CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs skin-theme-clientpref-day mf-expand-sections-clientpref-0 mf-font-size-clientpref-small mw-mf-amc-clientpref-0" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Standard Chinese - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js skin-theme-clientpref-day mf-expand-sections-clientpref-0 mf-font-size-clientpref-small mw-mf-amc-clientpref-0";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy","wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"fc2b9f4e-a344-48e3-bd62-2e0e0c67a3d4","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Standard_Chinese","wgTitle":"Standard Chinese","wgCurRevisionId":1256444401,"wgRevisionId":1256444401,"wgArticleId":24657, "wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Standard_Chinese","wgRelevantArticleId":24657,"wgIsProbablyEditable":false,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":false,"wgRestrictionEdit":["autoconfirmed"],"wgRestrictionMove":["autoconfirmed"],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFMode":"stable","wgMFAmc":false,"wgMFAmcOutreachActive":false,"wgMFAmcOutreachUserEligible":false,"wgMFLazyLoadImages":true,"wgMFEditNoticesFeatureConflict":false,"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgMFIsSupportedEditRequest":true, "wgMFScriptPath":"","wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":80000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":true,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgSectionTranslationMissingLanguages":[{"lang":"ace","autonym":"Acèh","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ady","autonym":"адыгабзэ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"alt","autonym":"алтай тил","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"am","autonym":"አማርኛ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ami","autonym":"Pangcah","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"an","autonym":"aragonés","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ann","autonym":"Obolo","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"anp","autonym":"अंगिका","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ary","autonym":"الدارجة","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"av","autonym":"авар","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"avk","autonym":"Kotava","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ay","autonym":"Aymar aru","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"azb","autonym":"تۆرکجه","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"ba","autonym":"башҡортса","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ban","autonym":"Basa Bali","dir":"ltr"},{"lang": "bbc","autonym":"Batak Toba","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bcl","autonym":"Bikol Central","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bdr","autonym":"Bajau Sama","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"be","autonym":"беларуская","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bew","autonym":"Betawi","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bho","autonym":"भोजपुरी","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bi","autonym":"Bislama","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bjn","autonym":"Banjar","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"blk","autonym":"ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bm","autonym":"bamanankan","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bn","autonym":"বাংলা","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bo","autonym":"བོད་ཡིག","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bpy","autonym":"বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"br","autonym":"brezhoneg","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bs","autonym":"bosanski","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"btm","autonym":"Batak Mandailing","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bug","autonym":"Basa Ugi","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ce","autonym":"нохчийн","dir":"ltr"},{ "lang":"ceb","autonym":"Cebuano","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ch","autonym":"Chamoru","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"chr","autonym":"ᏣᎳᎩ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"co","autonym":"corsu","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"cr","autonym":"Nēhiyawēwin / ᓀᐦᐃᔭᐍᐏᐣ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"crh","autonym":"qırımtatarca","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"cu","autonym":"словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"cy","autonym":"Cymraeg","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"da","autonym":"dansk","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"dag","autonym":"dagbanli","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"dga","autonym":"Dagaare","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"din","autonym":"Thuɔŋjäŋ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"diq","autonym":"Zazaki","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"dsb","autonym":"dolnoserbski","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"dtp","autonym":"Kadazandusun","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"dv","autonym":"ދިވެހިބަސް","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"dz","autonym":"ཇོང་ཁ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ee","autonym":"eʋegbe","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"el","autonym":"Ελληνικά","dir" :"ltr"},{"lang":"eml","autonym":"emiliàn e rumagnòl","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"et","autonym":"eesti","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"eu","autonym":"euskara","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"fat","autonym":"mfantse","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ff","autonym":"Fulfulde","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"fi","autonym":"suomi","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"fj","autonym":"Na Vosa Vakaviti","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"fo","autonym":"føroyskt","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"fon","autonym":"fɔ̀ngbè","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"frp","autonym":"arpetan","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"fur","autonym":"furlan","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"gag","autonym":"Gagauz","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"gan","autonym":"贛語","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"gcr","autonym":"kriyòl gwiyannen","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"glk","autonym":"گیلکی","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"gn","autonym":"Avañe'ẽ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"gom","autonym":"गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"gor","autonym":"Bahasa Hulontalo","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"gpe","autonym":"Ghanaian Pidgin","dir":"ltr"},{ "lang":"gu","autonym":"ગુજરાતી","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"guc","autonym":"wayuunaiki","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"gur","autonym":"farefare","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"guw","autonym":"gungbe","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ha","autonym":"Hausa","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"hak","autonym":"客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"haw","autonym":"Hawaiʻi","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"hi","autonym":"हिन्दी","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"hif","autonym":"Fiji Hindi","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"hr","autonym":"hrvatski","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"hsb","autonym":"hornjoserbsce","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ht","autonym":"Kreyòl ayisyen","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"hu","autonym":"magyar","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"hy","autonym":"հայերեն","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"hyw","autonym":"Արեւմտահայերէն","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ia","autonym":"interlingua","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"iba","autonym":"Jaku Iban","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ie","autonym":"Interlingue","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ig","autonym":"Igbo","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"igl", "autonym":"Igala","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"io","autonym":"Ido","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"is","autonym":"íslenska","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"iu","autonym":"ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"jam","autonym":"Patois","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"jv","autonym":"Jawa","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ka","autonym":"ქართული","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kaa","autonym":"Qaraqalpaqsha","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kab","autonym":"Taqbaylit","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kbd","autonym":"адыгэбзэ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kbp","autonym":"Kabɩyɛ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kcg","autonym":"Tyap","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kg","autonym":"Kongo","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kge","autonym":"Kumoring","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ki","autonym":"Gĩkũyũ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kk","autonym":"қазақша","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kl","autonym":"kalaallisut","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"km","autonym":"ភាសាខ្មែរ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"koi","autonym":"перем коми","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"krc","autonym": "къарачай-малкъар","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ks","autonym":"कॉशुर / کٲشُر","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"ku","autonym":"kurdî","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kus","autonym":"Kʋsaal","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kv","autonym":"коми","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kw","autonym":"kernowek","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ky","autonym":"кыргызча","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"lad","autonym":"Ladino","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"lb","autonym":"Lëtzebuergesch","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"lez","autonym":"лезги","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"lg","autonym":"Luganda","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"li","autonym":"Limburgs","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"lij","autonym":"Ligure","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"lmo","autonym":"lombard","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ln","autonym":"lingála","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"lt","autonym":"lietuvių","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ltg","autonym":"latgaļu","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"lv","autonym":"latviešu","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mad","autonym":"Madhurâ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mai","autonym":"मैथिली","dir":"ltr"},{"lang": "map-bms","autonym":"Basa Banyumasan","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mdf","autonym":"мокшень","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mg","autonym":"Malagasy","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mhr","autonym":"олык марий","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mi","autonym":"Māori","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"min","autonym":"Minangkabau","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ml","autonym":"മലയാളം","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mn","autonym":"монгол","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mni","autonym":"ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mnw","autonym":"ဘာသာမန်","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mos","autonym":"moore","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mr","autonym":"मराठी","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mrj","autonym":"кырык мары","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mt","autonym":"Malti","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mwl","autonym":"Mirandés","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"my","autonym":"မြန်မာဘာသာ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"myv","autonym":"эрзянь","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mzn","autonym":"مازِرونی","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"nah","autonym":"Nāhuatl" ,"dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"nan","autonym":"閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"nap","autonym":"Napulitano","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"nb","autonym":"norsk bokmål","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"nds","autonym":"Plattdüütsch","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ne","autonym":"नेपाली","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"new","autonym":"नेपाल भाषा","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"nia","autonym":"Li Niha","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"nqo","autonym":"ߒߞߏ","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"nr","autonym":"isiNdebele seSewula","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"nso","autonym":"Sesotho sa Leboa","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ny","autonym":"Chi-Chewa","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"om","autonym":"Oromoo","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"or","autonym":"ଓଡ଼ିଆ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"os","autonym":"ирон","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"pa","autonym":"ਪੰਜਾਬੀ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"pag","autonym":"Pangasinan","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"pam","autonym":"Kapampangan","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"pap","autonym":"Papiamentu","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"pcd","autonym": "Picard","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"pcm","autonym":"Naijá","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"pdc","autonym":"Deitsch","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"pms","autonym":"Piemontèis","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"pwn","autonym":"pinayuanan","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"qu","autonym":"Runa Simi","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"rm","autonym":"rumantsch","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"rn","autonym":"ikirundi","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ro","autonym":"română","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"rsk","autonym":"руски","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"rue","autonym":"русиньскый","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"rup","autonym":"armãneashti","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"rw","autonym":"Ikinyarwanda","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sa","autonym":"संस्कृतम्","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sah","autonym":"саха тыла","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sat","autonym":"ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"scn","autonym":"sicilianu","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"se","autonym":"davvisámegiella","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sg","autonym":"Sängö","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sgs","autonym":"žemaitėška","dir": "ltr"},{"lang":"shi","autonym":"Taclḥit","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"shn","autonym":"ၽႃႇသႃႇတႆး ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"si","autonym":"සිංහල","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sk","autonym":"slovenčina","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"skr","autonym":"سرائیکی","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"sl","autonym":"slovenščina","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sm","autonym":"Gagana Samoa","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"smn","autonym":"anarâškielâ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sn","autonym":"chiShona","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"so","autonym":"Soomaaliga","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sq","autonym":"shqip","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"srn","autonym":"Sranantongo","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ss","autonym":"SiSwati","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"st","autonym":"Sesotho","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"su","autonym":"Sunda","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sw","autonym":"Kiswahili","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ta","autonym":"தமிழ்","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tay","autonym":"Tayal","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tcy","autonym":"ತುಳು","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tdd","autonym": "ᥖᥭᥰ ᥖᥬᥲ ᥑᥨᥒᥰ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"te","autonym":"తెలుగు","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tet","autonym":"tetun","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tg","autonym":"тоҷикӣ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ti","autonym":"ትግርኛ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tk","autonym":"Türkmençe","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tl","autonym":"Tagalog","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tly","autonym":"tolışi","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tn","autonym":"Setswana","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"to","autonym":"lea faka-Tonga","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tpi","autonym":"Tok Pisin","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"trv","autonym":"Seediq","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ts","autonym":"Xitsonga","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tt","autonym":"татарча / tatarça","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tum","autonym":"chiTumbuka","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tw","autonym":"Twi","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ty","autonym":"reo tahiti","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tyv","autonym":"тыва дыл","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"udm","autonym":"удмурт","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"uz","autonym": "oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ve","autonym":"Tshivenda","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"vec","autonym":"vèneto","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"vep","autonym":"vepsän kel’","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"vls","autonym":"West-Vlams","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"vo","autonym":"Volapük","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"vro","autonym":"võro","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"wa","autonym":"walon","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"war","autonym":"Winaray","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"wo","autonym":"Wolof","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"xal","autonym":"хальмг","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"xh","autonym":"isiXhosa","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"xmf","autonym":"მარგალური","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"yi","autonym":"ייִדיש","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"yo","autonym":"Yorùbá","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"yue","autonym":"粵語","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"za","autonym":"Vahcuengh","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"zgh","autonym":"ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"zu","autonym":"isiZulu","dir":"ltr"}],"wgSectionTranslationTargetLanguages" :["ace","ady","alt","am","ami","an","ang","ann","anp","ar","ary","arz","as","ast","av","avk","awa","ay","az","azb","ba","ban","bar","bbc","bcl","bdr","be","bew","bg","bho","bi","bjn","blk","bm","bn","bo","bpy","br","bs","btm","bug","ca","cdo","ce","ceb","ch","chr","ckb","co","cr","crh","cs","cu","cy","da","dag","de","dga","din","diq","dsb","dtp","dv","dz","ee","el","eml","eo","es","et","eu","fa","fat","ff","fi","fj","fo","fon","fr","frp","frr","fur","fy","gag","gan","gcr","gl","glk","gn","gom","gor","gpe","gu","guc","gur","guw","gv","ha","hak","haw","he","hi","hif","hr","hsb","ht","hu","hy","hyw","ia","iba","ie","ig","igl","ilo","io","is","it","iu","ja","jam","jv","ka","kaa","kab","kbd","kbp","kcg","kg","kge","ki","kk","kl","km","kn","ko","koi","krc","ks","ku","kus","kv","kw","ky","lad","lb","lez","lg","li","lij","lld","lmo","ln","lo","lt","ltg","lv","mad","mai","map-bms","mdf","mg","mhr","mi","min","mk","ml","mn","mni","mnw","mos","mr","mrj","ms","mt","mwl","my","myv","mzn","nah", "nan","nap","nb","nds","nds-nl","ne","new","nia","nl","nn","nqo","nr","nso","ny","oc","om","or","os","pa","pag","pam","pap","pcd","pcm","pdc","pl","pms","pnb","ps","pt","pwn","qu","rm","rn","ro","rsk","rue","rup","rw","sa","sah","sat","sc","scn","sco","sd","se","sg","sgs","sh","shi","shn","si","sk","skr","sl","sm","smn","sn","so","sq","sr","srn","ss","st","stq","su","sv","sw","szl","ta","tay","tcy","tdd","te","tet","tg","th","ti","tk","tl","tly","tn","to","tpi","tr","trv","ts","tt","tum","tw","ty","tyv","udm","ur","uz","ve","vec","vep","vi","vls","vo","vro","wa","war","wo","wuu","xal","xh","xmf","yi","yo","yue","za","zgh","zh","zu"],"isLanguageSearcherCXEntrypointEnabled":true,"mintEntrypointLanguages":["ace","ast","azb","bcl","bjn","bh","crh","ff","fon","ig","is","ki","ks","lmo","min","sat","ss","tn","vec"],"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q727694","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"], "GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false,"wgMinervaPermissions":{"watchable":true,"watch":false},"wgMinervaFeatures":{"beta":false,"donate":true,"mobileOptionsLink":true,"categories":false,"pageIssues":true,"talkAtTop":true,"historyInPageActions":false,"overflowSubmenu":false,"tabsOnSpecials":true,"personalMenu":false,"mainMenuExpanded":false,"echo":true,"nightMode":true},"wgMinervaDownloadNamespaces":[0]};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.minerva.styles":"ready","skins.minerva.content.styles.images":"ready","mediawiki.hlist":"ready","skins.minerva.codex.styles":"ready","skins.minerva.icons":"ready","skins.minerva.amc.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","mobile.init.styles": "ready","ext.relatedArticles.styles":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","skins.minerva.scripts","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","ext.popups","mobile.init","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.relatedArticles.readMore.bootstrap","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.entrypoints.mffrequentlanguages","ext.cx.entrypoints.languagesearcher.init","mw.externalguidance.init","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.relatedArticles.styles%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cmediawiki.hlist%7Cmobile.init.styles%7Cskins.minerva.amc.styles%7Cskins.minerva.codex.styles%7Cskins.minerva.content.styles.images%7Cskins.minerva.icons%2Cstyles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=minerva"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=minerva"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=minerva"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta name="theme-color" content="#eaecf0"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Mandarin_sphere.svg/1200px-Mandarin_sphere.svg.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="609"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Mandarin_sphere.svg/800px-Mandarin_sphere.svg.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="406"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Mandarin_sphere.svg/640px-Mandarin_sphere.svg.