse religion">Old Norse religion</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Germanic_deities" title="List of Germanic deities">Gods</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%86sir" title="Æsir">Æsir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vanir" title="Vanir">Vanir</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B6tunn" title="Jötunn">Jötunn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigurd" title="Sigurd">Sigurd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigmund" title="Sigmund">Sigmund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wayland_the_Smith" title="Wayland the Smith">Wayland the Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C3%A6ttir" class="mw-redirect" title="Vættir">Vættir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elf" title="Elf">Elf</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%B6kk%C3%A1lfar_and_Lj%C3%B3s%C3%A1lfar" title="Dökkálfar and Ljósálfar">Dökkálfar and Ljósálfar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dwarf_(folklore)" title="Dwarf (folklore)">Dwarf (folklore)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Einherjar" title="Einherjar">Einherjar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fenrir" title="Fenrir">Fenrir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hel_(mythological_being)" title="Hel (mythological being)">Hel (mythological being)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%ADs" title="Dís">Dís</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Norns" title="Norns">Norns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valkyrie" title="Valkyrie">Valkyrie</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B6rmungandr" title="Jörmungandr">Jörmungandr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ask_and_Embla" title="Ask and Embla">Ask and Embla</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa; background:#d6dbbe; font-size:110%; text-align:left;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Norse_cosmology" title="Norse cosmology">Cosmology</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asgard" title="Asgard">Asgard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vanaheimr" title="Vanaheimr">Vanaheimr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midgard" title="Midgard">Midgard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C3%ADgr%C3%AD%C3%B0r" title="Vígríðr">Vígríðr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bifr%C3%B6st" title="Bifröst">Bifröst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%B3lkvangr" title="Fólkvangr">Fólkvangr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ginnungagap" title="Ginnungagap">Ginnungagap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hel_(location)" title="Hel (location)">Hel (location)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muspelheim" title="Muspelheim">Muspelheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niflheim" title="Niflheim">Niflheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C3%ADmisbrunnr" title="Mímisbrunnr">Mímisbrunnr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hvergelmir" title="Hvergelmir">Hvergelmir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ur%C3%B0arbrunnr" title="Urðarbrunnr">Urðarbrunnr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yggdrasill" class="mw-redirect" title="Yggdrasill">Yggdrasill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valhalla" title="Valhalla">Valhalla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B6tunheimr" title="Jötunheimr">Jötunheimr</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa; background:#d6dbbe; font-size:110%; text-align:left;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Norse_rituals" title="Norse rituals">Rituals and worship</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bl%C3%B3t" title="Blót">Blót</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sei%C3%B0r" title="Seiðr">Seiðr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norse_funeral" title="Norse funeral">Norse funeral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yule" title="Yule">Yule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walpurgis_Night" title="Walpurgis Night">Walpurgis Night</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midsummer" title="Midsummer">Midsummer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%C3%B6rgr" title="Hörgr">Hörgr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heathen_hof" title="Heathen hof">Heathen hof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C3%A9_(shrine)" title="Vé (shrine)">Vé (shrine)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothi" title="Gothi">Gothi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Germanic_calendars" title="Early Germanic calendars">Early Germanic calendars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runic_magic" title="Runic magic">Runic magic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seeress_(Germanic)" title="Seeress (Germanic)">Seeress (Germanic)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galdr" title="Galdr">Galdr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_in_Norse_paganism" title="Death in Norse paganism">Death in Norse paganism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa; background:#d6dbbe; font-size:110%; text-align:left;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Norsemen" title="Norsemen">Society</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Berserker" title="Berserker">Berserker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earl" title="Earl">Earl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ergi" title="Ergi">Ergi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erilaz" title="Erilaz">Erilaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9lag" title="Félag">Félag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_kingship" title="Germanic kingship">Germanic kingship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hird" title="Hird">Hird</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holmgang" title="Holmgang">Holmgang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leidang" title="Leidang">Leidang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mead_hall" title="Mead hall">Mead hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Scandinavian_law" title="Medieval Scandinavian law">Medieval Scandinavian law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nithing_pole" title="Nithing pole">Nithing pole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%C4%AB%C3%BE" title="Nīþ">Nīþ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norse_clans" title="Norse clans">Norse clans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse" title="Old Norse">Old Norse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thing_(assembly)" title="Thing (assembly)">Thing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrall" title="Thrall">Thrall</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa; background:#d6dbbe; font-size:110%; text-align:left;color: var(--color-base)">Events</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%86sir%E2%80%93Vanir_War" title="Æsir–Vanir War">Æsir–Vanir War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fimbulwinter" title="Fimbulwinter">Fimbulwinter</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Ragnar%C3%B6k" title="Ragnarök">Ragnarök</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wild_Hunt" title="Wild Hunt">Wild Hunt</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa; background:#d6dbbe; font-size:110%; text-align:left;color: var(--color-base)">Sources</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Poetic_Edda" title="Poetic Edda">Poetic Edda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prose_Edda" title="Prose Edda">Prose Edda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyrfing_Cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Tyrfing Cycle">Tyrfing Cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C3%B6lsung_Cycle" title="Völsung Cycle">Völsung Cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saga" title="Saga">Saga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runestone" title="Runestone">Runestones</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="hlist"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Norse_history_and_culture" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Norse history and culture">WikiProject Norse history and culture</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Norse_people_sidebar" title="Template:Norse people sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Norse_people_sidebar" title="Template talk:Norse people sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Norse_people_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Norse people sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Normans</b> (<a href="/wiki/Norman_language" title="Norman language">Norman</a>: <i>Normaunds</i>; <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>: <i lang="fr">Normands</i>; <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: <i lang="la">Nortmanni/Normanni</i>) were a population arising in the medieval <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Normandy" title="Duchy of Normandy">Duchy of Normandy</a> from the intermingling between <a href="/wiki/Norsemen" title="Norsemen">Norse</a> <a href="/wiki/Viking" class="mw-redirect" title="Viking">Viking</a> settlers and locals of <a href="/wiki/West_Francia" title="West Francia">West Francia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Norse settlements in West Francia followed a series of raids on the French northern coast mainly from what is now Denmark, although some also sailed from Norway and Sweden.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These settlements were finally legitimized when <a href="/wiki/Rollo" title="Rollo">Rollo</a>, a Scandinavian Viking leader, agreed to swear <a href="/wiki/Fealty" title="Fealty">fealty</a> to <a href="/wiki/Charles_the_Simple" title="Charles the Simple">King Charles III of West Francia</a> following the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Chartres_(911)" title="Siege of Chartres (911)">siege of Chartres</a> in 911. The intermixing in Normandy produced an <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic group">ethnic</a> and cultural "Norman" identity in the first half of the 10th century, an identity which continued to evolve over the centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-Sicily_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sicily-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Normans adopted the culture and language of the French, while they continued the martial tradition of their Viking ancestors as mercenaries and adventurers.<sup id="cite_ref-Norman_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norman-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 11th century, Normans from the duchy conquered <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a> and <a href="/wiki/Southern_Italy" title="Southern Italy">southern Italy</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/House_of_Normandy" title="House of Normandy">Norman dynasty</a> had a major political, cultural and military impact on <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">medieval Europe</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Near_East" title="Near East">Near East</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Impact_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Impact-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Normans were historically famed for their martial spirit, and eventually for their <a href="/wiki/Catholicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholicism">Catholic</a> <a href="/wiki/Piety" title="Piety">piety</a> as adherents of the Catholic orthodoxy of the Romance community.<sup id="cite_ref-Norman_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norman-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The original Norse settlers adopted the <a href="/wiki/Gallo-Romance_languages" title="Gallo-Romance languages">Gallo-Romance language</a> of the Frankish land they settled, with their <a href="/wiki/Old_Norman" title="Old Norman">Old Norman dialect</a> becoming known as <a href="/wiki/Norman_language" title="Norman language">Norman, Normaund or Norman French</a>, an important literary language which is still spoken today in parts of mainland Normandy (<a href="/wiki/Cotentinais" title="Cotentinais">Cotentinais</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cauchois_dialect" title="Cauchois dialect">Cauchois</a> dialects) and the nearby <a href="/wiki/Channel_Islands" title="Channel Islands">Channel Islands</a> (<a href="/wiki/J%C3%A8rriais" title="Jèrriais">Jèrriais</a> and <a href="/wiki/Guern%C3%A9siais" title="Guernésiais">Guernésiais</a>). The <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Normandy" title="Duchy of Normandy">Duchy of Normandy</a>, which arose from the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Saint-Clair-sur-Epte" title="Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte">Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte</a>, was a great <a href="/wiki/Fief" title="Fief">fief</a> of medieval France. The Norman dukes exercised independent control of their holdings in Normandy, while at the same time being vassals owing fealty to the King of France, and under <a href="/wiki/Richard_I_of_Normandy" title="Richard I of Normandy">Richard I of Normandy</a> (byname "Richard sans Peur" meaning "Richard the Fearless") the duchy was forged into a cohesive and formidable <a href="/wiki/Principality" title="Principality">principality</a> in <a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">feudal</a> tenure.<sup id="cite_ref-searle_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-searle-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the end of his reign in 996, the descendants of the Norse settlers "had become not only Christians but in all essentials Frenchmen. They had adopted the French language, French legal ideas, and French social customs, and had practically merged with the Frankish or Gallic population among whom they lived".<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Between 1066 and 1204, as a result of the <a href="/wiki/Norman_conquest_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Norman conquest of England">Norman conquest of England</a>, most of the <a href="/wiki/List_of_English_monarchs" title="List of English monarchs">kings of England</a> were also <a href="/wiki/Duke_of_Normandy" title="Duke of Normandy">dukes of Normandy</a>. In 1204, <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_France" title="Philip II of France">Philip II of France</a> seized mainland Normandy by force of arms, having earlier declared the Duchy of Normandy to be forfeit to him. It remained a disputed territory until the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1259)" title="Treaty of Paris (1259)">Treaty of Paris of 1259</a>, when the English sovereign ceded his claim to the Duchy, except for the <a href="/wiki/Channel_Islands" title="Channel Islands">Channel Islands</a>. In the present day, the Channel Islands (the <a href="/wiki/Bailiwick_of_Guernsey" title="Bailiwick of Guernsey">Bailiwick of Guernsey</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Bailiwick_of_Jersey" class="mw-redirect" title="Bailiwick of Jersey">Bailiwick of Jersey</a>) are considered to be officially the last remnants of the Duchy of Normandy, and are not part of the United Kingdom but are instead self-governing <a href="/wiki/Crown_Dependencies" title="Crown Dependencies">Crown Dependencies</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-HoG_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HoG-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Normans are noted both for their culture, such as their unique <a href="/wiki/Romanesque_architecture" title="Romanesque architecture">Romanesque architecture</a> and musical traditions, and for their significant military accomplishments and innovations. Norman adventurers played a role in founding the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sicily" title="Kingdom of Sicily">Kingdom of Sicily</a> under <a href="/wiki/Roger_II_of_Sicily" title="Roger II of Sicily">Roger II</a> after briefly <a href="/wiki/Norman_conquest_of_southern_Italy" title="Norman conquest of southern Italy">conquering southern Italy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Malta" title="Malta">Malta</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Saracen" title="Saracen">Saracens</a> and <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Greeks" title="Byzantine Greeks">Byzantines</a>, and an expedition on behalf of their duke, <a href="/wiki/William_the_Conqueror" title="William the Conqueror">William the Conqueror</a>, led to the <a href="/wiki/Norman_conquest_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Norman conquest of England">Norman conquest of England</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hastings" title="Battle of Hastings">Battle of Hastings</a> in 1066.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Norman and Anglo-Norman forces contributed to the Iberian <a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a> from the early eleventh to the mid-thirteenth centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Norman cultural and military influence spread from these new European centres to the <a href="/wiki/Crusader_states" title="Crusader states">Crusader states</a> of the Near East, where their prince <a href="/wiki/Bohemond_I_of_Antioch" title="Bohemond I of Antioch">Bohemond I</a> founded the <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Antioch" title="Principality of Antioch">Principality of Antioch</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>, to Scotland and Wales in Great Britain, to Ireland, and to the coasts of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Africa" title="Kingdom of Africa">north Africa</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Canary_Islands" title="Canary Islands">Canary Islands</a>. The legacy of the Normans persists today through the <a href="/wiki/Norman_language#Geographical_distribution" title="Norman language">regional languages and dialects</a> of France, England, Spain, Quebec and Sicily, and also through the various cultural, judicial, and political arrangements they introduced in their conquered territories.<sup id="cite_ref-Impact_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Impact-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Normans&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The English name "Normans" comes from the <a href="/wiki/Old_French" title="Old French">French</a> words <i>Normans</i>/<i>Normanz</i>, plural of <i>Normant</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> modern French <i>normand</i>, which is itself borrowed from <a href="/wiki/Low_Franconian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Low Franconian languages">Old Low Franconian</a> <i>Nortmann</i> "Northman"<sup id="cite_ref-Dauzat_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dauzat-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or directly from <a href="/wiki/Old_Norse" title="Old Norse">Old Norse</a> <i>Norðmaðr</i>, <a href="/wiki/Latinisation_of_names" title="Latinisation of names">Latinized</a> variously as <i>Nortmannus</i>, <i>Normannus</i>, or <i>Nordmannus</i> (recorded in <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Latin" title="Medieval Latin">Medieval Latin</a>, 9th century) to mean "Norseman, <a href="/wiki/Viking" class="mw-redirect" title="Viking">Viking</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The 11th century <a href="/wiki/Order_of_Saint_Benedict" class="mw-redirect" title="Order of Saint Benedict">Benedictine monk</a> and <a href="/wiki/Historian" title="Historian">historian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Goffredo_Malaterra" title="Goffredo Malaterra">Goffredo Malaterra</a>, characterised the Normans thus: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Specially marked by cunning, despising their own inheritance in the hope of winning a greater, eager after both gain and dominion, given to imitation of all kinds, holding a certain mean between lavishness and greediness, that is, perhaps uniting, as they certainly did, these two seemingly opposite qualities. Their chief men were specially lavish through their desire of good report. They were, moreover, a race skillful in flattery, given to the study of eloquence, so that the very boys were orators, a race altogether unbridled unless held firmly down by the yoke of justice. They were enduring of toil, hunger, and cold whenever fortune laid it on them, given to hunting and hawking, delighting in the pleasure of horses, and of all the weapons and <a href="/wiki/Clothing" title="Clothing">garb</a> of war.