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id="toc-Early_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Early life</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1666–1676" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1666–1676"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>1666–1676</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1666–1676-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-House_of_Hanover,_1676–1716" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#House_of_Hanover,_1676–1716"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>House of Hanover, 1676–1716</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-House_of_Hanover,_1676–1716-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Death" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Death"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Death</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Death-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Personal_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personal_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Personal life</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Personal_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Philosophy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Philosophy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Philosophy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Principles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Principles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Principles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Principles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Monads" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Monads"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Monads</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Monads-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theodicy_and_optimism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theodicy_and_optimism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Theodicy and optimism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theodicy_and_optimism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Discourse_on_Metaphysics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Discourse_on_Metaphysics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span><i>Discourse on Metaphysics</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Discourse_on_Metaphysics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Symbolic_thought_and_rational_resolution_of_disputes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Symbolic_thought_and_rational_resolution_of_disputes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Symbolic thought and rational resolution of disputes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Symbolic_thought_and_rational_resolution_of_disputes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Formal_logic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Formal_logic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Formal logic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Formal_logic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mathematics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mathematics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Mathematics</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Mathematics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Mathematics subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Mathematics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Linear_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Linear_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Linear systems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Linear_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geometry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geometry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Geometry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geometry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Calculus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Calculus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Calculus</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Calculus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Topology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Topology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Topology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Topology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Science_and_engineering" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Science_and_engineering"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Science and engineering</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Science_and_engineering-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Science and engineering subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Science_and_engineering-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Physics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Physics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Physics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Physics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_vis_viva" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_vis_viva"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.1</span> <span>The <i>vis viva</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_vis_viva-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_natural_science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_natural_science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Other natural science</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_natural_science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Psychology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Psychology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Psychology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Psychology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Social science</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Technology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Technology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Technology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Technology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Computation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Computation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5.1</span> <span>Computation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Computation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Librarian" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Librarian"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Librarian</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Librarian-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Advocate_of_scientific_societies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Advocate_of_scientific_societies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.7</span> <span>Advocate of scientific societies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Advocate_of_scientific_societies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Law_and_Morality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Law_and_Morality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Law and Morality</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Law_and_Morality-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Law and Morality subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Law_and_Morality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ecumenism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ecumenism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Ecumenism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ecumenism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Philology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sinophology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sinophology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Sinophology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sinophology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Polymath" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Polymath"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Polymath</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Polymath-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Posthumous_reputation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Posthumous_reputation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Posthumous reputation</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Posthumous_reputation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Posthumous reputation subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Posthumous_reputation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cultural_references" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cultural_references"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Cultural references</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cultural_references-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Writings_and_publication" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Writings_and_publication"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Writings and publication</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Writings_and_publication-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Writings and publication subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Writings_and_publication-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Selected_works" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Selected_works"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Selected works</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Selected_works-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Posthumous_works" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Posthumous_works"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1.1</span> <span>Posthumous works</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Posthumous_works-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Collections" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Collections"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2</span> <span>Collections</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Collections-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.2</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bibliographies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliographies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.2.1</span> <span>Bibliographies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliographies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Primary_literature_(chronologically)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_literature_(chronologically)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.2.2</span> <span>Primary literature (chronologically)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_literature_(chronologically)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Secondary_literature_up_to_1950" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Secondary_literature_up_to_1950"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.2.3</span> <span>Secondary literature up to 1950</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Secondary_literature_up_to_1950-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Secondary_literature_post-1950" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Secondary_literature_post-1950"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.2.4</span> <span>Secondary literature post-1950</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Secondary_literature_post-1950-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table 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an article in another language. Available in 152 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-152" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">152 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%8C%E1%89%A5%E1%8A%92%E1%89%B5%E1%8B%9D" title="ሌብኒትዝ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ሌብኒትዝ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%BA%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%81%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AF_%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%AA%D8%B3" title="غوتفريد لايبنتس – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="غوتفريد لايبنتس" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Leibniz – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Gottfried Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%AB%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A1_%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%B9%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AE_%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C" title="গটফ্ৰিড উইলহেল্ম লেইবনিজ – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="গটফ্ৰিড উইলহেল্ম লেইবনিজ" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Leibniz – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Gottfried Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Leibniz – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Gottfried Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qotfrid_Leybnits" title="Qotfrid Leybnits – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Qotfrid Leybnits" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%81%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AF_%D9%84%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A8%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%AA%D8%B3" title="قوتفرید لایبنیتس – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="قوتفرید لایبنیتس" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Bali</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%9F%E2%80%8C%E0%A6%AB%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A1_%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%B9%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AE_%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%AC%E2%80%8C%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A7%8E%E0%A6%B8" title="গট‌ফ্রিড ভিলহেল্ম লাইব‌নিৎস – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="গট‌ফ্রিড ভিলহেল্ম লাইব‌নিৎস" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Leibniz – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Gottfried Leibniz" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B4_%D0%9B%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%B1%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%86" title="Готфрид Лейбниц – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Готфрид Лейбниц" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%84%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%B4_%D0%9B%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%B1%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%86" title="Готфрыд Лейбніц – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Готфрыд Лейбніц" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%84%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%B4_%D0%9B%D1%8F%D0%B9%D0%B1%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%86" title="Готфрыд Ляйбніц – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Готфрыд Ляйбніц" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A1_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9C" title="गॉटफ्रीड विल्हेम लाइब्नित्ज – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="गॉटफ्रीड विल्हेम लाइब्नित्ज" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B4_%D0%9B%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%B1%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%86" title="Готфрид Лайбниц – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Готфрид Лайбниц" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B4_%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BC_%D0%9B%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%B1%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%86" title="Готфрид Вильгельм Лейбниц – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Готфрид Вильгельм Лейбниц" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Буряад</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%B1%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%86,_%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B4_%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BC" title="Лейбниц, Готфрид Вильгельм – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Лейбниц, Готфрид Вильгельм" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Leibniz – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Gottfried Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cebuano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz – Corsican" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="Corsican" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Corsu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://dsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz – Lower Sorbian" lang="dsb" hreflang="dsb" data-title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Dolnoserbski" data-language-local-name="Lower Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dolnoserbski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%84%CF%86%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BD%CF%84_%CE%92%CE%AF%CE%BB%CF%87%CE%B5%CE%BB%CE%BC_%CE%9B%CE%AC%CE%B9%CE%BC%CF%80%CE%BD%CE%B9%CF%84%CF%82" title="Γκότφριντ Βίλχελμ Λάιμπνιτς – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Γκότφριντ Βίλχελμ Λάιμπνιτς" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Leibniz – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Gottfried Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%81%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AA_%D9%84%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A8%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%AA%D8%B3" title="گوتفریت لایبنیتس – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="گوتفریت لایبنیتس" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Leibniz – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Gottfried Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Leibniz – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Gottfried Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Furlan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Leibniz – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Gottfried Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibnitz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%87%98%E5%B0%BC%E8%8C%B2" title="臘尼茲 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="臘尼茲" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>贛語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Leibniz – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Gottfried Leibniz" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B3%A0%ED%8A%B8%ED%94%84%EB%A6%AC%ED%8A%B8_%EB%B9%8C%ED%97%AC%EB%A6%84_%EB%9D%BC%EC%9D%B4%ED%94%84%EB%8B%88%EC%B8%A0" title="고트프리트 빌헬름 라이프니츠 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="고트프리트 빌헬름 라이프니츠" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B3%D5%B8%D5%A9%D6%86%D6%80%D5%AB%D5%A4_%D4%BC%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%A2%D5%B6%D5%AB%D6%81" title="Գոթֆրիդ Լայբնից – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Գոթֆրիդ Լայբնից" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A1_%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BC" title="गॉटफ्रीड लाइब्निज़ – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="गॉटफ्रीड लाइब्निज़" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz – Upper Sorbian" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="Upper Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hornjoserbsce</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Leibniz – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Gottfried Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Leibniz – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Gottfried Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_von_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_von_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%92%D7%95%D7%98%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%93_%D7%95%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%94%D7%9C%D7%9D_%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%99%D7%91%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%A5" title="גוטפריד וילהלם לייבניץ – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="גוטפריד וילהלם לייבניץ" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Leibniz – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Gottfried Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%97%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%9F%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AB%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%88%E0%B2%A1%E0%B3%8D_%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%B2%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B9%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%B2%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AE%E0%B3%8D_%E0%B2%B2%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%AC%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A8%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%9C%E0%B3%8D" title="ಗಾಟ್ಫ್ರೈಡ್ ವಿಲ್ಹೆಲ್ಮ್ ಲೆಬ್ನಿಜ್ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಗಾಟ್ಫ್ರೈಡ್ ವಿಲ್ಹೆಲ್ಮ್ ಲೆಬ್ನಿಜ್" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz – Pampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="Pampanga" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kapampangan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%92%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A4%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%93_%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90%E1%83%98%E1%83%91%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98" title="გოტფრიდ ლაიბნიცი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="გოტფრიდ ლაიბნიცი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B4_%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BC_%D0%9B%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%B1%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%86" title="Готфрид Вильгельм Лейбниц – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Готфрид Вильгельм Лейбниц" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Leibniz – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Gottfried Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kernowek</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Leibniz – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Gottfried Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Leibniz – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Gottfried Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B4_%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BC_%D0%9B%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%B1%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%86" title="Готфрид Вильгельм Лейбниц – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Готфрид Вильгельм Лейбниц" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mrj mw-list-item"><a href="https://mrj.