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="325"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0, user-scalable=yes, minimum-scale=0.25, maximum-scale=5.0"> <meta property="og:title" content="Standard Chinese - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="manifest" href="/w/api.php?action=webapp-manifest"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_Chinese"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Standard_Chinese rootpage-Standard_Chinese stable issues-group-B skin-minerva action-view skin--responsive mw-mf-amc-disabled mw-mf"><div id="mw-mf-viewport"> <div id="mw-mf-page-center"> <a class="mw-mf-page-center__mask" href="#"></a> <header class="header-container header-chrome"> <div class="minerva-header"> <nav class="navigation-drawer toggle-list view-border-box"> <input type="checkbox" id="main-menu-input" class="toggle-list__checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" aria-expanded="false" aria-labelledby="mw-mf-main-menu-button"> <label role="button" for="main-menu-input" id="mw-mf-main-menu-button" aria-hidden="true" data-event-name="ui.mainmenu" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet toggle-list__toggle"> </label> <div id="mw-mf-page-left" class="menu view-border-box"> <ul id="p-navigation" class="toggle-list__list"> <li class="toggle-list-item "> <a class="toggle-list-item__anchor menu__item--home" href="/wiki/Main_Page" data-mw="interface"> Home </a> </li> <li class="toggle-list-item "> <a class="toggle-list-item__anchor menu__item--random" href="/wiki/Special:Random" data-mw="interface"> Random </a> </li> <li class="toggle-list-item skin-minerva-list-item-jsonly"> <a class="toggle-list-item__anchor menu__item--nearby" href="/wiki/Special:Nearby" data-event-name="menu.nearby" data-mw="interface"> Nearby </a> </li> </ul> <ul id="p-personal" class="toggle-list__list"> <li class="toggle-list-item "> <a class="toggle-list-item__anchor menu__item--login" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Standard+Chinese" data-event-name="menu.login" data-mw="interface"> Log in </a> </li> </ul> <ul id="pt-preferences" class="toggle-list__list"> <li class="toggle-list-item skin-minerva-list-item-jsonly"> <a class="toggle-list-item__anchor menu__item--settings" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:MobileOptions&returnto=Standard+Chinese" data-event-name="menu.settings" data-mw="interface"> Settings </a> </li> </ul> <ul id="p-donation" class="toggle-list__list"> <li class="toggle-list-item "> <a class="toggle-list-item__anchor menu__item--donate" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en&utm_key=minerva" data-event-name="menu.donate" data-mw="interface"> Donate </a> </li> </ul> <ul class="hlist"> <li class="toggle-list-item "> <a class="toggle-list-item__anchor menu__item--about" href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" data-mw="interface"> About Wikipedia </a> </li> <li class="toggle-list-item "> <a class="toggle-list-item__anchor menu__item--disclaimers" href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer" data-mw="interface"> Disclaimers </a> </li> </ul> </div> <label class="main-menu-mask" for="main-menu-input"></label> </nav> <div class="branding-box"> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page"> <img src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" alt="Wikipedia" width="120" height="18" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"/> </a> </div> <form action="/w/index.php" method="get" class="minerva-search-form"> <div class="search-box"> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"/> <input class="search skin-minerva-search-trigger" id="searchInput" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"> </div> <button id="searchIcon" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet skin-minerva-search-trigger"> Search </button> </form> <nav class="minerva-user-navigation" aria-label="User navigation"> </nav> </div> </header> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <div class="banner-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="pre-content heading-holder"> <div class="page-heading"> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Standard Chinese</h1> <div class="tagline"></div> </div> <ul id="p-associated-pages" class="minerva__tab-container"> <li class="minerva__tab selected"> <a class="minerva__tab-text" href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" rel="" data-event-name="tabs.subject">Article</a> </li> <li class="minerva__tab "> <a class="minerva__tab-text" href="/wiki/Talk:Standard_Chinese" rel="discussion" data-event-name="tabs.talk">Talk</a> </li> </ul> <nav class="page-actions-menu"> <ul id="p-views" class="page-actions-menu__list"> <li id="language-selector" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" href="#p-lang" data-mw="interface" data-event-name="menu.languages" title="Language" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet language-selector"> Language </a> </li> <li id="page-actions-watch" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" id="ca-watch" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Standard+Chinese" data-event-name="menu.watch" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet menu__item--page-actions-watch"> Watch </a> </li> <li id="page-actions-viewsource" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" id="ca-edit" href="/w/index.php?title=Standard_Chinese&action=edit" data-event-name="menu.viewsource" data-mw="interface" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet edit-page menu__item--page-actions-viewsource"> View source </a> </li> </ul> </nav>  <div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="content"> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><script>function mfTempOpenSection(id){var block=document.getElementById("mf-section-"+id);block.className+=" open-block";block.previousSibling.className+=" open-block";}</script><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><section class="mf-section-0" id="mf-section-0"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Standard Chinese (disambiguation)">Standard Chinese (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Huayu" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Huayu_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Huayu (disambiguation)">Huayu (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style>Standard Chinese (<a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">simplified Chinese</a>: 现代标准汉语; <a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">traditional Chinese</a>: 現代標準漢語; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: Xiàndài biāozhǔn hànyǔ; <abbr title="Literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'modern standard Han speech') is a modern <a href="/wiki/Standard_language" title="Standard language">standard</a> form of <a href="/wiki/Mandarin_Chinese" title="Mandarin Chinese">Mandarin Chinese</a> that was first codified during the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">republican era</a> (1912–1949). It is designated as the <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_China" title="Languages of China">official language of mainland China</a> and a major language in the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations languages">United Nations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Singapore" title="Languages of Singapore">Singapore</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Taiwan" title="Languages of Taiwan">Taiwan</a>. It is largely based on the <a href="/wiki/Beijing_dialect" title="Beijing dialect">Beijing dialect</a>. Standard Chinese is a <a href="/wiki/Pluricentric_language" title="Pluricentric language">pluricentric language</a> with local standards in mainland China, Taiwan and Singapore that mainly differ in their <a href="/wiki/Lexicon" title="Lexicon">lexicon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley1992307-9">[7]</a> <a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_written_Chinese" title="Hong Kong written Chinese">Hong Kong written Chinese</a>, used for formal written communication in Hong Kong and Macau, is a form of Standard Chinese that is read aloud with the <a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Cantonese</a> reading of characters. <table class="infobox vevent infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above above" style="font-size:125%; color: black; background-color: salmon;">Standard Chinese</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: salmon;">Standard Mandarin</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Native to</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Mainland_China" title="Mainland China">Mainland China</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Native speakers</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">Began acquiring native speakers in 1988<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988251-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiang201445-2">[2]</a> <a href="/wiki/First_language" title="First language">L1</a> and <a href="/wiki/Second_language" title="Second language">L2</a> speakers: 80% of China<a href="#cite_note-over80percent-3">[3]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Language family</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em;padding-left:0"><li> <a href="/wiki/Sinitic_languages" title="Sinitic languages">Sinitic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Mandarin_Chinese" title="Mandarin Chinese">Mandarin</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Beijing_Mandarin_(division_of_Mandarin)" title="Beijing Mandarin (division of Mandarin)">Beijing Mandarin</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Beijing_dialect" title="Beijing dialect">Beijingese</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li>Standard Chinese</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Early forms</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Proto-Sino-Tibetan" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Sino-Tibetan">Proto-Sino-Tibetan</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em; padding-left:0"><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Chinese" title="Old Chinese">Old Chinese</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:0.45em; padding-left:0"><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Han_Chinese" title="Eastern Han Chinese">Eastern Han Chinese</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:0.45em; padding-left:0"><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Chinese" title="Middle Chinese">Middle Chinese</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:0.45em; padding-left:0"><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Mandarin" title="Old Mandarin">Old Mandarin</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:0.45em; padding-left:0"><li><a href="/wiki/Mandarin_(late_imperial_lingua_franca)" title="Mandarin (late imperial lingua franca)">Middle Mandarin</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:0.45em; padding-left:0"><li><a href="/wiki/Beijing_Mandarin_(division_of_Mandarin)" title="Beijing Mandarin (division of Mandarin)">Beijing Mandarin</a> </li></ul> </li></ul> </li></ul> </li></ul> </li></ul> </li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing system</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese characters</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Mainland_Chinese_Braille" title="Mainland Chinese Braille">Mainland Chinese Braille</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Braille" title="Taiwanese Braille">Taiwanese Braille</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Two-cell_Chinese_Braille" title="Two-cell Chinese Braille">Two-cell Chinese Braille</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Manually_coded_language" title="Manually coded language">Signed forms</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">Signed Chinese<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: salmon;">Official status</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Official language in</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"> <ul><li>China (de facto, as Putonghua)<a href="#cite_note-Adamson_&_Feng-5">[5]</a></li> <li>Taiwan (de facto, as <a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Mandarin" title="Taiwanese Mandarin">Guoyu</a>)<a href="#cite_note-7">[a]</a></li> <li>Singapore (as <a href="/wiki/Singaporean_Mandarin" title="Singaporean Mandarin">Huayu</a>)</li> <li>United Nations</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shanghai_Cooperation_Organisation" title="Shanghai Cooperation Organisation">Shanghai Cooperation Organisation</a></li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Recognised minority language in</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="vertical-align:middle;">Malaysia</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_language_regulators" title="List of language regulators">Regulated by</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="margin-left:1em;text-indent:-1em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mainland_China" title="Mainland China">Mainland China</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Education_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China">Ministry of Education</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[b]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Education_(Taiwan)" title="Ministry of Education (Taiwan)">Ministry of Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a>: <a href="/wiki/Education_Bureau" title="Education Bureau">Education Bureau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macau" title="Macau">Macau</a>: <a href="/wiki/Education_and_Youth_Development_Bureau" title="Education and Youth Development Bureau">Education and Youth Development Bureau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Education_(Malaysia)" title="Ministry of Education (Malaysia)">Ministry of Education</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Language_Standardisation_Council_of_Malaysia" title="Chinese Language Standardisation Council of Malaysia">Chinese Language Standardisation Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Education_(Singapore)" title="Ministry of Education (Singapore)">Ministry of Education</a> <a href="/wiki/Promote_Mandarin_Council" title="Promote Mandarin Council">Promote Mandarin Council</a></li></ul> </div></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: salmon;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">–</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-6" title="ISO 639-6">ISO 639-6</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>goyu (Guoyu)</li><li>huyu (Huayu)</li><li>cosc (Putonghua)</li></ul></div></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">None</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/File:Mandarin_sphere.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Mandarin_sphere.svg/260px-Mandarin_sphere.svg.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Mandarin_sphere.svg/390px-Mandarin_sphere.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Mandarin_sphere.svg/520px-Mandarin_sphere.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="853" data-file-height="433"></a><div style="text-align:left;">Countries where Standard Chinese is spoken <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"> Majority native language</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"> Statutory or de facto national working language</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"> More than 1,000,000 L1 and L2 speakers</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"> More than 500,000 speakers</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"> More than 100,000 speakers</div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below noprint selfref" style="background-color:#E7E7FF;color:inherit;padding:0.3em 0.5em;text-align:left;line-height:1.3;">This article contains <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a> phonetic symbols. Without proper <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA#Rendering_issues" title="Help:IPA">rendering support</a>, you may see <a href="/wiki/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character" title="Specials (Unicode block)">question marks, boxes, or other symbols</a> instead of <a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a> characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">Help:IPA</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}</style> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="color: #202122;background-color:#b0c4de">Putonghua</th></tr><tr style="display:none;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Traditional Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%99%AE%E9%80%9A%E8%A9%B1" class="extiw" title="wikt:普通話">普通話</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Simplified Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%99%AE%E9%80%9A%E8%AF%9D" class="extiw" title="wikt:普通话">普通话</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Literal meaning</th><td class="infobox-data">Common speech</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Pǔtōnghuà</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Bopomofo" title="Bopomofo">Bopomofo</a></th><td class="infobox-data">ㄆㄨˇ ㄊㄨㄥㄏㄨㄚˋ</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a></th><td class="infobox-data">P'u3-t'ung1-hua4</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Tongyong_Pinyin" title="Tongyong Pinyin">Tongyong Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Pǔ-tong-huà</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Yale_romanization_of_Mandarin" title="Yale romanization of Mandarin">Yale Romanization</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Pǔtūnghwà</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">IPA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">[pʰù.tʰʊ́ŋ.xwâ]</a></td></tr></tbody></table></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #b0c4de;">Guoyu</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Traditional Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%9C%8B%E8%AA%9E" class="extiw" title="wikt:國語">國語</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Simplified Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%9B%BD%E8%AF%AD" class="extiw" title="wikt:国语">国语</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Literal meaning</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/National_language" title="National language">National language</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Guóyǔ</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Bopomofo" title="Bopomofo">Bopomofo</a></th><td class="infobox-data">ㄍㄨㄛˊ ㄩˇ</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Kuo2-yü3</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Tongyong_Pinyin" title="Tongyong Pinyin">Tongyong Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Guó-yǔ</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Yale_romanization_of_Mandarin" title="Yale romanization of Mandarin">Yale Romanization</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Gwóyǔ</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">IPA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">[kwǒ.ỳ]</a></td></tr></tbody></table></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #b0c4de;">Huayu</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Traditional Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%8F%AF%E8%AA%9E" class="extiw" title="wikt:華語">華語</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Simplified Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%8D%8E%E8%AF%AD" class="extiw" title="wikt:华语">华语</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Literal meaning</th><td class="infobox-data">Chinese language</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Huáyǔ</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Bopomofo" title="Bopomofo">Bopomofo</a></th><td class="infobox-data">ㄏㄨㄚˊ ㄩˇ</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Hua2-yü3</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Tongyong_Pinyin" title="Tongyong Pinyin">Tongyong Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Huá-yǔ</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Yale_romanization_of_Mandarin" title="Yale romanization of Mandarin">Yale Romanization</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Hwáyǔ</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">IPA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">[xwǎ.ỳ]</a></td></tr></tbody></table></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> Like other <a href="/wiki/Sinitic_languages" title="Sinitic languages">Sinitic languages</a>, Standard Chinese is a <a href="/wiki/Tone_(linguistics)" title="Tone (linguistics)">tonal language</a> with <a href="/wiki/Topic-prominent_language" title="Topic-prominent language">topic-prominent</a> organization and <a href="/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93verb%E2%80%93object" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject–verb–object">subject–verb–object</a> (SVO) word order. Compared with southern varieties, the language has fewer vowels, final consonants and tones, but more initial consonants. It is an <a href="/wiki/Analytic_language" title="Analytic language">analytic language</a>, albeit with many <a href="/wiki/Compound_word" class="mw-redirect" title="Compound word">compound words</a>. In the context of <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a>, the dialect has been labeled Standard Northern Mandarin<a href="#cite_note-John_Rohsenow_2004-10">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-Yunyun_Ran_2016-11">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-David_Bradley_2008-12">[10]</a> or Standard Beijing Mandarin,<a href="#cite_note-Jeff_Siegel_2003-13">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ying-Chuan_Chen2013-14">[12]</a> and in common speech simply Mandarin,<a href="#cite_note-Weng,_Jeffrey_2018_611%E2%80%93633-15">[13]</a> more specifically qualified as Standard Mandarin, Modern Standard Mandarin, or Standard Mandarin Chinese. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Naming">1 Naming</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#In_English">1.1 In English</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#In_Chinese">1.2 In Chinese</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-4"><a href="#Guoyu_and_Putonghua">1.2.1 Guoyu and Putonghua</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-5"><a href="#Usage_concerns">1.2.2 Usage concerns</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-6"><a href="#Hanyu_and_Zhongwen">1.2.3 Hanyu and Zhongwen</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-7"><a href="#Huayu">1.2.4 Huayu</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="#History">2 History</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Late_empire">2.1 Late empire</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Republican_era">2.2 Republican era</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><a href="#Status">3 Status</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Mainland_China">3.1 Mainland China</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Hong_Kong_and_Macau">3.2 Hong Kong and Macau</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Taiwan">3.3 Taiwan</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#Singapore">3.4 Singapore</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="#Malaysia">3.5 Malaysia</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="#Myanmar">3.6 Myanmar</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-18"><a href="#Education">4 Education</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-19"><a href="#Phonology">5 Phonology</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><a href="#Regional_accents">5.1 Regional accents</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-21"><a href="#Grammar">6 Grammar</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-22"><a href="#Vocabulary">7 Vocabulary</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-23"><a href="#Writing_system">8 Writing system</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-24"><a href="#Examples">9 Examples</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-25"><a href="#See_also">10 See also</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-26"><a href="#Notes">11 Notes</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-27"><a href="#References">12 References</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-28"><a href="#Citations">12.1 Citations</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-29"><a href="#Works_cited">12.2 Works cited</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-30"><a href="#Further_reading">13 Further reading</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-31"><a href="#External_links">14 External links</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><h2 id="Naming">Naming</h2></div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_English">In English</h3></div> Among linguists, Standard Chinese has been referred to as Standard Northern Mandarin<a href="#cite_note-John_Rohsenow_2004-10">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-Yunyun_Ran_2016-11">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-David_Bradley_2008-12">[10]</a> or Standard Beijing Mandarin.<a href="#cite_note-Jeff_Siegel_2003-13">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ying-Chuan_Chen2013-14">[12]</a> It is colloquially referred to as simply Mandarin,<a href="#cite_note-Weng,_Jeffrey_2018_611%E2%80%93633-15">[13]</a> though this term may also refer to the <a href="/wiki/Mandarin_Chinese" title="Mandarin Chinese">Mandarin dialect group</a> as a whole, or the late imperial <a href="/wiki/Mandarin_(late_imperial_lingua_franca)" title="Mandarin (late imperial lingua franca)">form used as a lingua franca</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Robert_M_Sanders_1987-16">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988136-17">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-18">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-Weng,_Jeffrey_2018_611%E2%80%93633-15">[13]</a> "Mandarin" is a translation of Guanhua (官話; 官话; 'bureaucrat speech'),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMair2013737-19">[17]</a> which referred to the late imperial lingua franca.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMair199111%E2%80%9312-20">[18]</a> The term Modern Standard Mandarin is used to distinguish it from older forms.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMair2013737-19">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin2000537-21">[19]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_Chinese">In Chinese</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Guoyu_and_Putonghua">Guoyu and Putonghua</h4></div> The word Guoyu (国语; 國語; 'national language')<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMair2013737-19">[17]</a> was initially used during the late <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> to refer to the <a href="/wiki/Manchu_language" title="Manchu language">Manchu language</a>. The 1655 <a href="/w/index.php?title=Memoir_of_Qing_Dynasty&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Memoir of Qing Dynasty (page does not exist)">Memoir of Qing Dynasty</a>, Volume: Emperor <a href="/wiki/Nurhaci" title="Nurhaci">Nurhaci</a> (清太祖實錄) says: "(In 1631) as Manchu ministers do not comprehend the Han language, each ministry shall create a new position to be filled up by <a href="/wiki/Han_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Han people">Han</a> official who can comprehend the national language."<a href="#cite_note-22">[20]</a> However, the sense of Guoyu as a specific language variety promoted for general use by the citizenry was originally borrowed from Japan in the early 20th century. In 1902, the Japanese Diet had formed the <a href="/w/index.php?title=National_Language_Research_Council&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="National Language Research Council (page does not exist)">National Language Research Council</a> to standardize a form of the Japanese language dubbed kokugo (国語).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETam202076-23">[21]</a> Reformers in the Qing bureaucracy took inspiration and borrowed the term into Chinese, and in 1909 the Qing education ministry officially proclaimed <a href="/wiki/Mandarin_(late_imperial_lingua_franca)" title="Mandarin (late imperial lingua franca)">imperial Mandarin</a> to be the new national language.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988133%E2%80%93134-24">[22]</a> The term Putonghua (普通话; 普通話; 'common tongue')<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMair2013737-19">[17]</a> dates back to 1906 in writings by <a href="/wiki/Zhu_Wenxiong" title="Zhu Wenxiong">Zhu Wenxiong</a> to differentiate the standard vernacular Mandarin from <a href="/wiki/Literary_Chinese" class="mw-redirect" title="Literary Chinese">Literary Chinese</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Chinese" title="Varieties of Chinese">varieties of Chinese</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Usage_concerns">Usage concerns</h4></div> Since 2000, the Chinese government has used the term "Countrywide common spoken and written language" (国家通用语言文字), while also making provisions for the use and protection of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_ethnic_minorities" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese ethnic minorities">ethnic minority</a> languages.<a href="#cite_note-%E8%BF%9B%E4%B8%80%E6%AD%A5%E8%B4%AF%E5%BD%BB%E5%AE%9E%E6%96%BD%E5%9B%BD%E5%AE%B6%E9%80%9A%E7%94%A8%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E6%96%87%E5%AD%97%E6%B3%95%E9%93%B8%E7%89%A2%E4%B8%AD%E5%8D%8E%E6%B0%91%E6%97%8F%E5%85%B1%E5%90%8C%E4%BD%93%E6%84%8F%E8%AF%86-25">[23]</a> The term is derived from the title of a 2000 law which defines Putonghua as the "Countrywide Common Spoken and Written Language".<a href="#cite_note-%E8%BF%9B%E4%B8%80%E6%AD%A5%E8%B4%AF%E5%BD%BB%E5%AE%9E%E6%96%BD%E5%9B%BD%E5%AE%B6%E9%80%9A%E7%94%A8%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E6%96%87%E5%AD%97%E6%B3%95%E9%93%B8%E7%89%A2%E4%B8%AD%E5%8D%8E%E6%B0%91%E6%97%8F%E5%85%B1%E5%90%8C%E4%BD%93%E6%84%8F%E8%AF%86-25">[23]</a> Use of the term Putonghua ('common tongue') deliberately avoids calling the dialect a 'national language', in order to mitigate the impression of coercing minority groups to adopt the language of the majority. Such concerns were first raised by the early Communist leader <a href="/wiki/Qu_Qiubai" title="Qu Qiubai">Qu Qiubai</a> in 1931. His concern echoed within the Communist Party, which adopted the term Putonghua in 1955.<a href="#cite_note-26">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[25]</a> Since 1949, usage of the word Guoyu was phased out in the PRC, only surviving in established compound nouns, e.g. '<a href="/wiki/Mandopop" title="Mandopop">Mandopop</a>' (国语流行音乐; Guóyǔ liúxíng yīnyuè), or 'Chinese cinema' (国语电影; Guóyǔ diànyǐng). In Taiwan, Guoyu is the colloquial term for Standard Chinese. In 2017 and 2018, the Taiwanese government introduced two laws explicitly recognizing the indigenous <a href="/wiki/Formosan_languages" title="Formosan languages">Formosan languages</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-Wang_Baijian2018-29">[27]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hakka_Chinese" title="Hakka Chinese">Hakka</a><a href="#cite_note-30">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-Wang_Baijian2018-29">[27]</a> as "Languages of the nation" (國家語言) alongside Standard Chinese. Since then, there have been efforts to redefine Guoyu as encompassing all "languages of the nation", rather than exclusively referring to Standard Chinese. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hanyu_and_Zhongwen">Hanyu and Zhongwen</h4></div> Among Chinese people, Hanyu (汉语; 漢語; 'Han language') refers to spoken <a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Chinese" title="Varieties of Chinese">varieties of Chinese</a>. Zhongwen (中文; 'written Chinese')<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMair199111-31">[29]</a> refers to written Chinese. Among foreigners, the term Hanyu is most commonly used in textbooks and Standard Chinese education, such as in the <a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Shuiping_Kaoshi" title="Hanyu Shuiping Kaoshi">Hanyu Shuiping Kaoshi</a> (HSK) test. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Huayu">Huayu</h4></div> Until the mid-1960s, Huayu (华语; 華語) referred to all the language varieties used among the <a href="/wiki/Zhonghua_minzu" title="Zhonghua minzu">Chinese nation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Xu2018-32">[30]</a> For example, <a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Hong_Kong" title="Cinema of Hong Kong">Cantonese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_China" title="Cinema of China">Mandarin</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hokkien_films&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hokkien films (page does not exist)">Hokkien films</a> produced in Hong Kong were imported into Malaysia and collectively known as "Huayu cinema" until the mid-1960s.<a href="#cite_note-Xu2018-32">[30]</a> Gradually, the term has been re-appropriated to refer specifically to Standard Chinese. The term is mostly used in <a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>.<a href="#cite_note-33">[31]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Standard_Chinese" title="History of Standard Chinese">History of Standard Chinese</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese language</a> has had considerable dialectal variation throughout its history, including <a href="/wiki/Prestige_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Prestige dialect">prestige dialects</a> and <a href="/wiki/Linguae_francae" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguae francae">linguae francae</a> used throughout the territory controlled by the dynastic states of China. For example, <a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a> is thought to have used a dialect known as <a href="/wiki/Yayan" title="Yayan">yayan</a> rather than regional dialects; during the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a>, texts also referred to tōngyǔ (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%80%9A%E8%AA%9E" class="extiw" title="wikt:通語">通語</a>; 'common language'). The <a href="/wiki/Rime_book" class="mw-redirect" title="Rime book">rime books</a> that were written starting in the <a href="/wiki/Northern_and_Southern_dynasties" title="Northern and Southern dynasties">Northern and Southern period</a> may have reflected standard systems of pronunciation. However, these standard dialects were mostly used by the educated elite, whose pronunciation may still have possessed great variation. For these elites, the Chinese language was unified in <a href="/wiki/Literary_Chinese" class="mw-redirect" title="Literary Chinese">Literary Chinese</a>, a form that was primarily written, as opposed to spoken. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Late_empire">Late empire</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mandarin_(late_imperial_lingua_franca)" title="Mandarin (late imperial lingua franca)">Mandarin (late imperial lingua franca)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fourmont-Zhongguo-Guanhua.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Fourmont-Zhongguo-Guanhua.png/220px-Fourmont-Zhongguo-Guanhua.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="344" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="256" data-file-height="400"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 344px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Fourmont-Zhongguo-Guanhua.png/220px-Fourmont-Zhongguo-Guanhua.png" data-width="220" data-height="344" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/36/Fourmont-Zhongguo-Guanhua.png 1.5x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Zhongguo Guanhua (中國官話; 中国官话), or Medii Regni Communis Loquela ('Middle Kingdom's Common Speech'), used on the <a href="/wiki/Book_frontispiece" title="Book frontispiece">frontispiece</a> of an early Chinese grammar published by <a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Fourmont" title="Étienne Fourmont">Étienne Fourmont</a> (with <a href="/wiki/Arcadio_Huang" title="Arcadio Huang">Arcadio Huang</a>) in 1742<a href="#cite_note-34">[32]</a></figcaption></figure> The term Guanhua (官話; 官话; 'official speech') was used during the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming</a> (1368–1644) and Qing (1644–1912) dynasties to refer to <a href="/wiki/Mandarin_(late_imperial_lingua_franca)" title="Mandarin (late imperial lingua franca)">the lingua franca</a> spoken within the imperial courts. The term "Mandarin" is borrowed directly from the Portuguese word mandarim, in turn derived from the <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> word <a href="/wiki/Mantri" title="Mantri">mantrin</a> ('minister')—and was initially used to refer to Chinese <a href="/wiki/Scholar-official" title="Scholar-official">scholar-officials</a>. The Portuguese then began referring to Guanhua as "the language of the mandarins".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin2000537-21">[19]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">The Chinese have different languages in different provinces, to such an extent that they cannot understand each other.... [They] also have another language which is like a universal and common language; this is the official language of the mandarins and of the court; it is among them like Latin among ourselves.... Two of our fathers [Michele Ruggieri and Matteo Ricci] have been learning this mandarin language...<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Valignano" title="Alessandro Valignano">Alessandro Valignano</a>, Historia del Principio y Progresso de la Compañia de Jesus en las Indias Orientales (1542–1564)<a href="#cite_note-35">[33]</a></cite></div></blockquote> During the 17th century, the state had set up <a href="/wiki/Orthoepy" title="Orthoepy">orthoepy</a> academies (正音書院; zhèngyīn shūyuàn) in an attempt to conform the speech of bureaucrats to the standard. These attempts had little success: as late as the 19th century, the emperor had difficulty understanding some of his ministers in court, who did not always follow a standard pronunciation. Before the 19th century, the lingua franca was based on the <a href="/wiki/Nanjing_dialect" title="Nanjing dialect">Nanjing dialect</a>, but later the <a href="/wiki/Beijing_dialect" title="Beijing dialect">Beijing dialect</a> became increasingly influential, despite the mix of officials and commoners speaking various dialects in the capital, <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin2000549%E2%80%93550-36">[34]</a> By some accounts, as late as 1900 the position of the Nanjing dialect was considered by some to be above that of Beijing; the <a href="/wiki/Postal_romanization" class="mw-redirect" title="Postal romanization">postal romanization</a> standards established in 1906 included spellings that reflected elements of Nanjing pronunciation.<a href="#cite_note-37">[35]</a> The sense of Guoyu as a specific language variety promoted for general use by the citizenry was originally borrowed from Japan; in 1902 the Japanese Diet had formed the <a href="/w/index.php?title=National_Language_Research_Council&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="National Language Research Council (page does not exist)">National Language Research Council</a> to standardize a form of the Japanese language dubbed kokugo (国語).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETam202076-23">[21]</a> Reformers in the Qing bureaucracy took inspiration and borrowed the term into Chinese, and in 1909 the Qing education ministry officially proclaimed <a href="/wiki/Mandarin_(late_imperial_lingua_franca)" title="Mandarin (late imperial lingua franca)">imperial Mandarin</a> as Guoyu (国语; 國語), the 'national language'. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Republican_era">Republican era</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Madarin_in_Chinese_Mainland_EN.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Madarin_in_Chinese_Mainland_EN.PNG/250px-Madarin_in_Chinese_Mainland_EN.PNG" decoding="async" width="250" height="207" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="722" data-file-height="598"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 250px;height: 207px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Madarin_in_Chinese_Mainland_EN.PNG/250px-Madarin_in_Chinese_Mainland_EN.PNG" data-width="250" data-height="207" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Madarin_in_Chinese_Mainland_EN.PNG/375px-Madarin_in_Chinese_Mainland_EN.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Madarin_in_Chinese_Mainland_EN.PNG/500px-Madarin_in_Chinese_Mainland_EN.PNG 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Distribution of Mandarin subgroups in mainland China, as of 1987</figcaption></figure> After the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%9349)" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of China (1912–49)">Republic of China</a> was established in 1912, there was more success in promoting a common national language. A <a href="/wiki/Commission_on_the_Unification_of_Pronunciation" title="Commission on the Unification of Pronunciation">Commission on the Unification of Pronunciation</a> was convened with delegates from the entire country.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen199916%E2%80%9317-38">[36]</a> A Dictionary of National Pronunciation (國音字典; 国音字典) was published in 1919, defining a <a href="/wiki/Old_National_Pronunciation" title="Old National Pronunciation">hybrid pronunciation</a> that did not match any existing speech.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988134-39">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen199918-40">[38]</a> Meanwhile, despite the lack of a workable standardized pronunciation, colloquial literature in <a href="/wiki/Written_vernacular_Chinese" title="Written vernacular Chinese">written vernacular Chinese</a> continued to develop.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERamsey198710-41">[39]</a> Gradually, the members of the National Language Commission came to settle upon the Beijing dialect, which became the major source of standard national pronunciation due to its prestigious status. In 1932, the commission published the Vocabulary of National Pronunciation for Everyday Use (國音常用字彙; 国音常用字汇), with little fanfare or official announcement. This dictionary was similar to the previous published one except that it normalized the pronunciations for all characters into the pronunciation of the Beijing dialect. Elements from other dialects continue to exist in the standard language, but as exceptions rather than the rule.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERamsey198715-42">[40]</a> Following the end of the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a>, the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a> (PRC) continued standardisation efforts on the mainland, and in 1955 officially began using Putonghua (普通话; 普通話; 'common speech') instead of Guoyu, which remains the name used in <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>. The forms of Standard Chinese used in China and Taiwan have diverged somewhat since the end of the Civil War, especially in newer vocabulary, and a little in pronunciation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley1992313%E2%80%93314-43">[41]</a> In 1956, the PRC officially defined Standard Chinese as "the standard form of Modern Chinese with the Beijing phonological system as its norm of pronunciation, and Northern dialects as its base dialect, and looking to exemplary modern works in <a href="/wiki/Written_vernacular_Chinese" title="Written vernacular Chinese">written vernacular Chinese</a> for its grammatical norms."<a href="#cite_note-langlaw-44">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen199924-45">[43]</a> According to the official definition, Standard Chinese uses: <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">phonology</a> of the Beijing dialect, if not always with each phoneme having the precise <a href="/wiki/Phonetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Phonetic">phonetic</a> values as those heard in Beijing.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Vocabulary" title="Vocabulary">vocabulary</a> of <a href="/wiki/Mandarin_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Mandarin dialects">Mandarin dialects</a> in general, excepting what are deemed to be <a href="/wiki/Slang" title="Slang">slang</a> and regionalisms. The vocabulary of all Chinese varieties, especially in more technical fields like science, law, and government, is very similar—akin to the profusion of <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> vocabulary in European languages. This means that much of the vocabulary of Standard Chinese is shared with all varieties of Chinese. Much of the <a href="/wiki/Colloquialism" title="Colloquialism">colloquial</a> vocabulary of the Beijing dialect is not considered part of Standard Chinese, and may not be understood by people outside Beijing.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen199937%E2%80%9338-46">[44]</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Grammar" title="Grammar">grammar</a> and idioms of exemplary modern <a href="/wiki/Chinese_literature" title="Chinese literature">Chinese literature</a>, a form known as <a href="/wiki/Written_vernacular_Chinese" title="Written vernacular Chinese">written vernacular Chinese</a>. Written vernacular Chinese is loosely based upon a synthesis of predominantly northern grammar and vocabulary, with southern and Literary elements. This distinguishes Standard Chinese from the dialect heard on the streets of Beijing.</li></ul> Proficiency in the new standard was initially limited, even among Mandarin speakers, but increased over the following decades.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen199927%E2%80%9328-47">[45]</a> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; margin:1em auto 1em auto"> <caption>Percentage of population of China proficient in Standard Chinese<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen199928-48">[46]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2"> </th> <th>Early 1950s </th> <th colspan="2">1984 </th></tr> <tr> <th>Comprehension </th> <th>Comprehension </th> <th>Speaking </th></tr> <tr> <th>Mandarin-speaking areas </th> <td>54</td> <td>91</td> <td>54 </td></tr> <tr> <th>non-Mandarin areas </th> <td>11</td> <td>77</td> <td>40 </td></tr> <tr> <th>whole country </th> <td>41</td> <td>90</td> <td>50 </td></tr></tbody></table> A 2007 survey conducted by the Chinese Ministry of Education indicated that 53.06% of the population were able to effectively communicate using Standard Chinese.<a href="#cite_note-49">[47]</a> By 2020, this figure had risen to over 80%.<a href="#cite_note-50">[48]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><h2 id="Status">Status</h2></div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> In both mainland China and Taiwan, Standard Chinese is used in most official contexts, as well as the media and educational system, contributing to its proliferation. As a result, it is now spoken by most people in both countries, though often with some regional or personal variation in vocabulary and pronunciation. In overseas Chinese communities outside Asia where Cantonese once dominated, such as the <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Chinatown" class="mw-redirect" title="Manhattan Chinatown">Chinatown in Manhattan</a>, the use of Standard Chinese, which is the primary lingua franca of more recent <a href="/wiki/Chinese_immigrants" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese immigrants">Chinese immigrants</a>, is rapidly increasing.<a href="#cite_note-51">[49]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mainland_China">Mainland China</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_sinitic_languages_cropped-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Map_of_sinitic_languages_cropped-en.svg/250px-Map_of_sinitic_languages_cropped-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="378" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="620"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 250px;height: 378px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Map_of_sinitic_languages_cropped-en.svg/250px-Map_of_sinitic_languages_cropped-en.svg.png" data-width="250" data-height="378" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Map_of_sinitic_languages_cropped-en.svg/375px-Map_of_sinitic_languages_cropped-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Map_of_sinitic_languages_cropped-en.svg/500px-Map_of_sinitic_languages_cropped-en.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Distribution of the <a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Chinese" title="Varieties of Chinese">Chinese dialect groups</a> as of 1987, including Mandarin (light brown)</figcaption></figure> While Standard Chinese was made China's official language in the early 20th century, local languages continue to be the main form of everyday communication in much of the country. The language policy adopted by the Chinese government promotes the use of Standard Chinese while also making allowances for the use and preservation of local varieties.<a href="#cite_note-52">[50]</a> From an official point of view, Standard Chinese serves as a <a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a> to facilitate communication between speakers of mutually unintelligible <a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Chinese" title="Varieties of Chinese">varieties of Chinese</a> and <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_China" title="Languages of China">non-Sinitic languages</a>. The name Putonghua, or 'common speech', reinforces this idea. However, due to Standard Chinese being a "public" lingua franca, other Chinese varieties and even non-Sinitic languages have shown signs of losing ground to the standard dialect. In many areas, especially in southern China, it is commonly used for practical reasons, as linguistic diversity is so great that residents of neighboring cities may have difficulties communicating with each other without a lingua franca. The Chinese government's language policy been largely successful, with over 80% of the Chinese population able to speak Standard Chinese as of 2020.<a href="#cite_note-over80percent-3">[3]</a> The Chinese government's current goal is to have 85% of the country's population speak Standard Chinese by 2025, and virtually the entire country by 2035.<a href="#cite_note-:1-53">[51]</a> Throughout the country, Standard Chinese has heavily influenced local languages through <a href="/wiki/Diglossia" title="Diglossia">diglossia</a>, replacing them entirely in some cases, especially among younger people in urban areas.<a href="#cite_note-54">[52]</a> The Chinese government is keen to promote Putonghua as the national lingua franca: under the National Common Language and Writing Law, the government is required to promoted its use. Officially, the Chinese government has not stated its intent to replace regional varieties with Standard Chinese. However, regulations enacted by local governments to implement the national law−such as the <a href="/wiki/Guangdong_National_Language_Regulations" title="Guangdong National Language Regulations">Guangdong National Language Regulations</a>—have included coercive measures to control the public's use of both spoken dialects and <a href="/wiki/Traditional_characters" class="mw-redirect" title="Traditional characters">traditional characters</a> in writing. Some Chinese speakers who are older or from rural areas cannot speak Standard Chinese fluently or at all—though most are able to understand it. Meanwhile, those from urban areas—as well as younger speakers, who have received their education primarily in Standard Chinese—are almost all fluent in it, with some being unable to speak their local dialect. The Chinese government has disseminated <a href="/wiki/Public_service_announcement" title="Public service announcement">public service announcements</a> promoting the use of Putonghua on television and the radio, as well as on public buses. The standardization campaign has been challenged by local dialectical and ethnic populations, who fear the loss of their cultural identity and native dialect. In the summer of 2010, reports of a planned increase in the use of the Putonghua on local television in <a href="/wiki/Guangdong" title="Guangdong">Guangdong</a> led to demonstrations on the streets by thousands of <a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Cantonese</a>-speaking citizens.<a href="#cite_note-55">[53]</a> While the use of Standard Chinese is encouraged as the common working language in predominantly <a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han</a> areas on the mainland, the PRC has been more sensitive to the status of non-Sinitic minority languages, and has generally not discouraged their social use outside of education. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hong_Kong_and_Macau">Hong Kong and Macau</h3></div> In <a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a> and <a href="/wiki/Macau" title="Macau">Macau</a>, which are <a href="/wiki/Special_Administrative_Region_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China">special administrative regions</a> of the PRC, there is <a href="/wiki/Diglossia" title="Diglossia">diglossia</a> between <a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Cantonese</a> (口語; hau2 jyu5; 'spoken language') as the primary spoken language, alongside a <a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_written_Chinese" title="Hong Kong written Chinese">local form of Standard Chinese</a> (書面語; syu1 min6 jyu5; 'written language') used in schools, local government, and formal writing.<a href="#cite_note-:0-56">[54]</a> <a href="/wiki/Written_Cantonese" title="Written Cantonese">Written Cantonese</a> may also be used in informal settings such as advertisements, magazines, popular literature, and comics. Mixture of formal and informal written Chinese occurs to various degrees.<a href="#cite_note-:12-57">[55]</a> After the <a href="/wiki/Transfer_of_sovereignty_over_Hong_Kong" class="mw-redirect" title="Transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong">Hong Kong's handover</a> from the United Kingdom and <a href="/wiki/Transfer_of_sovereignty_over_Macau" class="mw-redirect" title="Transfer of sovereignty over Macau">Macau's handover</a> from Portugal, their governments use Putonghua to communicate with the PRC's <a href="/wiki/Central_People%27s_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="Central People's Government">Central People's Government</a>. There has been significant effort to promote use of Putonghua in Hong Kong since the handover,<a href="#cite_note-58">[56]</a> including the training of police<a href="#cite_note-59">[57]</a> and teachers.<a href="#cite_note-60">[58]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Taiwan">Taiwan</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Mandarin" title="Taiwanese Mandarin">Taiwanese Mandarin</a></div> Standard Chinese is the official language of <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>. Standard Chinese started being widely spoken in Taiwan following the end of the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a> in 1949, with the relocation of the <a href="/wiki/Kuomintang" title="Kuomintang">Kuomintang</a> (KMT) to the island along with an <a href="/wiki/Waishengren" title="Waishengren">influx of refugees</a> from the mainland. The Standard Chinese used in Taiwan differs very little from that of mainland China, with differences largely being in technical vocabulary introduced after 1949.<a href="#cite_note-61">[59]</a> Prior to 1949, the varieties most commonly spoken by Taiwan's Han population were <a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Hokkien" title="Taiwanese Hokkien">Taiwanese Hokkien</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Hakka_Chinese" title="Hakka Chinese">Hakka</a> to a lesser extent. Much of the <a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Aboriginal" class="mw-redirect" title="Taiwanese Aboriginal">Taiwanese Aboriginal</a> population spoke their native <a href="/wiki/Formosan_languages" title="Formosan languages">Formosan languages</a>. During the period of <a href="/wiki/Martial_law" title="Martial law">martial law</a> between 1949 and 1987, the Taiwanese government revived the <a href="/wiki/Mandarin_Promotion_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Mandarin Promotion Council">Mandarin Promotion Council</a>, discouraging or in some cases forbidding the use of Hokkien and other non-standard varieties. This resulted in Standard Chinese replacing Hokkien as the country's lingua franca,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScottTiun200757-62">[60]</a> and ultimately, a political backlash in the 1990s. Starting in the 2000s during the administration of President <a href="/wiki/Chen_Shui-Bian" class="mw-redirect" title="Chen Shui-Bian">Chen Shui-Bian</a>, the Taiwanese government began making efforts to recognize the country's other languages. They began being taught in schools, and their use increased in media, though Standard Chinese remains the country's lingua franca.<a href="#cite_note-63">[61]</a> Chen often used Hokkien in his speeches; later Taiwanese President <a href="/wiki/Lee_Teng-hui" title="Lee Teng-hui">Lee Teng-hui</a> also openly spoke Hokkien. In an amendment to the Enforcement Rules of the Passport Act (護照條例施行細則) passed on 9 August 2019, Taiwan's <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Foreign_Affairs_(Taiwan)" title="Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Taiwan)">Ministry of Foreign Affairs</a> announced that romanized spellings of names in <a href="/wiki/Hoklo" class="mw-redirect" title="Hoklo">Hoklo</a>, Hakka and Aboriginal languages may be used in Taiwanese passports. Previously, only Mandarin names could be romanized.<a href="#cite_note-64">[62]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Singapore">Singapore</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Singaporean_Mandarin" title="Singaporean Mandarin">Singaporean Mandarin</a></div> Mandarin is one of the four official languages of Singapore, along with English, <a href="/wiki/Malay_language" title="Malay language">Malay</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tamil_language" title="Tamil language">Tamil</a>. Historically, it was seldom used by the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Singaporeans" title="Chinese Singaporeans">Chinese Singaporean community</a>, which primarily spoke the Southern Chinese languages of <a href="/wiki/Hokkien" title="Hokkien">Hokkien</a>, <a href="/wiki/Teochew_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Teochew dialect">Teochew</a>, Cantonese, or <a href="/wiki/Hakka_Chinese" title="Hakka Chinese">Hakka</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <a href="/wiki/Standard_Singaporean_Mandarin" title="Standard Singaporean Mandarin">Standard Singaporean Mandarin</a> is nearly identical to the standards of China and Taiwan, with minor vocabulary differences. It is the Mandarin variant used in education, media, and official settings. Meanwhile, a colloquial form called <a href="/wiki/Singdarin" title="Singdarin">Singdarin</a> is used in informal daily life and is heavily influenced in terms of both grammar and vocabulary by local languages such as Cantonese, Hokkien, and Malay. Instances of code-switching with English, Hokkien, Cantonese, Malay, or a combination thereof are also common. In Singapore, the government has heavily promoted a "<a href="/wiki/Speak_Mandarin_Campaign" title="Speak Mandarin Campaign">Speak Mandarin Campaign</a>" since the late 1970s, with the use of other Chinese varieties in broadcast media being prohibited and their use in any context officially discouraged until recently.