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGunn1975_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGunn1975-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Settling_of_Normandy">Settling of Normandy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Normans&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Settling of Normandy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Normandy" title="Duchy of Normandy">Duchy of Normandy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rollo" title="Rollo">Rollo</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_I_Longsword" class="mw-redirect" title="William I Longsword">William I Longsword</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Richard_the_Fearless" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard the Fearless">Richard the Fearless</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:911-1050_duche_de_normandie-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/911-1050_duche_de_normandie-en.svg/220px-911-1050_duche_de_normandie-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/911-1050_duche_de_normandie-en.svg/330px-911-1050_duche_de_normandie-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/911-1050_duche_de_normandie-en.svg/440px-911-1050_duche_de_normandie-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="525" data-file-height="443" /></a><figcaption>Duchy of Normandy between 911 and 1050. In blue the areas of intense <a href="/wiki/Norsemen" title="Norsemen">Norse</a> settlement</figcaption></figure> <p>In the course of the 10th century, the initially destructive incursions of <a href="/wiki/Norsemen" title="Norsemen">Norse</a> war bands going upstream into the rivers of <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> penetrated further into interior <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>, and evolved into more permanent encampments that included local French women and personal property.<sup id="cite_ref-Bates20_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bates20-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From 885 to 886, <a href="/wiki/Odo_of_France" title="Odo of France">Odo of Paris</a> (Eudes de Paris) succeeded in defending Paris against Viking raiders (one of the leaders was <a href="/wiki/Sigfred" title="Sigfred">Sigfred</a>) with his fighting skills, fortification of Paris and tactical shrewdness.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 911, <a href="/wiki/Robert_I_of_France" title="Robert I of France">Robert I of France</a>, brother of Odo, again defeated another band of Viking warriors in Chartres with his well-trained horsemen. This victory paved the way for <a href="/wiki/Rollo" title="Rollo">Rollo</a>'s baptism and settlement in <a href="/wiki/Normandy" title="Normandy">Normandy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Normandy" title="Duchy of Normandy">Duchy of Normandy</a>, which began in 911 as a <a href="/wiki/Fiefdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiefdom">fiefdom</a>, was established by the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Saint-Clair-sur-Epte" title="Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte">treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte</a> between <a href="/wiki/Charles_the_Simple" title="Charles the Simple">King Charles III (Charles the Simple)</a> (879–929, ruled 893–929) of <a href="/wiki/West_Francia" title="West Francia">West Francia</a> and the famed <a href="/wiki/Viking" class="mw-redirect" title="Viking">Viking</a> ruler <a href="/wiki/Rollo" title="Rollo">Rollo</a> also known as Gaange Rolf (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 846</span>–<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 929</span>), from <a href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavia</a>, and was situated in the former <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Frankish</a> kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Neustria" title="Neustria">Neustria</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Epte_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Epte-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The treaty offered Rollo and his men the <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">French</a> coastal lands along the <a href="/wiki/English_Channel" title="English Channel">English Channel</a> between the river <a href="/wiki/Epte" title="Epte">Epte</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean coast</a> in exchange for their protection against further Viking incursions.<sup id="cite_ref-Epte_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Epte-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As well as promising to protect the area of Rouen from Viking invasion, Rollo swore not to invade further Frankish lands himself, accepted baptism and conversion to <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> and swore fealty to King Charles III. Robert I of France stood as godfather during Rollo's baptism.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He became the first Duke of Normandy and Count of Rouen.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The area corresponded to the northern part of present-day <a href="/wiki/Upper_Normandy" title="Upper Normandy">Upper Normandy</a> down to the river <a href="/wiki/Seine" title="Seine">Seine</a>, but the Duchy would eventually extend west beyond the Seine.<sup id="cite_ref-Norman_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norman-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The territory was roughly equivalent to the old province of <a href="/wiki/Rouen" title="Rouen">Rouen</a>, and reproduced the old <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>'s administrative structure of <i>Gallia Lugdunensis II</i> (part of the former <i><a href="/wiki/Gallia_Lugdunensis" title="Gallia Lugdunensis">Gallia Lugdunensis</a></i> in <a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Gaul</a>). </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:History_of_the_Normans_by_Dudo_of_Saint-Quentin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/History_of_the_Normans_by_Dudo_of_Saint-Quentin.jpg/170px-History_of_the_Normans_by_Dudo_of_Saint-Quentin.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="249" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/History_of_the_Normans_by_Dudo_of_Saint-Quentin.jpg/255px-History_of_the_Normans_by_Dudo_of_Saint-Quentin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/History_of_the_Normans_by_Dudo_of_Saint-Quentin.jpg/340px-History_of_the_Normans_by_Dudo_of_Saint-Quentin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="462" data-file-height="678" /></a><figcaption>10th–11th century <i>History of the Normans</i>, by <a href="/wiki/Dudo_of_Saint-Quentin" title="Dudo of Saint-Quentin">Dudo of Saint-Quentin</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Before Rollo's arrival, Normandy's populations did not differ from <a href="/wiki/Picardy" title="Picardy">Picardy</a> or the <a href="/wiki/%C3%8Ele-de-France" title="Île-de-France">Île-de-France</a>, which were considered "Frankish". Earlier Viking settlers had begun arriving in the 880s, but were divided between colonies in the east (<a href="/wiki/Roumois" title="Roumois">Roumois</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pays_de_Caux" title="Pays de Caux">Pays de Caux</a>) around the low Seine valley and in the west in the <a href="/wiki/Cotentin_Peninsula" title="Cotentin Peninsula">Cotentin Peninsula</a>, and were separated by traditional <i><a href="/wiki/Pagus" title="Pagus">pagii</a></i>, where the population remained about the same with almost no foreign settlers. Rollo's contingents from Scandinavia who raided and ultimately settled Normandy and parts of the European Atlantic coast included <a href="/wiki/Danes_(Germanic_tribe)" class="mw-redirect" title="Danes (Germanic tribe)">Danes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Norwegians" title="Norwegians">Norwegians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Norse%E2%80%93Gaels" title="Norse–Gaels">Norse–Gaels</a>, <a href="/wiki/Orkney" title="Orkney">Orkney Vikings</a>, possibly <a href="/wiki/Swedes" title="Swedes">Swedes</a>, and Anglo-Danes from the English <a href="/wiki/Danelaw" title="Danelaw">Danelaw</a> territory which earlier came under Norse control in the late 9th century. </p><p>The descendants of Vikings replaced the <a href="/wiki/Norse_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Norse religion">Norse religion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Old_Norse" title="Old Norse">Old Norse</a> language with <a href="/wiki/Catholicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholicism">Catholicism</a> (<a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>) and the <a href="/wiki/Langues_d%27o%C3%AFl" title="Langues d'oïl">Langue d'oil</a> of the local people, descending from the <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Romans</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Norman_language" title="Norman language">Norman language</a> (Norman French) was forged by the adoption of the indigenous <i><a href="/wiki/Langues_d%27o%C3%AFl" title="Langues d'oïl">langue d'oïl</a></i> branch of <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance</a> by a Norse-speaking ruling class, and it developed into the <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_France" title="Languages of France">French regional languages</a> that survive today.<sup id="cite_ref-Norman_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norman-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The new Norman rulers were culturally and ethnically distinct from the old <a href="/wiki/French_nobility" title="French nobility">French aristocracy</a>, most of whom traced their lineage to the <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Franks</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_dynasty" title="Carolingian dynasty">Carolingian dynasty</a> from the days of <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a> in the 9th century. By intermarrying with the local aristocracy and adopting the growing <a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">feudal</a> doctrines of the rest of France, the Normans would progressively work these principles into a functional hierarchical system in their own <a href="/wiki/Normandy" title="Normandy">duchy</a>, and later export it to <a href="/wiki/Norman_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Norman England">Norman dominated England</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-searle_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-searle-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As the proliferation of aristocratic families throughout the French kingdom limited the prospects of most heirs, young knights were encouraged to seek land and riches beyond their homeland, with Normandy becoming a major source of such adventurers.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many Normans of Italy, France and England eventually served as avid <a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusaders</a> soldiers under the <a href="/wiki/Italo-Norman" class="mw-redirect" title="Italo-Norman">Italo-Norman</a> prince <a href="/wiki/Bohemund_I_of_Antioch" class="mw-redirect" title="Bohemund I of Antioch">Bohemund I of Antioch</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Angevin_kings_of_England" title="Angevin kings of England">Angevin-Norman</a> king <a href="/wiki/Richard_the_Lion-Heart" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard the Lion-Heart">Richard the Lion-Heart</a>, one of the more famous and illustrious Kings of England. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Conquests_and_military_offensives">Conquests and military offensives</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Normans&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Conquests and military offensives"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Italy">Italy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Normans&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Italy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Norman_conquest_of_southern_Italy" title="Norman conquest of southern Italy">Norman conquest of southern Italy</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Sicily" class="mw-redirect" title="Emirate of Sicily">Emirate of Sicily</a>, <a href="/wiki/Norman-Arab-Byzantine_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Norman-Arab-Byzantine culture">Norman-Arab-Byzantine culture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Guiscard" title="Robert Guiscard">Robert Guiscard</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Italo-Norman" class="mw-redirect" title="Italo-Norman">Italo-Norman</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kingdom_of_Sicily_1154.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Multicolored map of 12th-century Italy" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Kingdom_of_Sicily_1154.svg/220px-Kingdom_of_Sicily_1154.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="249" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Kingdom_of_Sicily_1154.svg/330px-Kingdom_of_Sicily_1154.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Kingdom_of_Sicily_1154.svg/440px-Kingdom_of_Sicily_1154.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="712" data-file-height="807" /></a><figcaption>The Norman <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sicily" title="Kingdom of Sicily">Kingdom of Sicily</a> (in green) in 1154, upon the death of <a href="/wiki/Roger_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Roger II">Roger II</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Opportunistic bands of Normans successfully established a foothold in <a href="/wiki/Southern_Italy" title="Southern Italy">southern Italy</a>. Probably as the result of returning pilgrims' stories, the Normans entered southern Italy as warriors in 1017 at the latest. In 999, according to <a href="/wiki/Amatus_of_Montecassino" title="Amatus of Montecassino">Amatus of Montecassino</a>, Norman pilgrims returning from <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a> called in at the port of <a href="/wiki/Salerno" title="Salerno">Salerno</a> when a Muslim attack occurred. The Normans fought so valiantly that Prince <a href="/wiki/Guaimar_III_of_Salerno" title="Guaimar III of Salerno">Guaimar III</a> begged them to stay, but they refused and instead offered to tell others back home of the Prince's request. <a href="/wiki/William_of_Apulia" title="William of Apulia">William of Apulia</a> tells that, in 1016, Norman pilgrims to the shrine of the <a href="/wiki/Michael_(archangel)" title="Michael (archangel)">Archangel Michael</a> at <a href="/wiki/Sanctuary_of_Monte_Sant%27Angelo" title="Sanctuary of Monte Sant'Angelo">Monte Gargano</a> were met by <a href="/wiki/Melus_of_Bari" title="Melus of Bari">Melus of Bari</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Lombards" title="Lombards">Lombard</a> nobleman and rebel, who persuaded them to return with more warriors to help throw off the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a> rule, which they did. </p><p>The two most prominent Norman families to arrive in the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean">Mediterranean</a> were descendants of <a href="/wiki/Tancred_of_Hauteville" title="Tancred of Hauteville">Tancred of Hauteville</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Drengot_family" title="Drengot family">Drengot family</a>. A group of Normans with at least five brothers from the Drengot family fought the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantines</a> in <a href="/wiki/Apulia" title="Apulia">Apulia</a> under the command of <a href="/wiki/Melus_of_Bari" title="Melus of Bari">Melus of Bari</a>. Between 1016 and 1024, in a fragmented political context, the <a href="/w/index.php?title=County_of_Ariano&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="County of Ariano (page does not exist)">County of Ariano</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contea_di_Ariano" class="extiw" title="it:Contea di Ariano">it</a>]</span> was founded by another group of Norman knights headed by <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Buat%C3%A8re" title="Gilbert Buatère">Gilbert Buatère</a> and hired by Melus of Bari. Defeated at <a href="/wiki/Cannae" title="Cannae">Cannae</a>, Melus of Bari escaped to <a href="/wiki/Bamberg" title="Bamberg">Bamberg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>, where he died in 1022. The county, which replaced the pre-existing chamberlainship, is considered to be the first political body established by the Normans in the south of Italy.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Then <a href="/wiki/Rainulf_Drengot" title="Rainulf Drengot">Rainulf Drengot</a>, from the same family, received the county of <a href="/wiki/Aversa" title="Aversa">Aversa</a> from Duke <a href="/wiki/Sergius_IV_of_Naples" title="Sergius IV of Naples">Sergius IV of Naples</a> in 1030. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Adrano_normannisches_Kastell.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Adrano_normannisches_Kastell.jpg/220px-Adrano_normannisches_Kastell.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Adrano_normannisches_Kastell.jpg/330px-Adrano_normannisches_Kastell.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Adrano_normannisches_Kastell.jpg/440px-Adrano_normannisches_Kastell.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4048" data-file-height="3040" /></a><figcaption>The early Norman castle at <a href="/wiki/Adrano" title="Adrano">Adrano</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Hauteville_family" class="mw-redirect" title="Hauteville family">Hauteville family</a> achieved princely rank by proclaiming Prince <a href="/wiki/Guaimar_IV_of_Salerno" title="Guaimar IV of Salerno">Guaimar IV of Salerno</a> "Duke of <a href="/wiki/Apulia" title="Apulia">Apulia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Calabria" title="Calabria">Calabria</a>". He promptly awarded their elected leader, <a href="/wiki/William_Iron_Arm" title="William Iron Arm">William Iron Arm</a>, with the title of count in his capital of <a href="/wiki/Melfi" title="Melfi">Melfi</a>. The Drengot family thereafter attained the <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Capua" title="Principality of Capua">principality of Capua</a>, and Emperor <a href="/wiki/Henry_III,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor">Henry III</a> legally ennobled the Hauteville leader, <a href="/wiki/Drogo_of_Hauteville" title="Drogo of Hauteville">Drogo</a>, as "<i>dux et magister Italiae comesque Normannorum totius Apuliae et Calabriae</i>" ("<i>Duke and Master of Italy and Count of the Normans of all Apulia and Calabria</i>") in 1047.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrown1994106_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown1994106-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From these bases, the Normans eventually captured <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a> and <a href="/wiki/Malta" title="Malta">Malta</a> from the Muslims, under the leadership of the famous <a href="/wiki/Robert_Guiscard" title="Robert Guiscard">Robert Guiscard</a>, a Hauteville, and his younger brother <a href="/wiki/Roger_I_of_Sicily" title="Roger I of Sicily">Roger the Great Count</a>. Roger's son, <a href="/wiki/Roger_II_of_Sicily" title="Roger II of Sicily">Roger II of Sicily</a>, was crowned king in 1130 (exactly one century after Rainulf was "crowned" count) by <a href="/wiki/Antipope_Anacletus_II" title="Antipope Anacletus II">Antipope Anacletus II</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sicily" title="Kingdom of Sicily">Kingdom of Sicily</a> lasted until 1194, when it was transferred to the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Hohenstaufen" class="mw-redirect" title="House of Hohenstaufen">House of Hohenstaufen</a> through marriage.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Normans left their legacy in many castles, such as <a href="/wiki/William_Iron_Arm" title="William Iron Arm">William Iron Arm</a>'s citadel at <a href="/wiki/Squillace" title="Squillace">Squillace</a>, and cathedrals, such as Roger II's <a href="/wiki/Cappella_Palatina" title="Cappella Palatina">Cappella Palatina</a> at <a href="/wiki/Palermo" title="Palermo">Palermo</a>, which dot the landscape and give a distinct architectural flavor to accompany its unique history. </p><p>Institutionally, the Normans combined the administrative machinery of the Byzantines, Arabs, and Lombards with their own conceptions of <a href="/wiki/Feudal_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Feudal law">feudal law</a> and order to forge a unique government. Under this state, there was great religious freedom, and alongside the Norman nobles existed a meritocratic bureaucracy of Jews, Muslims and Christians, both <a href="/wiki/Catholicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholicism">Catholic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodox</a>. The Kingdom of Sicily thus became characterized by Norman, Byzantine, Greek, Arab, Lombard and "native" Sicilian populations living in harmony, and its <a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Sicily#Kings_of_Sicily" class="mw-redirect" title="List of monarchs of Sicily">Norman rulers</a> fostered plans of establishing an empire that would have encompassed <a href="/wiki/Fatimid" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatimid">Fatimid</a> Egypt as well as the <a href="/wiki/Crusader_states" title="Crusader states">crusader states</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the great geographical treatises of the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, the "<i><a href="/wiki/Tabula_Rogeriana" title="Tabula Rogeriana">Tabula Rogeriana</a></i>", was written by <a href="/wiki/Al-Idrisi" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Idrisi">al-Idrisi</a> for King Roger II of Sicily, and entitled "<i>Kitab Rudjdjar</i>" ("<i>The Book of Roger</i>").