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%B1%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%86,_%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B4_%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BC" title="Лейбниц, Готфрид Вильгельм – Western Mari" lang="mrj" hreflang="mrj" data-title="Лейбниц, Готфрид Вильгельм" data-language-autonym="Кырык мары" data-language-local-name="Western Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кырык мары</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Leibniz – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Gottfried Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladino</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godefridus_Guilielmus_Leibnitius" title="Godefridus Guilielmus Leibnitius – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Godefridus Guilielmus Leibnitius" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gotfr%C4%ABds_Leibnics" title="Gotfrīds Leibnics – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Gotfrīds Leibnics" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Leibniz – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Gottfried Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ligure</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-olo mw-list-item"><a href="https://olo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Leibniz – Livvi-Karelian" lang="olo" hreflang="olo" data-title="Gottfried Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Livvinkarjala" data-language-local-name="Livvi-Karelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Livvinkarjala</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Leibniz – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Gottfried Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B4_%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%85%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BC_%D0%9B%D0%B0%D1%98%D0%B1%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%86" title="Готфрид Вилхелм Лајбниц – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Готфрид Вилхелм Лајбниц" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%97%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AB%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%88%E0%B4%A1%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AC%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D" title="ഗോട്ട്ഫ്രൈഡ് ലെയ്ബ്നിസ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഗോട്ട്ഫ്രൈഡ് ലെയ്ബ്നിസ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A1_%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8" title="गॉटफ्रीड लाइब्नित्स – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="गॉटफ्रीड लाइब्नित्स" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%92%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A4%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%93_%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90%E1%83%98%E1%83%91%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98" title="გოტფრიდ ლაიბნიცი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="გოტფრიდ ლაიბნიცი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%A8%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%AA%D8%B3" title="لايبنيتس – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="لايبنيتس" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%81%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AF_%D9%84%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A8%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%AA%D8%B2" title="گوتفرید لایبنیتز – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="گوتفرید لایبنیتز" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Leibniz – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Gottfried Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Leibniz – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Gottfried Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B4_%D0%9B%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%B1%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%86" title="Готфрид Лейбниц – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Готфрид Лейбниц" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%82%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AB%E1%80%B7%E1%80%96%E1%80%9B%E1%80%AD%E1%80%92%E1%80%BA_%E1%80%9D%E1%80%AE%E1%80%9C%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9F%E1%80%99%E1%80%BA_%E1%80%9C%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA%E1%80%98%E1%80%94%E1%80%85%E1%80%BA" title="ဂေါ့ဖရိဒ် ဝီလ်ဟမ် လိုက်ဘနစ် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဂေါ့ဖရိဒ် ဝီလ်ဟမ် လိုက်ဘနစ်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A1_%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D" title="गट्फ्राइड लीब्निज् – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="गट्फ्राइड लीब्निज्" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B4%E3%83%83%E3%83%88%E3%83%95%E3%83%AA%E3%83%BC%E3%83%88%E3%83%BB%E3%83%A9%E3%82%A4%E3%83%97%E3%83%8B%E3%83%83%E3%83%84" title="ゴットフリート・ライプニッツ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ゴットフリート・ライプニッツ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%B1%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%86,_%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B4_%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BC" title="Лейбниц, Готфрид Вильгельм – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Лейбниц, Готфрид Вильгельм" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Leibniz – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Gottfried Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Leibniz – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Gottfried Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gootfiriid_Viilhelmi_Laayibiniiz" title="Gootfiriid Viilhelmi Laayibiniiz – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Gootfiriid Viilhelmi Laayibiniiz" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Leibniz – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Gottfried Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%97%E0%A9%8C%E0%A8%9F%E0%A8%AB%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%A1_%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%87%E0%A8%AC%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%9C%E0%A8%BC" title="ਗੌਟਫ਼ਰੀਡ ਲਾਇਬਨਿਜ਼ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਗੌਟਫ਼ਰੀਡ ਲਾਇਬਨਿਜ਼" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D9%88%D9%B9%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%8C%DA%88_%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%B2" title="گوٹفرائیڈ لیبنز – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="گوٹفرائیڈ لیبنز" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AB%D9%88%D9%BC%D9%81%D8%B1%DB%90%DA%89_%D9%88%DB%90%D9%84%D9%87%D9%84%D9%85_%D9%84%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A8%D9%86%DB%90%D8%AA%D8%B3" title="ګوټفرېډ وېلهلم لایبنېتس – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="ګوټفرېډ وېلهلم لایبنېتس" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gatfriid_Laibnits" title="Gatfriid Laibnits – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Gatfriid Laibnits" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%A0%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%82%E1%9E%BB%E1%9E%8F%E1%9E%A0%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9C%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%99_%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B8%E1%9E%9B%E1%9E%A0%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%98_%E1%9E%A1%E1%9F%82%E1%9E%94%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%B8" title="ហ្គុតហ្វ្រាយ វីលហេម ឡែបនី – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="ហ្គុតហ្វ្រាយ វីលហេម ឡែបនី" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Leibniz – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Gottfried Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Leibniz – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Gottfried Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gotfrid_Leybnic" title="Gotfrid Leybnic – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Gotfrid Leybnic" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qaraqalpaqsha</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_von_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%90%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%84%D1%80%D1%96%D0%B4_%D0%92%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BC_%D0%9B%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%B1%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%86" title="Ґотфрід Вільгельм Лейбніц – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Ґотфрід Вільгельм Лейбніц" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%B1%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%86,_%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B4_%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BC" title="Лейбниц, Готфрид Вильгельм – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Лейбниц, Готфрид Вильгельм" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B4_%D0%9B%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%B1%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%86" title="Готфрид Лейбниц – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Готфрид Лейбниц" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A1%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D" title="गाटफ्रीड् लैबनिट्ज् – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="गाटफ्रीड् लैबनिट्ज्" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Leibniz – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Gottfried Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gotfrid_Lajbnici" title="Gotfrid Lajbnici – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Gotfrid Lajbnici" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Leibniz – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Gottfried Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%9C%E0%B7%9C%E0%B6%A7%E0%B7%8A%E0%B7%86%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BB%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%A9%E0%B7%8A_%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%99%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%B6%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%92%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%8A" title="ගොට්ෆ්‍රයිඩ් ලෙයිබ්නිස් – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ගොට්ෆ්‍රයිඩ් ලෙයිබ්නිස්" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Leibniz – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Gottfried Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%DB%86%D8%AA%D9%81%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AF_%D9%84%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A8%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%AA%D8%B3" title="گۆتفرید لایبنیتس – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="گۆتفرید لایبنیتس" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B4_%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%85%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BC_%D0%9B%D0%B0%D1%98%D0%B1%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%86" title="Готфрид Вилхелм Лајбниц – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Готфрид Вилхелм Лајбниц" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Leibniz – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Gottfried Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Leibniz – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Gottfried Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Leibniz – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Gottfried Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%80%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B8%E0%AF%8D" title="கோட்பிரீட் லைப்னிட்ஸ் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="கோட்பிரீட் லைப்னிட்ஸ்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B4_%D0%9B%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%B1%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%86" title="Готфрид Лейбниц – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Готфрид Лейбниц" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%97%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%9F%E0%B1%8D%E2%80%8C%E0%B0%AB%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%88%E0%B0%A1%E0%B1%8D_%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%B2%E0%B1%8D%E2%80%8C%E0%B0%B9%E0%B1%86%E0%B0%B2%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%8D_%E0%B0%B2%E0%B1%86%E0%B0%AC%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A8%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%9C%E0%B1%8D" title="గాట్‌ఫ్రైడ్ విల్‌హెల్మ్ లెబ్నిజ్ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="గాట్‌ఫ్రైడ్ విల్‌హెల్మ్ లెబ్నిజ్" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B9%87%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%9F%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%97_%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A5%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%AE%E0%B9%87%E0%B8%A5%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%A1_%E0%B9%84%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%9A%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%8B%E0%B9%8C" title="ก็อทฟรีท วิลเฮ็ล์ม ไลบ์นิทซ์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ก็อทฟรีท วิลเฮ็ล์ม ไลบ์นิทซ์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B4_%D0%9B%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%B1%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%81" title="Готфрид Лейбнитс – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Готфрид Лейбнитс" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Leibniz – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Gottfried Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%84%D1%80%D1%96%D0%B4_%D0%92%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BC_%D0%9B%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%B1%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%86" title="Готфрід Вільгельм Лейбніц – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Готфрід Вільгельм Лейбніц" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D9%88%D9%B9%D9%81%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%88_%D9%88%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%81%D9%85_%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%A8%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%B2" title="گوٹفریڈ ویلہم لائبنیز – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="گوٹفریڈ ویلہم لائبنیز" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leibnic_Gotfrid_Vil%27gel%27m" title="Leibnic Gotfrid Vil'gel'm – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Leibnic Gotfrid Vil'gel'm" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vepsän kel’</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Leibniz – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Gottfried Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo mw-list-item"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Leibniz – Volapük" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="Gottfried Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="Volapük" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Volapük</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%88%88%E7%89%B9%E5%BC%97%E9%87%8C%E5%BE%B7%C2%B7%E8%8E%B1%E5%B8%83%E5%B0%BC%E8%8C%A8" title="戈特弗里德·莱布尼茨 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="戈特弗里德·莱布尼茨" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%92%D7%90%D7%98%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%93_%D7%95%D7%95%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%94%D7%A2%D7%9C%D7%9D_%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%99%D7%91%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%A5" title="גאטפריד ווילהעלם לייבניץ – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="גאטפריד ווילהעלם לייבניץ" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Leibniz – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Gottfried Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Yorùbá</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%83%AD%E8%8F%B2%E8%BF%AA%C2%B7%E8%90%8A%E5%B8%83%E5%B0%BC%E8%8C%B2" title="郭菲迪·萊布尼茲 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="郭菲迪·萊布尼茲" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Leibniz – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Gottfried Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guotfr%C4%ABds_Leibn%C4%97cos" title="Guotfrīds Leibnėcos – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Guotfrīds Leibnėcos" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Žemaitėška</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%88%88%E7%89%B9%E5%BC%97%E9%87%8C%E5%BE%B7%C2%B7%E8%8E%B1%E5%B8%83%E5%B0%BC%E8%8C%A8" title="戈特弗里德·莱布尼茨 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="戈特弗里德·莱布尼茨" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-btm mw-list-item"><a href="https://btm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhem_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhem Leibniz – Batak Mandailing" lang="btm" hreflang="btm" data-title="Gottfried Wilhem Leibniz" data-language-autonym="Batak Mandailing" data-language-local-name="Batak Mandailing" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Batak Mandailing</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a 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For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Leibniz_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Leibniz (disambiguation)">Leibniz (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Christoph_Bernhard_Francke_-_Bildnis_des_Philosophen_Leibniz_(ca._1695).