<a href="#cite_note-65">[63]</a> This has led to some resentment amongst the older generations, as Singapore's migrant Chinese community is made up almost entirely of people of south Chinese descent. <a href="/wiki/Lee_Kuan_Yew" title="Lee Kuan Yew">Lee Kuan Yew</a>, the initiator of the campaign, admitted that to most Chinese Singaporeans, Mandarin was a "stepmother tongue" rather than a true mother language. Nevertheless, he saw the need for a unified language among the Chinese community not biased in favor of any existing group.<a href="#cite_note-Yew_2000-66">[64]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Malaysia">Malaysia</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Malaysian_Mandarin" title="Malaysian Mandarin">Malaysian Mandarin</a></div> In Malaysia, Mandarin has been adopted by local Chinese-language schools as the medium of instruction with the standard shared with Singaporean Chinese. Together influenced by the Singaporean Speak Mandarin Campaign and Chinese culture revival movement in the 1980s, Malaysian Chinese started their own promotion of Mandarin too, and similar to Singapore, but to a lesser extent, experienced language shift from other Chinese variants to Mandarin. Today, Mandarin functions as lingua franca among Malaysian Chinese, while Hokkien and Cantonese are still retained in the northern part and central part of Peninsular Malaysia respectively. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Myanmar">Myanmar</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_people_in_Myanmar" title="Chinese people in Myanmar">Chinese people in Myanmar</a></div> In some regions controlled by <a href="/wiki/List_of_insurgent_groups_in_Myanmar" class="mw-redirect" title="List of insurgent groups in Myanmar">insurgent groups</a> in northern Myanmar, Mandarin serves as the lingua franca.<a href="#cite_note-67">[65]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><h2 id="Education">Education</h2></div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yangzhou-Highschool-Speak-Putonghua-3388.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Yangzhou-Highschool-Speak-Putonghua-3388.jpg/220px-Yangzhou-Highschool-Speak-Putonghua-3388.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 165px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Yangzhou-Highschool-Speak-Putonghua-3388.jpg/220px-Yangzhou-Highschool-Speak-Putonghua-3388.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="165" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Yangzhou-Highschool-Speak-Putonghua-3388.jpg/330px-Yangzhou-Highschool-Speak-Putonghua-3388.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Yangzhou-Highschool-Speak-Putonghua-3388.jpg/440px-Yangzhou-Highschool-Speak-Putonghua-3388.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>A poster outside a high school in <a href="/wiki/Yangzhou" title="Yangzhou">Yangzhou</a> urges people to "Speak Putonghua to welcome guests from all around, use the language of the civilized to give your sincere feelings".</figcaption></figure> In both mainland China and Taiwan, Standard Chinese is taught by immersion starting in elementary school. After the second grade, the entire educational system is in Standard Chinese, except for local language classes that have been taught for a few hours each week in Taiwan starting in the mid-1990s. With an increase in internal <a href="/wiki/Migration_in_China" title="Migration in China">migration in China</a>, the official <a href="/wiki/Putonghua_Proficiency_Test" title="Putonghua Proficiency Test">Putonghua Proficiency Test</a> (PSC) has become popular. Employers often require a level of Standard Chinese proficiency from applicants depending on the position, and many university graduates on the mainland take the PSC before looking for a job. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><h2 id="Phonology">Phonology</h2></div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese_phonology" title="Standard Chinese phonology">Standard Chinese phonology</a></div> The pronunciation of Standard Chinese is defined as that of the <a href="/wiki/Beijing_dialect" title="Beijing dialect">Beijing dialect</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988138-68">[66]</a> The usual unit of analysis is the syllable, consisting of an optional initial <a href="/wiki/Consonant" title="Consonant">consonant</a>, an optional medial <a href="/wiki/Semivowel" title="Semivowel">glide</a>, a main vowel and an optional coda, and further distinguished by a <a href="/wiki/Tone_(linguistics)" title="Tone (linguistics)">tone</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988138%E2%80%93139-69">[67]</a> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; margin:1em auto 1em auto"> <caption>Initial consonants with pinyin spellings<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988139-70">[68]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2"> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">Labial</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">Alveolar</a> </th> <th>Dental <a href="/wiki/Sibilant" title="Sibilant">sibilant</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Retroflex_consonant" title="Retroflex consonant">Retroflex</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">Nasals</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a> ⟨m⟩</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a> ⟨n⟩</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Plosive" title="Plosive">Stops</a> and <a href="/wiki/Affricates" class="mw-redirect" title="Affricates">affricates</a> </th> <th>unaspirated </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a> ⟨b⟩</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a> ⟨d⟩</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_affricate" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless dental affricate">t͡s</a> ⟨z⟩</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_retroflex_affricate" title="Voiceless retroflex affricate">ʈ͡ʂ</a> ⟨zh⟩</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolo-palatal_affricate" title="Voiceless alveolo-palatal affricate">t͡ɕ</a> ⟨j⟩</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a> ⟨g⟩ </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">aspirated</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">pʰ</a> ⟨p⟩</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">tʰ</a> ⟨t⟩</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">t͡sʰ</a> ⟨c⟩</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">ʈ͡ʂʰ</a> ⟨ch⟩</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">t͡ɕʰ</a> ⟨q⟩</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">kʰ</a> ⟨k⟩ </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Fricative" title="Fricative">Fricatives</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiceless labiodental fricative">f</a> ⟨f⟩</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_sibilant_fricative" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless dental sibilant fricative">s</a> ⟨s⟩</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_retroflex_fricative" title="Voiceless retroflex fricative">ʂ</a> ⟨sh⟩</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolo-palatal_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolo-palatal fricative">ɕ</a> ⟨x⟩</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">x</a> ⟨h⟩ </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Approximant" title="Approximant">Approximants</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a> ⟨w⟩</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced dental lateral approximant">l</a> ⟨l⟩</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_approximant" title="Voiced retroflex approximant">ɻ</a>~<a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_fricative" title="Voiced retroflex fricative">ʐ</a> ⟨r⟩</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a> ⟨y⟩</td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> The palatal initials [tɕ], [tɕʰ] and [ɕ] pose a classic problem of <a href="/wiki/Phonemic" class="mw-redirect" title="Phonemic">phonemic</a> analysis. Since they occur only before high front vowels, they are in <a href="/wiki/Complementary_distribution" title="Complementary distribution">complementary distribution</a> with three other series, the dental sibilants, retroflexes and velars, which never occur in this position.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988140%E2%80%93141-71">[69]</a> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; margin:1em auto 1em auto"> <caption>Syllable finals with pinyin spellings<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeZee2003110-72">[70]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <td>ɹ̩ ⟨i⟩</td> <td>ɤ ⟨e⟩</td> <td>a ⟨a⟩</td> <td>ei ⟨ei⟩</td> <td>ai ⟨ai⟩</td> <td>ou ⟨ou⟩</td> <td>au ⟨ao⟩</td> <td>ən ⟨en⟩</td> <td>an ⟨an⟩</td> <td>əŋ ⟨eng⟩</td> <td>aŋ ⟨ang⟩</td> <td>ɚ ⟨er⟩ </td></tr> <tr> <td>i ⟨i⟩</td> <td>ie ⟨ie⟩</td> <td>ia ⟨ia⟩</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>iou ⟨iu⟩</td> <td>iau ⟨iao⟩</td> <td>in ⟨in⟩</td> <td>ien ⟨ian⟩</td> <td>iŋ ⟨ing⟩</td> <td>iaŋ ⟨iang⟩</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>u ⟨u⟩</td> <td>uo ⟨uo⟩</td> <td>ua ⟨ua⟩</td> <td>uei ⟨ui⟩</td> <td>uai ⟨uai⟩</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>uən ⟨un⟩</td> <td>uan ⟨uan⟩</td> <td>uŋ ⟨ong⟩</td> <td>uaŋ ⟨uang⟩</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>y ⟨ü⟩</td> <td>ye ⟨üe⟩</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>yn ⟨un⟩</td> <td>yen ⟨uan⟩</td> <td>iuŋ ⟨iong⟩</td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> The [ɹ̩] final, which occurs only after dental sibilant and retroflex initials, is a syllabic <a href="/wiki/Approximant_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Approximant consonant">approximant</a>, prolonging the initial.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988142-73">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeZee2003111-74">[72]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pinyin_Tone_Chart.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Pinyin_Tone_Chart.svg/130px-Pinyin_Tone_Chart.svg.png" decoding="async" width="130" height="209" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="436" data-file-height="700"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 130px;height: 209px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Pinyin_Tone_Chart.svg/130px-Pinyin_Tone_Chart.svg.png" data-width="130" data-height="209" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Pinyin_Tone_Chart.svg/195px-Pinyin_Tone_Chart.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Pinyin_Tone_Chart.svg/260px-Pinyin_Tone_Chart.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Relative pitch contours of the four full tones</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Rhotacized_vowel" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhotacized vowel">rhotacized vowel</a> [ɚ] forms a complete syllable.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988143%E2%80%93144-75">[73]</a> A reduced form of this syllable occurs as a sub-syllabic suffix, spelled -r in pinyin and often with a <a href="/wiki/Diminutive" title="Diminutive">diminutive</a> connotation. The suffix modifies the coda of the base syllable in a rhotacizing process called <a href="/wiki/Erhua" title="Erhua">erhua</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988144%E2%80%93145-76">[74]</a> Each full syllable is pronounced with a phonemically distinctive pitch contour. There are four tonal categories, marked in pinyin with diacritics, as in the words mā (媽; 妈; 'mother'), má (麻; 'hemp'), mǎ (馬; 马; 'horse') and mà (罵; 骂; 'curse').<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDuanmu2007225-77">[75]</a> The tonal categories also have secondary characteristics. For example, the third tone is long and <a href="/wiki/Murmured_voice" class="mw-redirect" title="Murmured voice">murmured</a>, whereas the fourth tone is relatively short.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988147-78">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDuanmu2007236-79">[77]</a> Statistically, vowels and tones are of similar importance in the language.<a href="#cite_note-81">[c]</a><a href="#cite_note-82">[79]</a> There are also weak syllables, including grammatical particles such as the interrogative ma (嗎; 吗) and certain syllables in polysyllabic words. These syllables are short, with their pitch determined by the preceding syllable.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988148-83">[80]</a> Such syllables are commonly described as being in the neutral tone. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Regional_accents">Regional accents</h3></div> It is common for Standard Chinese to be spoken with the speaker's regional accent, depending on factors such as age, level of education, and the need and frequency to speak in official or formal situations. Due to evolution and standardization, Mandarin, although based on the Beijing dialect, is no longer synonymous with it. Part of this was due to the standardization to reflect a greater vocabulary scheme and a more archaic and "proper-sounding" pronunciation and vocabulary. Distinctive features of the Beijing dialect are more extensive use of erhua in vocabulary items that are left unadorned in descriptions of the standard such as the <a href="/wiki/Xiandai_Hanyu_Cidian" title="Xiandai Hanyu Cidian">Xiandai Hanyu Cidian</a>, as well as more neutral tones.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen199939%E2%80%9340-84">[81]</a> An example of standard versus Beijing dialect would be the standard mén (door) and Beijing ménr. While the Standard Chinese spoken in Taiwan is nearly identical to that of mainland China, the colloquial form has been heavily influenced by other local languages, especially Taiwanese Hokkien. Notable differences include: the merger of <a href="/wiki/Retroflex" class="mw-redirect" title="Retroflex">retroflex</a> sounds (zh, ch, sh, r) with the <a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">alveolar</a> series (z, c, s), frequent mergers of the "neutral tone" with a word's original tone, and absence of <a href="/wiki/Erhua" title="Erhua">erhua</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen199947-85">[82]</a> <a href="/wiki/Code-switching" title="Code-switching">Code-switching</a> between Mandarin and Taiwanese Hokkien is common, as the majority of the population continues to also speak the latter as a native language.<a href="#cite_note-86">[83]</a> The stereotypical "southern Chinese" accent does not distinguish between <a href="/wiki/Retroflex_consonant" title="Retroflex consonant">retroflex</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">alveolar consonants</a>, pronouncing pinyin zh [tʂ], ch [tʂʰ], and sh [ʂ] in the same way as z [ts], c [tsʰ], and s [s] respectively.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988140-87">[84]</a> Southern-accented Standard Chinese may also interchange l and n, final n and ng, and vowels i and ü [y]. Attitudes towards southern accents, particularly the Cantonese accent, range from disdain to admiration.<a href="#cite_note-88">[85]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"><h2 id="Grammar">Grammar</h2></div><section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_grammar" title="Chinese grammar">Chinese grammar</a></div> Chinese is a strongly <a href="/wiki/Analytic_language" title="Analytic language">analytic language</a>, having almost no <a href="/wiki/Inflectional_morpheme" class="mw-redirect" title="Inflectional morpheme">inflectional morphemes</a>, and relying on word order and <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_particle" title="Grammatical particle">particles</a> to express relationships between the parts of a sentence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988159-89">[86]</a> Nouns are not marked for <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_case" title="Grammatical case">case</a> and rarely marked for <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_number" title="Grammatical number">number</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiThompson198111%E2%80%9312-90">[87]</a> Verbs are not marked for <a href="/wiki/Agreement_(linguistics)" title="Agreement (linguistics)">agreement</a> or <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_tense" title="Grammatical tense">grammatical tense</a>, but <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_aspect" title="Grammatical aspect">aspect</a> is marked using post-verbal particles.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiThompson198112%E2%80%9313-91">[88]</a> The basic word order is <a href="/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93verb%E2%80%93object" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject–verb–object">subject–verb–object</a> (SVO), as in English.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELin198119-92">[89]</a> Nouns are generally preceded by any modifiers (<a href="/wiki/Adjective" title="Adjective">adjectives</a>, <a href="/wiki/Possessive" title="Possessive">possessives</a> and <a href="/wiki/Relative_clause" title="Relative clause">relative clauses</a>), and verbs also generally follow any modifiers (<a href="/wiki/Adverb" title="Adverb">adverbs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_verb" title="Auxiliary verb">auxiliary verbs</a> and prepositional phrases).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiThompson198124%E2%80%9326-93">[90]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1209690778">.mw-parser-output .interlinear .bold{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .interlinear .smallcaps{text-transform:uppercase;font-size:smaller}</style><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">他TāHe</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">为/為wèifor</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">他的tā-dehe-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="genitive case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">GEN</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">朋友péngyǒufriend</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">做了zuò-ledo-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="perfect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PERF</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">这个/這個zhè-gethis-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="classifier" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CL</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">工作。gōngzuò.job</div>他为/為他的朋友做了这个/這個工作。Tā wèi tā-de péngyǒu zuò-le zhè-ge gōngzuò.He for he-GEN friend do-PERF this-CL job'He did this job for his friends.'<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELin1981169-94">[91]</a><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> The predicate can be an intransitive verb, a transitive verb followed by a direct object, a <a href="/wiki/Copula_(linguistics)" title="Copula (linguistics)">copula</a> (linking verb) shì (是) followed by a noun phrase, etc.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiThompson1981141-95">[92]</a> In predicative use, Chinese adjectives function as <a href="/wiki/Stative_verb" title="Stative verb">stative verbs</a>, forming complete predicates in their own right without a copula.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiThompson1981141%E2%80%93143-96">[93]</a> For example, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">我WǒI</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">不búnot</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">累。lèi.tired</div>我不累。Wǒ bú lèi.I not tired'I am not tired.'<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> Chinese additionally differs from English in that it forms another kind of sentence by <a href="/wiki/Topic-prominent_language" title="Topic-prominent language">stating a topic and following it by a comment</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiThompson198115%E2%80%9316-97">[94]</a> To do this in English, speakers generally flag the topic of a sentence by prefacing it with "as for". For example: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">妈妈/媽媽MāmaMom</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">给/給gěigive</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">我们/我們wǒmenus</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">的de<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="relative(izer)" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">REL</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">钱/錢,qián,money</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">我wǒI</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">已经/已經yǐjīngalready</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">买了/買了mǎi-lebuy-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="perfect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PERF</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">糖果。tángguǒ(r)candy</div>妈妈/媽媽给/給我们/我們的钱/錢, 我已经/已經买了/買了糖果。Māma gěi wǒmen de qián, wǒ yǐjīng mǎi-le tángguǒ(r)Mom give us REL money I already buy-PERF candy'As for the money that Mom gave us, I have already bought candy with it.'<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> The time when something happens can be given by an explicit term such as "yesterday", by relative terms such as "formerly", etc.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiThompson1981320%E2%80%93320-98">[95]</a> As in many east Asian languages, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_classifier" title="Chinese classifier">classifiers</a> or measure words are required when using <a href="/wiki/Numeral_(linguistics)" title="Numeral (linguistics)">numerals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Demonstrative" title="Demonstrative">demonstratives</a> and similar quantifiers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiThompson1981104-99">[96]</a> There are many different classifiers in the language, and each noun generally has a particular classifier associated with it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiThompson1981105-100">[97]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">一顶yī-dǐngone-top</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">帽子,màozi,hat</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">三本sān-běnthree-volume</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">书/書,shū,book</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">那支nèi-zhīthat-branch</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">笔/筆bǐpen</div>一顶帽子, 三本书/書, 那支笔/筆yī-dǐng màozi, sān-běn shū, nèi-zhī bǐone-top hat three-volume book that-branch pen'a hat, three books, that pen'<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> The general classifier ge (个/個) is gradually replacing specific classifiers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiThompson1981112-101">[98]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Word_formation" title="Word formation">word formation</a>, the language allows for <a href="/wiki/Compound_(linguistics)" title="Compound (linguistics)">compounds</a> and for <a href="/wiki/Reduplication" title="Reduplication">reduplication</a>. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"><h2 id="Vocabulary">Vocabulary</h2></div><section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> Many <a href="/wiki/Chinese_honorifics" title="Chinese honorifics">honorifics</a> used in imperial China are also used in daily conversation in modern Mandarin, such as jiàn (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%B3%A4#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:賤">賤</a>; 贱; '[my] humble') and guì (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%B2%B4#Traditional_Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:貴">貴</a>; 贵; '[your] honorable'). Although Chinese speakers make a clear distinction between Standard Chinese and the Beijing dialect, there are aspects of Beijing dialect that have made it into the official standard. Standard Chinese has a <a href="/wiki/T%E2%80%93V_distinction" title="T–V distinction">T–V distinction</a> between the polite and informal "you" that comes from the Beijing dialect, although its use is quite diminished in daily speech. It also distinguishes between "zánmen" ('we', including the listener) and "wǒmen" ('we', not including the listener). In practice, neither distinction is commonly used by most Chinese, at least outside the Beijing area. The following samples are some phrases from the Beijing dialect which are not yet accepted into Standard Chinese:[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <ul><li>倍儿 bèir means 'very much'; 拌蒜 bànsuàn means 'stagger'; 不吝 bù lìn means 'do not worry about'; 撮 cuō means 'eat'; 出溜 chūliū means 'slip'; (大)老爷儿们儿 dà lǎoyermenr means 'man, male'.</li></ul> The following samples are some phrases from Beijing dialect which have become accepted as Standard Chinese:[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <ul><li>二把刀 èr bǎ dāo means 'not very skillful'; 哥们儿 gēménr means 'good male friend', 'buddy'; 抠门儿 kōu ménr means 'frugal' or 'stingy'.</li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(8)"><h2 id="Writing_system">Writing system</h2></div><section class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-8"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Written_vernacular_Chinese" title="Written vernacular Chinese">Written vernacular Chinese</a> and <a href="/wiki/Modern_Chinese_characters" title="Modern Chinese characters">Modern Chinese characters</a></div> Standard Chinese is written with characters corresponding to syllables of the language, most of which represent a morpheme. In most cases, these characters come from those used in <a href="/wiki/Classical_Chinese" title="Classical Chinese">Classical Chinese</a> to write cognate morphemes of late <a href="/wiki/Old_Chinese" title="Old Chinese">Old Chinese</a>, though their pronunciation, and often meaning, has shifted dramatically over two millennia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198874-102">[99]</a> However, there are several words, many of them heavily used, which have no classical counterpart or whose etymology is obscure. Two strategies have been used to write such words:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198874%E2%80%9375-103">[100]</a> <ul><li>An unrelated character with the same or similar pronunciation might be used, especially if its original sense was no longer common. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Demonstrative_pronoun" class="mw-redirect" title="Demonstrative pronoun">demonstrative pronouns</a> zhè 'this' and nà 'that' have no counterparts in Classical Chinese, which used 此 cǐ and 彼 bǐ respectively. Hence the character 這 (later simplified as 这) for zhè 'to meet' was borrowed to write zhè 'this', and the character 那 for nà, the name of a country and later a rare surname, was borrowed to write nà 'that'.</li> <li>A new character, usually a phono-semantic or semantic compound, might be created. For example, gǎn 'pursue', 'overtake', is written with a new character 趕, composed of the signific 走 zǒu 'run' and the phonetic 旱 hàn 'drought'.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198876-104">[101]</a> This method was used to represent many <a href="/wiki/Chemical_elements_in_East_Asian_languages#Chinese" title="Chemical elements in East Asian languages">elements in the periodic table</a>.</li></ul> The PRC, as well as several other governments and institutions, has promulgated a set of simplified character forms. Under this system, the forms of the words zhèlǐ ('here') and nàlǐ ('there') changed from 這裏/這裡 and 那裏/那裡 to 这里 and 那里, among many other changes. Chinese characters were traditionally read from top to bottom, right to left, but in modern usage it is more common to read from left to right. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(9)"><h2 id="Examples">Examples</h2></div><section class="mf-section-9 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-9"> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>English </th> <th>Traditional characters </th> <th>Simplified characters </th> <th>Pinyin </th></tr> <tr> <td>Hello! </td> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%BD%A0%E5%A5%BD" class="extiw" title="wikt:你好">你好</a>！ </td> <td>Nǐ hǎo! </td></tr> <tr> <td>What is your name? </td> <td>你叫什麼名字？ </td> <td>你叫什么名字？ </td> <td>Nǐ jiào shénme míngzi? </td></tr> <tr> <td>My name is... </td> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center;">我叫... </td> <td>Wǒ jiào ... </td></tr> <tr> <td>How are you? </td> <td>你好嗎？