<sup id="cite_ref-Lewis,_p.148_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lewis,_p.148-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Iberian_Peninsula">The Iberian Peninsula</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Normans&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: The Iberian Peninsula"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Normans began appearing in the military confrontations between Christians and Muslims in the Iberian Peninsula since the early eleventh century. The first Norman who appears in the narrative sources was <a href="/wiki/Roger_I_of_Tosny" title="Roger I of Tosny">Roger I of Tosny</a> who according to <a href="/wiki/Ademar_of_Chabannes" class="mw-redirect" title="Ademar of Chabannes">Ademar of Chabannes</a> and the later <a href="/wiki/Chronicle_of_St_Pierre_le_Vif" class="mw-redirect" title="Chronicle of St Pierre le Vif">Chronicle of St Pierre le Vif</a> went to aid the Barcelonese in a series of raids against the <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Andalusi</a> Muslims <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1018</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later in the eleventh century, other Norman adventurers such as <a href="/wiki/Robert_Crispin" title="Robert Crispin">Robert Crispin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Walter_Giffard" title="Walter Giffard">Walter Giffard</a> participated in the probably papal organised <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Barbastro" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Barbastro">siege of Barbastro</a> of 1064. Even after the Norman conquest of England in 1066, the Normans continued to participate in ventures in the peninsula. After the Frankish conquest of the Holy Land during the First Crusade, the Normans began to be encouraged to participate in ventures of conquest in the northeast of the peninsula. The most significant example of this was the incursion of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Rotrou_II_of_Perche&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rotrou II of Perche (page does not exist)">Rotrou II of Perche</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Burdet" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Burdet">Robert Burdet</a> in the 1120s in the Ebro frontier. By 1129 Robert Burdet had been granted a semi-independent <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Tarragona" title="Principality of Tarragona">principality in the city of Tarragona</a> by the then Archbishop of this see, Oleguer Bonestruga. Several others of Rotrou's Norman followers were rewarded with lands in the Ebro valley by King Alfonso I of Aragon for their services.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With the rising popularity of the sea route to the Holy Land, Norman and Anglo-Norman crusaders also started to be encouraged locally by Iberian prelates to participate in the Portuguese incursions into the western areas of the Peninsula. The first of these incursions occurred when a fleet of these Crusaders was invited by the Portuguese king <a href="/wiki/Afonso_I_Henriques" class="mw-redirect" title="Afonso I Henriques">Afonso I Henriques</a> to conquer the city of Lisbon in 1142.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although this <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Lisbon_(1142)" title="Siege of Lisbon (1142)">Siege of Lisbon (1142)</a> was a failure it created a precedent for their involvement in Portugal. So in 1147 when another group of Norman and other groups of crusaders from Northern Europe arrived in Porto on their way to join the crusading forces of the <a href="/wiki/Second_Crusade" title="Second Crusade">Second Crusade</a>, the Bishop of Porto and later Afonso Henriques according to <i><a href="/wiki/De_expugnatione_Lyxbonensi" title="De expugnatione Lyxbonensi">De expugnatione Lyxbonensi</a></i> convinced them to help with the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Lisbon" title="Siege of Lisbon">siege of Lisbon</a>. This time the city was captured and according to the arrangement agreed upon with the Portuguese monarch many of them settled in the newly sacked city.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The following year the remainder of the crusading fleet, including a substantial number of Anglo-Normans, was invited by the count of Barcelona, <a href="/wiki/Ramon_Berenguer_IV,_Count_of_Barcelona" title="Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Barcelona">Ramon Berenguer IV</a>, to participate in the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Tortosa_(1148)" title="Siege of Tortosa (1148)">siege of Tortosa (1148)</a>. Again the Normans were rewarded with lands in the newly conquered frontier city.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="North_Africa">North Africa</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Normans&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: North Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Africa" title="Kingdom of Africa">Kingdom of Africa</a></div> <p>Between 1135 and 1160, the Norman <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sicily" title="Kingdom of Sicily">Kingdom of Sicily</a> conquered and kept as vassals several cities on the <a href="/wiki/Ifriqiya" title="Ifriqiya">Ifriqiya</a> coast, corresponding to Tunisia and parts of Algeria and Libya today. They were lost to the Almohads. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Byzantium">Byzantium</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Normans&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Byzantium"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Byzantine-Norman_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine-Norman wars">Byzantine-Norman wars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Varangian_Guard" title="Varangian Guard">Varangian Guard</a>, and <a href="/wiki/William_Iron_Arm" title="William Iron Arm">William Iron Arm</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Normans" title="Special:EditPage/Normans">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">December 2012</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Soon after the Normans began to enter Italy, they entered the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> and then <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Armenia" title="Medieval Armenia">Armenia</a>, fighting against the <a href="/wiki/Pechenegs" title="Pechenegs">Pechenegs</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Bulgarians" title="Bulgarians">Bulgarians</a>, and especially the <a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Turks" class="mw-redirect" title="Seljuk Turks">Seljuk Turks</a>. Norman mercenaries were first encouraged to come to the south by the Lombards to act against the Byzantines, but they soon fought in Byzantine service in Sicily. They were prominent alongside <a href="/wiki/Varangian" class="mw-redirect" title="Varangian">Varangian</a> and Lombard contingents in the Sicilian campaign of <a href="/wiki/George_Maniaces" class="mw-redirect" title="George Maniaces">George Maniaces</a> in 1038–40. There is debate whether the Normans in Greek service actually were from Norman Italy, and it now seems likely only a few came from there. It is also unknown how many of the "Franks", as the Byzantines called them, were Normans and not other Frenchmen. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Norman_Conquests_copy_(1).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Norman_Conquests_copy_%281%29.jpg/220px-Norman_Conquests_copy_%281%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Norman_Conquests_copy_%281%29.jpg/330px-Norman_Conquests_copy_%281%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Norman_Conquests_copy_%281%29.jpg/440px-Norman_Conquests_copy_%281%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="12892" data-file-height="8428" /></a><figcaption>A chronological map of the Norman Conquests</figcaption></figure> <p>One of the first Norman mercenaries to serve as a Byzantine general was <a href="/wiki/Herv%C3%A9_(Norman)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hervé (Norman)">Hervé</a> in the 1050s. By then, however, there were already Norman mercenaries serving as far away as <a href="/wiki/Trabzon" title="Trabzon">Trebizond</a> and <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(country)" title="Georgia (country)">Georgia</a>. They were based at <a href="/wiki/Malatya" title="Malatya">Malatya</a> and <a href="/wiki/Edessa,_Mesopotamia" class="mw-redirect" title="Edessa, Mesopotamia">Edessa</a>, under the Byzantine duke of <a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Komnenos,_Duke_of_Antioch" class="mw-redirect" title="Isaac Komnenos, Duke of Antioch">Isaac Komnenos</a>. In the 1060s, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Crispin" title="Robert Crispin">Robert Crispin</a> led the Normans of Edessa against the Turks. <a href="/wiki/Roussel_de_Bailleul" title="Roussel de Bailleul">Roussel de Bailleul</a> even tried to carve out an independent state in <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a> with support from the local population in 1073, but he was stopped in 1075 by the Byzantine general and future emperor <a href="/wiki/Alexius_I_Komnenos" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexius I Komnenos">Alexius Komnenos</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeihammer2017211–213_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeihammer2017211–213-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some Normans joined Turkish forces to aid in the destruction of the Armenian vassal-states of <a href="/wiki/Sassoun" class="mw-redirect" title="Sassoun">Sassoun</a> and <a href="/wiki/Taron_(historic_Armenia)" title="Taron (historic Armenia)">Taron</a> in far eastern <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a>. Later, many took up service with the <a href="/wiki/Armenian_Kingdom_of_Cilicia" title="Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia">Armenian state further south in Cilicia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Taurus_Mountains" title="Taurus Mountains">Taurus Mountains</a>. A Norman named <a href="/wiki/Roussel_de_Bailleul" title="Roussel de Bailleul">Oursel</a> led a force of "Franks" into the upper <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a> valley in northern <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>. From 1073 to 1074, 8,000 of the 20,000 troops of the Armenian general <a href="/wiki/Philaretus_Brachamius" class="mw-redirect" title="Philaretus Brachamius">Philaretus Brachamius</a> were Normans—formerly of Oursel—led by <a href="/wiki/Raimbaud" title="Raimbaud">Raimbaud</a>. They even lent their ethnicity to the name of their castle: Afranji, meaning "Franks". The known trade between <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Amalfi" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of Amalfi">Amalfi</a> and Antioch and between <a href="/wiki/Bari" title="Bari">Bari</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tarsus_(city)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tarsus (city)">Tarsus</a> may be related to the presence of Italo-Normans in those cities while Amalfi and Bari were under Norman rule in Italy. </p><p>Several families of Byzantine Greece were of Norman mercenary origin during the period of the <a href="/wiki/Comnenian_Restoration" class="mw-redirect" title="Comnenian Restoration">Comnenian Restoration</a>, when Byzantine emperors were seeking out western European warriors. The Raoulii were descended from an Italo-Norman named Raoul, the Petraliphae were descended from a Pierre d'Aulps, and that group of <a href="/wiki/Albania" title="Albania">Albanian</a> clans known as the Maniakates were descended from Normans who served under <a href="/wiki/George_Maniaces" class="mw-redirect" title="George Maniaces">George Maniaces</a> in the Sicilian expedition of 1038. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Robert_Guiscard" title="Robert Guiscard">Robert Guiscard</a>, another Norman adventurer previously elevated to the dignity of count of <a href="/wiki/Apulia" title="Apulia">Apulia</a> as the result of his military successes, ultimately drove the Byzantines out of southern Italy. Having obtained the consent of <a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_VII" title="Pope Gregory VII">Pope Gregory VII</a> and acting as his vassal, Robert continued his campaign conquering the Balkan peninsula as a foothold for western feudal lords and the Catholic Church. After allying himself with <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Croatia_(925%E2%80%931102)" title="Kingdom of Croatia (925–1102)">Croatia</a> and the Catholic cities of Dalmatia, in 1081 he led an army of 30,000 men in 300 ships landing on the southern shores of <a href="/wiki/Albania" title="Albania">Albania</a>, capturing <a href="/wiki/Vlora" class="mw-redirect" title="Vlora">Valona</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kanin%C3%AB" title="Kaninë">Kanina</a>, Jericho (<a href="/wiki/Orikumi" class="mw-redirect" title="Orikumi">Orikumi</a>), and reaching <a href="/wiki/Butrint" title="Butrint">Butrint</a> after numerous pillages. They joined the fleet that had previously conquered <a href="/wiki/Corfu" title="Corfu">Corfu</a> and attacked <a href="/wiki/Dyrrachium" class="mw-redirect" title="Dyrrachium">Dyrrachium</a> from land and sea, devastating everything along the way. Under these harsh circumstances, the locals accepted the call of Emperor <a href="/wiki/Alexios_I_Comnenos" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexios I Comnenos">Alexios I Comnenos</a> to join forces with the Byzantines against the Normans. The Byzantine forces could not take part in the ensuing <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dyrrhachium_(1081)" title="Battle of Dyrrhachium (1081)">battle</a> because it had started before their arrival. Immediately before the battle, the Venetian fleet had secured a victory in the coast surrounding the city. Forced to retreat, Alexios ceded the city of Dyrrachium to the <a href="/wiki/Count_of_the_Tent" title="Count of the Tent">Count of the Tent</a> (or Byzantine provincial administrators) mobilizing from <a href="/wiki/Arbanon" class="mw-redirect" title="Arbanon">Arbanon</a> (i.e., ἐξ Ἀρβάνων ὁρμωμένω Κομισκόρτη; the term <i>Κομισκόρτη</i> is short for κόμης της κόρτης meaning "Count of the Tent").<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The city's garrison resisted until February 1082, when Dyrrachium was betrayed to the Normans by the Venetian and <a href="/wiki/Amalfi" title="Amalfi">Amalfitan</a> merchants who had settled there. The Normans were now free to penetrate into the hinterland; they took Ioannina and some minor cities in southwestern Macedonia and Thessaly before appearing at the gates of Thessalonica. Dissension among the high ranks coerced the Normans to retreat to Italy. They lost Dyrrachium, Valona, and <a href="/wiki/Butrint" title="Butrint">Butrint</a> in 1085, after the death of Robert. </p><p>A few years after the <a href="/wiki/First_Crusade" title="First Crusade">First Crusade</a>, in 1107, the Normans under the command of Bohemond, Robert's son, landed in Valona and besieged Dyrrachium using the most sophisticated military equipment of the time, but to no avail. Meanwhile, they occupied <a href="/wiki/Petrela" class="mw-redirect" title="Petrela">Petrela</a>, the citadel of Mili at the banks of the river <a href="/wiki/Devoll_(river)" title="Devoll (river)">Deabolis</a>, Gllavenica (Ballsh), Kanina and Jericho. This time, the Albanians sided with the Normans, dissatisfied by the heavy taxes the Byzantines had imposed upon them. With their help, the Normans secured the <a href="/wiki/Arbanon" class="mw-redirect" title="Arbanon">Arbanon</a> passes and opened their way to Dibra. The lack of supplies, disease and Byzantine resistance forced Bohemond to retreat from his campaign and sign a peace treaty with the Byzantines in the city of Deabolis. </p><p>The further decline of Byzantine state-of-affairs paved the road to a third attack in 1185, when a large Norman army invaded <a href="/wiki/Dyrrachium" class="mw-redirect" title="Dyrrachium">Dyrrachium</a>, owing to the betrayal of high Byzantine officials. Some time later, Dyrrachium—one of the most important naval bases of the <a href="/wiki/Adriatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Adriatic">Adriatic</a>—fell again to Byzantine hands. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="England">England</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Normans&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: England"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Norman_conquest_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Norman conquest of England">Norman conquest of England</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_the_Conqueror" title="William the Conqueror">William the Conqueror</a>, <a href="/wiki/Domesday_Book" title="Domesday Book">Domesday Book</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Normans" title="Anglo-Normans">Anglo-Normans</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="background:#ddddff;"><a href="/wiki/House_of_Normandy" title="House of Normandy">House of Normandy</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bayeux_Tapestry_WillelmDux.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Bayeux_Tapestry_WillelmDux.jpg/200px-Bayeux_Tapestry_WillelmDux.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Bayeux_Tapestry_WillelmDux.jpg/300px-Bayeux_Tapestry_WillelmDux.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Bayeux_Tapestry_WillelmDux.jpg/400px-Bayeux_Tapestry_WillelmDux.jpg 2x" data-file-width="401" data-file-height="291" /></a></span><div class="sidebar-caption">William the Conqueror invades England</div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/William_the_Conqueror" title="William the Conqueror">William I</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Curthose" title="Robert Curthose">Robert Curthose, Duke of Normandy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard,_son_of_William_the_Conqueror" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard, son of William the Conqueror">Richard, "Duke of Bernay"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_II_of_England" title="William II of England">William II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cecilia_of_Normandy" title="Cecilia of Normandy">Cecilia, Abbess of Holy Trinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adela_of_Normandy" title="Adela of Normandy">Adela, Countess of Blois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_I_of_England" title="Henry I of England">Henry I</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/William_II_of_England" title="William II of England">William II</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Henry_I_of_England" title="Henry I of England">Henry I</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Empress_Matilda" title="Empress Matilda">Empress Matilda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Adelin" title="William Adelin">William Adelin</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Robert,_1st_Earl_of_Gloucester" title="Robert, 1st Earl of Gloucester">Robert, 1st Earl of Gloucester</a></i></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Stephen,_King_of_England" title="Stephen, King of England">Stephen</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eustace_IV,_Count_of_Boulogne" title="Eustace IV, Count of Boulogne">Eustace IV, Count of Boulogne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_I,_Count_of_Boulogne" title="William I, Count of Boulogne">William I, Count of Boulogne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marie_I,_Countess_of_Boulogne" title="Marie I, Countess of Boulogne">Marie I, Countess of Boulogne</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Monarchy of the United Kingdom">Monarchy of the United Kingdom</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:House_of_Normandy_sidebar" title="Template:House of Normandy sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:House_of_Normandy_sidebar" title="Template talk:House of Normandy sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:House_of_Normandy_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:House of Normandy sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Norman_infantry_and_cavalery_(xi_century)_Falaise.