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Christoph_Bernhard_Francke_-_Bildnis_des_Philosophen_Leibniz_%28ca._1695%29.jpg/220px-Christoph_Bernhard_Francke_-_Bildnis_des_Philosophen_Leibniz_%28ca._1695%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="272" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Christoph_Bernhard_Francke_-_Bildnis_des_Philosophen_Leibniz_%28ca._1695%29.jpg/330px-Christoph_Bernhard_Francke_-_Bildnis_des_Philosophen_Leibniz_%28ca._1695%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Christoph_Bernhard_Francke_-_Bildnis_des_Philosophen_Leibniz_%28ca._1695%29.jpg/440px-Christoph_Bernhard_Francke_-_Bildnis_des_Philosophen_Leibniz_%28ca._1695%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4486" data-file-height="5538" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Portrait, 1695</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data">1 July 1646<br /><div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Leipzig" title="Leipzig">Leipzig</a>, Electorate of Saxony, Holy Roman Empire</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">14 November 1716<span style="display:none">(1716-11-14)</span> (aged 70)<br /><div style="display:inline" class="deathplace"><a href="/wiki/Hanover" title="Hanover">Hanover</a>, Electorate of Hanover, Holy Roman Empire</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Education</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alte_Nikolaischule&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alte Nikolaischule (page does not exist)">Alte Nikolaischule</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alte_Nikolaischule_(Leipzig)" class="extiw" title="de:Alte Nikolaischule (Leipzig)">de</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leipzig_University" title="Leipzig University">Leipzig University</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts" title="Bachelor of Arts">BA</a>, 1662; <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Arts" title="Master of Arts">MA</a>, 1664; <a href="/wiki/LLB" class="mw-redirect" title="LLB">LLB</a>, 1665; <a href="/wiki/Dr._phil._hab." class="mw-redirect" title="Dr. phil. hab.">Dr. phil. hab.</a>, 1666)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Jena" title="University of Jena">University of Jena</a><br />(1663)<sup id="cite_ref-Arthur_p._16_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Arthur_p._16-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Altdorf" title="University of Altdorf">University of Altdorf</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Dr._jur." class="mw-redirect" title="Dr. jur.">Dr. jur.</a>, 1666)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Era</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/17th-century_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="17th-century philosophy">17th-</a>/<a href="/wiki/18th-century_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="18th-century philosophy">18th-century philosophy</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Region</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_schools_of_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="List of schools of philosophy">School</a></th><td class="infobox-data category"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Pluralistic_idealism" class="mw-redirect" title="Pluralistic idealism">Pluralistic idealism</a><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li><li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a><sup id="cite_ref-SEP-FTJ_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SEP-FTJ-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li><li><a href="/wiki/Conceptualism" title="Conceptualism">Conceptualism</a><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li><li><a href="/wiki/Optimism" title="Optimism">Optimism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Indirect_realism" class="mw-redirect" title="Indirect realism">Indirect realism</a><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li><li><a href="/wiki/Correspondence_theory_of_truth" title="Correspondence theory of truth">Correspondence theory of truth</a><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li><li><a href="/wiki/Relational_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Relational theory">Relationalism</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Thesis" title="Thesis">Theses</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ita-bnc-mag-00000844-001"><i>De Arte Combinatoria (On the Combinatorial Art)</i></a> (March 1666)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digital.slub-dresden.de/werkansicht/dlf/60594/1/"><i>Disputatio Inauguralis de Casibus Perplexis in Jure (Inaugural Disputation on Ambiguous Legal Cases)</i></a> (November 1666)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Doctoral_advisor" title="Doctoral advisor">Doctoral advisor</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bartholom%C3%A4us_Leonhard_von_Schwendend%C3%B6rffer&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bartholomäus Leonhard von Schwendendörffer (page does not exist)">Bartholomäus Leonhard von Schwendendörffer</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bartholom%C3%A4us_Leonhard_von_Schwendend%C3%B6rffer" class="extiw" title="de:Bartholomäus Leonhard von Schwendendörffer">de</a>]</span> (Dr. jur. thesis advisor)<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Other academic advisors</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Erhard_Weigel" title="Erhard Weigel">Erhard Weigel</a> (Jena)<sup id="cite_ref-Arthur_p._16_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Arthur_p._16-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jakob_Thomasius" title="Jakob Thomasius">Jakob Thomasius</a> (B.A. advisor)<sup id="cite_ref-Arthur_p._13_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Arthur_p._13-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Johann_Adam_Schertzer&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Johann Adam Schertzer (page does not exist)">Johann Adam Schertzer</a> (B.A. advisor)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Huygens" title="Christiaan Huygens">Christiaan Huygens</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Notable students</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Bernoulli" title="Jacob Bernoulli">Jacob Bernoulli</a> (epistolary correspondent)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Wolff_(philosopher)" title="Christian Wolff (philosopher)">Christian Wolff</a> (epistolary correspondent)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Main interests</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">Mathematics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">geology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Embryology" title="Embryology">embryology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">epidemiology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Veterinary_medicine" title="Veterinary medicine">veterinary medicine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">paleontology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering">engineering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Librarianship" class="mw-redirect" title="Librarianship">librarianship</a>, <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philology" title="Philology">philology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diplomacy" title="Diplomacy">diplomacy</a>, <a href="/wiki/History" title="History">history</a>, <a href="/wiki/Politics" title="Politics">politics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Music_theory" title="Music theory">music theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Poetry" title="Poetry">poetry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">theodicy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Universal_language" title="Universal language">universal language</a>, <a href="/wiki/Universal_science" title="Universal science">universal science</a></td></tr><tr class="note"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Notable ideas</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div><span class="nowrap"> </span></div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Algebraic_logic" title="Algebraic logic">Algebraic logic</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Binary_code" title="Binary code">Binary code</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Calculus" title="Calculus">Calculus</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Differential_equations" class="mw-redirect" title="Differential equations">Differential equations</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Mathesis_universalis" title="Mathesis universalis">Mathesis universalis</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Monadology" title="Monadology">Monads</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Best_of_all_possible_worlds" title="Best of all possible worlds">Best of all possible worlds</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Pre-established_harmony" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-established harmony">Pre-established harmony</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Identity_of_indiscernibles" title="Identity of indiscernibles">Identity of indiscernibles</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Matrix_(mathematics)" title="Matrix (mathematics)">Mathematical matrix</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Function_(mathematics)" title="Function (mathematics)">Mathematical function</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Fundamental_theorem_of_calculus#Second_part" title="Fundamental theorem of calculus">Newton–Leibniz axiom</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Leibniz%27s_notation" title="Leibniz's notation">Leibniz's notation</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Leibniz_integral_rule" title="Leibniz integral rule">Leibniz integral rule</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Integral_symbol" title="Integral symbol">Integral symbol</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Leibniz_harmonic_triangle" title="Leibniz harmonic triangle">Leibniz harmonic triangle</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Leibniz%27s_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Leibniz's test">Leibniz's test</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Leibniz_formula_for_%CF%80" title="Leibniz formula for π">Leibniz formula for π</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Leibniz_formula_for_determinants" title="Leibniz formula for determinants">Leibniz formula for determinants</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Fractional_calculus" title="Fractional calculus">Fractional derivative</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Chain_rule" title="Chain rule">Chain rule</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Quotient_rule" title="Quotient rule">Quotient rule</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Product_rule" title="Product rule">Product rule</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Leibniz_wheel" title="Leibniz wheel">Leibniz wheel</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Leibniz%27s_gap" title="Leibniz's gap">Leibniz's gap</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Algebra_of_concepts" class="mw-redirect" title="Algebra of concepts">Algebra of concepts</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><i><a href="/wiki/Vis_viva" title="Vis viva">Vis viva</a></i> (principle of <a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_energy" title="Conservation of energy">conservation of energy</a>)</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_least_action" class="mw-redirect" title="Principle of least action">Principle of least action</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><i><a href="/wiki/Salva_veritate" title="Salva veritate">Salva veritate</a></i></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Stepped_reckoner" title="Stepped reckoner">Stepped reckoner</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Symbolic_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbolic logic">Symbolic logic</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><i><a href="/wiki/Topology" title="Topology">Analysis situs</a></i></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_sufficient_reason" title="Principle of sufficient reason">Principle of sufficient reason</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Law_of_continuity" title="Law of continuity">Law of continuity</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_law_of_homogeneity" title="Transcendental law of homogeneity">Transcendental law of homogeneity</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><i><a href="/wiki/De_Arte_Combinatoria" title="De Arte Combinatoria">Ars combinatoria</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Alphabet_of_human_thought" title="Alphabet of human thought">alphabet of human thought</a>)</li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><i><a href="/wiki/Characteristica_universalis" title="Characteristica universalis">Characteristica universalis</a></i></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><i><a href="/wiki/Calculus_ratiocinator" title="Calculus ratiocinator">Calculus ratiocinator</a></i></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Compossibility" title="Compossibility">Compossibility</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Partial_fraction_decomposition" title="Partial fraction decomposition">Partial fraction decomposition</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Protogaea" title="Protogaea">Protogaea</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_why_there_is_anything_at_all" class="mw-redirect" title="Problem of why there is anything at all">Problem of why there is anything at all</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Pluralistic_idealism" class="mw-redirect" title="Pluralistic idealism">Pluralistic idealism</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Dynamism_(metaphysics)" title="Dynamism (metaphysics)">Metaphysical dynamism</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Relational_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Relational theory">Relationalism</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Apperception" title="Apperception">Apperception</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>A priori</i>/<i>a posteriori</i> distinction</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Deontic_logic" title="Deontic logic">Deontic logic</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Well-founded_phenomenon" class="mw-redirect" title="Well-founded phenomenon">Well-founded phenomenon</a> </li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Signature</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="infobox-signature skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Leibnitz_signature.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Leibnitz_signature.svg/150px-Leibnitz_signature.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="52" 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0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Theodicy" title="Category:Theodicy"><i>a series</i></a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Key concepts</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absence_of_good" title="Absence of good">Absence of good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustinian_theodicy" title="Augustinian theodicy">Augustinian theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Best_of_all_possible_worlds" title="Best of all possible worlds">Best of all possible worlds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_retribution" title="Divine retribution">Divine retribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dystheism" title="Dystheism">Dystheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicurean_paradox" title="Epicurean paradox">Epicurean paradox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inconsistent_triad" title="Inconsistent triad">Inconsistent triad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irenaean_theodicy" title="Irenaean theodicy">Irenaean theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misotheism" title="Misotheism">Misotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_evil" title="Moral evil">Moral evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_evil" title="Natural evil">Natural evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of evil</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Notable figures</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Saint Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bart_D._Ehrman" title="Bart D. Ehrman">Ehrman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicurus" title="Epicurus">Epicurus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hick" title="John Hick">Hick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irenaeus" title="Irenaeus">Saint Irenaeus</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Maistre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Plantinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_L._Rowe" title="William L. Rowe">Rowe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Swinburne" title="Richard Swinburne">Swinburne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elie_Wiesel" title="Elie Wiesel">Wiesel</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Theodicy" title="Template:Theodicy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Theodicy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:Theodicy (page does not exist)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Theodicy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Theodicy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</b> or <b>Leibnitz</b><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (1 July 1646 [<a href="/wiki/Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates" title="Old Style and New Style dates">O.S.</a> 21 June] – 14 November 1716) was a German <a href="/wiki/Polymath" title="Polymath">polymath</a> active as a <a href="/wiki/Mathematician" title="Mathematician">mathematician</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philosopher" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosopher">philosopher</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scientist" title="Scientist">scientist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Diplomat" title="Diplomat">diplomat</a> who is credited, alongside <a href="/wiki/Sir" title="Sir">Sir</a> <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a>, with the invention of <a href="/wiki/Calculus" title="Calculus">calculus</a> in addition to many other branches of <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>, such as binary arithmetic, and <a href="/wiki/Statistics" title="Statistics">statistics</a>. Leibniz has been called the "last universal genius" due to his knowledge and skills in different fields and because such people became much less common after his lifetime with the coming of the Industrial Revolution and the spread of specialized labor.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He is a prominent figure in both the <a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">history of philosophy</a> and the <a href="/wiki/History_of_mathematics" title="History of mathematics">history of mathematics</a>. He wrote works on <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Politics" title="Politics">politics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">law</a>, <a href="/wiki/History" title="History">history</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philology" title="Philology">philology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Games" class="mw-redirect" title="Games">games</a>, <a href="/wiki/Music" title="Music">music</a>, and other studies. Leibniz also made major contributions to <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">technology</a>, and anticipated notions that surfaced much later in <a href="/wiki/Probability_theory" title="Probability theory">probability theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">geology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">computer science</a>. </p><p>Leibniz contributed to the field of <a href="/wiki/Library_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Library science">library science</a> by developing a cataloguing system while working at the <a href="/wiki/Herzog_August_Library" title="Herzog August Library">Herzog August Library</a> in <a href="/wiki/Wolfenb%C3%BCttel" title="Wolfenbüttel">Wolfenbüttel</a>, Germany, that served as a model for many of Europe's largest libraries.