/ 你怎麼樣？ </td> <td>你好吗？/ 你怎么样？ </td> <td>Nǐ hǎo ma? / Nǐ zěnmeyàng? </td></tr> <tr> <td>I am fine, how about you? </td> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center;">我很好，你呢？ </td> <td>Wǒ hěn hǎo, nǐ ne? </td></tr> <tr> <td>I don't want it / I don't want to </td> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center;">我不要。 </td> <td>Wǒ bú yào. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Thank you! </td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%AC%9D%E8%AC%9D" class="extiw" title="wikt:謝謝">謝謝</a>！ </td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%B0%A2%E8%B0%A2" class="extiw" title="wikt:谢谢">谢谢</a>！ </td> <td>Xièxie </td></tr> <tr> <td>Welcome! / You're welcome! (Literally: No need to thank me!) / Don't mention it! (Literally: Don't be so polite!) </td> <td>歡迎！/ 不用謝！/ 不客氣！ </td> <td>欢迎！/ 不用谢！/ 不客气！ </td> <td>Huānyíng! / Búyòng xiè! / Bú kèqì! </td></tr> <tr> <td>Yes. / Correct. </td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%98%AF" class="extiw" title="wikt:是">是</a>。 / <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%B0%8D" class="extiw" title="wikt:對">對</a>。/ 嗯。 </td> <td>是。 / <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%AF%B9" class="extiw" title="wikt:对">对</a>。/ 嗯。 </td> <td>Shì. / Duì. / M. </td></tr> <tr> <td>No. / Incorrect. </td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B8%8D%E6%98%AF" class="extiw" title="wikt:不是">不是</a>。/ 不對。/ 不。 </td> <td>不是。/ 不对。/ 不。 </td> <td>Búshì. / Bú duì. / Bù. </td></tr> <tr> <td>When? </td> <td>什麼時候？ </td> <td>什么时候？ </td> <td>Shénme shíhou? </td></tr> <tr> <td>How much money? </td> <td>多少錢？ </td> <td>多少钱？ </td> <td>Duōshǎo qián? </td></tr> <tr> <td>Can you speak a little slower? </td> <td>您能說得再慢些嗎？ </td> <td>您能说得再慢些吗？ </td> <td>Nín néng shuō de zài mànxiē ma? </td></tr> <tr> <td>Good morning! / Good morning! </td> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center;">早上好！ / 早安！ </td> <td>Zǎoshang hǎo! / Zǎo'ān! </td></tr> <tr> <td>Goodbye! </td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%86%8D%E8%A6%8B" class="extiw" title="wikt:再見">再見</a>！ </td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%86%8D%E8%A7%81" class="extiw" title="wikt:再见">再见</a>！ </td> <td>Zàijiàn! </td></tr> <tr> <td>How do you get to the airport? </td> <td>去機場怎麼走？ </td> <td>去机场怎么走？ </td> <td>Qù jīchǎng zěnme zǒu? </td></tr> <tr> <td>I want to fly to London on the eighteenth </td> <td>我想18號坐飛機到倫敦。 </td> <td>我想18号坐飞机到伦敦。 </td> <td>Wǒ xiǎng shíbā hào zuò fēijī dào Lúndūn. </td></tr> <tr> <td>How much will it cost to get to Munich? </td> <td>到慕尼黑要多少錢？ </td> <td>到慕尼黑要多少钱？ </td> <td>Dào Mùníhēi yào duōshǎo qián? </td></tr> <tr> <td>I don't speak Chinese very well. </td> <td>我的漢語說得不太好。 </td> <td>我的汉语说得不太好。 </td> <td>Wǒ de Hànyǔ shuō de bú tài hǎo. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Do you speak English? </td> <td>你會說英語嗎？ </td> <td>你会说英语吗？ </td> <td>Nǐ huì shuō Yīngyǔ ma? </td></tr> <tr> <td>I have no money. </td> <td>我沒有錢。 </td> <td>我没有钱。 </td> <td>Wǒ méiyǒu qián. </td></tr></tbody></table> Article 1 of the <a href="/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights" title="Universal Declaration of Human Rights">Universal Declaration of Human Rights</a> in Standard Chinese:<a href="#cite_note-105">[102]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">人人生而自由，在尊严和权利上一律平等。他们赋有理性和良心，并应以兄弟关系的精神相对待。<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> 人人生而自由，在尊嚴和權利上一律平等。他們賦有理性和良心，並應以兄弟關係的精神相對待。<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> Rén rén shēng ér zìyóu, zài zūnyán hé quánlì shàng yīlǜ píngděng. Tāmen fùyǒu lǐxìng hé liángxīn, bìng yīng yǐ xiōngdì guānxì de jīngshén xiāng duìdài.<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.</blockquote> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(10)"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div><section class="mf-section-10 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-10"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_speech_synthesis" title="Chinese speech synthesis">Chinese speech synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_national_standards_of_Chinese" title="Comparison of national standards of Chinese">Comparison of national standards of Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandarin_Chinese_in_the_Philippines" title="Mandarin Chinese in the Philippines">Mandarin Chinese in the Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protection_of_the_varieties_of_Chinese" title="Protection of the varieties of Chinese">Protection of the varieties of Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_language_law" title="Chinese language law">Chinese language law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yayan" title="Yayan">Yayan</a></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(11)"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div><section class="mf-section-11 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-11"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> Taiwan does not have any legally designated official language. Mandarin is the primary language used in business and education and is spoken by the vast majority of the population. Not designated but meets the legal definition, that is "本法所稱國家語言，指臺灣各固有族群使用之自然語言及臺灣手語。"<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> ("a natural language used by an original people group of Taiwan and the Taiwan Sign Language") </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=National_Commission_on_Language_and_Script_Work&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="National Commission on Language and Script Work (page does not exist)">National Commission on Language and Script Work</a> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9B%BD%E5%AE%B6%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E6%96%87%E5%AD%97%E5%B7%A5%E4%BD%9C%E5%A7%94%E5%91%98%E4%BC%9A" class="extiw" title="zh:国家语言文字工作委员会">zh</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> "A word pronounced in a wrong tone or inaccurate tone sounds as puzzling as if one said 'bud' in English, meaning 'not good' or 'the thing one sleeps in.'"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChao194824-80">[78]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(12)"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div><section class="mf-section-12 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-12"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988251-1"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988251_1-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 251. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELiang201445-2"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiang201445_2-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLiang2014">Liang (2014)</a>, p. 45. </li> <li id="cite_note-over80percent-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-over80percent_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-over80percent_3-1">b</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://en.people.cn/n3/2020/1016/c90000-9769716.html">"Over 80 percent of Chinese population speak Mandarin"</a>, People's Daily, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240930021445/http://en.people.cn/n3/2020/1016/c90000-9769716.html">archived</a> from the original on 30 September 2024, retrieved 22 December 2021</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=People%27s+Daily&rft.atitle=Over+80+percent+of+Chinese+population+speak+Mandarin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fen.people.cn%2Fn3%2F2020%2F1016%2Fc90000-9769716.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+Chinese" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaiTsay2015" class="citation cs2">Tai, James; Tsay, Jane (2015), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5ZqnCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA772">Sign Languages of the World: A Comparative Handbook</a>, Walter de Gruyter, p. 772, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61451-817-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61451-817-4"><bdi>978-1-61451-817-4</bdi></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240930021527/https://books.google.com/books?id=5ZqnCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA772#v=onepage&q&f=false">archived</a> from the original on 30 September 2024, retrieved 26 February 2020</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sign+Languages+of+the+World%3A+A+Comparative+Handbook&rft.pages=772&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-61451-817-4&rft.aulast=Tai&rft.aufirst=James&rft.au=Tsay%2C+Jane&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5ZqnCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA772&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+Chinese" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Adamson_&_Feng-5"><a href="#cite_ref-Adamson_&_Feng_5-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdamsonFeng2021" class="citation cs2">Adamson, Bob; Feng, Anwei (27 December 2021), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GQdSEAAAQBAJ">Multilingual China: National, Minority and Foreign Languages</a>, Routledge, p. 90, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-000-48702-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-000-48702-2"><bdi>978-1-000-48702-2</bdi></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240930021527/https://books.google.com/books?id=GQdSEAAAQBAJ">archived</a> from the original on 30 September 2024, retrieved 29 January 2024, <q>Despite not being defined as such in the Constitution, Putonghua enjoys de facto status of the official language in China and is legislated as the standard form of Chinese.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Multilingual+China%3A+National%2C+Minority+and+Foreign+Languages&rft.pages=90&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2021-12-27&rft.isbn=978-1-000-48702-2&rft.aulast=Adamson&rft.aufirst=Bob&rft.au=Feng%2C+Anwei&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGQdSEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+Chinese" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://law.moj.gov.tw/LawClass/LawAll.aspx?pcode=H0170143"><bdi lang="zh">國家語言發展法</bdi></a>. law.moj.gov.tw (in Chinese). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201111221059/https://law.moj.gov.tw/LawClass/LawAll.aspx?pcode=H0170143">Archived</a> from the original on 11 November 2020. Retrieved 22 May 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=law.moj.gov.tw&rft.atitle=%E5%9C%8B%E5%AE%B6%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80%E7%99%BC%E5%B1%95%E6%B3%95&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flaw.moj.gov.tw%2FLawClass%2FLawAll.aspx%3Fpcode%3DH0170143&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+Chinese" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley1992307-9"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradley1992307_9-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBradley1992">Bradley (1992)</a>, p. 307. </li> <li id="cite_note-John_Rohsenow_2004-10">^ <a href="#cite_ref-John_Rohsenow_2004_10-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-John_Rohsenow_2004_10-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRohsenow2004" class="citation cs2">Rohsenow, John S. (2004), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-XDdBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA24">"Fifty Years of Script and Written Language Reform in the P.R.C."</a>, in Zhou, Minglang (ed.), Language Policy in the People's Republic of China, Springer, pp. 22, 24, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-8039-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-8039-5"><bdi>978-1-4020-8039-5</bdi></a>, <q>accurately represent and express the sounds of standard Northern Mandarin (Putonghua) [...]. Central to the <a href="/wiki/Promotion_of_Putonghua" class="mw-redirect" title="Promotion of Putonghua">promotion of Putonghua</a> as a national language with a standard pronunciation as well as to assisting literacy in the non-<a href="/wiki/Phonemic_orthography" title="Phonemic orthography">phonetic writing system</a> of Chinese characters was the development of a <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinyin">system of phonetic symbols</a> with which to convey the pronunciation of spoken words and written characters in standard northern Mandarin.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Fifty+Years+of+Script+and+Written+Language+Reform+in+the+P.R.C.&rft.btitle=Language+Policy+in+the+People%27s+Republic+of+China&rft.pages=22%2C+24&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-4020-8039-5&rft.aulast=Rohsenow&rft.aufirst=John+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-XDdBgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA24&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+Chinese" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Yunyun_Ran_2016-11">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Yunyun_Ran_2016_11-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Yunyun_Ran_2016_11-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRanWeijer2016" class="citation cs2">Ran, Yunyun; Weijer, Jeroen van de (2016), "On L2 English Intonation Patterns by Mandarin and Shanghainese Speakers: A Pilot Study", in Sloos, Marjoleine; Weijer, Jeroen van de (eds.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161211200335/http://chineseaccents.yolasite.com/resources/CAAC2015%20RYY%26JW%20Final.pdf">Proceedings of the second workshop "Chinese Accents and Accented Chinese" (2nd CAAC) 2016, at the Nordic Center, Fudan University, Shanghai, 26-27 October 2015</a> (PDF), p. 4, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://chineseaccents.yolasite.com/resources/CAAC2015%20RYY%26JW%20Final.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 11 December 2016, <q>We recorded a number of English sentences spoken by speakers with Mandarin Chinese (standard northern Mandarin) as their first language and by Chinese speakers with <a href="/wiki/Shanghainese" title="Shanghainese">Shanghainese</a> as their first language, [...]</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=On+L2+English+Intonation+Patterns+by+Mandarin+and+Shanghainese+Speakers%3A+A+Pilot+Study&rft.btitle=Proceedings+of+the+second+workshop+%22Chinese+Accents+and+Accented+Chinese%22+%282nd+CAAC%29+2016%2C+at+the+Nordic+Center%2C+Fudan+University%2C+Shanghai%2C+26-27+October+2015&rft.pages=4&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Ran&rft.aufirst=Yunyun&rft.au=Weijer%2C+Jeroen+van+de&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fchineseaccents.yolasite.com%2Fresources%2FCAAC2015%2520RYY%2526JW%2520Final.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+Chinese" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-David_Bradley_2008-12">^ <a href="#cite_ref-David_Bradley_2008_12-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-David_Bradley_2008_12-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBradley2008" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/David_Bradley_(linguist)" title="David Bradley (linguist)">Bradley, David</a> (2008), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=p-7ON7Rvx_AC&pg=PT500">"Chapter 5: East and Southeast Asia"</a>, in Moseley, Christopher (ed.), Encyclopedia of the World's Endangered Languages, Routledge, p. 500 (e-book), <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-79640-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-135-79640-2"><bdi>978-1-135-79640-2</bdi></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240930023006/https://books.google.com/books?id=p-7ON7Rvx_AC&pg=PT500#v=onepage&q&f=false">archived</a> from the original on 30 September 2024, retrieved 5 November 2020, <q>As a result of the spread of standard northern Mandarin and major regional varieties of provincial capitals since 1950, many of the smaller tuyu [土語] are disappearing by being absorbed into larger regional fangyan [方言], which of course may be a sub-variety of Mandarin or something else.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+5%3A+East+and+Southeast+Asia&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+World%27s+Endangered+Languages&rft.pages=500+%28e-book%29&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-135-79640-2&rft.aulast=Bradley&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dp-7ON7Rvx_AC%26pg%3DPT500&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+Chinese" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jeff_Siegel_2003-13">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jeff_Siegel_2003_13-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jeff_Siegel_2003_13-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSiegel2003" class="citation cs2">Siegel, Jeff (2003), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xmLoVScagwYC&pg=PA201">"Chapter 8: Social Context"</a>, in Doughty, Catherine J.; Long, Michael H. (eds.), The Handbook of Second Language Acquisition, Blackwell Publishing, U.K., p. 201, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-5188-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-5188-7"><bdi>978-1-4051-5188-7</bdi></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240930023007/https://books.google.com/books?id=xmLoVScagwYC&pg=PA201#v=onepage&q&f=false">archived</a> from the original on 30 September 2024, retrieved 5 November 2020, <q>Escure [Geneviève Escure, 1997] goes on to analyse second dialect texts of Putonghua (standard Beijing Mandarin Chinese) produced by speakers of other <a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Chinese" title="Varieties of Chinese">varieties of Chinese</a>, [in] <a href="/wiki/Wuhan" title="Wuhan">Wuhan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Suzhou" title="Suzhou">Suzhou</a>.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+8%3A+Social+Context&rft.btitle=The+Handbook+of+Second+Language+Acquisition&rft.pages=201&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishing%2C+U.K.&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-5188-7&rft.aulast=Siegel&rft.aufirst=Jeff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxmLoVScagwYC%26pg%3DPA201&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+Chinese" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ying-Chuan_Chen2013-14">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ying-Chuan_Chen2013_14-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ying-Chuan_Chen2013_14-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChen2013" class="citation thesis cs1">Chen, Ying-Chuan (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200219134255/https://ruor.uottawa.ca/bitstream/10393/24934/5/Chen_Ying-Chuan_2013_thesis.pdf">Becoming Taiwanese: Negotiating Language, Culture and Identity</a> (PDF) (Thesis). <a href="/wiki/University_of_Ottawa" title="University of Ottawa">University of Ottawa</a>. p. 300. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ruor.uottawa.ca/bitstream/10393/24934/5/Chen_Ying-Chuan_2013_thesis.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 19 February 2020. <q>[...] a consistent gender pattern found across all the age <a href="/wiki/Cohort_(statistics)" title="Cohort (statistics)">cohorts</a> is that women were more concerned about their teachers' bad Mandarin pronunciation, and implied that it was an inferior form of Mandarin, which signified their aspiration to speak standard Beijing Mandarin, the good version of the language.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Becoming+Taiwanese%3A+Negotiating+Language%2C+Culture+and+Identity&rft.inst=University+of+Ottawa&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Chen&rft.aufirst=Ying-Chuan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fruor.uottawa.ca%2Fbitstream%2F10393%2F24934%2F5%2FChen_Ying-Chuan_2013_thesis.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+Chinese" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Weng,_Jeffrey_2018_611–633-15">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Weng,_Jeffrey_2018_611%E2%80%93633_15-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Weng,_Jeffrey_2018_611%E2%80%93633_15-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Weng,_Jeffrey_2018_611%E2%80%93633_15-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeng2018" class="citation cs2">Weng, Jeffrey (2018), "What is Mandarin? The social project of language standardization in early Republican China", The Journal of Asian Studies, 59 (1): 611–633, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0021911818000487">10.1017/S0021911818000487</a>, <q>in common usage, 'Mandarin' or 'Mandarin Chinese' usually refers to China's standard spoken language. In fact, I would argue that this is the predominant meaning of the word</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Asian+Studies&rft.atitle=What+is+Mandarin%3F+The+social+project+of+language+standardization+in+early+Republican+China&rft.volume=59&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=611-633&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0021911818000487&rft.aulast=Weng&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+Chinese" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Robert_M_Sanders_1987-16"><a href="#cite_ref-Robert_M_Sanders_1987_16-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSanders1987" class="citation cs2">Sanders, Robert M. (1987), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120307022502/http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp004_mandarin_chinese.pdf">"The Four Languages of "Mandarin""</a> (PDF), Sino-Platonic Papers, no. 4, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sino-platonic.org/complete/spp004_mandarin_chinese.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 7 March 2012</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sino-Platonic+Papers&rft.atitle=The+Four+Languages+of+%22Mandarin%22&rft.issue=4&rft.date=1987&rft.aulast=Sanders&rft.aufirst=Robert+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsino-platonic.org%2Fcomplete%2Fspp004_mandarin_chinese.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+Chinese" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988136-17"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988136_17-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, p. 136. </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200703095204/https://www.lexico.com/definition/mandarin">"Mandarin"</a>, Oxford Dictionary, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lexico.com/definition/mandarin">the original</a> on 3 July 2020</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oxford+Dictionary&rft.atitle=Mandarin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lexico.com%2Fdefinition%2Fmandarin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+Chinese" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMair2013737-19">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMair2013737_19-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMair2013737_19-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMair2013737_19-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMair2013737_19-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFMair2013">Mair (2013)</a>, p. 737. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMair199111–12-20"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMair199111%E2%80%9312_20-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMair1991">Mair (1991)</a>, pp. 11–12. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin2000537-21">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoblin2000537_21-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoblin2000537_21-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFCoblin2000">Coblin (2000)</a>, p. 537. </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREF张杰2012" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">张杰 (2012), "论清代满族语言文字在东北的兴废与影响", in 张杰 (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201105000708/http://www.xjass.cn/mzwh/content/2011-04/08/content_192291.htm">清文化与满族精神</a> (in Chinese), 辽宁民族出版社, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.xjass.cn/mzwh/content/2011-04/08/content_192291.htm">the original</a> on 5 November 2020, <q>[天聪五年, 1631年] 满大臣不解汉语，故每部设启心郎一员，以通晓国语之汉员为之，职正三品，每遇议事，座在其中参预之。</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%E8%AE%BA%E6%B8%85%E4%BB%A3%E6%BB%A1%E6%97%8F%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E6%96%87%E5%AD%97%E5%9C%A8%E4%B8%9C%E5%8C%97%E7%9A%84%E5%85%B4%E5%BA%9F%E4%B8%8E%E5%BD%B1%E5%93%8D&rft.btitle=%E6%B8%85%E6%96%87%E5%8C%96%E4%B8%8E%E6%BB%A1%E6%97%8F%E7%B2%BE%E7%A5%9E&rft.pub=%E8%BE%BD%E5%AE%81%E6%B0%91%E6%97%8F%E5%87%BA%E7%89%88%E7%A4%BE&rft.date=2012&rft.au=%E5%BC%A0%E6%9D%B0&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.xjass.cn%2Fmzwh%2Fcontent%2F2011-04%2F08%2Fcontent_192291.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+Chinese" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETam202076-23">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETam202076_23-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETam202076_23-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFTam2020">Tam (2020)</a>, p. 76. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988133–134-24"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988133%E2%80%93134_24-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 133–134. </li> <li id="cite_note-进一步贯彻实施国家通用语言文字法铸牢中华民族共同体意识-25">^ <a href="#cite_ref-%E8%BF%9B%E4%B8%80%E6%AD%A5%E8%B4%AF%E5%BD%BB%E5%AE%9E%E6%96%BD%E5%9B%BD%E5%AE%B6%E9%80%9A%E7%94%A8%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E6%96%87%E5%AD%97%E6%B3%95%E9%93%B8%E7%89%A2%E4%B8%AD%E5%8D%8E%E6%B0%91%E6%97%8F%E5%85%B1%E5%90%8C%E4%BD%93%E6%84%8F%E8%AF%86_25-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-%E8%BF%9B%E4%B8%80%E6%AD%A5%E8%B4%AF%E5%BD%BB%E5%AE%9E%E6%96%BD%E5%9B%BD%E5%AE%B6%E9%80%9A%E7%94%A8%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E6%96%87%E5%AD%97%E6%B3%95%E9%93%B8%E7%89%A2%E4%B8%AD%E5%8D%8E%E6%B0%91%E6%97%8F%E5%85%B1%E5%90%8C%E4%BD%93%E6%84%8F%E8%AF%86_25-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://npc.people.com.cn/n1/2020/1116/c14576-31932918.html">"进一步贯彻实施国家通用语言文字法铸牢中华民族共同体意识"</a>. 人民日报. Retrieved 9 November 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=%E4%BA%BA%E6%B0%91%E6%97%A5%E6%8A%A5&rft.atitle=%E8%BF%9B%E4%B8%80%E6%AD%A5%E8%B4%AF%E5%BD%BB%E5%AE%9E%E6%96%BD%E5%9B%BD%E5%AE%B6%E9%80%9A%E7%94%A8%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E6%96%87%E5%AD%97%E6%B3%95%E9%93%B8%E7%89%A2%E4%B8%AD%E5%8D%8E%E6%B0%91%E6%97%8F%E5%85%B1%E5%90%8C%E4%BD%93%E6%84%8F%E8%AF%86&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnpc.people.com.cn%2Fn1%2F2020%2F1116%2Fc14576-31932918.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+Chinese" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCao2011" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Cao Dehe (曹德和) (2011), <bdi lang="zh">恢复"国语名"称的建议为何不被接受_──《国家通用语言文字法》学习中的探讨和思考</bdi> (in Chinese), Tribune of Social Sciences</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E6%81%A2%E5%A4%8D%22%E5%9B%BD%E8%AF%AD%E5%90%8D%22%E7%A7%B0%E7%9A%84%E5%BB%BA%E8%AE%AE%E4%B8%BA%E4%BD%95%E4%B8%8D%E8%A2%AB%E6%8E%A5%E5%8F%97_%E2%94%80%E2%94%80%E3%80%8A%E5%9B%BD%E5%AE%B6%E9%80%9A%E7%94%A8%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E6%96%87%E5%AD%97%E6%B3%95%E3%80%8B%E5%AD%A6%E4%B9%A0%E4%B8%AD%E7%9A%84%E6%8E%A2%E8%AE%A8%E5%92%8C%E6%80%9D%E8%80%83&rft.pub=Tribune+of+Social+Sciences&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Cao&rft.aufirst=Dehe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+Chinese" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> Yuan, Zhongrui. (2008) "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.china-language.gov.cn/63/2008_3_10/1_63_3387_0_1205124588468.html">国语、普通话、华语</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090426051531/http://www.china-language.gov.cn/63/2008_3_10/1_63_3387_0_1205124588468.html">Archived</a> 26 April 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (Guoyu, Putonghua, Huayu)". China Language National Language Committee, People's Republic of China </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSponsored_by_Council_of_Indigenous_Peoples2017" class="citation cs2">Sponsored by <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Indigenous_Peoples" title="Council of Indigenous Peoples">Council of Indigenous Peoples</a> (14 June 2017), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://law.moj.gov.tw/ENG/LawClass/LawAll.aspx?pcode=D0130037">原住民族語言發展法</a> [Indigenous Languages Development Act], <a href="/w/index.php?title=Laws_%26_Regulations_Database_of_The_Republic_of_China&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Laws & Regulations Database of The Republic of China (page does not exist)">Laws & Regulations Database of The Republic of China</a>, the Ministry of Justice, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190213123845/https://law.moj.gov.tw/ENG/LawClass/LawAll.aspx?pcode=D0130037">archived</a> from the original on 13 February 2019, retrieved 5 November 2020, <q>Indigenous languages are national languages. To carry out historical justice, promote the preservation and development of indigenous languages, and secure indigenous language usage and heritage, this act is enacted according to... [原住民族語言為國家語言，為實現歷史正義，促進原住民族語言之保存與發展，保障原住民族語言之使用及傳承，依...]