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Norman_infantry_and_cavalery_%28xi_century%29_Falaise.jpg/220px-Norman_infantry_and_cavalery_%28xi_century%29_Falaise.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Norman_infantry_and_cavalery_%28xi_century%29_Falaise.jpg/330px-Norman_infantry_and_cavalery_%28xi_century%29_Falaise.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Norman_infantry_and_cavalery_%28xi_century%29_Falaise.jpg/440px-Norman_infantry_and_cavalery_%28xi_century%29_Falaise.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4608" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>Modern depiction of 11th century Norman cavalry and infantry</figcaption></figure> <p>The Normans were in contact with England from an early date. Not only were their original Viking brethren still ravaging the English coasts, they occupied most of the important ports opposite England across the <a href="/wiki/English_Channel" title="English Channel">English Channel</a>. This relationship eventually produced closer ties of blood through the marriage of <a href="/wiki/Emma_of_Normandy" title="Emma of Normandy">Emma</a>, sister of Duke <a href="/wiki/Richard_II_of_Normandy" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard II of Normandy">Richard II of Normandy</a>, and King <a href="/wiki/Ethelred_II_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethelred II of England">Ethelred II of England</a>. Because of this, Ethelred fled to Normandy in 1013, when he was forced from his kingdom by <a href="/wiki/Sweyn_Forkbeard" title="Sweyn Forkbeard">Sweyn Forkbeard</a>. His stay in Normandy (until 1016) influenced him and his sons by Emma, who stayed in Normandy after <a href="/wiki/Cnut_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Cnut the Great">Cnut the Great</a>'s conquest of the isle. </p><p>When <a href="/wiki/Edward_the_Confessor" title="Edward the Confessor">Edward the Confessor</a> finally returned from his father's refuge in 1041, at the invitation of his half-brother <a href="/wiki/Harthacnut" title="Harthacnut">Harthacnut</a>, he brought with him a Norman-educated mind. He also brought many Norman counsellors and fighters, some of whom established an English cavalry force. This concept never really took root, but it is a typical example of Edward's attitude. He appointed <a href="/wiki/Robert_of_Jumi%C3%A8ges" title="Robert of Jumièges">Robert of Jumièges</a> <a href="/wiki/Archbishop_of_Canterbury" title="Archbishop of Canterbury">Archbishop of Canterbury</a> and made <a href="/wiki/Ralph_the_Timid" title="Ralph the Timid">Ralph the Timid</a> <a href="/wiki/Earl_of_Hereford" title="Earl of Hereford">Earl of Hereford</a>. </p><p>On 14 October 1066, <a href="/wiki/William_the_Conqueror" title="William the Conqueror">William the Conqueror</a> gained a decisive victory at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hastings" title="Battle of Hastings">Battle of Hastings</a>, which led to the conquest of England three years later;<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> this can be seen on the <a href="/wiki/Bayeux_tapestry" class="mw-redirect" title="Bayeux tapestry">Bayeux tapestry</a>. The invading Normans and their descendants largely replaced the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxons" title="Anglo-Saxons">Anglo-Saxons</a> as the ruling class of England. The nobility of England were part of a single Norman culture and many had lands on both sides of the channel. Early Norman kings of England, as Dukes of Normandy, owed homage to the King of France for their land on the continent. They considered England to be their most important holding (it brought with it the title of King—an important status symbol). </p><p>Eventually, the Normans merged with the natives, combining languages and traditions, so much so that <a href="/wiki/Marjorie_Chibnall" title="Marjorie Chibnall">Marjorie Chibnall</a> says "writers still referred to Normans and English; but the terms no longer meant the same as in the immediate aftermath of 1066."<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the course of the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a>, the Norman aristocracy often identified themselves as English. The <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Norman_language" title="Anglo-Norman language">Anglo-Norman language</a> became distinct from the <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a> spoken in Paris, something that was the subject of some humour by <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Chaucer" title="Geoffrey Chaucer">Geoffrey Chaucer</a>. The Anglo-Norman language was eventually absorbed into the Anglo-Saxon language of their subjects (see <a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a>) and influenced it, helping (along with the <a href="/wiki/Norse_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Norse language">Norse language</a> of the earlier <a href="/wiki/Danelaw" title="Danelaw">Anglo-Norse</a> settlers and the <a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_Latin" title="Ecclesiastical Latin">Latin</a> used by the church) in the development of <a href="/wiki/Middle_English" title="Middle English">Middle English</a>, which, in turn, evolved into <a href="/wiki/Modern_English" title="Modern English">Modern English</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ireland">Ireland</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Normans&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Ireland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Norman_invasion_of_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="Norman invasion of Ireland">Norman invasion of Ireland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Norman_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="Norman Ireland">Norman Ireland</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Normans_in_Ireland" title="Normans in Ireland">Normans in Ireland</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MarriageAoifeStrongbow.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/MarriageAoifeStrongbow.jpg/220px-MarriageAoifeStrongbow.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/MarriageAoifeStrongbow.jpg/330px-MarriageAoifeStrongbow.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/MarriageAoifeStrongbow.jpg/440px-MarriageAoifeStrongbow.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="552" /></a><figcaption>Depiction of the marriage of the Norman lord <a href="/wiki/Richard_de_Clare,_2nd_Earl_of_Pembroke" title="Richard de Clare, 2nd Earl of Pembroke">Strongbow</a> to the Irish princess <a href="/wiki/Aoife_MacMurrough" title="Aoife MacMurrough">Aoife</a> in <a href="/wiki/Waterford" title="Waterford">Waterford</a> in 1170</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Trim_Castle_6.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Trim_Castle_6.jpg/220px-Trim_Castle_6.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Trim_Castle_6.jpg/330px-Trim_Castle_6.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Trim_Castle_6.jpg/440px-Trim_Castle_6.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption>Norman keep in <a href="/wiki/Trim,_County_Meath" title="Trim, County Meath">Trim</a>, <a href="/wiki/County_Meath" title="County Meath">County Meath</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The Normans had a profound effect on Irish culture and history after their invasion at <a href="/wiki/Bannow_Bay" class="mw-redirect" title="Bannow Bay">Bannow Bay</a> in 1169. Initially, the Normans maintained a distinct culture and ethnicity. Yet, with time, they came to be subsumed into Irish culture to the point that it has been said that they became "<a href="/wiki/More_Irish_than_the_Irish_themselves_(slogan)" class="mw-redirect" title="More Irish than the Irish themselves (slogan)">more Irish than the Irish themselves</a>". The Normans settled mostly in an area in the east of <a href="/wiki/Ireland" title="Ireland">Ireland</a>, later known as <a href="/wiki/The_Pale" title="The Pale">the Pale</a>, and also built many fine castles and settlements, including <a href="/wiki/Trim_Castle" title="Trim Castle">Trim Castle</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dublin_Castle" title="Dublin Castle">Dublin Castle</a>. The cultures intermixed, borrowing from each other's language, culture and outlook. Norman <a href="/wiki/Surnames" class="mw-redirect" title="Surnames">surnames</a> still exist today. Names such as <i>French</i>, <i>(De) Roche</i>, <i>Devereux</i>, <i>D'Arcy</i> and <i>Lacy</i> are particularly common in the southeast of Ireland, especially in the southern part of <a href="/wiki/Wexford" title="Wexford">Wexford</a> County, where the first Norman settlements were established. Other Norman names, such as <i>Furlong</i>, predominate there.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (September 2020)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Another common Norman-Irish name was Morell (Murrell), derived from the French Norman name <i>Morel</i>. Names beginning with <i>Fitz-</i> (from the Norman for "son") usually indicate Norman ancestry. <a href="/wiki/Hibernia" title="Hibernia">Hiberno</a>-Norman surnames with the <a href="/wiki/Prefix" title="Prefix">prefix</a> <i>Fitz-</i> include <i><a href="/wiki/FitzGerald_dynasty" title="FitzGerald dynasty">Fitzgerald</a></i>, <i>FitzGibbons</i> (Gibbons) as well as <i><a href="/wiki/Fitzmaurice" title="Fitzmaurice">Fitzmaurice</a></i>. Families bearing such surnames as <i><a href="/wiki/Barry_(name)" title="Barry (name)">Barry</a></i> (<i>de Barra</i>) and <i><a href="/wiki/House_of_Burke" class="mw-redirect" title="House of Burke">De Búrca</a></i> (<i>Burke</i>) are also of Norman extraction. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scotland">Scotland</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Normans&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Scotland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Scotland_in_the_High_Middle_Ages" title="Scotland in the High Middle Ages">Scotland in the High Middle Ages</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scoto-Norman" title="Scoto-Norman">Scoto-Norman</a></div> <p>One of the claimants of the English throne opposing <a href="/wiki/William_I_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="William I of England">William the Conqueror</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edgar_Atheling" class="mw-redirect" title="Edgar Atheling">Edgar Atheling</a>, eventually fled to Scotland. King <a href="/wiki/Malcolm_III_of_Scotland" title="Malcolm III of Scotland">Malcolm III of Scotland</a> married Edgar's sister <a href="/wiki/Saint_Margaret_of_Scotland" title="Saint Margaret of Scotland">Margaret</a>, and came into opposition to William who had already disputed Scotland's southern borders. William invaded Scotland in 1072, riding as far as <a href="/wiki/Abernethy,_Perth_and_Kinross" title="Abernethy, Perth and Kinross">Abernethy</a> where he met up with his fleet of ships. Malcolm submitted, paid homage to William and surrendered his son <a href="/wiki/Duncan_II_of_Scotland" title="Duncan II of Scotland">Duncan</a> as a hostage, beginning a series of arguments as to whether the Scottish Crown owed allegiance to the King of England. </p><p>Normans went into Scotland, building castles and founding noble families that would provide some future kings, such as <a href="/wiki/Robert_I_of_Scotland" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert I of Scotland">Robert the Bruce</a>, as well as founding a considerable number of the <a href="/wiki/Scottish_clan" title="Scottish clan">Scottish clans</a>. King <a href="/wiki/David_I_of_Scotland" title="David I of Scotland">David I of Scotland</a>, whose elder brother <a href="/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Scotland" title="Alexander I of Scotland">Alexander I</a> had married <a href="/wiki/Sybilla_of_Normandy" title="Sybilla of Normandy">Sybilla of Normandy</a>, was instrumental in introducing Normans and Norman culture to <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Scotland" title="Kingdom of Scotland">Scotland</a>, part of the process some scholars call the "<a href="/wiki/Davidian_Revolution" title="Davidian Revolution">Davidian Revolution</a>". Having spent time at the court of <a href="/wiki/Henry_I_of_England" title="Henry I of England">Henry I of England</a> (married to David's sister <a href="/wiki/Edith_of_Scotland" class="mw-redirect" title="Edith of Scotland">Maud of Scotland</a>), and needing them to wrestle the kingdom from his half-brother <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A1el_Coluim_mac_Alaxandair" title="Máel Coluim mac Alaxandair">Máel Coluim mac Alaxandair</a>, David had to reward many with lands. The process was continued under David's successors, most intensely of all under <a href="/wiki/William_I_of_Scotland" class="mw-redirect" title="William I of Scotland">William the Lion</a>. The Norman-derived <a href="/wiki/Feudal" class="mw-redirect" title="Feudal">feudal</a> system was applied in varying degrees to most of Scotland. Scottish families of the names <a href="/wiki/Bruce_(surname)" title="Bruce (surname)">Bruce</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gray_(surname)" title="Gray (surname)">Gray</a>, Ramsay, Fraser, Rose, Ogilvie, Montgomery, Sinclair, Pollock, Burnard, Douglas and <a href="/wiki/Gordon_(surname)" title="Gordon (surname)">Gordon</a> to name but a few, and including the later royal <a href="/wiki/House_of_Stewart" class="mw-redirect" title="House of Stewart">House of Stewart</a>, can all be traced back to Norman ancestry. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wales">Wales</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Normans&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Wales"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Norman_invasion_of_Wales" title="Norman invasion of Wales">Norman invasion of Wales</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cambro-Norman" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambro-Norman">Cambro-Norman</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mms_chepstow_castle_from_river_wye.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Mms_chepstow_castle_from_river_wye.jpg/250px-Mms_chepstow_castle_from_river_wye.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Mms_chepstow_castle_from_river_wye.jpg/375px-Mms_chepstow_castle_from_river_wye.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Mms_chepstow_castle_from_river_wye.jpg/500px-Mms_chepstow_castle_from_river_wye.jpg 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="443" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Chepstow_Castle" title="Chepstow Castle">Chepstow Castle</a> in Wales, built by <a href="/wiki/William_fitzOsbern" class="mw-redirect" title="William fitzOsbern">William fitzOsbern</a> in 1067</figcaption></figure> <p>Even before the Norman Conquest of England, the Normans had come into contact with <a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a>. Edward the Confessor had set up the aforementioned Ralph as Earl of Hereford and charged him with defending the <a href="/wiki/Welsh_Marches" title="Welsh Marches">Marches</a> and warring with the Welsh. In these original ventures, the Normans failed to make any headway into Wales. </p><p>After the Conquest, however, the Marches came completely under the dominance of William's most trusted Norman barons, including <a href="/wiki/Bernard_de_Neufmarch%C3%A9" title="Bernard de Neufmarché">Bernard de Neufmarché</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roger_de_Montgomerie,_1st_Earl_of_Shrewsbury" class="mw-redirect" title="Roger de Montgomerie, 1st Earl of Shrewsbury">Roger of Montgomery</a> in <a href="/wiki/Shropshire" title="Shropshire">Shropshire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hugh,_1st_Earl_of_Chester" class="mw-redirect" title="Hugh, 1st Earl of Chester">Hugh Lupus</a> in <a href="/wiki/Cheshire" title="Cheshire">Cheshire</a>. These Normans began a long period of slow conquest during which almost all of Wales was at some point subject to Norman interference. Norman words, such as <i>baron</i> (<span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">barwn</i></span>), first entered <a href="/wiki/Welsh_language" title="Welsh language">Welsh</a> at that time. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="On_crusade">On crusade</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Normans&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: On crusade"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Antioch" title="Principality of Antioch">Principality of Antioch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bohemund_I_of_Antioch" class="mw-redirect" title="Bohemund I of Antioch">Bohemund I of Antioch</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Richard_the_Lion-Heart" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard the Lion-Heart">Richard the Lion-Heart</a></div> <p>The legendary religious zeal of the Normans was exercised in religious wars long before the <a href="/wiki/First_Crusade" title="First Crusade">First Crusade</a> carved out a Norman <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Antioch" title="Principality of Antioch">principality in Antioch</a>. They were major foreign combatants in the <a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a> in <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberia</a>. In 1018, <a href="/wiki/Roger_I_of_Tosny" title="Roger I of Tosny">Roger de Tosny</a> travelled to the Iberian Peninsula to carve out a state for himself from <a href="/wiki/Moorish" class="mw-redirect" title="Moorish">Moorish</a> lands, but failed. In 1064, during the <a href="/wiki/War_of_Barbastro" class="mw-redirect" title="War of Barbastro">War of Barbastro</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_of_Montreuil" title="William of Montreuil">William of Montreuil</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Roger_Crispin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Roger Crispin (page does not exist)">Roger Crispin</a> and probably <a href="/w/index.php?title=Walter_Guiffard&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Walter Guiffard (page does not exist)">Walter Guiffard</a> led an army under the papal hanner which took a huge booty as they captured the city from its Andelusi rulers. Later a group of Normans led by certain William (some have suggested this was <a href="/wiki/William_the_Carpenter" title="William the Carpenter">William the Carpenter</a>) participated in the failed siege of Tudela of 1087.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1096, Crusaders passing by the siege of <a href="/wiki/Amalfi" title="Amalfi">Amalfi</a> were joined by <a href="/wiki/Bohemund_I_of_Antioch" class="mw-redirect" title="Bohemund I of Antioch">Bohemond of Taranto</a> and his nephew <a href="/wiki/Tancred,_Prince_of_Galilee" title="Tancred, Prince of Galilee">Tancred</a> with an army of Italo-Normans. Bohemond was the <i>de facto</i> leader of the Crusade during its passage through <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a>. After the successful <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Antioch" title="Siege of Antioch">Siege of Antioch</a> in 1097, Bohemond began carving out an independent principality around that city. Tancred was instrumental in the conquest of <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a> and he worked for the expansion of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Jerusalem" title="Kingdom of Jerusalem">Crusader kingdom</a> in <a href="/wiki/Oultrejordain" title="Oultrejordain">Transjordan</a> and the region of <a href="/wiki/Galilee" title="Galilee">Galilee</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2010)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. </p><p>After the First Crusade to the Levant, the Normans continued with their involvement in Iberia as well as other areas of the Mediterranean. Among them was Rotrou of Perche and his followers <a href="/wiki/Robert_Burdet" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Burdet">Robert Burdet</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_Giffard" title="William Giffard">William Giffard</a> who joined multiple expeditions into the Ebro Valley to aid Alfonso I of Aragon in his campaigns of conquest. Robert Burdet managed to acquire the position of Alcide of Tudela by 1123 and later that of Prince of the city Tarragona in 1129.