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His contributions to a wide range of subjects were scattered in various <a href="/wiki/Learned_journal" class="mw-redirect" title="Learned journal">learned journals</a>, in tens of thousands of letters and in unpublished manuscripts. He wrote in several languages, primarily in Latin, French and German.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As a philosopher, he was a leading representative of 17th-century <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">idealism</a>. As a mathematician, his major achievement was the development of the main ideas of <a href="/wiki/Differential_and_integral_calculus" class="mw-redirect" title="Differential and integral calculus">differential and integral calculus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leibniz%E2%80%93Newton_calculus_controversy" title="Leibniz–Newton calculus controversy">independently</a> of <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a>'s contemporaneous developments.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mathematicians have consistently favored <a href="/wiki/Leibniz%27s_notation" title="Leibniz's notation">Leibniz's notation</a> as the conventional and more exact expression of calculus.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 20th century, Leibniz's notions of the <a href="/wiki/Law_of_continuity" title="Law of continuity">law of continuity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Transcendental_law_of_homogeneity" title="Transcendental law of homogeneity">transcendental law of homogeneity</a> found a consistent mathematical formulation by means of <a href="/wiki/Non-standard_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-standard analysis">non-standard analysis</a>. He was also a pioneer in the field of <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_calculator" title="Mechanical calculator">mechanical calculators</a>. While working on adding automatic multiplication and division to <a href="/wiki/Pascal%27s_calculator" title="Pascal's calculator">Pascal's calculator</a>, he was the first to describe a <a href="/wiki/Pinwheel_calculator" title="Pinwheel calculator">pinwheel calculator</a> in 1685<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and invented the <a href="/wiki/Leibniz_wheel" title="Leibniz wheel">Leibniz wheel</a>, later used in the <a href="/wiki/Arithmometer" title="Arithmometer">arithmometer</a>, the first mass-produced mechanical calculator. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theology</a>, Leibniz is most noted for his <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_optimism" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophical optimism">optimism</a>, i.e. his conclusion that our world is, in a qualified sense, the <a href="/wiki/Best_of_all_possible_worlds" title="Best of all possible worlds">best possible world</a> that <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a> could have <a href="/wiki/Creatio_ex_nihilo" title="Creatio ex nihilo">created</a>, a view sometimes lampooned by other thinkers, such as <a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a> in his <a href="/wiki/Satire" title="Satire">satirical</a> <a href="/wiki/Novella" title="Novella">novella</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Candide" title="Candide">Candide</a></i>. Leibniz, along with <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a>, was one of the three influential early modern <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalists</a>. His philosophy also assimilates elements of the <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">scholastic</a> tradition, notably the assumption that some substantive knowledge of reality can be achieved by reasoning from first principles or prior definitions. The work of Leibniz anticipated modern <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a> and still influences contemporary <a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">analytic philosophy</a>, such as its adopted use of the term "<a href="/wiki/Possible_world" title="Possible world">possible world</a>" to define <a href="/wiki/Modality_(natural_language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Modality (natural language)">modal</a> notions. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biography">Biography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Biography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_life">Early life</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Early life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Gottfried Leibniz was born on July 1 [<a href="/wiki/Old_Style" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Style">OS</a>: June 21], 1646, in <a href="/wiki/Leipzig" title="Leipzig">Leipzig</a>, Saxony, to <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Leibniz" title="Friedrich Leibniz">Friedrich Leibniz</a> (1597–1652) and Catharina Schmuck (1621–1664).<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was baptized two days later at <a href="/wiki/St._Nicholas_Church,_Leipzig" title="St. Nicholas Church, Leipzig">St. Nicholas Church, Leipzig</a>; his godfather was the <a href="/wiki/Lutheran" class="mw-redirect" title="Lutheran">Lutheran</a> theologian <a href="/w/index.php?title=Martin_Geier&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Martin Geier (page does not exist)">Martin Geier</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Geier" class="extiw" title="de:Martin Geier">de</a>]</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His father died when he was six years old, and Leibniz was raised by his mother.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Leibniz's father had been a Professor of Moral Philosophy at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Leipzig" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Leipzig">University of Leipzig</a>, where he also served as dean of philosophy. The boy inherited his father's personal library. He was given free access to it from the age of seven, shortly after his father's death. While Leibniz's schoolwork was largely confined to the study of a small <a href="/wiki/Canon_(basic_principle)" title="Canon (basic principle)">canon</a> of authorities, his father's library enabled him to study a wide variety of advanced philosophical and theological works—ones that he would not have otherwise been able to read until his college years.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Access to his father's library, largely written in <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>, also led to his proficiency in the Latin language, which he achieved by the age of 12. At the age of 13 he composed 300 <a href="/wiki/Hexameters" class="mw-redirect" title="Hexameters">hexameters</a> of <a href="/wiki/Latin_poetry" title="Latin poetry">Latin verse</a> in a single morning for a special event at school.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In April 1661 he enrolled in his father's former university at age 14.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Arthur_p._16_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Arthur_p._16-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There he was guided, among others, by <a href="/wiki/Jakob_Thomasius" title="Jakob Thomasius">Jakob Thomasius</a>, previously a student of Friedrich. Leibniz completed his <a href="/wiki/Bachelor%27s_degree" title="Bachelor's degree">bachelor's degree</a> in Philosophy in December 1662. He defended his <i>Disputatio Metaphysica de Principio Individui</i> (<i>Metaphysical Disputation on the Principle of Individuation</i>),<sup id="cite_ref-Arthur_p._x_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Arthur_p._x-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which addressed the <a href="/wiki/Principle_of_individuation" title="Principle of individuation">principle of individuation</a>, on 9 June 1663 [<a href="/wiki/Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates" title="Old Style and New Style dates">O.S.</a> 30 May], presenting an early version of monadic substance theory. Leibniz earned his <a href="/wiki/Master%27s_degree" title="Master's degree">master's degree</a> in Philosophy on 7 February 1664. In December 1664 he published and defended a <a href="/wiki/Dissertation" class="mw-redirect" title="Dissertation">dissertation</a> <i>Specimen Quaestionum Philosophicarum ex Jure collectarum</i> (<i>An Essay of Collected Philosophical Problems of Right</i>),<sup id="cite_ref-Arthur_p._x_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Arthur_p._x-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> arguing for both a theoretical and a pedagogical relationship between philosophy and law. After one year of legal studies, he was awarded his bachelor's degree in Law on 28 September 1665.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His dissertation was titled <i>De conditionibus</i> (<i>On Conditions</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-Arthur_p._x_34-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Arthur_p._x-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In early 1666, at age 19, Leibniz wrote his first book, <i><a href="/wiki/De_Arte_Combinatoria" title="De Arte Combinatoria">De Arte Combinatoria</a></i> (<i>On the Combinatorial Art</i>), the first part of which was also his <a href="/wiki/Habilitation" title="Habilitation">habilitation</a> thesis in Philosophy, which he defended in March 1666.<sup id="cite_ref-Arthur_p._x_34-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Arthur_p._x-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>De Arte Combinatoria</i> was inspired by <a href="/wiki/Ramon_Llull" title="Ramon Llull">Ramon Llull</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Ars_Magna_(Ramon_Llull)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ars Magna (Ramon Llull)">Ars Magna</a></i> and contained a <a href="/wiki/Proof_of_the_existence_of_God" class="mw-redirect" title="Proof of the existence of God">proof of the existence of God</a>, cast in geometrical form, and based on the <a href="/wiki/Argument_from_motion" class="mw-redirect" title="Argument from motion">argument from motion</a>. </p><p>His next goal was to earn his license and Doctorate in Law, which normally required three years of study. In 1666, the University of Leipzig turned down Leibniz's doctoral application and refused to grant him a Doctorate in Law, most likely due to his relative youth.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Leibniz subsequently left Leipzig.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Leibniz then enrolled in the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Altdorf" title="University of Altdorf">University of Altdorf</a> and quickly submitted a thesis, which he had probably been working on earlier in Leipzig.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The title of his thesis was <i>Disputatio Inauguralis de Casibus Perplexis in Jure</i> (<i>Inaugural Disputation on Ambiguous Legal Cases</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-Arthur_p._x_34-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Arthur_p._x-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Leibniz earned his license to practice law and his Doctorate in Law in November 1666. He next declined the offer of an academic appointment at Altdorf, saying that "my thoughts were turned in an entirely different direction".<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As an adult, Leibniz often introduced himself as "Gottfried <a href="/wiki/Von" title="Von">von</a> Leibniz". Many posthumously published editions of his writings presented his name on the title page as "<a href="/wiki/Freiherr" title="Freiherr">Freiherr</a> G. W. von Leibniz." However, no document has ever been found from any contemporary government that stated his appointment to any form of <a href="/wiki/Nobility" title="Nobility">nobility</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1666–1676"><span id="1666.E2.80.931676"></span>1666–1676</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: 1666–1676"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz_c1700.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz_c1700.jpg/220px-Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz_c1700.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="266" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz_c1700.jpg/330px-Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz_c1700.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz_c1700.jpg/440px-Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz_c1700.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1515" data-file-height="1834" /></a><figcaption>Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</figcaption></figure> <p>Leibniz's first position was as a salaried secretary to an <a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">alchemical</a> society in <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg" title="Nuremberg">Nuremberg</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He knew fairly little about the subject at that time but presented himself as deeply learned. He soon met <a href="/wiki/Johann_Christian_von_Boyneburg" title="Johann Christian von Boyneburg">Johann Christian von Boyneburg</a> (1622–1672), the dismissed chief minister of the <a href="/wiki/Prince-elector" title="Prince-elector">Elector</a> of <a href="/wiki/Mainz" title="Mainz">Mainz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Johann_Philipp_von_Sch%C3%B6nborn" title="Johann Philipp von Schönborn">Johann Philipp von Schönborn</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Von Boyneburg hired Leibniz as an assistant, and shortly thereafter reconciled with the Elector and introduced Leibniz to him. Leibniz then dedicated an essay on law to the Elector in the hope of obtaining employment. The stratagem worked; the Elector asked Leibniz to assist with the redrafting of the legal code for the Electorate.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1669, Leibniz was appointed assessor in the Court of Appeal. Although von Boyneburg died late in 1672, Leibniz remained under the employment of his widow until she dismissed him in 1674.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Von Boyneburg did much to promote Leibniz's reputation, and the latter's memoranda and letters began to attract favorable notice. After Leibniz's service to the Elector there soon followed a diplomatic role. He published an essay, under the pseudonym of a fictitious Polish nobleman, arguing (unsuccessfully) for the German candidate for the Polish crown. The main force in European geopolitics during Leibniz's adult life was the ambition of <a href="/wiki/Louis_XIV_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis XIV of France">Louis XIV of France</a>, backed by French military and economic might. Meanwhile, the <a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a> had left <a href="/wiki/German_language_in_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="German language in Europe">German-speaking Europe</a> exhausted, fragmented, and economically backward. Leibniz proposed to protect German-speaking Europe by distracting Louis as follows: France would be invited to take <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> as a stepping stone towards an eventual conquest of the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_Indies" title="Dutch East Indies">Dutch East Indies</a>. In return, France would agree to leave Germany and the Netherlands undisturbed. This plan obtained the Elector's cautious support. In 1672, the French government invited Leibniz to Paris for discussion,<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but the plan was soon overtaken by the outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/Franco-Dutch_War" title="Franco-Dutch War">Franco-Dutch War</a> and became irrelevant. Napoleon's <a href="/wiki/French_campaign_in_Egypt_and_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="French campaign in Egypt and Syria">failed invasion of Egypt in 1798</a> can be seen as an unwitting, late implementation of Leibniz's plan, after the Eastern hemisphere colonial supremacy in Europe had already passed from the Dutch to the British. </p><p>Thus Leibniz went to Paris in 1672. Soon after arriving, he met Dutch physicist and mathematician <a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Huygens" title="Christiaan Huygens">Christiaan Huygens</a> and realised that his own knowledge of mathematics and physics was patchy. With Huygens as his mentor, he began a program of <a href="/wiki/Self-study" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-study">self-study</a> that soon pushed him to making major contributions to both subjects, including discovering his version of the differential and integral <a href="/wiki/Calculus" title="Calculus">calculus</a>. He met <a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Nicolas Malebranche</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antoine_Arnauld" title="Antoine Arnauld">Antoine Arnauld</a>, the leading French philosophers of the day, and studied the writings of <a href="/wiki/Descartes" class="mw-redirect" title="Descartes">Descartes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Pascal</a>, unpublished as well as published.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He befriended a German mathematician, <a href="/wiki/Ehrenfried_Walther_von_Tschirnhaus" title="Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus">Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus</a>; they corresponded for the rest of their lives. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Leibnitzrechenmaschine.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Leibnitzrechenmaschine.jpg/220px-Leibnitzrechenmaschine.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Leibnitzrechenmaschine.jpg/330px-Leibnitzrechenmaschine.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Leibnitzrechenmaschine.jpg/440px-Leibnitzrechenmaschine.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Stepped_reckoner" title="Stepped reckoner">Stepped reckoner</a></figcaption></figure> <p>When it became clear that France would not implement its part of Leibniz's Egyptian plan, the Elector sent his nephew, escorted by Leibniz, on a related mission to the English government in London, early in 1673.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There Leibniz came into acquaintance of <a href="/wiki/Henry_Oldenburg" title="Henry Oldenburg">Henry Oldenburg</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Collins_(mathematician)" title="John Collins (mathematician)">John Collins</a>. He met with the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a> where he demonstrated a calculating machine that he had designed and had been building since 1670. The machine was able to execute all four basic operations (adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing), and the society quickly made him an external member. </p><p>The mission ended abruptly when news of the Elector's death (12 February 1673) reached them. Leibniz promptly returned to Paris and not, as had been planned, to Mainz.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The sudden deaths of his two patrons in the same winter meant that Leibniz had to find a new basis for his career. </p><p>In this regard, a 1669 invitation from Duke <a href="/wiki/John_Frederick,_Duke_of_Brunswick-L%C3%BCneburg" class="mw-redirect" title="John Frederick, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg">John Frederick</a> of <a href="/wiki/Brunswick-L%C3%BCneburg" class="mw-redirect" title="Brunswick-Lüneburg">Brunswick</a> to visit Hanover proved to have been fateful. Leibniz had declined the invitation, but had begun corresponding with the duke in 1671. In 1673, the duke offered Leibniz the post of counsellor. Leibniz very reluctantly accepted the position two years later, only after it became clear that no employment was forthcoming in Paris, whose intellectual stimulation he relished, or with the <a href="/wiki/Habsburg" class="mw-redirect" title="Habsburg">Habsburg</a> imperial court.