</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E5%8E%9F%E4%BD%8F%E6%B0%91%E6%97%8F%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80%E7%99%BC%E5%B1%95%E6%B3%95&rft.pub=Laws+%26+Regulations+Database+of+The+Republic+of+China%2C+the+Ministry+of+Justice&rft.date=2017-06-14&rft.au=Sponsored+by+Council+of+Indigenous+Peoples&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flaw.moj.gov.tw%2FENG%2FLawClass%2FLawAll.aspx%3Fpcode%3DD0130037&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+Chinese" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wang_Baijian2018-29">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wang_Baijian2018_29-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wang_Baijian2018_29-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWang2018" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-script">Wang Baojian (王保鍵) (2018), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201105103333/https://ws.exam.gov.tw/001/Upload/15/attachment/12083/38483/882416282671.pdf"><bdi lang="zh">客家基本法之制定與發展：兼論 2018 年修法重點</bdi></a> (PDF), Journal of Civil Service, vol. 10, no. 3, pp. 89, 92–96, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ws.exam.gov.tw/001/Upload/15/attachment/12083/38483/882416282671.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 5 November 2020</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Civil+Service&rft.atitle=%E5%AE%A2%E5%AE%B6%E5%9F%BA%E6%9C%AC%E6%B3%95%E4%B9%8B%E5%88%B6%E5%AE%9A%E8%88%87%E7%99%BC%E5%B1%95%EF%BC%9A%E5%85%BC%E8%AB%96+2018+%E5%B9%B4%E4%BF%AE%E6%B3%95%E9%87%8D%E9%BB%9E&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=89%2C+92-96&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Wang&rft.aufirst=Baojian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fws.exam.gov.tw%2F001%2FUpload%2F15%2Fattachment%2F12083%2F38483%2F882416282671.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+Chinese" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSponsored_by_Hakka_Affairs_Council2018" class="citation cs2">Sponsored by <a href="/wiki/Hakka_Affairs_Council" title="Hakka Affairs Council">Hakka Affairs Council</a> (31 January 2018), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://law.moj.gov.tw/ENG/LawClass/LawAll.aspx?pcode=D0140005">客家基本法</a> [Hakka Basic Act], <a href="/w/index.php?title=Laws_%26_Regulations_Database_of_The_Republic_of_China&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Laws & Regulations Database of The Republic of China (page does not exist)">Laws & Regulations Database of The Republic of China</a>, the Ministry of Justice, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190213124007/https://law.moj.gov.tw/ENG/LawClass/LawAll.aspx?pcode=D0140005">archived</a> from the original on 13 February 2019, retrieved 5 November 2020, <q>Hakka language is one of the national languages, equal to the languages of other ethnic groups. The people shall be given guarantee on their right to study in Hakka language and use it in enjoying public services and partaking of the dissemination of resources. [客語為國家語言之一，與各族群語言平等。人民以客語作為學習語言、接近使用公共服務及傳播資源等權利，應予保障。]</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E5%AE%A2%E5%AE%B6%E5%9F%BA%E6%9C%AC%E6%B3%95&rft.pub=Laws+%26+Regulations+Database+of+The+Republic+of+China%2C+the+Ministry+of+Justice&rft.date=2018-01-31&rft.au=Sponsored+by+Hakka+Affairs+Council&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flaw.moj.gov.tw%2FENG%2FLawClass%2FLawAll.aspx%3Fpcode%3DD0140005&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+Chinese" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMair199111-31"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMair199111_31-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMair1991">Mair (1991)</a>, pp. 11. </li> <li id="cite_note-Xu2018-32">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Xu2018_32-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Xu2018_32-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFXu2018" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Xu Weixian (許維賢) (2018), <bdi lang="zh">華語電影在後馬來西亞：土腔風格、華夷風與作者論</bdi> [Chinese films in Malaysia: local and overseas styles and auteur theory] (in Chinese), Lianjing chuban, pp. 36–41, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-957-08-5098-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-957-08-5098-7"><bdi>978-957-08-5098-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E8%8F%AF%E8%AA%9E%E9%9B%BB%E5%BD%B1%E5%9C%A8%E5%BE%8C%E9%A6%AC%E4%BE%86%E8%A5%BF%E4%BA%9E%EF%BC%9A%E5%9C%9F%E8%85%94%E9%A2%A8%E6%A0%BC%E3%80%81%E8%8F%AF%E5%A4%B7%E9%A2%A8%E8%88%87%E4%BD%9C%E8%80%85%E8%AB%96&rft.pages=36-41&rft.pub=Lianjing+chuban&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-957-08-5098-7&rft.aulast=Xu&rft.aufirst=Weixian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+Chinese" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKane2006" class="citation cs2">Kane, Daniel (2006), The Chinese Language: Its History and Current Usage, Tuttle Publishing, pp. 22–23, 93, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8048-3853-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8048-3853-5"><bdi>978-0-8048-3853-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Chinese+Language%3A+Its+History+and+Current+Usage&rft.pages=22-23%2C+93&rft.pub=Tuttle+Publishing&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-8048-3853-5&rft.aulast=Kane&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+Chinese" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFourmont1742" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Fourmont" title="Étienne Fourmont">Fourmont, Étienne</a> (1742), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/b30448955/page/n7/mode/2up">Linguæ Sinarum Mandarinicæ Hieroglyphicæ Grammatica Duplex</a> [Grammar of the Mandarin Chinese Hieroglyphics] (in Latin), Paris: Hippolyte-Louis Guérin</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lingu%C3%A6+Sinarum+Mandarinic%C3%A6+Hieroglyphic%C3%A6+Grammatica+Duplex&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Hippolyte-Louis+Gu%C3%A9rin&rft.date=1742&rft.aulast=Fourmont&rft.aufirst=%C3%89tienne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fb30448955%2Fpage%2Fn7%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+Chinese" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> Translation quoted in <a href="#CITEREFCoblin2000">Coblin (2000)</a>, p. 539 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin2000549–550-36"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoblin2000549%E2%80%93550_36-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCoblin2000">Coblin (2000)</a>, pp. 549–550. </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichardKennelly1908" class="citation cs2">Richard, Louis; Kennelly, M. (1908), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.org/details/lrichardscompreh00rich">Comprehensive geography of the Chinese empire and dependencies</a>, Shanghai: Tusewei Press, p. iv, retrieved 6 March 2024</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Comprehensive+geography+of+the+Chinese+empire+and+dependencies&rft.place=Shanghai&rft.pages=iv&rft.pub=Tusewei+Press&rft.date=1908&rft.aulast=Richard&rft.aufirst=Louis&rft.au=Kennelly%2C+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flrichardscompreh00rich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+Chinese" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen199916–17-38"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChen199916%E2%80%9317_38-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChen1999">Chen (1999)</a>, pp. 16–17. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988134-39"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988134_39-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, p. 134. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen199918-40"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChen199918_40-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChen1999">Chen (1999)</a>, p. 18. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERamsey198710-41"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERamsey198710_41-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRamsey1987">Ramsey (1987)</a>, p. 10. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERamsey198715-42"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERamsey198715_42-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRamsey1987">Ramsey (1987)</a>, p. 15. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley1992313–314-43"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradley1992313%E2%80%93314_43-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBradley1992">Bradley (1992)</a>, pp. 313–314. </li> <li id="cite_note-langlaw-44"><a href="#cite_ref-langlaw_44-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-script"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gov.cn/english/laws/2005-09/19/content_64906.htm">Law of the People's Republic of China on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language (Order of the President No.37)</a>, Gov.cn, 31 October 2000, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130724204951/http://www.gov.cn/english/laws/2005-09/19/content_64906.htm">archived</a> from the original on 24 July 2013, retrieved 27 April 2010, <bdi lang="zh">普通话就是现代汉民族共同语，是全国各民族通用的语言。普通话以北京语音为标准音，以北方话为基础方言，以典范的现代白话文著作语法规范</bdi> [For purposes of this Law, the standard spoken and written Chinese language means Putonghua (a common speech with pronunciation based on the Beijing dialect) and the standardized Chinese characters.]</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Law+of+the+People%27s+Republic+of+China+on+the+Standard+Spoken+and+Written+Chinese+Language+%28Order+of+the+President+No.37%29&rft.pub=Gov.cn&rft.date=2000-10-31&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gov.cn%2Fenglish%2Flaws%2F2005-09%2F19%2Fcontent_64906.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+Chinese" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen199924-45"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChen199924_45-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChen1999">Chen (1999)</a>, p. 24. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen199937–38-46"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChen199937%E2%80%9338_46-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChen1999">Chen (1999)</a>, pp. 37–38. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen199927–28-47"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChen199927%E2%80%9328_47-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChen1999">Chen (1999)</a>, pp. 27–28. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen199928-48"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChen199928_48-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChen1999">Chen (1999)</a>, p. 28. </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.china.org.cn/english/education/201946.htm">More than half of Chinese can speak Mandarin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Xinhua_News_Agency" title="Xinhua News Agency">Xinhua</a>, 7 March 2007, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181204232341/http://www.china.org.cn/english/education/201946.htm">archived</a> from the original on 4 December 2018, retrieved 10 November 2017</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=More+than+half+of+Chinese+can+speak+Mandarin&rft.pub=Xinhua&rft.date=2007-03-07&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.china.org.cn%2Fenglish%2Feducation%2F201946.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+Chinese" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFE'nuoWu2020" class="citation cs2">E'nuo, Zhao; Wu, Yue (16 October 2020), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://en.people.cn/n3/2020/1016/c90000-9769716.html">"Over 80 percent of Chinese population speak Mandarin"</a>, People's Daily, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240930021445/http://en.people.cn/n3/2020/1016/c90000-9769716.html">archived</a> from the original on 30 September 2024, retrieved 22 December 2021</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=People%27s+Daily&rft.atitle=Over+80+percent+of+Chinese+population+speak+Mandarin&rft.date=2020-10-16&rft.aulast=E%27nuo&rft.aufirst=Zhao&rft.au=Wu%2C+Yue&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fen.people.cn%2Fn3%2F2020%2F1016%2Fc90000-9769716.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+Chinese" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSemple2009" class="citation cs2">Semple, Kirk (21 October 2009), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2009/10/22/nyregion/22chinese.html">"In Chinatown, Sound of the Future Is Mandarin"</a>, The New York Times, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110714084739/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/10/22/nyregion/22chinese.html">archived</a> from the original on 14 July 2011, retrieved 18 July 2011</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=In+Chinatown%2C+Sound+of+the+Future+Is+Mandarin&rft.date=2009-10-21&rft.aulast=Semple&rft.aufirst=Kirk&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2009%2F10%2F22%2Fnyregion%2F22chinese.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+Chinese" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpolsky2014" class="citation cs2">Spolsky, Bernard (December 2014), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.linguisticsociety.org/sites/default/files/02e_90.4Spolsky.pdf">"Language management in the People's Republic of China"</a> (PDF), Linguistic Society of America, vol. 90, p. 168, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240930023014/https://www.linguisticsociety.org/sites/default/files/02e_90.4Spolsky.pdf">archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 30 September 2024, retrieved 13 May 2023</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Linguistic+Society+of+America&rft.atitle=Language+management+in+the+People%27s+Republic+of+China&rft.volume=90&rft.pages=168&rft.date=2014-12&rft.aulast=Spolsky&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.linguisticsociety.org%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2F02e_90.4Spolsky.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+Chinese" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-53"><a href="#cite_ref-:1_53-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/china-85-citizens-mandarin-2025-81485477">"China says 85% of citizens will use Mandarin by 2025"</a>, ABC News, retrieved 22 December 2021</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ABC+News&rft.atitle=China+says+85%25+of+citizens+will+use+Mandarin+by+2025&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fabcnews.go.com%2FInternational%2FwireStory%2Fchina-85-citizens-mandarin-2025-81485477&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+Chinese" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZuo2020" class="citation cs2">Zuo, Xinyi (16 December 2020), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.atlantis-press.com/proceedings/ichess-20/125949177">"Effects of Ways of Communication on the Preservation of Shanghai Dialect"</a>, Proceedings of the 2020 3rd International Conference on Humanities Education and Social Sciences (ICHESS 2020), Atlantis Press, pp. 56–59, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2991%2Fassehr.k.201214.465">10.2991/assehr.k.201214.465</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-6239-301-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-94-6239-301-1"><bdi>978-94-6239-301-1</bdi></a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:234515573">234515573</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240930023038/https://www.atlantis-press.com/proceedings/ichess-20/125949177">archived</a> from the original on 30 September 2024, retrieved 13 May 2023</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Effects+of+Ways+of+Communication+on+the+Preservation+of+Shanghai+Dialect&rft.btitle=Proceedings+of+the+2020+3rd+International+Conference+on+Humanities+Education+and+Social+Sciences+%28ICHESS+2020%29&rft.pages=56-59&rft.pub=Atlantis+Press&rft.date=2020-12-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A234515573%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2991%2Fassehr.k.201214.465&rft.isbn=978-94-6239-301-1&rft.aulast=Zuo&rft.aufirst=Xinyi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.atlantis-press.com%2Fproceedings%2Fichess-20%2F125949177&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+Chinese" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLuo2014" class="citation cs2">Luo, Chris (23 September 2014), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scmp.com/news/china-insider/article/1598040/3-10-chinese-citizens-do-not-speak-putonghua-says-education">"One-third of Chinese do not speak Putonghua, says Education Ministry"</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_China_Morning_Post" title="South China Morning Post">South China Morning Post</a>, Hong Kong, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150602081902/http://www.scmp.com/news/china-insider/article/1598040/3-10-chinese-citizens-do-not-speak-putonghua-says-education">archived</a> from the original on 2 June 2015, retrieved 18 September 2017</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=South+China+Morning+Post&rft.atitle=One-third+of+Chinese+do+not+speak+Putonghua%2C+says+Education+Ministry&rft.date=2014-09-23&rft.aulast=Luo&rft.aufirst=Chris&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scmp.com%2Fnews%2Fchina-insider%2Farticle%2F1598040%2F3-10-chinese-citizens-do-not-speak-putonghua-says-education&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+Chinese" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-56"><a href="#cite_ref-:0_56-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLee2023" class="citation cs2">Lee, Siu-lun (2023), The Learning and Teaching of Cantonese as a Second Language, Abingdon/New York: Routledge, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-000-88989-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-000-88989-5"><bdi>978-1-000-88989-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Learning+and+Teaching+of+Cantonese+as+a+Second+Language&rft.place=Abingdon%2FNew+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-1-000-88989-5&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=Siu-lun&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+Chinese" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:12-57"><a href="#cite_ref-:12_57-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShi2006" class="citation cs2">Shi, Dingxu (12 October 2006), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jbe-platform.com/content/journals/10.1075/japc.16.2.09shi">"Hong Kong written Chinese: Language change induced by language contact"</a>, Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, 16 (2): 299–318, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1075%2Fjapc.16.2.09shi">10.1075/japc.16.2.09shi</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143191355">143191355</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240930023013/https://www.jbe-platform.com/content/journals/10.1075/japc.16.2.09shi">archived</a> from the original on 30 September 2024, retrieved 28 June 2023</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Asian+Pacific+Communication&rft.atitle=Hong+Kong+written+Chinese%3A+Language+change+induced+by+language+contact&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=299-318&rft.date=2006-10-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1075%2Fjapc.16.2.09shi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143191355%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Shi&rft.aufirst=Dingxu&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jbe-platform.com%2Fcontent%2Fjournals%2F10.1075%2Fjapc.16.2.09shi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+Chinese" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStanding_Committee_on_Language_Education_&_Research2006" class="citation cs2">Standing Committee on Language Education & Research (25 March 2006), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110721092538/http://archive.news.gov.hk/isd/ebulletin/en/category/atschool/060325/html/060325en02002.htm">Putonghua promotion stepped up</a>, Hong Kong Government, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.news.gov.hk/isd/ebulletin/en/category/atschool/060325/html/060325en02002.htm">the original</a> on 21 July 2011, retrieved 12 February 2011</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Putonghua+promotion+stepped+up&rft.pub=Hong+Kong+Government&rft.date=2006-03-25&rft.au=Standing+Committee+on+Language+Education+%26+Research&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.news.gov.hk%2Fisd%2Febulletin%2Fen%2Fcategory%2Fatschool%2F060325%2Fhtml%2F060325en02002.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+Chinese" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.police.gov.hk/offbeat/692/0110_e.htm">Online training to boost Chinese skills</a>, Hong Kong Police Department, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110721092725/http://www.police.gov.hk/offbeat/692/0110_e.htm">archived</a> from the original on 21 July 2011, retrieved 12 February 2011</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Online+training+to+boost+Chinese+skills&rft.pub=Hong+Kong+Police+Department&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.police.gov.hk%2Foffbeat%2F692%2F0110_e.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+Chinese" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHong_Kong_LegCo1999" class="citation cs2">Hong Kong LegCo (19 April 1999), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.legco.gov.hk/yr98-99/english/panels/ed/papers/ed1904_4.htm">Panel on Education working reports</a>, Hong Kong Government, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110721092708/http://www.legco.gov.hk/yr98-99/english/panels/ed/papers/ed1904_4.htm">archived</a> from the original on 21 July 2011, retrieved 12 February 2011</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Panel+on+Education+working+reports&rft.pub=Hong+Kong+Government&rft.date=1999-04-19&rft.au=Hong+Kong+LegCo&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.legco.gov.hk%2Fyr98-99%2Fenglish%2Fpanels%2Fed%2Fpapers%2Fed1904_4.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+Chinese" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYao2014" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-long-vol">Yao, Qian (September 2014), "Analysis of Computer Terminology Translation Differences between Taiwan and Mainland China", Advanced Materials Research, 1030–1032: 1650–1652, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4028%2Fwww.scientific.net%2FAMR.1030-1032.1650">10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMR.1030-1032.1650</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:136508776">136508776</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Advanced+Materials+Research&rft.atitle=Analysis+of+Computer+Terminology+Translation+Differences+between+Taiwan+and+Mainland+China&rft.volume=1030-1032&rft.pages=1650-1652&rft.date=2014-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4028%2Fwww.scientific.net%2FAMR.1030-1032.1650&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A136508776%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Yao&rft.aufirst=Qian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+Chinese" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEScottTiun200757-62"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScottTiun200757_62-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFScottTiun2007">Scott & Tiun (2007)</a>, p. 57. </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHubbs" class="citation cs2">Hubbs, Elizabeth, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.uair.arizona.edu/index.php/AZSLAT/article/download/21223/20804">"Taiwan language-in-education policy: social, cultural and practical implications"</a>, Arizona Working Papers in SLA & Teaching, vol. 20, pp. 76–95, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240930023013/https://journals.uair.arizona.edu/index.php/AZSLAT/article/download/21223/20804">archived</a> from the original on 30 September 2024, retrieved 13 May 2023</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Arizona+Working+Papers+in+SLA+%26+Teaching&rft.atitle=Taiwan+language-in-education+policy%3A+social%2C+cultural+and+practical+implications&rft.volume=20&rft.pages=76-95&rft.aulast=Hubbs&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.uair.arizona.edu%2Findex.php%2FAZSLAT%2Farticle%2Fdownload%2F21223%2F20804&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+Chinese" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJason_Pan2019" class="citation cs2">Jason Pan (16 August 2019), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/front/archives/2019/08/16/2003720563">"NTU professors' language rule draws groups' ire"</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taipei_Times" title="Taipei Times">Taipei Times</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190817081519/http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/front/archives/2019/08/16/2003720563">archived</a> from the original on 17 August 2019, retrieved 17 August 2019</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Taipei+Times&rft.atitle=NTU+professors%27+language+rule+draws+groups%27+ire&rft.date=2019-08-16&rft.au=Jason+Pan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.taipeitimes.com%2FNews%2Ffront%2Farchives%2F2019%2F08%2F16%2F2003720563&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+Chinese" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161219200949/http://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/singapore/new-hokkien-drama-aimed-at-seniors-to-be-launched-on-sep-9/3091668.html">"New Hokkien drama aimed at seniors to be launched on Sep 9"</a>, <a href="/wiki/Channel_News_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Channel News Asia">Channel News Asia</a>, 1 September 2016, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/singapore/new-hokkien-drama-aimed-at-seniors-to-be-launched-on-sep-9/3091668.html">the original</a> on 19 December 2016</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Channel+News+Asia&rft.atitle=New+Hokkien+drama+aimed+at+seniors+to+be+launched+on+Sep+9&rft.date=2016-09-01&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.channelnewsasia.com%2Fnews%2Fsingapore%2Fnew-hokkien-drama-aimed-at-seniors-to-be-launched-on-sep-9%2F3091668.