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anglo-Norman_conquest_of_Cyprus">Anglo-Norman conquest of Cyprus</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Normans&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Anglo-Norman conquest of Cyprus"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Cyprus" title="Kingdom of Cyprus">Kingdom of Cyprus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cyprus_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Cyprus in the Middle Ages">Cyprus in the Middle Ages</a></div><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lusignan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Lusignan.jpg/350px-Lusignan.jpg" decoding="async" width="350" height="232" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Lusignan.jpg/525px-Lusignan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/Lusignan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="664" data-file-height="440" /></a><figcaption>Illuminated manuscript showing King <a href="/wiki/Richard_I_of_England" title="Richard I of England">Richard the Lionheart</a> authorizing <a href="/wiki/Guy_de_Lusignan" class="mw-redirect" title="Guy de Lusignan">Guy de Lusignan</a> to take <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Cyprus" title="Kingdom of Cyprus">Cyprus</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The conquest of <a href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Normans" title="Anglo-Normans">Anglo-Norman</a> forces of the <a href="/wiki/Third_Crusade" title="Third Crusade">Third Crusade</a> opened a new chapter in the history of the island, which would be under <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western European</a> domination for the following 380 years. Although not part of a planned operation, the conquest had much more permanent results than initially expected. </p><p>In April 1191, <a href="/wiki/Richard_I_of_England" title="Richard I of England">Richard the Lion-hearted</a> left <a href="/wiki/Messina" title="Messina">Messina</a> with a large fleet in order to reach <a href="/wiki/Acre_(city)" class="mw-redirect" title="Acre (city)">Acre</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlori1999131_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlori1999131-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But a storm dispersed the fleet. After some searching, it was discovered that the boat carrying his sister and his fiancée Berengaria was anchored on the south coast of Cyprus, together with the wrecks of several other ships, including the treasure ship. Survivors of the wrecks had been taken prisoner by the island's despot <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Komnenos_of_Cyprus" title="Isaac Komnenos of Cyprus">Isaac Komnenos</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlori1999132_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlori1999132-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 1 May 1191, Richard's fleet arrived in the port of <a href="/wiki/Limassol" title="Limassol">Limassol</a> on Cyprus.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlori1999132_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlori1999132-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He ordered Isaac to release the prisoners and the treasure.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlori1999132_48-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlori1999132-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Isaac refused, so Richard landed his troops and took Limassol.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlori1999133–134_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlori1999133–134-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Various princes of the Holy Land arrived in Limassol at the same time, in particular <a href="/wiki/Guy_de_Lusignan" class="mw-redirect" title="Guy de Lusignan">Guy de Lusignan</a>. All declared their support for Richard provided that he support Guy against his rival <a href="/wiki/Conrad_of_Montferrat" title="Conrad of Montferrat">Conrad of Montferrat</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlori1999134_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlori1999134-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The local barons abandoned Isaac, who considered making peace with Richard, joining him on the <a href="/wiki/Crusade" class="mw-redirect" title="Crusade">crusade</a>, and offering his daughter in marriage to the person named by Richard.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlori1999134–36_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlori1999134–36-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But Isaac changed his mind and tried to escape. Richard then proceeded to conquer the whole island, his troops being led by Guy de Lusignan. Isaac surrendered and was confined with silver chains, because Richard had promised that he would not place him in irons. By 1 June, Richard had conquered the whole island. His exploit was well publicized and contributed to his reputation; he also derived significant financial gains from the conquest of the island.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlori1999138_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlori1999138-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Richard left for <a href="/wiki/Acre,_Israel" title="Acre, Israel">Acre</a> on 5 June, with his allies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlori1999138_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlori1999138-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Before his departure, he named two of his Norman generals, <a href="/wiki/Richard_de_Camville" title="Richard de Camville">Richard de Camville</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_of_Thornham" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert of Thornham">Robert de Thornham</a>, as governors of Cyprus. </p><p>While in Limassol, Richard the Lion-Heart married <a href="/wiki/Berengaria_of_Navarre" title="Berengaria of Navarre">Berengaria of Navarre</a>, first-born daughter of King <a href="/wiki/Sancho_VI_of_Navarre" title="Sancho VI of Navarre">Sancho VI of Navarre</a>. The wedding was held on 12 May 1191 at the Chapel of St. George and it was attended by Richard's sister <a href="/wiki/Joan_of_England,_Queen_of_Sicily" title="Joan of England, Queen of Sicily">Joan</a>, whom he had brought from <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sicily" title="Kingdom of Sicily">Sicily</a>. The marriage was celebrated with great pomp and splendor. Among other grand ceremonies was a double coronation: Richard caused himself to be crowned <a href="/wiki/King_of_Cyprus" class="mw-redirect" title="King of Cyprus">King of Cyprus</a>, and Berengaria Queen of England and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Cypriot_consorts" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Cypriot consorts">Queen of Cyprus</a> as well. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Le_Canarien.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Le_Canarien.jpg/180px-Le_Canarien.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="276" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Le_Canarien.jpg/270px-Le_Canarien.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Le_Canarien.jpg/360px-Le_Canarien.jpg 2x" data-file-width="574" data-file-height="880" /></a><figcaption>Norman expeditionary ship depicted in the chronicle <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Le_Canarien&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Le Canarien (page does not exist)">Le Canarien</a></i> (1490)</figcaption></figure> <p>The rapid Anglo-Norman conquest proved more important than it seemed. The island occupied a key strategic position on the maritime lanes to the Holy Land, whose occupation by the Christians could not continue without support from the sea.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlori1999137_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlori1999137-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shortly after the conquest, Cyprus was sold to the <a href="/wiki/Knights_Templar" title="Knights Templar">Knights Templar</a> and it was subsequently acquired, in 1192, by Guy de Lusignan and became a <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Cyprus" title="Kingdom of Cyprus">stable feudal kingdom</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlori1999137_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlori1999137-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was only in 1489 that the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venetians</a> acquired full control of the island, which remained a Christian stronghold until the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Venetian_War_(1570%E2%80%931573)" title="Ottoman–Venetian War (1570–1573)">fall of Famagusta</a> in 1571.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlori1999138_52-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlori1999138-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Canary_Islands">Canary Islands</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Normans&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Canary Islands"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_the_Canary_Islands" title="Conquest of the Canary Islands">Conquest of the Canary Islands</a></div> <p>Between 1402 and 1405, the expedition led by the Norman noble <a href="/wiki/Jean_de_Bethencourt" class="mw-redirect" title="Jean de Bethencourt">Jean de Bethencourt</a><sup id="cite_ref-EB1911Bethencourt_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911Bethencourt-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Poitevine" class="mw-redirect" title="Poitevine">Poitevine</a> <a href="/wiki/Gadifer_de_la_Salle" title="Gadifer de la Salle">Gadifer de la Salle</a> conquered the <a href="/wiki/Canary_Islands" title="Canary Islands">Canarian islands</a> of <a href="/wiki/Lanzarote" title="Lanzarote">Lanzarote</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fuerteventura" title="Fuerteventura">Fuerteventura</a> and <a href="/wiki/El_Hierro" title="El Hierro">El Hierro</a> off the Atlantic coast of Africa. Their troops were gathered in Normandy, Gascony and were later reinforced by <a href="/wiki/Castilian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Castilian people">Castilian</a> colonists. </p><p>Bethencourt took the title of <a href="/wiki/King_of_the_Canary_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="King of the Canary Islands">King of the Canary Islands</a>, as vassal to <a href="/wiki/Henry_III_of_Castile" title="Henry III of Castile">Henry III of Castile</a>. In 1418, Jean's nephew <a href="/w/index.php?title=Maciot_de_Bethencourt&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Maciot de Bethencourt (page does not exist)">Maciot de Bethencourt</a> sold the rights to the islands to <a href="/wiki/Enrique_P%C3%A9rez_de_Guzm%C3%A1n,_2nd_Count_de_Niebla" class="mw-redirect" title="Enrique Pérez de Guzmán, 2nd Count de Niebla">Enrique Pérez de Guzmán, 2nd Count de Niebla</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Culture">Culture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Normans&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Language">Language</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Normans&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Language"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Old_Norman" title="Old Norman">Old Norman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Norman_language" title="Norman language">Norman language</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Norman_literature" title="Anglo-Norman literature">Anglo-Norman literature</a></div> <p>When <a href="/wiki/Norsemen" title="Norsemen">Norse</a> <a href="/wiki/Vikings" title="Vikings">Vikings</a> from <a href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavia</a> arrived in the then-province of <a href="/wiki/Neustria" title="Neustria">Neustria</a> and settled the land that became known as Normandy, they originally spoke <a href="/wiki/Old_Norse" title="Old Norse">Old Norse</a>, a <a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="North Germanic language">North Germanic language</a>. Over time, they came to live among the local <a href="/wiki/Gallo-Romance_languages" title="Gallo-Romance languages">Gallo-Romance</a>-speaking population, with the two communities converging to the point that the original Norsemen largely assimilated and adopted the local dialect of <a href="/wiki/Old_French" title="Old French">Old French</a> while contributing some elements from the <a href="/wiki/Old_Norse" title="Old Norse">Old Norse</a> language.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This Norse-influenced dialect which then arose was known as <a href="/wiki/Old_Norman" title="Old Norman">Old Norman</a>, and it is the ancestor of both the modern <a href="/wiki/Norman_language" title="Norman language">Norman language</a> still spoken today in the <a href="/wiki/Channel_Islands" title="Channel Islands">Channel Islands</a> and parts of mainland Normandy, as well as the historical <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Norman_language" title="Anglo-Norman language">Anglo-Norman language</a> in England. Old Norman was also an important language of the <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Antioch" title="Principality of Antioch">Principality of Antioch</a> during Crusader rule in the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Madden2005_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Madden2005-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Old Norman and <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Norman_literature" title="Anglo-Norman literature">Anglo-Norman literature</a> was quite extensive during the Middle Ages, with records existing from notable Norman poets such as <a href="/wiki/Wace" title="Wace">Wace</a>, who was born on the island of <a href="/wiki/Jersey" title="Jersey">Jersey</a> and raised in mainland Normandy.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Norman_law">Norman law</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Normans&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Norman law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Norman_law" title="Norman law">Norman law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Clameur_de_haro" title="Clameur de haro">Clameur de haro</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Custom_(law)" class="mw-redirect" title="Custom (law)">customary law</a> of <a href="/wiki/Normandy" title="Normandy">Normandy</a> was developed between the 10th and 13th centuries and survives today through the legal systems of <a href="/wiki/Law_of_Jersey" title="Law of Jersey">Jersey</a> and <a href="/wiki/Guernsey" title="Guernsey">Guernsey</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Channel_Islands" title="Channel Islands">Channel Islands</a>. Norman customary law was transcribed in two <a href="/wiki/Coutume" class="mw-redirect" title="Coutume">customaries</a> in <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> by two judges for use by them and their colleagues:<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These are the <i>Très ancien coutumier</i> (<i>Very ancient customary</i>), authored between 1200 and 1245; and the <i>Grand coutumier de Normandie</i> (<i>Great customary of Normandy</i>, originally <i>Summa de legibus Normanniae in curia laïcali</i>), authored between 1235 and 1245. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Architecture">Architecture</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Normans&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Architecture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Norman_architecture" title="Norman architecture">Norman architecture</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tower_of_London,_Traitors_Gate.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Tower_of_London%2C_Traitors_Gate.jpg/290px-Tower_of_London%2C_Traitors_Gate.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="265" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Tower_of_London%2C_Traitors_Gate.jpg/435px-Tower_of_London%2C_Traitors_Gate.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Tower_of_London%2C_Traitors_Gate.jpg/580px-Tower_of_London%2C_Traitors_Gate.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1417" data-file-height="1296" /></a><figcaption>A quintessential Norman keep: the <a href="/wiki/White_Tower_(Tower_of_London)" title="White Tower (Tower of London)">White Tower</a> at the heart of the <a href="/wiki/Tower_of_London" title="Tower of London">Tower of London</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Norman architecture typically stands out as a new stage in the architectural history of the regions they subdued. They spread a unique <a href="/wiki/Romanesque_architecture" title="Romanesque architecture">Romanesque idiom</a> to England, Italy and Ireland, and the <a href="/wiki/Encastellation" title="Encastellation">encastellation</a> of these regions with <a href="/wiki/Keep" title="Keep">keeps</a> in their north French style fundamentally altered the military landscape. Their style was characterised by rounded <a href="/wiki/Arch" title="Arch">arches</a>, particularly over windows and doorways, and massive proportions. </p><p>In England, the period of Norman architecture immediately succeeds that of the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_architecture" title="Anglo-Saxon architecture">Anglo-Saxon</a> and precedes the <a href="/wiki/Gothic_architecture" title="Gothic architecture">Early Gothic</a>. In southern Italy, the Normans incorporated elements of <a href="/wiki/Islamic_architecture" title="Islamic architecture">Islamic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lombardic_architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Lombardic architecture">Lombard</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_architecture" title="Byzantine architecture">Byzantine</a> building techniques into their own, initiating a unique romanesque style known as <a href="/wiki/Norman-Arab-Byzantine_culture#Norman-Arab-Byzantine_architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Norman-Arab-Byzantine culture">Norman-Arab architecture</a> within the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sicily" title="Kingdom of Sicily">Kingdom of Sicily</a> and precedes the Early Gothic.<sup id="cite_ref-Sicily_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sicily-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Visual_arts">Visual arts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Normans&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Visual arts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the visual arts, the Normans did not have the rich and distinctive traditions of the cultures they conquered. However, in the early 11th century, the dukes began a programme of church reform, encouraging the <a href="/wiki/Cluniac_reform" class="mw-redirect" title="Cluniac reform">Cluniac reform</a> of monasteries and patronising intellectual pursuits, especially the proliferation of <a href="/wiki/Scriptoria" class="mw-redirect" title="Scriptoria">scriptoria</a> and the reconstitution of a compilation of lost <a href="/wiki/Illuminated_manuscript" title="Illuminated manuscript">illuminated manuscripts</a>. The church was utilised by the dukes as a unifying force for their disparate duchy. The chief monasteries taking part in this "renaissance" of Norman art and scholarship were <a href="/wiki/Mont-Saint-Michel" title="Mont-Saint-Michel">Mont-Saint-Michel</a>, <a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9camp" title="Fécamp">Fécamp</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jumi%C3%A8ges" title="Jumièges">Jumièges</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bec-de-Mortagne" title="Bec-de-Mortagne">Bec</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saint-Ouen,_Rouen" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint-Ouen, Rouen">Saint-Ouen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saint-Evroul" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint-Evroul">Saint-Evroul</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Saint-Wandrille" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint-Wandrille">Saint-Wandrille</a>. These centres were in contact with the so-called "<a href="/wiki/Winchester" title="Winchester">Winchester</a> school", which channeled a pure <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_art" title="Carolingian art">Carolingian artistic</a> tradition to Normandy. In the final decade of the 11th and first of the 12th century, Normandy experienced a golden age of illustrated manuscripts, but it was brief and the major scriptoria of Normandy ceased to function after the midpoint of the century. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lion,_Norman_Italy_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Lion%2C_Norman_Italy_2.jpg/170px-Lion%2C_Norman_Italy_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Lion%2C_Norman_Italy_2.jpg/255px-Lion%2C_Norman_Italy_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Lion%2C_Norman_Italy_2.jpg/340px-Lion%2C_Norman_Italy_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1155" data-file-height="1490" /></a><figcaption>A bronze lion sculpture attributed to an <a href="/wiki/Italo-Norman" class="mw-redirect" title="Italo-Norman">Italo-Norman</a> artist. Now in the <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art" title="Metropolitan Museum of Art">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/French_Wars_of_Religion" title="French Wars of Religion">French Wars of Religion</a> in the 16th century and the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a> in the 18th successively destroyed much of what existed in the way of the architectural and artistic remnant of this Norman creativity. The former, with their violence, caused the wanton destruction of many Norman edifices; the latter, with its assault on religion, caused the purposeful destruction of religious objects of any type, and its destabilisation of society resulted in rampant pillaging. </p><p>By far the most famous work of Norman art is the <a href="/wiki/Bayeux_Tapestry" title="Bayeux Tapestry">Bayeux Tapestry</a>, which is not a <a href="/wiki/Tapestry" title="Tapestry">tapestry</a> but a work of <a href="/wiki/Embroidery" title="Embroidery">embroidery</a>. It was commissioned by <a href="/wiki/Odo_of_Bayeux" title="Odo of Bayeux">Odo</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Bishop_of_Bayeux" class="mw-redirect" title="Bishop of Bayeux">Bishop of Bayeux</a> and first <a href="/wiki/Earl_of_Kent" title="Earl of Kent">Earl of Kent</a>, employing natives from <a href="/wiki/Kent" title="Kent">Kent</a> who were learned in the Nordic traditions imported in the previous half century by the <a href="/wiki/Danes_(Germanic_tribe)" class="mw-redirect" title="Danes (Germanic tribe)">Danish</a> <a href="/wiki/Vikings" title="Vikings">Vikings</a>. </p><p>In Britain, Norman art primarily survives as <a href="/wiki/Stonework" class="mw-redirect" title="Stonework">stonework</a> or <a href="/wiki/Metalwork" class="mw-redirect" title="Metalwork">metalwork</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Capital_(column)" class="mw-redirect" title="Capital (column)">capitals</a> and <a href="/wiki/Baptismal_font" title="Baptismal font">baptismal fonts</a>. In southern Italy, however, Norman artwork survives plentifully in forms strongly influenced by its <a href="/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Greek</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lombards" title="Lombards">Lombard</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Arab" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab">Arab</a> forebears. Of the royal regalia preserved in <a href="/wiki/Palermo" title="Palermo">Palermo</a>, the crown is <a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Byzantine" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine">Byzantine</a> in style and the coronation cloak is of Arab craftsmanship with <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a> inscriptions. Many churches preserve sculptured fonts, capitals, and more importantly mosaics, which were common in Norman Italy and drew heavily on the Greek heritage. Lombard Salerno was a centre of <a href="/wiki/Ivory" title="Ivory">ivorywork</a> in the 11th century and this continued under Norman domination. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Music">Music</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Normans&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Music"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:David_on_harp.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/David_on_harp.jpg/220px-David_on_harp.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="318" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/David_on_harp.jpg/330px-David_on_harp.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/David_on_harp.jpg/440px-David_on_harp.jpg 2x" data-file-width="554" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>An illuminated manuscript from <a href="/wiki/Saint-Evroul" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint-Evroul">Saint-Evroul</a> depicting <a href="/wiki/King_David" class="mw-redirect" title="King David">King David</a> on the lyre (or harp) in the middle of the back of the initial 'B'</figcaption></figure> <p>Normandy was the site of several important developments in the history of <a href="/wiki/Classical_music" title="Classical music">classical music</a> in the 11th century. <a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9camp_Abbey" title="Fécamp Abbey">Fécamp Abbey</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saint-Evroul_Abbey" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint-Evroul Abbey">Saint-Evroul Abbey</a> were centres of musical production and education. At Fécamp, under two Italian abbots, <a href="/wiki/William_of_Volpiano" title="William of Volpiano">William of Volpiano</a> and John of Ravenna, the system of denoting notes by letters was developed and taught. It is still the most common form of pitch representation in English- and German-speaking countries today. Also at Fécamp, the <a href="/wiki/Staff_(music)" title="Staff (music)">staff</a>, around which <a href="/wiki/Neume" title="Neume">neumes</a> were oriented, was first developed and taught in the 11th century. Under the German abbot <a href="/w/index.php?title=Isembard_of_La_Trinit%C3%A9-du-Mont&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Isembard of La Trinité-du-Mont (page does not exist)">Isembard</a>, <a href="/wiki/La_Trinit%C3%A9-du-Mont" title="La Trinité-du-Mont">La Trinité-du-Mont</a> became a centre of musical composition. </p><p>At Saint Evroul, a tradition of singing had developed and the choir achieved fame in Normandy. Under the Norman abbot <a href="/wiki/Robert_de_Grantmesnil" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert de Grantmesnil">Robert de Grantmesnil</a>, several monks of Saint-Evroul fled to southern Italy, where they were patronised by Robert Guiscard and established a Latin monastery at <a href="/wiki/Lamezia_Terme#Sant'Eufemia_Lamezia" title="Lamezia Terme">Sant'Eufemia Lamezia</a>. There they continued the tradition of singing. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Rulers">Rulers</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Normans&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Rulers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duke_of_Normandy#List_of_dukes_of_Normandy_(911–1204)" title="Duke of Normandy">List of dukes of Normandy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Count_of_Apulia" class="mw-redirect" title="Count of Apulia">List of counts and dukes of Apulia and Calabria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_counts_of_Aversa" title="List of counts of Aversa">List of counts of Aversa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_princes_of_Capua" title="List of princes of Capua">List of princes of Capua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_dukes_of_Gaeta" title="List of dukes of Gaeta">List of dukes of Gaeta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Taranto#Hauteville_(Altavilla)_dynasty" title="Principality of Taranto">List of princes of Taranto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Antioch#Princes_of_Antioch,_1098–1268" title="Principality of Antioch">List of princes of Antioch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Officers_of_the_Principality_of_Antioch" title="Officers of the Principality of Antioch">List of officers of the Principality of Antioch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lusignan_dynasty#Second_House_of_Lusignan" class="mw-redirect" title="Lusignan dynasty">Second House of Lusignan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_English_monarchs#House_of_Normandy_(1066–1135)" title="List of English monarchs">List of English monarchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Scottish_monarchs" title="List of Scottish monarchs">List of Scottish monarchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Sicilian_monarchs" title="List of Sicilian monarchs">List of Sicilian monarchs</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Normans&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/32px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/48px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/64px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:France" title="Portal:France">France portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bailiwick_of_Guernsey" title="Bailiwick of Guernsey">Bailiwick of Guernsey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bailiwick_of_Jersey" class="mw-redirect" title="Bailiwick of Jersey">Bailiwick of Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Channel_Islands" title="Channel Islands">Channel Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cotentin_Peninsula" title="Cotentin Peninsula">Cotentin Peninsula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Normandy" title="House of Normandy">House of Normandy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_language" title="Norman language">Norman language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norsemen" title="Norsemen">Norsemen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rus%27_people" title="Rus' people">Rus' people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charter_to_the_Normans" title="Charter to the Normans">Charter to the Normans</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Normans&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrown1994">Brown 1994</a>, p. 18: "The first Viking settlers in Normandy, it is agreed, were predominantly Danish, though their leader, Rollo was of Norse extraction."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrown1994">Brown 1994</a>, p. 19: "the Northmen of Normandy became increasingly Gallicized, increasingly Norman we may say, until by the mid-eleventh century they were more French than the French, or, to speak correctly, more Frankish than the Franks."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFElizabeth_Van_Houts2000" class="citation book cs1">Elizabeth Van Houts (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IarkHmOdjnsC&q=%22The+Normans+were+the+people+of+Normandy%22"><i>The Normans in Europe</i></a>. Manchester University Press. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780719047510" title="Special:BookSources/9780719047510"><bdi>9780719047510</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230502073629/https://books.google.com/books?id=IarkHmOdjnsC&q=%22The+Normans+were+the+people+of+Normandy%22">Archived</a> from the original on 2 May 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 May</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Normans+in+Europe&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9780719047510&rft.au=Elizabeth+Van+Houts&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIarkHmOdjnsC%26q%3D%2522The%2BNormans%2Bwere%2Bthe%2Bpeople%2Bof%2BNormandy%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANormans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDu_Cluzel_de_Remaurin,_Chevalier.1863" class="citation web cs1">Du Cluzel de Remaurin, Chevalier. (1863). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k56642609/f12.item">"Généalogie de la noble et ancienne maison des Le Roy"</a>. <i>Bibliothèque nationale de France, département Philosophie, histoire, sciences de l'homme</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230530194718/https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k56642609/f12.item">Archived</a> from the original on 30 May 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 May</span> 2023</span>. <q>D'orgine normande, la noble maison des LE ROY 1, divisée en quatre principales bran-ches, dont nous donnons ici la généalogie, remonte à la plus haute antiquité, c'est-à-dire à ces fiers enfants du Nord (Nort-mans) qui, du fond de la Norwège 2, sous la conduite des Hadding, des Gerlon, des Héric et autres chefs non moins inhumains et farouches, inon-dèrent la Gaule au septième siècle, et ne laissèrent rien d'entier sur leur passage que les traces sanglantes de leur barbarie, la désolation et des' ruines, assiégèrent trois fois Paris et en effrayèrent si fort les habitants..." "2 Nortwége selon Moriri, et Norwegue selon Bruzen de a Martinière.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Biblioth%C3%A8que+nationale+de+France%2C+d%C3%A9partement+Philosophie%2C+histoire%2C+sciences+de+l%27homme&rft.atitle=G%C3%A9n%C3%A9alogie+de+la+noble+et+ancienne+maison+des+Le+Roy&rft.date=1863&rft.au=Du+Cluzel+de+Remaurin%2C+Chevalier.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgallica.bnf.fr%2Fark%3A%2F12148%2Fbpt6k56642609%2Ff12.item&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANormans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sicily-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sicily_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sicily_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bestofsicily.com/mag/art171.htm">"Sicilian Peoples: The Normans"</a>. <i>L. Mendola & V. Salerno</i>. Best of Sicily Magazine. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190114141353/http://www.bestofsicily.com/mag/art171.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 14 January 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 July</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=L.+Mendola+%26+V.+Salerno&rft.atitle=Sicilian+Peoples%3A+The+Normans&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bestofsicily.com%2Fmag%2Fart171.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANormans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Norman-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Norman_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Norman_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Norman_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Norman_6-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/418283/Norman">"Norman"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150429235448/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/418283/Norman">Archived</a> from the original on 29 April 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 June</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Norman&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F418283%2FNorman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANormans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://normancenturies.com/">"Norman Centuries – A Norman History Podcast by Lars Brownworth"</a>. <i>normancenturies.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190727054559/https://normancenturies.com/">Archived</a> from the original on 27 July 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 May</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=normancenturies.com&rft.atitle=Norman+Centuries+%E2%80%93+A+Norman+History+Podcast+by+Lars+Brownworth&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnormancenturies.com%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANormans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Impact-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Impact_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Impact_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historytoday.com/r-allen-brown/norman-impact">"The Norman Impact"</a>. <i>History Today Volume 36 Issue 2</i>. <a href="/wiki/History_Today" title="History Today">History Today</a>. 2 February 1986. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181106194715/https://www.historytoday.com/r-allen-brown/norman-impact">Archived</a> from the original on 6 November 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 July</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=History+Today+Volume+36+Issue+2&rft.atitle=The+Norman+Impact&rft.date=1986-02-02&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.historytoday.com%2Fr-allen-brown%2Fnorman-impact&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANormans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-searle-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-searle_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-searle_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSearle1988" class="citation book cs1">Searle, Eleanor (1988). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/predatorykinship0000sear"><i>Predatory Kinship and the Creation of Norman Power, 840–1066</i></a></span>. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/predatorykinship0000sear/page/89">89</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0520062764" title="Special:BookSources/978-0520062764"><bdi>978-0520062764</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Predatory+Kinship+and+the+Creation+of+Norman+Power%2C+840%E2%80%931066&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+California&rft.pages=89&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0520062764&rft.aulast=Searle&rft.aufirst=Eleanor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpredatorykinship0000sear&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANormans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeveux2008" class="citation book cs1">Neveux, François (2008). <i>A Brief History of The Normans</i>. London, England: Constable & Robbinson, Ltd. pp. 73–74. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1845295233" title="Special:BookSources/978-1845295233"><bdi>978-1845295233</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Brief+History+of+The+Normans&rft.place=London%2C+England&rft.pages=73-74&rft.pub=Constable+%26+Robbinson%2C+Ltd&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1845295233&rft.aulast=Neveux&rft.aufirst=Fran%C3%A7ois&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANormans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJ.R._Tanner,_C.W._Previte-Orton" class="citation book cs1">J.R. Tanner, C.W. Previte-Orton, Z.N. Brook. <i>Cambridge Medieval History (Volume 5, Chapter XV)</i>. Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cambridge+Medieval+History+%28Volume+5%2C+Chapter+XV%29&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.aulast=J.R.+Tanner%2C+C.W.+Previte-Orton&rft.aufirst=Z.N.+Brook&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANormans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-HoG-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-HoG_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Marr, J., <i>The History of Guernsey – the Bailiwick's story</i>, Guernsey Press (2001).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMinistry_of_Justice" class="citation web cs1">Ministry of Justice. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/361537/crown-dependencies.pdf">"Fact sheet on the UK's relationship with the Crown Dependencies"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>GOV.UK</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141209173145/https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/361537/crown-dependencies.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 9 December 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 February</span> 2016</span>. <q>HM Government is responsible for the defence and international relations of the Islands.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=GOV.UK&rft.atitle=Fact+sheet+on+the+UK%27s+relationship+with+the+Crown+Dependencies&rft.au=Ministry+of+Justice&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gov.uk%2Fgovernment%2Fuploads%2Fsystem%2Fuploads%2Fattachment_data%2Ffile%2F361537%2Fcrown-dependencies.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANormans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/normans/1066_01.shtml">"Claims to the Throne"</a>. <i>Mike Ibeji</i>. <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a>. 17 February 2011. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221001092010/https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/normans/1066_01.shtml">Archived</a> from the original on 1 October 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 August</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Mike+Ibeji&rft.atitle=Claims+to+the+Throne&rft.date=2011-02-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fhistory%2Fbritish%2Fnormans%2F1066_01.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANormans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.medievalists.net/2008/09/norman-and-anglo-norman-participation-in-the-iberian-reconquista-c1018-c1248/">"Norman and Anglo-Norman Participation in the Iberian Reconquista c.1018–1248 – Medievalists.net"</a>. <i>Medievalists.net</i>. 24 September 2008. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190122234344/http://www.medievalists.net/2008/09/norman-and-anglo-norman-participation-in-the-iberian-reconquista-c1018-c1248/">Archived</a> from the original on 22 January 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 May</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Medievalists.net&rft.atitle=Norman+and+Anglo-Norman+Participation+in+the+Iberian+Reconquista+c.1018%E2%80%931248+%E2%80%93+Medievalists.net&rft.date=2008-09-24&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.medievalists.net%2F2008%2F09%2Fnorman-and-anglo-norman-participation-in-the-iberian-reconquista-c1018-c1248%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANormans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/normans/hudson_norman_01.shtml">"What Did the Normans Do for Us?"</a>. <i>John Hudson</i>. <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a>. 12 February 2012. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220424044517/https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/normans/hudson_norman_01.shtml">Archived</a> from the original on 24 April 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 July</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=John+Hudson&rft.atitle=What+Did+the+Normans+Do+for+Us%3F&rft.date=2012-02-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fhistory%2Fbritish%2Fnormans%2Fhudson_norman_01.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANormans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoad1993" class="citation book cs1">Hoad, TF (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/conciseoxforddic00tfho/page/315"><i>The Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology</i></a>. Oxfordshire, England: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/conciseoxforddic00tfho/page/315">315</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0192830982" title="Special:BookSources/978-0192830982"><bdi>978-0192830982</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Concise+Oxford+Dictionary+of+English+Etymology&rft.place=Oxfordshire%2C+England&rft.pages=315&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0192830982&rft.aulast=Hoad&rft.aufirst=TF&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fconciseoxforddic00tfho%2Fpage%2F315&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANormans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dauzat-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Dauzat_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDauzatDuboisMitterand1971">Dauzat, Dubois & Mitterand 1971</a>, p. 497.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cnrtl.fr/etymologie/normand">"Etymologie de Normand"</a> (in French). Centre National de Ressources Textuelles et Lexicales. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120130052010/http://www.cnrtl.fr/etymologie/normand">Archived</a> from the original on 30 January 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 April</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Etymologie+de+Normand&rft.pub=Centre+National+de+Ressources+Textuelles+et+Lexicales&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnrtl.fr%2Fetymologie%2Fnormand&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANormans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGunn1975-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGunn1975_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGunn1975">Gunn 1975</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bates20-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bates20_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBates2002" class="citation book cs1">Bates, David (2002). <i>Normandy Before 1066</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 February</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=HISTORY&rft.atitle=Globetrotting+Vikings%3A+To+the+Gates+of+Paris&rft.aulast=Klein&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.history.com%2Fnews%2Fglobetrotting-vikings-to-the-gates-of-paris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANormans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Robert-I-king-of-France">"Robert I | king of France"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200620160754/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Robert-I-king-of-France">Archived</a> from the original on 20 June 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781472839442" title="Special:BookSources/9781472839442"><bdi>9781472839442</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Normans+in+Italy+1016%E2%80%931194&rft.pages=7&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=9781472839442&rft.au=Raffaele+D%27Amato+%26+Andrea+Salimbeti&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANormans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown1994106-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrown1994106_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrown1994">Brown 1994</a>, p. 106.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDupont2001" class="citation book cs1">Dupont, Jerry (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pCX660FA5wMC&pg=PA793"><i>The Common Law Abroad: Constitutional and Legal Legacy of the British Empire</i></a>. 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Concise.britannica.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/article-9377080/Roger-II">the original</a> on 23 May 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 January</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Roger+II+%E2%80%93+King+of+Sicily&rft.pub=Concise.britannica.com&rft.au=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fconcise.britannica.com%2Febc%2Farticle-9377080%2FRoger-II&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANormans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFInturrisi1987" class="citation news cs1">Inturrisi, Louis (26 April 1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B0DE1D61331F935A15757C0A961948260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=2">"Tracing The Norman Rulers of Sicily"</a>. <i>New York Times</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090303151440/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B0DE1D61331F935A15757C0A961948260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=2">Archived</a> from the original on 3 March 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 January</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Tracing+The+Norman+Rulers+of+Sicily&rft.date=1987-04-26&rft.aulast=Inturrisi&rft.aufirst=Louis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fquery.nytimes.com%2Fgst%2Ffullpage.html%3Fres%3D9B0DE1D61331F935A15757C0A961948260%26sec%3D%26spon%3D%26pagewanted%3D2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANormans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Les Normands en Sicile</i>, p. 17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lewis,_p.148-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lewis,_p.148_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lewis, p. 148</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lucas Villegas-Aristizábal (2008) 'Roger of Tosny's adventures in the County of Barcelona', Nottingham Medieval Studies 52, pp. 5–16. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://doi.org/10.1484/J.NMS.3.426">https://doi.org/10.1484/J.NMS.3.426</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230502073631/https://www.brepolsonline.net/doi/10.1484/J.NMS.3.426">Archived</a> 2 May 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lucas Villegas-Aristizábal (2017), 'Spiritual and material rewards on the Christian-Muslim Frontier', Medievalismo 27, pp. 353–376. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://doi.org/10.6018/medievalismo.27.310701">https://doi.org/10.6018/medievalismo.27.310701</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230502073637/http://revistas.um.es/medievalismo/article/view/310701">Archived</a> 2 May 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lucas Villegas-Aristizábal (2013) 'Revisiting the Anglo-Norman Crusaders' Failed Attempt to Conquer Lisbon c. 1142', Portuguese Studies 29.1, pp. 7–20 <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://doi.org/10.5699/portstudies.29.1.0007">https://doi.org/10.5699/portstudies.29.1.0007</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230502073633/https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5699/portstudies.29.1.0007">Archived</a> 2 May 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lucas Villegas-Aristizábal (2015) 'Norman and Anglo-Norman Intervention in the Iberian Wars of Reconquest before and after the First Crusade', in Harlock and Oldfield, Crusading and Pilgrimage in the Norman World, Woodbridge, Boydell, pp. 103–124 <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://doi.org/10.1484/J.NMS.5.111293">https://doi.org/10.1484/J.NMS.5.111293</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230502073632/https://www.brepolsonline.net/doi/10.1484/J.NMS.5.111293">Archived</a> 2 May 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lucas Villegas-Aristizábal (2009), 'Anglo-Norman Intervention in the Conquest and Settlement of Tortosa', Crusades 8 (2009), pp. 63–129. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315271590-7">https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315271590-7</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230502073633/https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781315271590-7/anglo-norman-intervention-conquest-settlement-tortosa-1148%E2%80%931180">Archived</a> 2 May 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeihammer2017211–213-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeihammer2017211–213_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeihammer2017">Beihammer 2017</a>, pp. 211–213.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Anna_Comnena" class="mw-redirect" title="Anna Comnena">Anna Comnena</a>. <i>The Alexiad</i>, 4.8; <a href="#CITEREFVranousi1962">Vranousi 1962</a>, pp. 5–26.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Normans</i>, <a href="/wiki/Marjorie_Chibnall" title="Marjorie Chibnall">Marjorie Chibnall</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChibnall2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Marjorie_Chibnall" title="Marjorie Chibnall">Chibnall, Marjorie</a> (2000). <i>The Normans</i>. Oxford: Blackwell publishing. p. 62. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-4965-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-4965-5"><bdi>978-1-4051-4965-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Normans&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=62&rft.pub=Blackwell+publishing&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-4965-5&rft.aulast=Chibnall&rft.aufirst=Marjorie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANormans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lucas Villegas-Aristizábal, 'The Changing Priorities in the Norman Incursions into the Iberian Peninsula's Muslim–Christian Frontiers, 1018–1191', in <i>Normans in the Mediterranean</i>, eds. Emily Winkler and Liam Fitzgerald, MISCS 9, Turnhout: Brepols, 2021, pp. 90–91. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.brepols.net/Pages/ShowProduct.aspx?prod_id=IS-9782503590578-1">http://www.brepols.net/Pages/ShowProduct.aspx?prod_id=IS-9782503590578-1</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210928063224/http://www.brepols.net/Pages/ShowProduct.aspx?prod_id=IS-9782503590578-1">Archived</a> 28 September 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lucas Villegas-Aristizábal, 'Spiritual and Material Rewards on the Christian-Muslim Frontier: Norman Crusaders in the Valley of the Ebro', <i>Medievalismo</i> 27 (2017): 353–376. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://doi.org/10.6018/medievalismo.27.310701">https://doi.org/10.6018/medievalismo.27.310701</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230502073637/http://revistas.um.es/medievalismo/article/view/310701">Archived</a> 2 May 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlori1999131-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlori1999131_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFlori1999">Flori 1999</a>, p. 131.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlori1999132-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlori1999132_48-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlori1999132_48-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlori1999132_48-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFlori1999">Flori 1999</a>, p. 132.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlori1999133–134-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlori1999133–134_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFlori1999">Flori 1999</a>, pp. 133–134.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlori1999134-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlori1999134_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFlori1999">Flori 1999</a>, p. 134.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlori1999134–36-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlori1999134–36_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFlori1999">Flori 1999</a>, pp. 134–36.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlori1999138-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlori1999138_52-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlori1999138_52-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlori1999138_52-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFlori1999">Flori 1999</a>, p. 138.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlori1999137-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlori1999137_53-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlori1999137_53-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFlori1999">Flori 1999</a>, p. 137.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EB1911Bethencourt-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-EB1911Bethencourt_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="noprint"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/18px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/24px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span> </span>This article incorporates text from a publication now in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChisholm1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a>, ed. (1911). "<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/B%C3%A9thencourt,_Jean_de" class="extiw" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Béthencourt, Jean de">Béthencourt, Jean de</a>". <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 3 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=B%C3%A9thencourt%2C+Jean+de&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANormans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElisabeth_Ridel2010" class="citation book cs1">Elisabeth Ridel (2010). <i>Les Vikings et les mots</i>. Editions Errance.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Les+Vikings+et+les+mots&rft.pub=Editions+Errance&rft.date=2010&rft.au=Elisabeth+Ridel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANormans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Norman-people">"Norman"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220324074550/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Norman-people">Archived</a> from the original on 24 March 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 July</span> 2020</span>. <q>Norman, member of those Vikings, or Norsemen, who settled in northern France...The Normans (from Nortmanni: "Northmen") were originally pagan barbarian pirates from Denmark, Norway, and Iceland</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Norman&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FNorman-people&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANormans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Madden2005-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Madden2005_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMadden2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_F._Madden" title="Thomas F. Madden">Madden, Thomas F.</a> (12 September 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5eudAAAACAAJ&pg=PA67"><i>Crusades: The Illustrated History</i></a>. University of Michigan Press. p. 67. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-472-031276" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-472-031276"><bdi>978-0-472-031276</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230502073631/https://books.google.com/books?id=5eudAAAACAAJ&pg=PA67">Archived</a> from the original on 2 May 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 September</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Crusades%3A+The+Illustrated+History&rft.pages=67&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=2005-09-12&rft.isbn=978-0-472-031276&rft.aulast=Madden&rft.aufirst=Thomas+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5eudAAAACAAJ%26pg%3DPA67&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANormans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerbermann1913" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Robert Wace"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Robert_Wace">"Robert Wace" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia" title="Catholic Encyclopedia">Catholic Encyclopedia</a></i>. New York: Robert Appleton Company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Robert+Wace&rft.btitle=Catholic+Encyclopedia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Robert+Appleton+Company&rft.date=1913&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANormans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131123003719/http://www.mondes-normands.caen.fr/angleterre/cultures/GB_FR/culture1_7.htm">"Norman customary law"</a>. <i>Mondes-normands.caen.fr</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mondes-normands.caen.fr/angleterre/cultures/GB_FR/culture1_7.htm">the original</a> on 23 November 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 May</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Mondes-normands.caen.fr&rft.atitle=Norman+customary+law&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mondes-normands.caen.fr%2Fangleterre%2Fcultures%2FGB_FR%2Fculture1_7.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANormans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Normans&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary">Primary</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Normans&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Primary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvan_Houts2000" class="citation cs2">van Houts, Elisabeth, ed. (2000), <i>The Normans in Europe</i>, Manchester: Manchester Medieval Sources</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Normans+in+Europe&rft.place=Manchester&rft.pub=Manchester+Medieval+Sources&rft.date=2000&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANormans" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.leeds.ac.uk/history/weblearning/MedievalHistoryTextCentre/medievalTexts.htm"><i>Medieval History Texts in Translation</i></a>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Leeds" title="University of Leeds">University of Leeds</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110831122839/http://www.leeds.ac.uk/downloads/20041/school_of_history">archived</a> from the original on 31 August 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 August</span> 2006</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+History+Texts+in+Translation&rft.pub=University+of+Leeds&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.leeds.ac.uk%2Fhistory%2Fweblearning%2FMedievalHistoryTextCentre%2FmedievalTexts.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANormans" class="Z3988"></span>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Secondary">Secondary</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Normans&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Secondary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBates1982" class="citation cs2">Bates, David (1982), <i>Normandy before 1066</i>, London</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Normandy+before+1066&rft.place=London&rft.date=1982&rft.aulast=Bates&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANormans" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Citation" title="Template:Citation">citation</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeihammer2017" class="citation book cs1">Beihammer, Alexander Daniel (2017). <i>Byzantium and the Emergence of Muslim-Turkish Anatolia, Ca. 1040–1130</i>. Taylor & Francis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1351983860" title="Special:BookSources/978-1351983860"><bdi>978-1351983860</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Byzantium+and+the+Emergence+of+Muslim-Turkish+Anatolia%2C+Ca.+1040%E2%80%931130&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1351983860&rft.aulast=Beihammer&rft.aufirst=Alexander+Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANormans" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown1994" class="citation cs2">Brown, R. Allen (1994), <i>The Normans</i>, Boydell & Brewer</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Normans&rft.pub=Boydell+%26+Brewer&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=R.