<sup id="cite_ref-CRC_Press_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CRC_Press-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1675 he tried to get admitted to the <a href="/wiki/French_Academy_of_Sciences" title="French Academy of Sciences">French Academy of Sciences</a> as a foreign honorary member, but it was considered that there were already enough foreigners there and so no invitation came. He left Paris in October 1676. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="House_of_Hanover,_1676–1716"><span id="House_of_Hanover.2C_1676.E2.80.931716"></span>House of Hanover, 1676–1716</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: House of Hanover, 1676–1716"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Leibniz_Hannover.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Leibniz_Hannover.jpg/220px-Leibniz_Hannover.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="265" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Leibniz_Hannover.jpg/330px-Leibniz_Hannover.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Leibniz_Hannover.jpg/440px-Leibniz_Hannover.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="724" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, Public Library of Hanover, 1703</figcaption></figure> <p>Leibniz managed to delay his arrival in Hanover until the end of 1676 after making one more short journey to London, where Newton accused him of having seen his unpublished work on calculus in advance.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was alleged to be evidence supporting the accusation, made decades later, that he had stolen calculus from Newton. On the journey from London to Hanover, Leibniz stopped in <a href="/wiki/The_Hague" title="The Hague">The Hague</a> where he met <a href="/wiki/Van_Leeuwenhoek" class="mw-redirect" title="Van Leeuwenhoek">van Leeuwenhoek</a>, the discoverer of microorganisms. He also spent several days in intense discussion with <a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a>, who had just completed, but had not published, his masterwork, the <i><a href="/wiki/Ethics_(Spinoza)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethics (Spinoza)">Ethics</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Spinoza died very shortly after Leibniz's visit. </p><p>In 1677, he was promoted, at his request, to Privy Counselor of Justice, a post he held for the rest of his life. Leibniz served three consecutive rulers of the House of Brunswick as historian, political adviser, and most consequentially, as librarian of the <a href="/wiki/Duke" title="Duke">ducal</a> library. He thenceforth employed his pen on all the various political, historical, and <a href="/wiki/Theological" class="mw-redirect" title="Theological">theological</a> matters involving the House of Brunswick; the resulting documents form a valuable part of the historical record for the period. </p><p>Leibniz began promoting a project to use windmills to improve the mining operations in the Harz Mountains. This project did little to improve mining operations and was shut down by Duke Ernst August in 1685.<sup id="cite_ref-CRC_Press_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CRC_Press-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Among the few people in north Germany to accept Leibniz were the Electress <a href="/wiki/Sophia_of_Hanover" title="Sophia of Hanover">Sophia of Hanover</a> (1630–1714), her daughter <a href="/wiki/Sophia_Charlotte_of_Hanover" title="Sophia Charlotte of Hanover">Sophia Charlotte of Hanover</a> (1668–1705), the Queen of Prussia and his avowed disciple, and <a href="/wiki/Caroline_of_Ansbach" title="Caroline of Ansbach">Caroline of Ansbach</a>, the consort of her grandson, the future <a href="/wiki/George_II_of_Great_Britain" title="George II of Great Britain">George II</a>. To each of these women he was correspondent, adviser, and friend. In turn, they all approved of Leibniz more than did their spouses and the future king <a href="/wiki/George_I_of_Great_Britain" title="George I of Great Britain">George I of Great Britain</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The population of Hanover was only about 10,000, and its provinciality eventually grated on Leibniz. Nevertheless, to be a major courtier to the House of <a href="/wiki/Brunswick-L%C3%BCneburg" class="mw-redirect" title="Brunswick-Lüneburg">Brunswick</a> was quite an honor, especially in light of the meteoric rise in the prestige of that House during Leibniz's association with it. In 1692, the Duke of Brunswick became a hereditary Elector of the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>. The British <a href="/wiki/Act_of_Settlement_1701" title="Act of Settlement 1701">Act of Settlement 1701</a> designated the Electress Sophia and her descent as the royal family of England, once both King <a href="/wiki/William_III_of_England" title="William III of England">William III</a> and his sister-in-law and successor, <a href="/wiki/Anne,_Queen_of_Great_Britain" title="Anne, Queen of Great Britain">Queen Anne</a>, were dead. Leibniz played a role in the initiatives and negotiations leading up to that Act, but not always an effective one. For example, something he published anonymously in England, thinking to promote the Brunswick cause, was formally censured by the <a href="/wiki/British_Parliament" class="mw-redirect" title="British Parliament">British Parliament</a>. </p><p>The Brunswicks tolerated the enormous effort Leibniz devoted to intellectual pursuits unrelated to his duties as a courtier, pursuits such as perfecting calculus, writing about other mathematics, logic, physics, and philosophy, and keeping up a vast correspondence. He began working on calculus in 1674; the earliest evidence of its use in his surviving notebooks is 1675. By 1677 he had a coherent system in hand, but did not publish it until 1684. Leibniz's most important mathematical papers were published between 1682 and 1692, usually in a journal which he and <a href="/wiki/Otto_Mencke" title="Otto Mencke">Otto Mencke</a> founded in 1682, the <i><a href="/wiki/Acta_Eruditorum" title="Acta Eruditorum">Acta Eruditorum</a></i>. That journal played a key role in advancing his mathematical and scientific reputation, which in turn enhanced his eminence in diplomacy, history, theology, and philosophy. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Korespondencja_Gottfrieda_Leibniza.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Korespondencja_Gottfrieda_Leibniza.jpg/250px-Korespondencja_Gottfrieda_Leibniza.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Korespondencja_Gottfrieda_Leibniza.jpg/375px-Korespondencja_Gottfrieda_Leibniza.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Korespondencja_Gottfrieda_Leibniza.jpg/500px-Korespondencja_Gottfrieda_Leibniza.jpg 2x" data-file-width="713" data-file-height="594" /></a><figcaption>Pages from Leibniz's papers in the <a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Poland" title="National Library of Poland">National Library of Poland</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The Elector <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Augustus,_Elector_of_Brunswick-L%C3%BCneburg" class="mw-redirect" title="Ernest Augustus, Elector of Brunswick-Lüneburg">Ernest Augustus</a> commissioned Leibniz to write a history of the House of Brunswick, going back to the time of <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a> or earlier, hoping that the resulting book would advance his dynastic ambitions. From 1687 to 1690, Leibniz traveled extensively in Germany, Austria, and Italy, seeking and finding archival materials bearing on this project. Decades went by but no history appeared; the next Elector became quite annoyed at Leibniz's apparent dilatoriness. Leibniz never finished the project, in part because of his huge output on many other fronts, but also because he insisted on writing a meticulously researched and erudite book based on archival sources, when his patrons would have been quite happy with a short popular book, one perhaps little more than a <a href="/wiki/Genealogy" title="Genealogy">genealogy</a> with commentary, to be completed in three years or less. They never knew that he had in fact carried out a fair part of his assigned task: when the material Leibniz had written and collected for his history of the House of Brunswick was finally published in the 19th century, it filled three volumes. </p><p>Leibniz was appointed Librarian of the <a href="/wiki/Herzog_August_Library" title="Herzog August Library">Herzog August Library</a> in <a href="/wiki/Wolfenb%C3%BCttel" title="Wolfenbüttel">Wolfenbüttel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lower_Saxony" title="Lower Saxony">Lower Saxony</a>, in 1691. </p><p>In 1708, <a href="/wiki/John_Keill" title="John Keill">John Keill</a>, writing in the journal of the Royal Society and with Newton's presumed blessing, accused Leibniz of having plagiarised Newton's calculus.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus began the <a href="/wiki/Newton_v._Leibniz_calculus_controversy" class="mw-redirect" title="Newton v. Leibniz calculus controversy">calculus priority dispute</a> which darkened the remainder of Leibniz's life. A formal investigation by the Royal Society (in which Newton was an unacknowledged participant), undertaken in response to Leibniz's demand for a retraction, upheld Keill's charge. Historians of mathematics writing since 1900 or so have tended to acquit Leibniz, pointing to important differences between Leibniz's and Newton's versions of calculus. </p><p>In 1712, Leibniz began a two-year residence in <a href="/wiki/Vienna" title="Vienna">Vienna</a>, where he was appointed <a href="/wiki/Reichshofrat" class="mw-redirect" title="Reichshofrat">Imperial Court Councillor</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Habsburg" class="mw-redirect" title="Habsburg">Habsburgs</a>. On the death of Queen Anne in 1714, Elector George Louis became King <a href="/wiki/George_I_of_Great_Britain" title="George I of Great Britain">George I of Great Britain</a>, under the terms of the 1701 Act of Settlement. Even though Leibniz had done much to bring about this happy event, it was not to be his hour of glory. Despite the intercession of the Princess of Wales, Caroline of Ansbach, George I forbade Leibniz to join him in London until he completed at least one volume of the history of the Brunswick family his father had commissioned nearly 30 years earlier. Moreover, for George I to include Leibniz in his London court would have been deemed insulting to Newton, who was seen as having won the calculus priority dispute and whose standing in British official circles could not have been higher. Finally, his dear friend and defender, the Dowager Electress Sophia, died in 1714. In 1716, while traveling in northern Europe, the Russian <a href="/wiki/Tsar" title="Tsar">Tsar</a> <a href="/wiki/Peter_I_of_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter I of Russia">Peter the Great</a> stopped in <a href="/wiki/Bad_Pyrmont" title="Bad Pyrmont">Bad Pyrmont</a> and met Leibniz, who took interest in Russian matters since 1708 and was appointed advisor in 1711.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Death">Death</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Death"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Leibniz died in <a href="/wiki/Hanover" title="Hanover">Hanover</a> in 1716. At the time, he was so out of favor that neither George I (who happened to be near Hanover at that time) nor any fellow courtier other than his personal secretary attended the funeral. Even though Leibniz was a life member of the Royal Society and the <a href="/wiki/Prussian_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Prussian Academy of Sciences">Berlin Academy of Sciences</a>, neither organization saw fit to honor his death. His grave went unmarked for more than 50 years. He was, however, eulogized by <a href="/wiki/Bernard_de_Fontenelle" class="mw-redirect" title="Bernard de Fontenelle">Fontenelle</a>, before the <a href="/wiki/French_Academy_of_Sciences" title="French Academy of Sciences">French Academy of Sciences</a> in Paris, which had admitted him as a foreign member in 1700. The eulogy was composed at the behest of the <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Charlotte,_Princess_Palatine" class="mw-redirect" title="Elizabeth Charlotte, Princess Palatine">Duchess of Orleans</a>, a niece of the Electress Sophia. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Personal_life">Personal life</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Personal life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Leibniz never married. He proposed to an unknown woman at age 50, but changed his mind when she took too long to decide.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He complained on occasion about money, but the fair sum he left to his sole heir, his sister's stepson, proved that the Brunswicks had paid him fairly well. In his diplomatic endeavors, he at times verged on the unscrupulous, as was often the case with professional diplomats of his day. On several occasions, Leibniz backdated and altered personal manuscripts, actions which put him in a bad light during the <a href="/wiki/Newton_v._Leibniz_calculus_controversy" class="mw-redirect" title="Newton v. Leibniz calculus controversy">calculus controversy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>He was charming, well-mannered, and not without humor and imagination.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He had many friends and admirers all over Europe. He was identified as a <a href="/wiki/Protestant" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant">Protestant</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_theism" title="Philosophical theism">philosophical theist</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Leibniz remained committed to <a href="/wiki/Trinitarian_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Trinitarian Christianity">Trinitarian Christianity</a> throughout his life.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Philosophy">Philosophy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Leibniz's philosophical thinking appears fragmented because his philosophical writings consist mainly of a multitude of short pieces: journal articles, manuscripts published long after his death, and letters to correspondents. He wrote two book-length philosophical treatises, of which only the <i>Théodicée</i> of 1710 was published in his lifetime. </p><p>Leibniz dated his beginning as a philosopher to his <i><a href="/wiki/Discourse_on_Metaphysics" title="Discourse on Metaphysics">Discourse on Metaphysics</a></i>, which he composed in 1686 as a commentary on a running dispute between <a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Nicolas Malebranche</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antoine_Arnauld" title="Antoine Arnauld">Antoine Arnauld</a>. This led to an extensive correspondence with Arnauld;<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it and the <i>Discourse</i> were not published until the 19th century. In 1695, Leibniz made his public entrée into European philosophy with a journal article titled "New System of the Nature and Communication of Substances".<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Between 1695 and 1705, he composed his <i><a href="/wiki/New_Essays_on_Human_Understanding" title="New Essays on Human Understanding">New Essays on Human Understanding</a></i>, a lengthy commentary on <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a>'s 1690 <i><a href="/wiki/An_Essay_Concerning_Human_Understanding" title="An Essay Concerning Human Understanding">An Essay Concerning Human Understanding</a></i>, but upon learning of Locke's 1704 death, lost the desire to publish it, so that the <i>New Essays</i> were not published until 1765. The <i><a href="/wiki/Monadology" title="Monadology">Monadologie</a></i>, composed in 1714 and published posthumously, consists of 90 aphorisms. </p><p>Leibniz also wrote a short paper, "Primae veritates" ("First Truths"), first published by <a href="/wiki/Louis_Couturat" title="Louis Couturat">Louis Couturat</a> in 1903 (pp. 518–523)<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> summarizing his views on <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a>. The paper is undated; that he wrote it while in Vienna in 1689 was determined only in 1999, when the ongoing critical edition finally published Leibniz's philosophical writings for the period 1677–1690.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Couturat's reading of this paper influenced much 20th-century thinking about Leibniz, especially among <a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">analytic philosophers</a>. After a meticulous study (informed by the 1999 additions to the critical edition) of all of Leibniz's philosophical writings up to 1688, Mercer (2001) disagreed with Couturat's reading.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (April 2024)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Leibniz met <a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a> in 1676, read some of his unpublished writings, and had since been influenced by some of Spinoza's ideas. While Leibniz befriended him and admired Spinoza's powerful intellect, he was also dismayed by Spinoza's conclusions,<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> especially when these were inconsistent with Christian orthodoxy. </p><p>Unlike Descartes and Spinoza, Leibniz had a university education in philosophy. He was influenced by his <a href="/wiki/Leipzig" title="Leipzig">Leipzig</a> professor <a href="/wiki/Jakob_Thomasius" title="Jakob Thomasius">Jakob Thomasius</a>, who also supervised his BA thesis in philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-Arthur_p._13_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Arthur_p._13-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Leibniz also read <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Francisco Suárez</a>, a Spanish <a href="/wiki/Society_of_Jesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Society of Jesus">Jesuit</a> respected even in <a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheran</a> universities. Leibniz was deeply interested in the new methods and conclusions of Descartes, Huygens, Newton, and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyle" title="Robert Boyle">Boyle</a>, but the established philosophical ideas in which he was educated influenced his view of their work. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Principles">Principles</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Principles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Leibniz variously invoked one or another of seven fundamental philosophical Principles:<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(mathematics)" title="Identity (mathematics)">Identity</a>/<a href="/wiki/Contradiction" title="Contradiction">contradiction</a>. If a proposition is true, then its negation is false and vice versa.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_of_indiscernibles" title="Identity of indiscernibles">Identity of indiscernibles</a>. Two distinct things cannot have all their properties in common. If every predicate possessed by <i>x</i> is also possessed by <i>y</i> and vice versa, then entities <i>x</i> and <i>y</i> are identical; to suppose two things indiscernible is to suppose the same thing under two names. The "identity of indiscernibles" is frequently invoked in modern logic and philosophy. It has attracted the most controversy and criticism, especially from corpuscular philosophy and quantum mechanics. The <a href="/wiki/Converse_(logic)" title="Converse (logic)">converse</a> of this is often called <i>Leibniz's law</i>, or the <i>indiscernibility of identicals</i>, which is mostly uncontroversial.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_sufficient_reason" title="Principle of sufficient reason">Sufficient reason</a>. "There must be a sufficient reason for anything to exist, for any event to occur, for any truth to obtain."<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-established_harmony" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-established harmony">Pre-established harmony</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "[T]he appropriate nature of each substance brings it about that what happens to one corresponds to what happens to all the others, without, however, their acting upon one another directly." (<i>Discourse on Metaphysics</i>, XIV) A dropped glass shatters because it "knows" it has hit the ground, and not because the impact with the ground "compels" the glass to split.