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+Chinese" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Yew_2000-66"><a href="#cite_ref-Yew_2000_66-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYew2000" class="citation cs2">Yew, Lee Kuan (3 October 2000), From Third World to First: The Singapore Story: 1965-2000, Harper Collins, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-019776-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-019776-6"><bdi>978-0-06-019776-6</bdi></a>, <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL7275961M">7275961M</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Third+World+to+First%3A+The+Singapore+Story%3A+1965-2000&rft.pub=Harper+Collins&rft.date=2000-10-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL7275961M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=978-0-06-019776-6&rft.aulast=Yew&rft.aufirst=Lee+Kuan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+Chinese" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAung_Thein_KhaGerin2019" class="citation cs2">Aung Thein Kha; Gerin, Roseanne (17 September 2019), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rfa.org/english/news/myanmar/in-myanmars-remote-mongla-region-09172019141648.html">"In Myanmar's Remote Mongla Region, Mandarin Supplants The Burmese Language"</a>, <a href="/wiki/Radio_Free_Asia" title="Radio Free Asia">Radio Free Asia</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200505202706/https://www.rfa.org/english/news/myanmar/in-myanmars-remote-mongla-region-09172019141648.html">archived</a> from the original on 5 May 2020, retrieved 31 May 2020</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Radio+Free+Asia&rft.atitle=In+Myanmar%27s+Remote+Mongla+Region%2C+Mandarin+Supplants+The+Burmese+Language&rft.date=2019-09-17&rft.au=Aung+Thein+Kha&rft.au=Gerin%2C+Roseanne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rfa.org%2Fenglish%2Fnews%2Fmyanmar%2Fin-myanmars-remote-mongla-region-09172019141648.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+Chinese" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988138-68"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988138_68-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, p. 138. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988138–139-69"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988138%E2%80%93139_69-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 138–139. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988139-70"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988139_70-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, p. 139. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988140–141-71"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988140%E2%80%93141_71-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 140–141. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeZee2003110-72"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeeZee2003110_72-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLeeZee2003">Lee & Zee (2003)</a>, p. 110. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988142-73"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988142_73-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, p. 142. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeZee2003111-74"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeeZee2003111_74-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLeeZee2003">Lee & Zee (2003)</a>, p. 111. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988143–144-75"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988143%E2%80%93144_75-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 143–144. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988144–145-76"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988144%E2%80%93145_76-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 144–145. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDuanmu2007225-77"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDuanmu2007225_77-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDuanmu2007">Duanmu (2007)</a>, p. 225. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988147-78"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988147_78-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, p. 147. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDuanmu2007236-79"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDuanmu2007236_79-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDuanmu2007">Duanmu (2007)</a>, p. 236. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChao194824-80"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChao194824_80-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChao1948">Chao (1948)</a>, p. 24. </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSurendranLevow2004" class="citation cs2">Surendran, Dinoj; Levow, Gina-Anne (2004), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070416214008/http://people.cs.uchicago.edu/~dinoj/research/fltonemandarin.pdf">"The functional load of tone in Mandarin is as high as that of vowels"</a> (PDF), in Bel, Bernard; Marlien, Isabelle (eds.), Proceedings of the International Conference on Speech Prosody 2004, SProSIG, pp. 99–102, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-9518233-1-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-9518233-1-0"><bdi>978-2-9518233-1-0</bdi></a>, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://people.cs.uchicago.edu/~dinoj/research/fltonemandarin.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 16 April 2007</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+functional+load+of+tone+in+Mandarin+is+as+high+as+that+of+vowels&rft.btitle=Proceedings+of+the+International+Conference+on+Speech+Prosody+2004&rft.pages=99-102&rft.pub=SProSIG&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-2-9518233-1-0&rft.aulast=Surendran&rft.aufirst=Dinoj&rft.au=Levow%2C+Gina-Anne&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpeople.cs.uchicago.edu%2F~dinoj%2Fresearch%2Ffltonemandarin.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+Chinese" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988148-83"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988148_83-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, p. 148. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen199939–40-84"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChen199939%E2%80%9340_84-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChen1999">Chen (1999)</a>, pp. 39–40. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen199947-85"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChen199947_85-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChen1999">Chen (1999)</a>, p. 47. </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChiu2012" class="citation cs2">Chiu, Miao-chin (April 2012), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200807182654/http://rportal.lib.ntnu.edu.tw/bitstream/20.500.12235/12992/1/ntnulib_ja_B0601_0005_027.pdf">"Code-switching and Identity Constructions in Taiwan TV Commercials"</a> (PDF), Monumenta Taiwanica, vol. 5, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rportal.lib.ntnu.edu.tw/bitstream/20.500.12235/12992/1/ntnulib_ja_B0601_0005_027.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 7 August 2020, retrieved 24 May 2020</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Monumenta+Taiwanica&rft.atitle=Code-switching+and+Identity+Constructions+in+Taiwan+TV+Commercials&rft.volume=5&rft.date=2012-04&rft.aulast=Chiu&rft.aufirst=Miao-chin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frportal.lib.ntnu.edu.tw%2Fbitstream%2F20.500.12235%2F12992%2F1%2Fntnulib_ja_B0601_0005_027.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+Chinese" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988140-87"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988140_87-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, p. 140. </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlum2002" class="citation cs2">Blum, Susan D. (2002), "Ethnic and Linguistic Diversity in Kunming", in Blum, Susan Debra; Jensen, Lionel M (eds.), China Off Center: Mapping the Margins of the Middle Kingdom, University of Hawaii Press, pp. 160–161, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-2577-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-2577-5"><bdi>978-0-8248-2577-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ethnic+and+Linguistic+Diversity+in+Kunming&rft.btitle=China+Off+Center%3A+Mapping+the+Margins+of+the+Middle+Kingdom&rft.pages=160-161&rft.pub=University+of+Hawaii+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-8248-2577-5&rft.aulast=Blum&rft.aufirst=Susan+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+Chinese" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988159-89"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988159_89-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, p. 159. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELiThompson198111–12-90"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiThompson198111%E2%80%9312_90-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLiThompson1981">Li & Thompson (1981)</a>, pp. 11–12. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELiThompson198112–13-91"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiThompson198112%E2%80%9313_91-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLiThompson1981">Li & Thompson (1981)</a>, pp. 12–13. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELin198119-92"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELin198119_92-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLin1981">Lin (1981)</a>, p. 19. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELiThompson198124–26-93"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiThompson198124%E2%80%9326_93-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLiThompson1981">Li & Thompson (1981)</a>, pp. 24–26. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELin1981169-94"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELin1981169_94-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLin1981">Lin (1981)</a>, p. 169. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELiThompson1981141-95"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiThompson1981141_95-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLiThompson1981">Li & Thompson (1981)</a>, p. 141. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELiThompson1981141–143-96"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiThompson1981141%E2%80%93143_96-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLiThompson1981">Li & Thompson (1981)</a>, pp. 141–143. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELiThompson198115–16-97"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiThompson198115%E2%80%9316_97-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLiThompson1981">Li & Thompson (1981)</a>, pp. 15–16. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELiThompson1981320–320-98"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiThompson1981320%E2%80%93320_98-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLiThompson1981">Li & Thompson (1981)</a>, pp. 320–320. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELiThompson1981104-99"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiThompson1981104_99-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLiThompson1981">Li & Thompson (1981)</a>, p. 104. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELiThompson1981105-100"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiThompson1981105_100-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLiThompson1981">Li & Thompson (1981)</a>, p. 105. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELiThompson1981112-101"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiThompson1981112_101-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLiThompson1981">Li & Thompson (1981)</a>, p. 112. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198874-102"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198874_102-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, p. 74. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198874–75-103"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198874%E2%80%9375_103-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 74–75. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman198876-104"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman198876_104-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, p. 76. </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220119003226/http://unicode.org/udhr/d/udhr_cmn_hans.html">"Universal Declaration of Human Rights - Chinese, Mandarin (Simplified)"</a>, unicode.org, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://unicode.org/udhr/d/udhr_cmn_hans.html">the original</a> on 19 January 2022, retrieved 11 January 2022</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=unicode.org&rft.atitle=Universal+Declaration+of+Human+Rights+-+Chinese%2C+Mandarin+%28Simplified%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Funicode.org%2Fudhr%2Fd%2Fudhr_cmn_hans.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+Chinese" class="Z3988"><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220119003226/http://unicode.org/udhr/d/udhr_cmn_hans.html">"Universal Declaration of Human Rights - Chinese, Mandarin (Simplified)"</a>, unicode.org, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://unicode.org/udhr/d/udhr_cmn_hans.html">the original</a> on 19 January 2022, retrieved 11 January 2022</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=unicode.org&rft.atitle=Universal+Declaration+of+Human+Rights+-+Chinese%2C+Mandarin+%28Simplified%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Funicode.org%2Fudhr%2Fd%2Fudhr_cmn_hans.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+Chinese" class="Z3988"><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNations" class="citation cs2">Nations, United, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights">"Universal Declaration of Human Rights"</a>, United Nations, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210316050452/https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights">archived</a> from the original on 16 March 2021, retrieved 11 January 2022</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=United+Nations&rft.atitle=Universal+Declaration+of+Human+Rights&rft.aulast=Nations&rft.aufirst=United&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.un.org%2Fen%2Fabout-us%2Funiversal-declaration-of-human-rights&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+Chinese" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdelaar1996" class="citation cs2">Adelaar, K. Alexander (1996), "Contact languages in Indonesia and Malaysia other than Malay", in <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Wurm" title="Stephen Wurm">Wurm, Stephen A.</a>; Mühlhäusler, Peter; Tryon, Darrell T. (eds.), Atlas of Languages of Intercultural Communication in the Pacific, Asia, and the Americas: Vol II: Texts, de Gruyter Mouton, pp. 695–711, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110819724">10.1515/9783110819724</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-081972-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-081972-4"><bdi>978-3-11-081972-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Contact+languages+in+Indonesia+and+Malaysia+other+than+Malay&rft.btitle=Atlas+of+Languages+of+Intercultural+Communication+in+the+Pacific%2C+Asia%2C+and+the+Americas%3A+Vol+II%3A+Texts&rft.pages=695-711&rft.pub=de+Gruyter+Mouton&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2F9783110819724&rft.isbn=978-3-11-081972-4&rft.aulast=Adelaar&rft.aufirst=K.+Alexander&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBradley1992" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/David_Bradley_(linguist)" title="David Bradley (linguist)">Bradley, David</a> (1992), "Chinese as a pluricentric language", in Clyne, Michael G. (ed.), Pluricentric Languages: Differing Norms in Different Nations, Walter de Gruyter, pp. 305–324, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-012855-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-012855-0"><bdi>978-3-11-012855-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chinese+as+a+pluricentric+language&rft.btitle=Pluricentric+Languages%3A+Differing+Norms+in+Different+Nations&rft.pages=305-324&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-3-11-012855-0&rft.aulast=Bradley&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChao1948" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Yuen_Ren_Chao" title="Yuen Ren Chao">Chao, Yuen Ren</a> (1948), Mandarin Primer: an Intensive Course in Spoken Chinese, <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-73288-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-73288-9"><bdi>978-0-674-73288-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mandarin+Primer%3A+an+Intensive+Course+in+Spoken+Chinese&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1948&rft.isbn=978-0-674-73288-9&rft.aulast=Chao&rft.aufirst=Yuen+Ren&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChen1999" class="citation cs2">Chen, Ping (1999), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/modernchinesehis00chen">Modern Chinese: History and sociolinguistics</a>, New York: Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-64572-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-64572-0"><bdi>978-0-521-64572-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+Chinese%3A+History+and+sociolinguistics&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-521-64572-0&rft.aulast=Chen&rft.aufirst=Ping&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmodernchinesehis00chen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoblin2000" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Weldon_South_Coblin" class="mw-redirect" title="Weldon South Coblin">Coblin, W. South</a> (2000), "A brief history of Mandarin", Journal of the American Oriental Society, 120 (4): 537–552, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F606615">10.2307/606615</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/606615">606615</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Oriental+Society&rft.atitle=A+brief+history+of+Mandarin&rft.volume=120&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=537-552&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F606615&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F606615%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Coblin&rft.aufirst=W.+South&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuanmu2007" class="citation cs2">Duanmu, San (2007), The phonology of standard Chinese (2nd ed.), Oxford University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-921579-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-921579-9"><bdi>978-0-19-921579-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+phonology+of+standard+Chinese&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-19-921579-9&rft.aulast=Duanmu&rft.aufirst=San&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeeZee2003" class="citation cs2">Lee, Wai-Sum; Zee, Eric (2003), "Standard Chinese (Beijing)", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 33 (1): 109–112, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100303001208">10.1017/S0025100303001208</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+International+Phonetic+Association&rft.atitle=Standard+Chinese+%28Beijing%29&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=109-112&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0025100303001208&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=Wai-Sum&rft.au=Zee%2C+Eric&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiThompson1981" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Sandra_Thompson_(linguist)" title="Sandra Thompson (linguist)">Li, Charles N.</a>; Thompson, Sandra A. (1981), Mandarin Chinese: A functional reference grammar, Berkeley: University of California Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-06610-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-06610-6"><bdi>978-0-520-06610-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mandarin+Chinese%3A+A+functional+reference+grammar&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-0-520-06610-6&rft.aulast=Li&rft.aufirst=Charles+N.&rft.au=Thompson%2C+Sandra+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLi2015" class="citation cs2">Li, Yuming (2015), Language Planning in China, Language Policies and Practices in China, Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61451-558-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61451-558-6"><bdi>978-1-61451-558-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Language+Planning+in+China&rft.place=Berlin&rft.series=Language+Policies+and+Practices+in+China&rft.pub=Mouton+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-61451-558-6&rft.aulast=Li&rft.aufirst=Yuming&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiang2014" class="citation cs2">Liang, Sihua (2014), Language Attitudes and Identities in Multilingual China: A Linguistic Ethnography, Springer International, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-12618-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-12618-0"><bdi>978-3-319-12618-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Language+Attitudes+and+Identities+in+Multilingual+China%3A+A+Linguistic+Ethnography&rft.pub=Springer+International&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-3-319-12618-0&rft.aulast=Liang&rft.aufirst=Sihua&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLin1981" class="citation cs2">Lin, Helen T. (1981), Essential Grammar for Modern Chinese, Boston: Cheng & Tsui, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-917056-10-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-917056-10-9"><bdi>978-0-917056-10-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Essential+Grammar+for+Modern+Chinese&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=Cheng+%26+Tsui&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-0-917056-10-9&rft.aulast=Lin&rft.aufirst=Helen+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMair1991" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Victor_H._Mair" title="Victor H. Mair">Mair, Victor H.</a> (1991), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180510155608/http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp029_chinese_dialect.pdf">"What Is a Chinese "Dialect/Topolect"? Reflections on Some Key Sino-English Linguistic terms"</a> (PDF), Sino-Platonic Papers, 29: 1–31, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sino-platonic.org/complete/spp029_chinese_dialect.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 10 May 2018, retrieved 15 April 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sino-Platonic+Papers&rft.atitle=What+Is+a+Chinese+%22Dialect%2FTopolect%22%3F+Reflections+on+Some+Key+Sino-English+Linguistic+terms&rft.volume=29&rft.pages=1-31&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Mair&rft.aufirst=Victor+H.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsino-platonic.org%2Fcomplete%2Fspp029_chinese_dialect.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMair2013" class="citation cs2">——— (2013), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180416012634/http://www.ling.sinica.edu.tw/Files/LL/Docments/Monographs/Breaking%20Down%20the%20Barriers/ISCLB-35-Mair%20130419.pdf">"The Classification of Sinitic Languages: What Is "Chinese"?"</a> (PDF), in Cao, Guangshun; Djamouri, Redouane; Chappell, Hilary; Wiebusch, Thekla (eds.), Breaking Down the Barriers: Interdisciplinary Studies in Chinese Linguistics and Beyond, Beijing: Institute of Linguistics, Academia Sinica, pp. 735–754, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ling.sinica.edu.tw/Files/LL/Docments/Monographs/Breaking%20Down%20the%20Barriers/ISCLB-35-Mair%20130419.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 16 April 2018, retrieved 15 April 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Classification+of+Sinitic+Languages%3A+What+Is+%22Chinese%22%3F&rft.btitle=Breaking+Down+the+Barriers%3A+Interdisciplinary+Studies+in+Chinese+Linguistics+and+Beyond&rft.place=Beijing&rft.pages=735-754&rft.pub=Institute+of+Linguistics%2C+Academia+Sinica&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Mair&rft.aufirst=Victor+H.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ling.sinica.edu.tw%2FFiles%2FLL%2FDocments%2FMonographs%2FBreaking%2520Down%2520the%2520Barriers%2FISCLB-35-Mair%2520130419.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorman1988" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Jerry_Norman_(sinologist)" title="Jerry Norman (sinologist)">Norman, Jerry</a> (1988), Chinese, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29653-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29653-3"><bdi>978-0-521-29653-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chinese&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-521-29653-3&rft.aulast=Norman&rft.aufirst=Jerry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRamsey1987" class="citation cs2">Ramsey, S. Robert (1987), The languages of China, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-01468-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-01468-5"><bdi>978-0-691-01468-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+languages+of+China&rft.place=Princeton%2C+NJ&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-691-01468-5&rft.aulast=Ramsey&rft.aufirst=S.+Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScottTiun2007" class="citation cs2">Scott, Mandy; Tiun, Hak-khiam (2007), "Mandarin-Only to Mandarin-Plus: Taiwan", Language Policy, 6 (1): 53–72, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10993-006-9040-5">10.1007/s10993-006-9040-5</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145009251">145009251</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Language+Policy&rft.atitle=Mandarin-Only+to+Mandarin-Plus%3A+Taiwan&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=53-72&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10993-006-9040-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145009251%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Scott&rft.aufirst=Mandy&rft.au=Tiun%2C+Hak-khiam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTam2020" class="citation cs2">Tam, Gina Anne (2020), Dialect and Nationalism in China, 1860–1960, Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-77640-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-77640-0"><bdi>978-1-108-77640-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dialect+and+Nationalism+in+China%2C+1860%E2%80%931960&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1-108-77640-0&rft.aulast=Tam&rft.aufirst=Gina+Anne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWang2012" class="citation cs2">Wang, Xiaomei (2012), Mandarin Spread in Malaysia, The University of Malaya Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-983-100-958-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-983-100-958-1"><bdi>978-983-100-958-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mandarin+Spread+in+Malaysia&rft.pub=The+University+of+Malaya+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-983-100-958-1&rft.aulast=Wang&rft.aufirst=Xiaomei&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(13)"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div><section class="mf-section-13 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-13"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChao1968" class="citation cs2">Chao, Yuen Ren (1968), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/grammarofspokenc0000chao">A Grammar of Spoken Chinese</a> (2nd ed.), University of California Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-00219-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-00219-7"><bdi>978-0-520-00219-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Grammar+of+Spoken+Chinese&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1968&rft.isbn=978-0-520-00219-7&rft.aulast=Chao&rft.aufirst=Yuen+Ren&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgrammarofspokenc0000chao&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Hsia, T., China's Language Reforms, Far Eastern Publications, Yale University, (New Haven), 1956.</li> <li>Ladefoged, Peter; & Maddieson, Ian (1996). The sounds of the world's languages. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-19814-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-19814-7">978-0-631-19814-7</a> (hbk); <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-19815-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-19815-4">978-0-631-19815-4</a> (pbk).