+Allen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANormans" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChalandon1907" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Chalandon" title="Ferdinand Chalandon">Chalandon, Ferdinand</a> (1907), <i>Histoire de la domination normande en Italie et en Sicilie</i> [<i>History of the Norman domination in Italy & Sicily</i>] (in French), Paris</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Histoire+de+la+domination+normande+en+Italie+et+en+Sicilie&rft.place=Paris&rft.date=1907&rft.aulast=Chalandon&rft.aufirst=Ferdinand&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANormans" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Citation" title="Template:Citation">citation</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChibnall2000" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Marjorie_Chibnall" title="Marjorie Chibnall">Chibnall, Marjorie</a> (2000), <i>The Normans</i>, The Peoples of Europe, Oxford</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Normans&rft.place=Oxford&rft.series=The+Peoples+of+Europe&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Chibnall&rft.aufirst=Marjorie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANormans" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Citation" title="Template:Citation">citation</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChibnall1999" class="citation cs2">——— (1999), <i>The Debate on the Norman Conquest</i></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Debate+on+the+Norman+Conquest&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Chibnall&rft.aufirst=Marjorie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANormans" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrouch2003" class="citation cs2">Crouch, David (2003), <i>The Normans: The History of a Dynasty</i>, London: Hambledon</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Normans%3A+The+History+of+a+Dynasty&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Hambledon&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Crouch&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANormans" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDouglas1969" class="citation cs2">Douglas, David (1969), <i>The Norman Achievement</i>, London</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Norman+Achievement&rft.place=London&rft.date=1969&rft.aulast=Douglas&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANormans" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Citation" title="Template:Citation">citation</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDouglas1976" class="citation cs2">——— (1976), <i>The Norman Fate</i>, London</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Norman+Fate&rft.place=London&rft.date=1976&rft.aulast=Douglas&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANormans" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Citation" title="Template:Citation">citation</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDauzatDuboisMitterand1971" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Dauzat, Albert; Dubois, Jean; Mitterand, Henri (1971), <i>Larousse étymologique</i> [<i>Etymological Larousse</i>] (in French), Larousse</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Larousse+%C3%A9tymologique&rft.pub=Larousse&rft.date=1971&rft.aulast=Dauzat&rft.aufirst=Albert&rft.au=Dubois%2C+Jean&rft.au=Mitterand%2C+Henri&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANormans" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFlori1999" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Flori, Jean (1999), <i>Richard Coeur de Lion: le roi-chevalier</i> [<i>Richard Lionheart: the king-knight</i>], Biographie (in French), Paris: Payot, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-228-89272-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-228-89272-8"><bdi>978-2-228-89272-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Richard+Coeur+de+Lion%3A+le+roi-chevalier&rft.place=Paris&rft.series=Biographie&rft.pub=Payot&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-2-228-89272-8&rft.aulast=Flori&rft.aufirst=Jean&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANormans" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGillingham2001" class="citation cs2">Gillingham, John (2001), <i>The Angevin Empire</i>, London</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Angevin+Empire&rft.place=London&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Gillingham&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANormans" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Citation" title="Template:Citation">citation</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGravettNicolle2006" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Gravett" title="Christopher Gravett">Gravett, Christopher</a>; <a href="/wiki/David_Nicolle" title="David Nicolle">Nicolle, David</a> (2006), <i>The Normans: Warrior Knights and their Castles</i>, Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Osprey_Publishing" title="Osprey Publishing">Osprey Publishing</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Normans%3A+Warrior+Knights+and+their+Castles&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Osprey+Publishing&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Gravett&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft.au=Nicolle%2C+David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANormans" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreen1997" class="citation cs2">Green, Judith A (1997), <i>The Aristocracy of Norman England</i>, Cambridge University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Aristocracy+of+Norman+England&rft.place=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Green&rft.aufirst=Judith+A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANormans" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Citation" title="Template:Citation">citation</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGunn1975" class="citation cs2">Gunn, Peter (1975), <i>Normandy: Landscape with Figures</i>, London: Victor Gollancz</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Normandy%3A+Landscape+with+Figures&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Victor+Gollancz&rft.date=1975&rft.aulast=Gunn&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANormans" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarper-Billvan_Houts2003" class="citation cs2">Harper-Bill, Christopher; van Houts, Elisabeth, eds. (2003), <i>A Companion to the Anglo-Norman World</i>, Boydell</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+the+Anglo-Norman+World&rft.pub=Boydell&rft.date=2003&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANormans" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaskins1918" class="citation cs2">Haskins, Charles H (1918), <i>Norman Institutions</i></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Norman+Institutions&rft.date=1918&rft.aulast=Haskins&rft.aufirst=Charles+H&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANormans" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaitland1988" class="citation cs2">Maitland, FW (1988), <i>Domesday Book and Beyond: Three Essays in the Early History of England</i> (2d ed.), Cambridge University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Domesday+Book+and+Beyond%3A+Three+Essays+in+the+Early+History+of+England&rft.edition=2d&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.aulast=Maitland&rft.aufirst=FW&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANormans" class="Z3988"></span> (feudal Saxons)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMortimer1994" class="citation cs2">Mortimer, R (1994), <i>Angevin England 1154–1258</i>, Oxford</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Angevin+England+1154%E2%80%931258&rft.place=Oxford&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Mortimer&rft.aufirst=R&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANormans" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Citation" title="Template:Citation">citation</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMuhlbergher" class="citation cs2">Muhlbergher, Stephen, <i>Medieval England</i></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+England&rft.aulast=Muhlbergher&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANormans" class="Z3988"></span> (Saxon social demotions)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorwich1967" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/John_Julius_Norwich" title="John Julius Norwich">Norwich, John Julius</a> (1967), <i>The Normans in the South 1016–1130</i>, <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>: Longmans, Green and Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Normans+in+the+South+1016%E2%80%931130&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Longmans%2C+Green+and+Co.&rft.date=1967&rft.aulast=Norwich&rft.aufirst=John+Julius&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANormans" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorwich1970" class="citation cs2">——— (1970), <i>The Kingdom in the Sun 1130–1194</i>, <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>: Longman Group Ltd.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Kingdom+in+the+Sun+1130%E2%80%931194&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Longman+Group+Ltd.&rft.date=1970&rft.aulast=Norwich&rft.aufirst=John+Julius&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANormans" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobertson1974" class="citation cs2">Robertson, AJ, ed. 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Estudios+Human%C3%ADsticos.+Historia&rft.atitle=Algunas+notas+sobre+la+participaci%C3%B3n+de+Rogelio+de+Tosny+en+la+Reconquista+Ib%C3%A9rica&rft.volume=III&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=263-74&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10612%2F1104&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.18002%2Fehh.v0i3.3060&rft.aulast=Villegas-Aristiz%C3%A1bal&rft.aufirst=Lucas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdialnet.unirioja.es%2Fservlet%2Farticulo%3Fcodigo%3D1078914&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANormans" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVillegas-Aristizábal2007" class="citation cs2">——— (2007), <i>Norman and Anglo-Norman Participation in the Iberian Reconquista</i> (PhD thesis), University of Nottingham</cite><span 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Crusades&rft.atitle=Anglo-Norman+involvement+in+the+conquest+of+Tortosa+and+Settlement+of+Tortosa%2C+1148%E2%80%931180&rft.volume=8&rft.pages=63-129&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F28327861.2009.12220130&rft.aulast=Villegas-Aristiz%C3%A1bal&rft.aufirst=Lucas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F1619392&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANormans" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVillegas-Aristizábal2015" class="citation cs2">——— (July 2015), "Norman and Anglo-Norman Interventions in the Iberian Wars of Reconquest Before and After the First Crusade", <i>Crusading and Pilgrimage in the Norman World</i>, pp. 103–21</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Norman+and+Anglo-Norman+Interventions+in+the+Iberian+Wars+of+Reconquest+Before+and+After+the+First+Crusade&rft.btitle=Crusading+and+Pilgrimage+in+the+Norman+World&rft.pages=103-21&rft.date=2015-07&rft.aulast=Villegas-Aristiz%C3%A1bal&rft.aufirst=Lucas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANormans" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVillegas-Aristizábal2017" class="citation cs2">——— (2017), "Spiritual and Material Rewards on the Christian-Muslim Frontier: Norman Crusaders in the Valley of the Ebro", <i>Medievalismo</i>, <b>27</b>: 353–376, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.6018%2Fmedievalismo.27.310701">10.6018/medievalismo.27.310701</a></span>, <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10201%2F56696">10201/56696</a></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Medievalismo&rft.atitle=Spiritual+and+Material+Rewards+on+the+Christian-Muslim+Frontier%3A+Norman+Crusaders+in+the+Valley+of+the+Ebro&rft.volume=27&rft.pages=353-376&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10201%2F56696&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.6018%2Fmedievalismo.27.310701&rft.aulast=Villegas-Aristiz%C3%A1bal&rft.aufirst=Lucas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANormans" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVillegas-Aristizábal2021" class="citation cs2">——— (May 2021), "The Changing Priorities in the Norman Incursions into the Iberian Peninsula's Muslim–Christian Frontiers, 1018–1191", <i>Normans in the Mediterranean</i>, pp. 81–119, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1484%2FM.MISCS-EB.5.121958">10.1484/M.MISCS-EB.5.121958</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:236690847">236690847</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Changing+Priorities+in+the+Norman+Incursions+into+the+Iberian+Peninsula%27s+Muslim%E2%80%93Christian+Frontiers%2C+1018%E2%80%931191&rft.btitle=Normans+in+the+Mediterranean&rft.pages=81-119&rft.date=2021-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1484%2FM.MISCS-EB.5.121958&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A236690847%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Villegas-Aristiz%C3%A1bal&rft.aufirst=Lucas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANormans" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVranousi1962" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Vranousi, Era A. (1962), <i>"Κομισκόρτης ο έξ Αρβάνων": Σχόλια εις Χωρίον της Άννης Κομνηνής (Δ' 8,4)</i> (in Greek), Ioannina: Εταιρείας Ηπειρωτικών Μελετών</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%22%CE%9A%CE%BF%CE%BC%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%81%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82+%CE%BF+%CE%AD%CE%BE+%CE%91%CF%81%CE%B2%CE%AC%CE%BD%CF%89%CE%BD%22%3A+%CE%A3%CF%87%CF%8C%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%B1+%CE%B5%CE%B9%CF%82+%CE%A7%CF%89%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%BF%CE%BD+%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82+%CE%86%CE%BD%CE%BD%CE%B7%CF%82+%CE%9A%CE%BF%CE%BC%CE%BD%CE%B7%CE%BD%CE%AE%CF%82+%28%CE%94%27+8%2C4%29&rft.place=Ioannina&rft.pub=%CE%95%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%B9%CF%81%CE%B5%CE%AF%CE%B1%CF%82+%CE%97%CF%80%CE%B5%CE%B9%CF%81%CF%89%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8E%CE%BD+%CE%9C%CE%B5%CE%BB%CE%B5%CF%84%CF%8E%CE%BD&rft.date=1962&rft.aulast=Vranousi&rft.aufirst=Era+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANormans" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Normans&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBates2013" class="citation book cs1">Bates, David (2013). <i>The Normans and Empire</i>. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199674411" title="Special:BookSources/9780199674411"><bdi>9780199674411</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Normans+and+Empire&rft.place=Oxford%2C+UK&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9780199674411&rft.aulast=Bates&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANormans" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHicks2016" class="citation book cs1">Hicks, Leonie V. (2016). <i>A Short History of the Normans</i>. London: I. B. Tauris. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781780762128" title="Special:BookSources/9781780762128"><bdi>9781780762128</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Short+History+of+the+Normans&rft.place=London&rft.pub=I.+B.+Tauris&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9781780762128&rft.aulast=Hicks&rft.aufirst=Leonie+V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANormans" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoach2022" class="citation book cs1">Roach, Levi (2022). <i>Empires of the Normans: Conquerors of Europe</i> (Hardcover). Cambridge, UK: Pegasus Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781639361878" title="Special:BookSources/9781639361878"><bdi>9781639361878</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Empires+of+the+Normans%3A+Conquerors+of+Europe&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.pub=Pegasus+Books&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=9781639361878&rft.aulast=Roach&rft.aufirst=Levi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANormans" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRowley1999" class="citation book cs1">Rowley, Trevor, ed. (1999). <i>The Normans</i>. Stroud, Gloucestershire, UK: Tempus Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780752414348" title="Special:BookSources/9780752414348"><bdi>9780752414348</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Normans&rft.place=Stroud%2C+Gloucestershire%2C+UK&rft.pub=Tempus+Publishing&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=9780752414348&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANormans" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Normans&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has the text of the 1905 <i><a href="/wiki/New_International_Encyclopedia" class="mw-redirect" title="New International Encyclopedia">New International Encyclopedia</a></i> article "<b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_New_International_Encyclop%C3%A6dia/Normans" class="extiw" title="s:The New International Encyclopædia/Normans">Normans</a></b>".</div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHudson" class="citation cs2">Hudson, John, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/normans/"><i>Normans</i></a>, <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Normans&rft.pub=BBC&rft.aulast=Hudson&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fhistory%2Fbritish%2Fnormans%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANormans" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDudo_of_St._Quentin" class="citation cs2">Dudo of St. Quentin, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.the-orb.net/orb_done/dudo/dudindex.html"><i>Gesta Normannorum</i></a>, The orb</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gesta+Normannorum&rft.pub=The+orb&rft.au=Dudo+of+St.+Quentin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.the-orb.net%2Forb_done%2Fdudo%2Fdudindex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANormans" class="Z3988"></span>, English translation.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.storiaonline.org/normanni/breve.htm"><i>Breve Chronicon Northmannicum</i></a> (in Latin), Storia online</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Breve+Chronicon+Northmannicum&rft.pub=Storia+online&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.storiaonline.org%2Fnormanni%2Fbreve.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANormans" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090326114613/http://www.jerseyheritagetrust.org/edu/resources/pdf/normans.pdf"><i>The Normans</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, Jersey heritage trust, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jerseyheritagetrust.org/edu/resources/pdf/normans.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 26 March 2009</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Normans&rft.pub=Jersey+heritage+trust&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jerseyheritagetrust.org%2Fedu%2Fresources%2Fpdf%2Fnormans.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANormans" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170901093055/http://www.mondostoria.it/normanni.html"><i>The Normans in Italy</i></a> (in Italian), MondoStoria, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mondostoria.it/normanni.html">the original</a> on 1 September 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 May</span> 2015</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Normans+in+Italy&rft.pub=MondoStoria&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mondostoria.it%2Fnormanni.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANormans" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreeman1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Freeman, Edward Augustus (1911). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Normans"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Normans">"Normans" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 19 (11th ed.). pp. 751–756.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Normans&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=751-756&rft.edition=11th&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Freeman&rft.aufirst=Edward+Augustus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANormans" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output 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