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_continuity" title="Law of continuity">Law of continuity</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Natura_non_facit_saltus" title="Natura non facit saltus">Natura non facit saltus</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-Saltus_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Saltus-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (literally, "Nature does not make jumps").</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_optimism" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophical optimism">Optimism</a>. "God assuredly always chooses the best."<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_plenitude" title="Principle of plenitude">Plenitude</a>. Leibniz believed that the best of all possible worlds would actualize every genuine possibility, and argued in <i>Théodicée</i> that this best of all possible worlds will contain all possibilities, with our finite experience of eternity giving no reason to dispute nature's perfection.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Leibniz would on occasion give a rational defense of a specific principle, but more often took them for granted.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Monads">Monads</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Monads"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Leibniz_Monadology_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Leibniz_Monadology_1.jpg/220px-Leibniz_Monadology_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="350" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Leibniz_Monadology_1.jpg/330px-Leibniz_Monadology_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b3/Leibniz_Monadology_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="347" data-file-height="552" /></a><figcaption>A page from Leibniz's manuscript of the <i><a href="/wiki/Monadology" title="Monadology">Monadology</a></i></figcaption></figure> <p>Leibniz's best known contribution to <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a> is his theory of <a href="/wiki/Monad_(philosophy)" title="Monad (philosophy)">monads</a>, as exposited in <i><a href="/wiki/Monadology" title="Monadology">Monadologie</a></i>. He proposes his theory that the universe is made of an infinite number of simple substances known as monads.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Monads can also be compared to the corpuscles of the <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanical philosophy">mechanical philosophy</a> of René Descartes and others. These simple substances or monads are the "ultimate units of existence in nature". Monads have no parts but still exist by the qualities that they have. These qualities are continuously changing over time, and each monad is unique. They are also not affected by time and are subject to only creation and annihilation.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Monads are centers of <a href="/wiki/Force" title="Force">force</a>; substance is force, while <a href="/wiki/Space" title="Space">space</a>, <a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">matter</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Motion_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Motion (physics)">motion</a> are merely phenomenal. He argued, against Newton, that <a href="/wiki/Space" title="Space">space</a>, <a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">time</a>, and motion are completely relative:<sup id="cite_ref-Ferraro_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ferraro-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "As for my own opinion, I have said more than once, that I hold space to be something merely relative, as time is, that I hold it to be an order of coexistences, as time is an order of successions."<sup id="cite_ref-See_H._G_pp._25_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-See_H._G_pp._25-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Einstein, who called himself a "Leibnizian", wrote in the introduction to <a href="/wiki/Max_Jammer" title="Max Jammer">Max Jammer</a>'s book <i>Concepts of Space</i> that Leibnizianism was superior to Newtonianism, and his ideas would have dominated over Newton's had it not been for the poor technological tools of the time; Joseph Agassi argues that Leibniz paved the way for Einstein's <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_relativity" title="Theory of relativity">theory of relativity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Leibniz's proof of God can be summarized in the <i><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9odic%C3%A9e" title="Théodicée">Théodicée</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Leibniz:_A_Guide_for_the_Perplexed_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leibniz:_A_Guide_for_the_Perplexed-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Reason is governed by the <a href="/wiki/Principle_of_contradiction" class="mw-redirect" title="Principle of contradiction">principle of contradiction</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Principle_of_sufficient_reason" title="Principle of sufficient reason">principle of sufficient reason</a>. Using the principle of reasoning, Leibniz concluded that the first reason of all things is God.<sup id="cite_ref-Leibniz:_A_Guide_for_the_Perplexed_82-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leibniz:_A_Guide_for_the_Perplexed-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All that we see and experience is subject to change, and the fact that this world is contingent can be explained by the possibility of the world being arranged differently in space and time. The contingent world must have some necessary reason for its existence. Leibniz uses a geometry book as an example to explain his reasoning. If this book was copied from an infinite chain of copies, there must be some reason for the content of the book.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Leibniz concluded that there must be the "<i>monas monadum</i>" or God. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">ontological</a> essence of a monad is its irreducible simplicity. Unlike atoms, monads possess no material or spatial character. They also differ from atoms by their complete mutual independence, so that interactions among monads are only apparent. Instead, by virtue of the principle of <a href="/wiki/Pre-established_harmony" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-established harmony">pre-established harmony</a>, each monad follows a pre-programmed set of "instructions" peculiar to itself, so that a monad "knows" what to do at each moment. By virtue of these intrinsic instructions, each monad is like a little mirror of the universe. Monads need not be "small"; e.g., each human being constitutes a monad, in which case <a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">free will</a> is problematic. </p><p>Monads are purported to have gotten rid of the problematic: </p> <ul><li>interaction between <a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">mind</a> and matter arising in the system of <a href="/wiki/Descartes" class="mw-redirect" title="Descartes">Descartes</a>;</li> <li>lack of <a href="/wiki/Principle_of_individuation" title="Principle of individuation">individuation</a> inherent to the system of <a href="/wiki/Spinoza" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinoza">Spinoza</a>, which represents individual creatures as merely accidental.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Theodicy_and_optimism">Theodicy and optimism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Theodicy and optimism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Best_of_all_possible_worlds" title="Best of all possible worlds">Best of all possible worlds</a> and <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_optimism" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophical optimism">Philosophical optimism</a></div> <p>The <i><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9odic%C3%A9e" title="Théodicée">Theodicy</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> tries to justify the apparent imperfections of the world by claiming that it is <a href="/wiki/Best_of_all_possible_worlds" title="Best of all possible worlds">optimal among all possible worlds</a>. It must be the best possible and most balanced world, because it was created by an all powerful and all knowing God, who would not choose to create an imperfect world if a better world could be known to him or possible to exist. In effect, apparent flaws that can be identified in this world must exist in every possible world, because otherwise God would have chosen to create the world that excluded those flaws.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Leibniz asserted that the truths of theology (religion) and philosophy cannot contradict each other, since reason and faith are both "gifts of God" so that their conflict would imply God contending against himself. The <i>Theodicy</i> is Leibniz's attempt to reconcile his personal philosophical system with his interpretation of the tenets of Christianity.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This project was motivated in part by Leibniz's belief, shared by many philosophers and theologians during the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a>, in the rational and enlightened nature of the Christian religion. It was also shaped by Leibniz's belief in the perfectibility of human nature (if humanity relied on correct philosophy and religion as a guide), and by his belief that metaphysical necessity must have a rational or logical foundation, even if this metaphysical causality seemed inexplicable in terms of physical necessity (the natural laws identified by science). </p><p>In the view of Leibniz, because reason and faith must be entirely reconciled, any tenet of faith which could not be defended by reason must be rejected. Leibniz then approached one of the central criticisms of Christian theism:<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> if God is <a href="/wiki/Omnibenevolence" title="Omnibenevolence">all good</a>, <a href="/wiki/Omniscience" title="Omniscience">all wise</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Omnipotence" title="Omnipotence">all powerful</a>, then how did <a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">evil come into the world</a>? The answer (according to Leibniz) is that, while God is indeed unlimited in wisdom and power, his human creations, as creations, are limited both in their wisdom and in their will (power to act). This predisposes humans to false beliefs, wrong decisions, and ineffective actions in the exercise of their <a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">free will</a>. God does not arbitrarily inflict pain and suffering on humans; rather he permits both <i>moral evil</i> (sin) and <i>physical evil</i> (pain and suffering) as the necessary consequences of <i>metaphysical evil</i> (imperfection), as a means by which humans can identify and correct their erroneous decisions, and as a contrast to true good.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Further, although human actions flow from prior causes that ultimately arise in God and therefore are known to God as metaphysical certainties, an individual's free will is exercised within natural laws, where choices are merely contingently necessary and to be decided in the event by a "wonderful spontaneity" that provides individuals with an escape from rigorous predestination. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Discourse_on_Metaphysics"><i>Discourse on Metaphysics</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Discourse on Metaphysics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>For Leibniz, "God is an absolutely perfect being". He describes this perfection later in section VI as the simplest form of something with the most substantial outcome (VI). Along these lines, he declares that every type of perfection "pertains to him (God) in the highest degree" (I). Even though his types of perfections are not specifically drawn out, Leibniz highlights the one thing that, to him, does certify imperfections and proves that God is perfect: "that one acts imperfectly if he acts with less perfection than he is capable of", and since God is a perfect being, he cannot act imperfectly (III). Because God cannot act imperfectly, the decisions he makes pertaining to the world must be perfect. Leibniz also comforts readers, stating that because he has done everything to the most perfect degree; those who love him cannot be injured. However, to love God is a subject of difficulty as Leibniz believes that we are "not disposed to wish for that which God desires" because we have the ability to alter our disposition (IV). In accordance with this, many act as rebels, but Leibniz says that the only way we can truly love God is by being content "with all that comes to us according to his will" (IV). </p><p>Because God is "an absolutely perfect being" (I), Leibniz argues that God would be acting imperfectly if he acted with any less perfection than what he is able of (III). His syllogism then ends with the statement that God has made the world perfectly in all ways. This also affects how we should view God and his will. Leibniz states that, in lieu of God's will, we have to understand that God "is the best of all masters" and he will know when his good succeeds, so we, therefore, must act in conformity to his good will—or as much of it as we understand (IV). In our view of God, Leibniz declares that we cannot admire the work solely because of the maker, lest we mar the glory and love God in doing so. Instead, we must admire the maker for the work he has done (II). Effectively, Leibniz states that if we say the earth is good because of the will of God, and not good according to some standards of goodness, then how can we praise God for what he has done if contrary actions are also praiseworthy by this definition (II). Leibniz then asserts that different principles and geometry cannot simply be from the will of God, but must follow from his understanding.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><br /> Leibniz wrote: "<a href="/wiki/Problem_of_why_there_is_anything_at_all" class="mw-redirect" title="Problem of why there is anything at all">Why is there something rather than nothing?</a> The sufficient reason ... is found in a substance which ... is a necessary being bearing the reason for its existence within itself."<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Martin Heidegger</a> called this question "the fundamental question of metaphysics".<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Symbolic_thought_and_rational_resolution_of_disputes">Symbolic thought and rational resolution of disputes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Symbolic thought and rational resolution of disputes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Leibniz believed that much of human reasoning could be reduced to calculations of a sort, and that such calculations could resolve many differences of opinion: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The only way to rectify our reasonings is to make them as tangible as those of the Mathematicians, so that we can find our error at a glance, and when there are disputes among persons, we can simply say: Let us calculate, without further ado, to see who is right.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Leibniz's <a href="/wiki/Calculus_ratiocinator" title="Calculus ratiocinator">calculus ratiocinator</a>, which resembles <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_logic" title="Mathematical logic">symbolic logic</a>, can be viewed as a way of making such calculations feasible. Leibniz wrote memoranda<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that can now be read as groping attempts to get symbolic logic—and thus his <i>calculus</i>—off the ground. These writings remained unpublished until the appearance of a selection edited by Carl Immanuel Gerhardt (1859). <a href="/wiki/Louis_Couturat" title="Louis Couturat">Louis Couturat</a> published a selection in 1901; by this time the main developments of modern logic had been created by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a> and by <a href="/wiki/Gottlob_Frege" title="Gottlob Frege">Gottlob Frege</a>. </p><p>Leibniz thought <a href="/wiki/Symbol" title="Symbol">symbols</a> were important for human understanding. He attached so much importance to the development of good notations that he attributed all his discoveries in mathematics to this. His notation for <a href="/wiki/Calculus" title="Calculus">calculus</a> is an example of his skill in this regard. Leibniz's passion for symbols and notation, as well as his belief that these are essential to a well-running logic and mathematics, made him a precursor of <a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">semiotics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>But Leibniz took his speculations much further. Defining a <a href="/wiki/Grapheme" title="Grapheme">character</a> as any written sign, he then defined a "real" character as one that represents an idea directly and not simply as the word embodying the idea. Some real characters, such as the notation of logic, serve only to facilitate reasoning. Many characters well known in his day, including <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphics" class="mw-redirect" title="Egyptian hieroglyphics">Egyptian hieroglyphics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_character" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese character">Chinese characters</a>, and the symbols of <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>, he deemed not real.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Instead, he proposed the creation of a <i><a href="/wiki/Characteristica_universalis" title="Characteristica universalis">characteristica universalis</a></i> or "universal characteristic", built on an <a href="/wiki/Alphabet_of_human_thought" title="Alphabet of human thought">alphabet of human thought</a> in which each fundamental concept would be represented by a unique "real" character: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>It is obvious that if we could find characters or signs suited for expressing all our thoughts as clearly and as exactly as arithmetic expresses numbers or geometry expresses lines, we could do in all matters <i>insofar as they are subject to reasoning</i> all that we can do in arithmetic and geometry. For all investigations which depend on reasoning would be carried out by transposing these characters and by a species of calculus.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Complex thoughts would be represented by combining characters for simpler thoughts. Leibniz saw that the uniqueness of <a href="/wiki/Prime_factorization" class="mw-redirect" title="Prime factorization">prime factorization</a> suggests a central role for <a href="/wiki/Prime_numbers" class="mw-redirect" title="Prime numbers">prime numbers</a> in the universal characteristic, a striking anticipation of <a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6del_numbering" title="Gödel numbering">Gödel numbering</a>. Granted, there is no intuitive or <a href="/wiki/Mnemonic" title="Mnemonic">mnemonic</a> way to number any set of elementary concepts using the prime numbers. </p><p>Because Leibniz was a mathematical novice when he first wrote about the <i>characteristic</i>, at first he did not conceive it as an <a href="/wiki/Algebra" title="Algebra">algebra</a> but rather as a <a href="/wiki/Universal_characteristic" class="mw-redirect" title="Universal characteristic">universal language</a> or script. Only in 1676 did he conceive of a kind of "algebra of thought", modeled on and including conventional algebra and its notation. The resulting <i>characteristic</i> included a logical calculus, some combinatorics, algebra, his <i>analysis situs</i> (geometry of situation), a universal concept language, and more. What Leibniz actually intended by his <i>characteristica universalis</i> and calculus ratiocinator, and the extent to which modern formal logic does justice to calculus, may never be established.