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLadefogedWu1984" class="citation cs2">Ladefoged, Peter; Wu, Zhongji (1984), "Places of articulation: An investigation of Pekingese fricatives and affricates", Journal of Phonetics, 12 (3): 267–278, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0095-4470%2819%2930883-6">10.1016/S0095-4470(19)30883-6</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Phonetics&rft.atitle=Places+of+articulation%3A+An+investigation+of+Pekingese+fricatives+and+affricates&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=267-278&rft.date=1984&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0095-4470%2819%2930883-6&rft.aulast=Ladefoged&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft.au=Wu%2C+Zhongji&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Lehmann, W. P. (ed.), Language & Linguistics in the People's Republic of China, University of Texas Press, (Austin), 1975.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeZee2003" class="citation journal cs1">Le, Wai-Sum; Zee, Eric (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100303001208">"Standard Chinese (Beijing)"</a>. Illustrations of the IPA. Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 33 (1): 109–112. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100303001208">10.1017/S0025100303001208</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+International+Phonetic+Association&rft.atitle=Standard+Chinese+%28Beijing%29&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=109-112&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0025100303001208&rft.aulast=Le&rft.aufirst=Wai-Sum&rft.au=Zee%2C+Eric&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1017%252FS0025100303001208&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+Chinese" class="Z3988">, with supplementary sound recordings.</li></ul> <ul><li>Lin, Y., Lin Yutang's Chinese-English Dictionary of Modern Usage, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1972.</li> <li>Milsky, C., "New Developments in Language Reform", The China Quarterly, No. 53, (January–March 1973), pp. 98–133.</li> <li>Seybolt, P. J. and Chiang, G. K. (eds.), Language Reform in China: Documents and Commentary, M. E. Sharpe (White Plains), 1979. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87332-081-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87332-081-8">978-0-87332-081-8</a>.</li> <li>Simon, W., A Beginners' Chinese-English Dictionary of the National Language (Gwoyeu): Fourth Revised Edition, Lund Humphries (London), 1975.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Weng, Jeffrey (2018), "What Is Mandarin? The Social Project of Language Standardization in Early Republican China", The Journal of Asian Studies, 77 (3): 611–633, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0021911818000487">10.1017/S0021911818000487</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:166176089">166176089</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Asian+Studies&rft.atitle=What+Is+Mandarin%3F+The+Social+Project+of+Language+Standardization+in+Early+Republican+China&rft.volume=77&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=611-633&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0021911818000487&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A166176089%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Weng&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+Chinese" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(14)"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div><section class="mf-section-14 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-14"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/80/Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg/40px-Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="37" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="103" data-file-height="94"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 40px;height: 37px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/80/Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg/40px-Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="40" data-height="37" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/80/Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg/60px-Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/80/Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg/80px-Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/" class="extiw" title="zh:"> Chinese edition</a> of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia" title="Wikipedia">Wikipedia</a>, the free encyclopedia</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/16px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="400"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 16px;height: 16px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/16px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="16" data-height="16" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/24px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/32px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a> <a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Chinese_(Mandarin)" class="extiw" title="wikibooks:Chinese (Mandarin)">Chinese (Mandarin)</a> at Wikibooks</li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/16px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="193" data-file-height="193"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 16px;height: 16px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/16px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="16" data-height="16" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/24px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/32px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a> <a href="https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Chinese_phrasebook_-_Traditional#Q727694" class="extiw" title="voy:Chinese phrasebook - Traditional">Standard Chinese</a> travel guide from Wikivoyage</li> <li>Video <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Wjy0WfKhQc">A History of Mandarin: China's Search for a Common Language</a>, <a href="/wiki/NYU_Shanghai" class="mw-redirect" title="NYU Shanghai">NYU Shanghai</a>, 23 February 2018</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Mandarin%3A+China%27s+Search+for+a+Common+Language&rft.pub=NYU+Shanghai&rft.date=2018-02-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3D3Wjy0WfKhQc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+Chinese" class="Z3988"> - Talk by David Moser</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div>    </section></div> <noscript><img src="https://login.m.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&mobile=1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Standard_Chinese&oldid=1256444401">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Standard_Chinese&oldid=1256444401</a>"</div></div> </div> <div class="post-content" id="page-secondary-actions"> </div> </main> <footer class="mw-footer minerva-footer" role="contentinfo"> <a class="last-modified-bar" href="/w/index.php?title=Standard_Chinese&action=history"> <div class="post-content last-modified-bar__content"> Last edited on 9 November 2024, at 23:40 </div> </a> <div class="post-content footer-content"> <div id='mw-data-after-content'> <div class="read-more-container"></div> </div> <div id="p-lang"> <h4>Languages</h4> <section> <ul id="p-variants" class="minerva-languages"></ul> <ul class="minerva-languages"><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hochchinesisch" title="Hochchinesisch – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Hochchinesisch" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambihtlicu_C%C4%ABnisc_spr%C7%A3c" title="Ambihtlicu Cīnisc sprǣc – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Ambihtlicu Cīnisc sprǣc" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ænglisc</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="اللغة الصينية القياسية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="اللغة الصينية القياسية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF_%E0%A6%9A%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE_%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%BE" title="মান্য চীনা ভাষা – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="মান্য চীনা ভাষা" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandar%C3%ADn_est%C3%A1ndar" title="Mandarín estándar – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Mandarín estándar" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-awa mw-list-item"><a href="https://awa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="मंदारिन भाषा – Awadhi" lang="awa" hreflang="awa" data-title="मंदारिन भाषा" data-language-autonym="अवधी" data-language-local-name="Awadhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">अवधी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standart_%C3%A7inc%C9%99" title="Standart çincə – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Standart çincə" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hi%C4%81n-t%C4%81i_Piau-ch%C3%BAn_H%C3%A0n-g%C3%AD" title="Hiān-tāi Piau-chún Hàn-gí – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Hiān-tāi Piau-chún Hàn-gí" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Стандартен мандарин – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Стандартен мандарин" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houkin%C3%A4sisch" title="Houkinäsisch – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Houkinäsisch" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandar%C3%AD_est%C3%A0ndard" title="Mandarí estàndard – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Mandarí estàndard" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standardn%C3%AD_%C4%8D%C3%ADn%C5%A1tina" title="Standardní čínština – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Standardní čínština" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hochchinesisch" title="Hochchinesisch – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Hochchinesisch" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandar%C3%ADn_est%C3%A1ndar" title="Mandarín estándar – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Mandarín estándar" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%88ina_normlingvo" title="Ĉina normlingvo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Ĉina normlingvo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C_%D9%85%D8%B9%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="چینی معیار – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="چینی معیار" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandarin_standard" title="Mandarin standard – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Mandarin standard" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standertmandarynsk" title="Standertmandarynsk – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Standertmandarynsk" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandarin_Chadjinit" title="Mandarin Chadjinit – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Mandarin Chadjinit" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaelg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandar%C3%ADn_est%C3%A1ndar" title="Mandarín estándar – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Mandarín estándar" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%91%9C%EC%A4%80_%EC%A4%91%EA%B5%AD%EC%96%B4" title="표준 중국어 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="표준 중국어" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagalagadan_nga_Insik" title="Pagalagadan nga Insik – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Pagalagadan nga Insik" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Tionghoa_Baku" title="Bahasa Tionghoa Baku – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bahasa Tionghoa Baku" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_cinese_standard" title="Lingua cinese standard – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Lingua cinese standard" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%A0%D7%93%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%AA%D7%A7%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%AA" title="מנדרינית תקנית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מנדרינית תקנית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AE%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%A1%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%8D" title="ಮ್ಯಾಂಡರಿನ್ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಮ್ಯಾಂಡರಿನ್" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinesc_standard" title="Cinesc standard – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Cinesc standard" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%9E%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%88%E0%BA%B5%E0%BA%99%E0%BA%A1%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%94%E0%BA%95%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%96%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%99" title="ພາສາຈີນມາດຕະຖານ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ພາສາຈີນມາດຕະຖານ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target">ລາວ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Стандарден мандарински јазик – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Стандарден мандарински јазик" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%87_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%87" title="الصينيه القياسيه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="الصينيه القياسيه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Cina_Baku" title="Bahasa Cina Baku – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Bahasa Cina Baku" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hi%C3%AAng-d%C3%A2i_Bi%C4%95u-c%C5%ABng_H%C3%A1ng-ng%E1%B9%B3%CC%84" title="Hiêng-dâi Biĕu-cūng Háng-ngṳ̄ – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Hiêng-dâi Biĕu-cūng Háng-ngṳ̄" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standaardmandarijn" title="Standaardmandarijn – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Standaardmandarijn" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standaardchineesk" title="Standaardchineesk – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Standaardchineesk" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nedersaksies</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A8%99%E6%BA%96%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E8%AA%9E" title="標準中国語 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="標準中国語" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huuchsjineesk" title="Huuchsjineesk – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Huuchsjineesk" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_kinesisk" title="Standard kinesisk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Standard kinesisk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_mandarin" title="Standard mandarin – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Standard mandarin" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandarin_estandard" title="Mandarin estandard – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Mandarin estandard" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B9%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C_%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C" title="معیاری چینی – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="معیاری چینی" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B9%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A_%DA%86%D9%8A%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%8A%D9%8A_%DA%98%D8%A8%D9%87" title="معياري چينايي ژبه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="معياري چينايي ژبه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standardowy_j%C4%99zyk_mandary%C5%84ski" title="Standardowy język mandaryński – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Standardowy język mandaryński" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandarim_padr%C3%A3o" title="Mandarim padrão – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Mandarim padrão" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limba_tzinesa_istandard" title="Limba tzinesa istandard – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Limba tzinesa istandard" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staundart_Cheenese" title="Staundart Cheenese – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Staundart Cheenese" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoochchinesisk" title="Hoochchinesisk – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Hoochchinesisk" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Seeltersk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Standard Chinese" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%B3_%DA%86%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A_%D9%BB%D9%88%D9%84%D9%8A" title="سليس چيني ٻولي – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="سليس چيني ٻولي" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szl mw-list-item"><a href="https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%C5%8Dndard%C5%8Fw%C5%8F_mandary%C5%84sk%C5%8F_g%C5%8Fdka" title="Stōndardŏwŏ mandaryńskŏ gŏdka – Silesian" lang="szl" hreflang="szl" data-title="Stōndardŏwŏ mandaryńskŏ gŏdka" data-language-autonym="Ślůnski" data-language-local-name="Silesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ślůnski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C_%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF" title="چینی ستاندارد – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="چینی ستاندارد" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%98%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Стандардни мандарински језик – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Стандардни мандарински језик" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standardni_mandarinski_jezik" title="Standardni mandarinski jezik – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Standardni mandarinski jezik" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standardkinesiska" title="Standardkinesiska – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Standardkinesiska" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%90%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%99" title="ภาษาจีนมาตรฐาน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ภาษาจีนมาตรฐาน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standart_%C3%87ince" title="Standart Çince – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Standart Çince" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Стандартна Мандарин – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Стандартна Мандарин" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B9%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C_%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C" title="معیاری چینی – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="معیاری چینی" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%A1n_ng%E1%BB%AF_ti%C3%AAu_chu%E1%BA%A9n" title="Hán ngữ tiêu chuẩn – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Hán ngữ tiêu chuẩn" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E6%A8%99%E6%BA%96%E6%BC%A2%E8%AA%9E" title="現代標準漢語 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="現代標準漢語" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A8%99%E6%BA%96%E5%AE%98%E8%A9%B1" title="標準官話 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="標準官話" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E6%A8%99%E6%BA%96%E6%BC%A2%E8%AA%9E" title="現代標準漢語 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="現代標準漢語" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li></ul> </section> </div> <div class="minerva-footer-logo"><img src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" alt="Wikipedia" width="120" height="18" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"/> </div> <ul id="footer-info" class="footer-info hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 9 November 2024, at 23:40 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Content is available under <a class="external" rel="nofollow" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">CC BY-SA 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places" class="footer-places hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-terms-use"><a href="https://foundation.m.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use">Terms of Use</a></li> <li id="footer-places-desktop-toggle"><a id="mw-mf-display-toggle" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Standard_Chinese&mobileaction=toggle_view_desktop" data-event-name="switch_to_desktop">Desktop</a></li> </ul> </div> </footer> </div> </div> <div class="mw-notification-area" data-mw="interface"></div>  <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-6fgbm","wgBackendResponseTime":249,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"2.160","walltime":"2.445","ppvisitednodes":{"value":23215,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":768045,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":24714,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":24,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":29,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":342180,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 2059.611 1 -total"," 23.19% 477.586 66 Template:Citation"," 20.79% 428.284 2 Template:Reflist"," 16.97% 349.564 1 Template:Infobox_language"," 15.71% 323.566 1 Template:Infobox"," 13.39% 275.811 35 Template:Navbox"," 10.41% 214.360 60 Template:Sfnp"," 7.60% 156.580 75 Template:Lang"," 5.97% 122.899 1 Template:Infobox_Chinese"," 5.75% 118.490 1 Template:Chinese_language"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.256","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":20286099,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAdamsonFeng2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAdelaar1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAung_Thein_KhaGerin2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlum2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBradley1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBradley2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCao2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChao1948\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChao1968\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChen1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChen2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChiu2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCoblin2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDuanmu2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFE\u0026#039;nuoWu2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFourmont1742\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHong_Kong_LegCo1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHubbs\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJason_Pan2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKane2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLadefogedWu1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeZee\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLee2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeeZee2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLi2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLiThompson1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLiang2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLin1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLuo2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMair1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMair2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNations\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNorman1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRamsey1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRanWeijer2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRichardKennelly1908\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRohsenow2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSanders1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScottTiun2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSemple2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShi2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSiegel2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpolsky2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSponsored_by_Council_of_Indigenous_Peoples2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSponsored_by_Hakka_Affairs_Council2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStanding_Committee_on_Language_Education_\u0026amp;_Research2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSurendranLevow2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaiTsay2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTam2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWang2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWang2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeng2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFXu2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYao2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYew2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZuo2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREF张杰2012\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"' \\\"\"] = 1,\n [\"Angle bracket\"] = 35,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 2,\n [\"Chinese language\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation\"] = 66,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite JIPA\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite thesis\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 2,\n [\"Cn\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 3,\n [\"Fs interlinear\"] = 4,\n [\"Grapheme\"] = 23,\n [\"Harvp\"] = 1,\n [\"IPA\"] = 40,\n [\"IPA link\"] = 24,\n [\"IPAc-cmn\"] = 3,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 3,\n [\"Ill\"] = 1,\n [\"Indented plainlist\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox Chinese\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox language\"] = 1,\n [\"InterWiki\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 75,\n [\"Languages of China\"] = 1,\n [\"Languages of Macau\"] = 1,\n [\"Languages of Malaysia\"] = 1,\n [\"Languages of Singapore\"] = 1,\n [\"Languages of Taiwan\"] = 1,\n [\"Legend\"] = 5,\n [\"Linktext\"] = 9,\n [\"Main\"] = 8,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Other uses\"] = 1,\n [\"Pb\"] = 5,\n [\"Pp-semi-indef\"] = 1,\n [\"Redirect\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 2,\n [\"Refend\"] = 2,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfnp\"] = 60,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Toclimit\"] = 1,\n [\"Tonesup\"] = 3,\n [\"Transl\"] = 2,\n [\"Transliteration\"] = 57,\n [\"Ubl\"] = 3,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 1,\n [\"Wikibooks inline\"] = 1,\n [\"Wikivoyage inline\"] = 1,\n [\"Zh\"] = 2,\n [\"Zhi\"] = 22,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","220","15.5"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpandedArgument","220","15.5"],["?","200","14.1"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","120","8.5"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","120","8.5"],["\u003Cmw.lua:694\u003E","80","5.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::anchorEncode","40","2.8"],["(for generator)","40","2.8"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","40","2.8"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","40","2.8"],["[others]","300","21.1"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-api-ext.codfw.main-7556f8b5dd-r5hhk","timestamp":"20241122140522","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Standard Chinese","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Standard_Chinese","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q727694","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q727694","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2002-02-25T15:43:11Z","dateModified":"2024-11-09T23:40:05Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/9\/97\/Mandarin_sphere.svg","headline":"standard form of Chinese and the official language of China"}</script><script>(window.NORLQ=window.NORLQ||[]).push(function(){var ns,i,p,img;ns=document.getElementsByTagName('noscript');for(i=0;i<ns.length;i++){p=ns[i].nextSibling;if(p&&p.className&&p.className.indexOf('lazy-image-placeholder')>-1){img=document.createElement('img');img.setAttribute('src',p.getAttribute('data-src'));img.setAttribute('width',p.getAttribute('data-width'));img.setAttribute('height',p.getAttribute('data-height'));img.setAttribute('alt',p.getAttribute('data-alt'));p.parentNode.replaceChild(img,p);}}});</script> </body> </html>