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Leibniz's idea of reasoning through a universal language of symbols and calculations remarkably foreshadows great 20th-century developments in formal systems, such as <a href="/wiki/Turing_completeness" title="Turing completeness">Turing completeness</a>, where computation was used to define equivalent universal languages (see <a href="/wiki/Turing_degree" title="Turing degree">Turing degree</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Formal_logic">Formal logic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Formal logic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Algebraic_logic" title="Algebraic logic">Algebraic logic</a></div> <p>Leibniz has been noted as one of the most important logicians between the times of Aristotle and <a href="/wiki/Gottlob_Frege" title="Gottlob Frege">Gottlob Frege</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Leibniz enunciated the principal properties of what we now call <a href="/wiki/Logical_conjunction" title="Logical conjunction">conjunction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Disjunction" class="mw-redirect" title="Disjunction">disjunction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Negation" title="Negation">negation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Identity_(mathematics)" title="Identity (mathematics)">identity</a>, set <a href="/wiki/Subset" title="Subset">inclusion</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Empty_set" title="Empty set">empty set</a>. The principles of Leibniz's logic and, arguably, of his whole philosophy, reduce to two: </p> <ol><li>All our ideas are compounded from a very small number of simple ideas, which form the <a href="/wiki/Alphabet_of_human_thought" title="Alphabet of human thought">alphabet of human thought</a>.</li> <li>Complex ideas proceed from these simple ideas by a uniform and symmetrical combination, analogous to arithmetical multiplication.</li></ol> <p>The formal logic that emerged early in the 20th century also requires, at minimum, <a href="/wiki/Unary_function" title="Unary function">unary</a> negation and <a href="/wiki/Quantification_(logic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantification (logic)">quantified</a> <a href="/wiki/Variable_(mathematics)" title="Variable (mathematics)">variables</a> ranging over some <a href="/wiki/Universe_of_discourse" class="mw-redirect" title="Universe of discourse">universe of discourse</a>. </p><p>Leibniz published nothing on formal logic in his lifetime; most of what he wrote on the subject consists of working drafts. In his <i><a href="/wiki/A_History_of_Western_Philosophy" title="A History of Western Philosophy">History of Western Philosophy</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a> went so far as to claim that Leibniz had developed logic in his unpublished writings to a level which was reached only 200 years later. </p><p>Russell's principal work on Leibniz found that many of Leibniz's most startling philosophical ideas and claims (e.g., that each of the fundamental <a href="/wiki/Monad_(philosophy)" title="Monad (philosophy)">monads</a> mirrors the whole universe) follow logically from Leibniz's conscious choice to reject <i>relations</i> between things as unreal. He regarded such relations as (real) <i>qualities</i> of things (Leibniz admitted <a href="/wiki/Unary_function" title="Unary function">unary</a> <a href="/wiki/Predicate_(mathematical_logic)" title="Predicate (mathematical logic)">predicates</a> only): For him, "Mary is the mother of John" describes separate qualities of Mary and of John. This view contrasts with the relational logic of <a href="/wiki/Augustus_De_Morgan" title="Augustus De Morgan">De Morgan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_S._Peirce" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles S. Peirce">Peirce</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Schr%C3%B6der_(mathematician)" title="Ernst Schröder (mathematician)">Schröder</a> and Russell himself, now standard in <a href="/wiki/Predicate_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Predicate logic">predicate logic</a>. Notably, Leibniz also declared space and time to be inherently relational.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Leibniz's 1690 discovery of his <b>algebra of concepts</b><sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (deductively equivalent to the <a href="/wiki/Boolean_algebra" title="Boolean algebra">Boolean algebra</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the associated metaphysics, are of interest in present-day <a href="/wiki/Computational_metaphysics" class="mw-redirect" title="Computational metaphysics">computational metaphysics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mathematics">Mathematics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Mathematics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although the mathematical notion of <a href="/wiki/Function_(mathematics)" title="Function (mathematics)">function</a> was implicit in trigonometric and logarithmic tables, which existed in his day, Leibniz was the first, in 1692 and 1694, to employ it explicitly, to denote any of several geometric concepts derived from a curve, such as <a href="/wiki/Abscissa" class="mw-redirect" title="Abscissa">abscissa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ordinate" class="mw-redirect" title="Ordinate">ordinate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tangent" title="Tangent">tangent</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chord_(geometry)" title="Chord (geometry)">chord</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Normal_(geometry)" title="Normal (geometry)">perpendicular</a> (see <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_function_concept" title="History of the function concept">History of the function concept</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 18th century, "function" lost these geometrical associations. Leibniz was also one of the pioneers in <a href="/wiki/Actuarial_science" title="Actuarial science">actuarial science</a>, calculating the purchase price of life annuities and the liquidation of a state's debt.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Leibniz's research into formal logic, also relevant to mathematics, is discussed in the <a href="#Formal_logic">preceding section</a>. The best overview of Leibniz's writings on calculus may be found in Bos (1974).<sup id="cite_ref-Douglas_M._Jesseph,_1998_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Douglas_M._Jesseph,_1998-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Leibniz, who invented one of the earliest mechanical calculators, said of <a href="/wiki/Calculation" title="Calculation">calculation</a>: "For it is unworthy of excellent men to lose hours like slaves in the labor of calculation which could safely be relegated to anyone else if machines were used."<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Linear_systems">Linear systems</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Linear systems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Leibniz arranged the coefficients of a system of <a href="/wiki/Linear_equation" title="Linear equation">linear equations</a> into an array, now called a <a href="/wiki/Matrix_(mathematics)" title="Matrix (mathematics)">matrix</a>, in order to find a solution to the system if it existed.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This method was later called <a href="/wiki/Gaussian_elimination" title="Gaussian elimination">Gaussian elimination</a>. Leibniz laid down the foundations and theory of <a href="/wiki/Determinants" class="mw-redirect" title="Determinants">determinants</a>, although the Japanese mathematician <a href="/wiki/Seki_Takakazu" title="Seki Takakazu">Seki Takakazu</a> also discovered determinants independently of Leibniz.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Princeton_University_Press_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Princeton_University_Press-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His works show calculating the determinants using cofactors.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Calculating the determinant using cofactors is named the <a href="/wiki/Leibniz_formula_for_determinants" title="Leibniz formula for determinants">Leibniz formula</a>. Finding the determinant of a matrix using this method proves impractical with large <i>n</i>, requiring to calculate <i>n!</i> products and the number of n-permutations.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also solved systems of linear equations using determinants, which is now called <a href="/wiki/Cramer%27s_rule" title="Cramer's rule">Cramer's rule</a>. This method for solving systems of linear equations based on determinants was found in 1684 by Leibniz (<a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Cramer" title="Gabriel Cramer">Gabriel Cramer</a> published his findings in 1750).<sup id="cite_ref-Princeton_University_Press_113-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Princeton_University_Press-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although Gaussian elimination requires <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle O(n^{3})}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>O</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msup> <mi>n</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle O(n^{3})}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/6b04f5c5cfea38f43406d9442387ad28555e2609" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:6.032ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle O(n^{3})}"></span> arithmetic operations, linear algebra textbooks still teach cofactor expansion before <a href="/wiki/LU_factorization" class="mw-redirect" title="LU factorization">LU factorization</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Geometry">Geometry</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Geometry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Leibniz_formula_for_%CF%80" title="Leibniz formula for π">Leibniz formula for <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">π</span></a> states that </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 1\,-\,{\frac {1}{3}}\,+\,{\frac {1}{5}}\,-\,{\frac {1}{7}}\,+\,\cdots \,=\,{\frac {\pi }{4}}.}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>1</mn> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mo>−</mo> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mn>3</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mo>+</mo> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mn>5</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mo>−</mo> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mn>7</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mo>+</mo> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mo>⋯</mo> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mo>=</mo> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>π</mi> <mn>4</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>.</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 1\,-\,{\frac {1}{3}}\,+\,{\frac {1}{5}}\,-\,{\frac {1}{7}}\,+\,\cdots \,=\,{\frac {\pi }{4}}.}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/af4babdeabf9b4348e6e0ea5119a43e027850446" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.005ex; width:31.027ex; height:5.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 1\,-\,{\frac {1}{3}}\,+\,{\frac {1}{5}}\,-\,{\frac {1}{7}}\,+\,\cdots \,=\,{\frac {\pi }{4}}.}"></span></dd></dl> <p>Leibniz wrote that circles "can most simply be expressed by this series, that is, the aggregate of fractions alternately added and subtracted".<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However this formula is only accurate with a large number of terms, using 10,000,000 terms to obtain the correct value of <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1214402035">.mw-parser-output .sfrac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .sfrac.tion,.mw-parser-output .sfrac .tion{display:inline-block;vertical-align:-0.5em;font-size:85%;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sfrac .num{display:block;line-height:1em;margin:0.0em 0.1em;border-bottom:1px solid}.mw-parser-output .sfrac .den{display:block;line-height:1em;margin:0.1em 0.1em}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style><span class="sfrac">⁠<span class="tion"><span class="num"><span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">π</span></span><span class="sr-only">/</span><span class="den">4</span></span>⁠</span> to 8 decimal places.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Leibniz attempted to create a definition for a straight line while attempting to prove the <a href="/wiki/Parallel_postulate" title="Parallel postulate">parallel postulate</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While most mathematicians defined a straight line as the shortest line between two points, Leibniz believed that this was merely a property of a straight line rather than the definition.<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Calculus">Calculus</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Calculus"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Leibniz is credited, along with <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a>, with the discovery of <a href="/wiki/Calculus" title="Calculus">calculus</a> (differential and integral calculus). According to Leibniz's notebooks, a critical breakthrough occurred on 11 November 1675, when he employed integral calculus for the first time to find the area under the graph of a function <span class="texhtml"><var style="padding-right: 1px;">y</var> = <var style="padding-right: 1px;">f</var>(<var style="padding-right: 1px;">x</var>)</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-Leibniz1920_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leibniz1920-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He introduced several notations used to this day, for instance the <a href="/wiki/Integral_sign" class="mw-redirect" title="Integral sign">integral sign</a> <span class="texhtml">∫</span> (<span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \displaystyle \int f(x)\,dx}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mo>∫</mo> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mi>d</mi> <mi>x</mi> </mstyle> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \displaystyle \int f(x)\,dx}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/d08972355789baf238cd41a5ad7af85878ba3928" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:9.931ex; height:5.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \displaystyle \int f(x)\,dx}"></span>), representing an elongated S, from the Latin word <i>summa</i>, and the <span class="texhtml">d</span> used for <a href="/wiki/Differential_(infinitesimal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Differential (infinitesimal)">differentials</a> (<span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\frac {dy}{dx}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>d</mi> <mi>y</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>d</mi> <mi>x</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {dy}{dx}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/5ceb16b58a91d26cf1e442d0682dfa7a2c0ab72c" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.005ex; width:3.382ex; height:5.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\frac {dy}{dx}}}"></span>), from the Latin word <i>differentia</i>. Leibniz did not publish anything about his calculus until 1684.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Leibniz expressed the inverse relation of integration and differentiation, later called the <a href="/wiki/Fundamental_theorem_of_calculus" title="Fundamental theorem of calculus">fundamental theorem of calculus</a>, by means of a figure<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in his 1693 paper <i>Supplementum geometriae dimensoriae...</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, <a href="/wiki/James_Gregory_(mathematician)" title="James Gregory (mathematician)">James Gregory</a> is credited for the theorem's discovery in geometric form, <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Barrow" title="Isaac Barrow">Isaac Barrow</a> proved a more generalized geometric version, and <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a> developed supporting theory. The concept became more transparent as developed through Leibniz's formalism and new notation.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Product_rule" title="Product rule">product rule</a> of <a href="/wiki/Differential_calculus" title="Differential calculus">differential calculus</a> is still called "Leibniz's law". In addition, the theorem that tells how and when to differentiate under the integral sign is called the <a href="/wiki/Leibniz_integral_rule" title="Leibniz integral rule">Leibniz integral rule</a>. </p><p>Leibniz exploited <a href="/wiki/Infinitesimal" title="Infinitesimal">infinitesimals</a> in developing calculus, manipulating them in ways suggesting that they had <a href="/wiki/Paradox" title="Paradox">paradoxical</a> <a href="/wiki/Algebra" title="Algebra">algebraic</a> properties. <a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">George Berkeley</a>, in a tract called <i><a href="/wiki/The_Analyst" title="The Analyst">The Analyst</a></i> and also in <i>De Motu</i>, criticized these. A recent study argues that Leibnizian calculus was free of contradictions, and was better grounded than Berkeley's empiricist criticisms.<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From 1711 until his death, Leibniz was engaged in a dispute with <a href="/wiki/John_Keill" title="John Keill">John Keill</a>, Newton and others, over <a href="/wiki/Leibniz%E2%80%93Newton_calculus_controversy" title="Leibniz–Newton calculus controversy">whether Leibniz had invented calculus independently of Newton</a>. </p><p>The use of infinitesimals in mathematics was frowned upon by followers of <a href="/wiki/Karl_Weierstrass" title="Karl Weierstrass">Karl Weierstrass</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but survived in science and engineering, and even in rigorous mathematics, via the fundamental computational device known as the <a href="/wiki/Differential_(infinitesimal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Differential (infinitesimal)">differential</a>. Beginning in 1960, <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Robinson" title="Abraham Robinson">Abraham Robinson</a> worked out a rigorous foundation for Leibniz's infinitesimals, using <a href="/wiki/Model_theory" title="Model theory">model theory</a>, in the context of a field of <a href="/wiki/Hyperreal_number" title="Hyperreal number">hyperreal numbers</a>. The resulting <a href="/wiki/Non-standard_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-standard analysis">non-standard analysis</a> can be seen as a belated vindication of Leibniz's mathematical reasoning. Robinson's <a href="/wiki/Transfer_principle" title="Transfer principle">transfer principle</a> is a mathematical implementation of Leibniz's heuristic <a href="/wiki/Law_of_continuity" title="Law of continuity">law of continuity</a>, while the <a href="/wiki/Standard_part_function" title="Standard part function">standard part function</a> implements the Leibnizian <a href="/wiki/Transcendental_law_of_homogeneity" title="Transcendental law of homogeneity">transcendental law of homogeneity</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Topology">Topology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Topology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Leibniz was the first to use the term <i>analysis situs</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> later used in the 19th century to refer to what is now known as <a href="/wiki/Topology" title="Topology">topology</a>. There are two takes on this situation. On the one hand, Mates, citing a 1954 paper in German by <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Freudenthal" title="Jacob Freudenthal">Jacob Freudenthal</a>, argues: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Although for Leibniz the situs of a sequence of points is completely determined by the distance between them and is altered if those distances are altered, his admirer <a href="/wiki/Euler" class="mw-redirect" title="Euler">Euler</a>, in the famous 1736 paper solving the <a href="/wiki/Seven_Bridges_of_K%C3%B6nigsberg" title="Seven Bridges of Königsberg">Königsberg Bridge Problem</a> and its generalizations, used the term <i>geometria situs</i> in such a sense that the situs remains unchanged under topological deformations. He mistakenly credits Leibniz with originating this concept. ... [It] is sometimes not realized that Leibniz used the term in an entirely different sense and hence can hardly be considered the founder of that part of mathematics.<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>But Hideaki Hirano argues differently, quoting <a href="/wiki/Benoit_Mandelbrot" title="Benoit Mandelbrot">Mandelbrot</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>To sample Leibniz' scientific works is a sobering experience. Next to calculus, and to other thoughts that have been carried out to completion, the number and variety of premonitory thrusts is overwhelming. We saw examples in "packing", ... My Leibniz mania is further reinforced by finding that for one moment its hero attached importance to geometric scaling. In <i>Euclidis Prota</i> ..., which is an attempt to tighten Euclid's axioms, he states ...: "I have diverse definitions for the straight line. The straight line is a curve, any part of which is similar to the whole, and it alone has this property, not only among curves but among sets." This claim can be proved today.<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Thus the <a href="/wiki/Fractal" title="Fractal">fractal geometry</a> promoted by Mandelbrot drew on Leibniz's notions of <a href="/wiki/Self-similarity" title="Self-similarity">self-similarity</a> and the principle of continuity: <i><a href="/wiki/Natura_non_facit_saltus" title="Natura non facit saltus">Natura non facit saltus</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Saltus_73-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Saltus-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> We also see that when Leibniz wrote, in a metaphysical vein, that "the straight line is a curve, any part of which is similar to the whole", he was anticipating topology by more than two centuries. As for "packing", Leibniz told his friend and correspondent Des Bosses to imagine a circle, then to inscribe within it three congruent circles with maximum radius; the latter smaller circles could be filled with three even smaller circles by the same procedure. This process can be continued infinitely, from which arises a good idea of self-similarity. Leibniz's improvement of Euclid's axiom contains the same concept. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Science_and_engineering">Science and engineering</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Science and engineering"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Leibniz's writings are currently discussed, not only for their anticipations and possible discoveries not yet recognized, but as ways of advancing present knowledge. Much of his writing on physics is included in Gerhardt's <i>Mathematical Writings</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Physics">Physics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Physics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Dynamism_(metaphysics)" title="Dynamism (metaphysics)">Dynamism (metaphysics)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Conatus#In_Leibniz" title="Conatus">Conatus § In Leibniz</a></div> <p>Leibniz contributed a fair amount to the statics and dynamics emerging around him, often disagreeing with <a href="/wiki/Descartes" class="mw-redirect" title="Descartes">Descartes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a>. He devised a new theory of <a href="/wiki/Motion_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Motion (physics)">motion</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dynamics_(mechanics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynamics (mechanics)">dynamics</a>) based on <a href="/wiki/Kinetic_energy" title="Kinetic energy">kinetic energy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Potential_energy" title="Potential energy">potential energy</a>, which posited space as relative, whereas Newton was thoroughly convinced that space was absolute. An important example of Leibniz's mature physical thinking is his <i>Specimen Dynamicum</i> of 1695.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Until the discovery of subatomic particles and the <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a> governing them, many of Leibniz's speculative ideas about aspects of nature not reducible to statics and dynamics made little sense. For instance, he anticipated <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> by arguing, against Newton, that <a href="/wiki/Space" title="Space">space</a>, time and motion are relative, not absolute: "As for my own opinion, I have said more than once, that I hold space to be something merely relative, as time is, that I hold it to be an order of coexistences, as time is an order of successions."<sup id="cite_ref-See_H._G_pp._25_80-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-See_H._G_pp._25-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Leibniz held a <a href="/wiki/Relational_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Relational theory">relational notion</a> of space and time, against Newton's substantivalist views.<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Newton's substantivalism, space and time are entities in their own right, existing independently of things. Leibniz's relationalism, in contrast, describes <a href="/wiki/Space_and_time" class="mw-redirect" title="Space and time">space and time</a> as systems of relations that exist between objects. The rise of <a href="/wiki/General_relativity" title="General relativity">general relativity</a> and subsequent work in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_physics" title="History of physics">history of physics</a> has put Leibniz's stance in a more favorable light. </p><p>One of Leibniz's projects was to recast Newton's theory as a <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_explanations_of_gravitation" title="Mechanical explanations of gravitation">vortex theory</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Arthur_p._56_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Arthur_p._56-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, his project went beyond vortex theory, since at its heart there was an attempt to explain one of the most difficult problems in physics, that of the origin of the <a href="/wiki/Cohesion_(chemistry)" title="Cohesion (chemistry)">cohesion of matter</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Arthur_p._56_137-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Arthur_p._56-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Principle_of_sufficient_reason" title="Principle of sufficient reason">principle of sufficient reason</a> has been invoked in recent <a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">cosmology</a>, and his <a href="/wiki/Identity_of_indiscernibles" title="Identity of indiscernibles">identity of indiscernibles</a> in quantum mechanics, a field some even credit him with having anticipated in some sense. In addition to his theories about the nature of reality, Leibniz's contributions to the development of calculus have also had a major impact on physics. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_vis_viva">The <i>vis viva</i></h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: The vis viva"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Leibniz's <i><a href="/wiki/Vis_viva" title="Vis viva">vis viva</a></i> (Latin for "living force") is <span class="texhtml"><var style="padding-right: 1px;">m</var><var style="padding-right: 1px;">v</var><sup>2</sup></span>, twice the modern <a href="/wiki/Kinetic_energy" title="Kinetic energy">kinetic energy</a>. He realized that the total energy would be conserved in certain mechanical systems, so he considered it an innate motive characteristic of matter.<sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Here too his thinking gave rise to another regrettable nationalistic dispute. His <i>vis viva</i> was seen as rivaling the <a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_momentum" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation of momentum">conservation of momentum</a> championed by Newton in England and by <a href="/wiki/Descartes" class="mw-redirect" title="Descartes">Descartes</a> and Voltaire in France; hence <a href="/wiki/Academic" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic">academics</a> in those countries tended to neglect Leibniz's idea. Leibniz knew of the validity of conservation of momentum. In reality, both energy and <a href="/wiki/Momentum" title="Momentum">momentum</a> are conserved (in <a href="/wiki/Closed_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Closed systems">closed systems</a>), so both approaches are valid. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_natural_science">Other natural science</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Other natural science"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By proposing that the earth has a molten core, he anticipated modern geology. In <a href="/wiki/Embryology" title="Embryology">embryology</a>, he was a preformationist, but also proposed that organisms are the outcome of a combination of an infinite number of possible microstructures and of their powers. In the <a href="/wiki/Life_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Life sciences">life sciences</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">paleontology</a>, he revealed an amazing transformist intuition, fueled by his study of comparative anatomy and fossils. One of his principal works on this subject, <i><a href="/wiki/Protogaea" title="Protogaea">Protogaea</a></i>, unpublished in his lifetime, has recently been published in English for the first time. He worked out a primal <a href="/wiki/Organismic_theory" title="Organismic theory">organismic theory</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In medicine, he exhorted the physicians of his time—with some results—to ground their theories in detailed comparative observations and verified experiments, and to distinguish firmly scientific and metaphysical points of view. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Psychology">Psychology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Psychology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Psychology had been a central interest of Leibniz.<sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He appears to be an "underappreciated pioneer of psychology"<sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He wrote on topics which are now regarded as fields of psychology: <a href="/wiki/Attention" title="Attention">attention</a> and <a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">consciousness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Memory" title="Memory">memory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Learning" title="Learning">learning</a> (<a href="/wiki/Association_(psychology)" title="Association (psychology)">association</a>), <a href="/wiki/Motivation" title="Motivation">motivation</a> (the act of "striving"), emergent <a href="/wiki/Individuality" class="mw-redirect" title="Individuality">individuality</a>, the general dynamics of development (<a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">evolutionary psychology</a>). His discussions in the <i>New Essays</i> and <i>Monadology</i> often rely on everyday observations such as the behaviour of a dog or the noise of the sea, and he develops intuitive analogies (the synchronous running of clocks or the balance spring of a clock). He also devised postulates and principles that apply to psychology: the continuum of the unnoticed <i>petites perceptions</i> to the distinct, self-aware <a href="/wiki/Apperception" title="Apperception">apperception</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Psychophysical_parallelism" title="Psychophysical parallelism">psychophysical parallelism</a> from the point of view of causality and of purpose: "Souls act according to the laws of final causes, through aspirations, ends and means. Bodies act according to the laws of efficient causes, i.e. the laws of motion. And these two realms, that of efficient causes and that of final causes, harmonize with one another."<sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This idea refers to the mind-body problem, stating that the mind and brain do not act upon each other, but act alongside each other separately but in harmony.<sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Leibniz, however, did not use the term <i>psychologia</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Leibniz's epistemological position—against <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a> and English <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricism</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sensualism" title="Sensualism">sensualism</a>)—was made clear: "Nihil est in intellectu quod non fuerit in sensu, nisi intellectu ipse." – "Nothing is in the intellect that was not first in the senses, except the intellect itself."<sup id="cite_ref-146" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Principles that are not present in sensory impressions can be recognised in human perception and consciousness: logical inferences, categories of thought, the principle of <a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">causality</a> and the principle of purpose (<a href="/wiki/Teleology" title="Teleology">teleology</a>). </p><p>Leibniz found his most important interpreter in <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Wundt" title="Wilhelm Wundt">Wilhelm Wundt</a>, founder of psychology as a discipline. Wundt used the "… nisi intellectu ipse" quotation 1862 on the title page of his <i>Beiträge zur Theorie der Sinneswahrnehmung</i> (Contributions on the Theory of Sensory Perception) and published a detailed and aspiring monograph on Leibniz.<sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wundt shaped the term <a href="/wiki/Apperception" title="Apperception">apperception</a>, introduced by Leibniz, into an experimental psychologically based apperception psychology that included neuropsychological modelling – an excellent example of how a concept created by a great philosopher could stimulate a psychological research program. One principle in the thinking of Leibniz played a fundamental role: "the principle of equality of separate but corresponding viewpoints." Wundt characterized this style of thought (<a href="/wiki/Perspectivism" title="Perspectivism">perspectivism</a>) in a way that also applied for him—viewpoints that "supplement one another, while also being able to appear as opposites that only resolve themselves when considered more deeply."<sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-149" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Much of Leibniz's work went on to have a great impact on the field of psychology.<sup id="cite_ref-150" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Leibniz thought that there are many petites perceptions, or small perceptions of which we perceive but of which we are unaware. He believed that by the principle that phenomena found in nature were continuous by default, it was likely that the transition between conscious and unconscious states had intermediary steps.<sup id="cite_ref-151" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For this to be true, there must also be a portion of the mind of which we are unaware at any given time. His theory regarding consciousness in relation to the principle of continuity can be seen as an early theory regarding the <a href="/wiki/Stages_of_sleep" class="mw-redirect" title="Stages of sleep">stages of sleep</a>. In this way, Leibniz's theory of perception can be viewed as one of many theories leading up to the idea of the <a href="/wiki/The_unconscious" class="mw-redirect" title="The unconscious">unconscious</a>. Leibniz was a direct influence on <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Platner" title="Ernst Platner">Ernst Platner</a>, who is credited with originally coining the term Unbewußtseyn (unconscious).<sup id="cite_ref-152" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, the idea of <a href="/wiki/Subliminal_stimuli" title="Subliminal stimuli">subliminal stimuli</a> can be traced back to his theory of small perceptions.<sup id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Leibniz's ideas regarding music and tonal perception went on to influence the laboratory studies of Wilhelm Wundt.<sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_science">Social science</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Social science"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Special:EditPage/Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">September 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In public health, he advocated establishing a medical administrative authority, with powers over <a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">epidemiology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Veterinary_medicine" title="Veterinary medicine">veterinary medicine</a>. He worked to set up a coherent medical training program, oriented towards public health and preventive measures. In economic policy, he proposed tax reforms and a national insurance program, and discussed the <a href="/wiki/Balance_of_trade" title="Balance of trade">balance of trade</a>. He even proposed something akin to what much later emerged as <a href="/wiki/Game_theory" title="Game theory">game theory</a>. In sociology he laid the ground for <a href="/wiki/Communication_theory" title="Communication theory">communication theory</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Technology">Technology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Technology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1906, Garland published a volume of Leibniz's writings bearing on his many practical inventions and engineering work. To date, few of these writings have been translated into English. Nevertheless, it is well understood that Leibniz was a serious inventor, engineer, and applied scientist, with great respect for practical life. Following the motto <i>theoria cum praxi</i>, he urged that theory be combined with practical application, and thus has been claimed as the father of <a href="/wiki/Applied_science" title="Applied science">applied science</a>. He designed wind-driven propellers and water pumps, mining machines to extract ore, hydraulic presses, lamps, submarines, clocks, etc. With <a href="/wiki/Denis_Papin" title="Denis Papin">Denis Papin</a>, he created a <a href="/wiki/Steam_engine" title="Steam engine">steam engine</a>. He even proposed a method for desalinating water. From 1680 to 1685, he struggled to overcome the chronic flooding that afflicted the ducal silver mines in the <a href="/wiki/Harz_Mountains" class="mw-redirect" title="Harz Mountains">Harz Mountains</a>, but did not succeed.<sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Computation"><span class="anchor" id="Information_technology"></span>Computation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Computation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Leibniz may have been the first computer scientist and information theorist.<sup id="cite_ref-156" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Early in life, he documented the <a href="/wiki/Binary_numeral_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Binary numeral system">binary numeral system</a> (<a href="/wiki/Radix" title="Radix">base</a> 2), then revisited that system throughout his career.<sup id="cite_ref-157" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While Leibniz was examining other cultures to compare his metaphysical views, he encountered an ancient Chinese book <i><a href="/wiki/I_Ching" title="I Ching">I Ching</a></i>. Leibniz interpreted a diagram which showed yin and yang and corresponded it to a zero and one.<sup id="cite_ref-158" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More information can be found in the <a href="#Sinophology">Sinophology</a> section. Leibniz had similarities with <a href="/wiki/Juan_Caramuel_y_Lobkowitz" title="Juan Caramuel y Lobkowitz">Juan Caramuel y Lobkowitz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Harriot" title="Thomas Harriot">Thomas Harriot</a>, who independently developed the binary system, as he was familiar with their works on the binary system.<sup id="cite_ref-159" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Juan Caramuel y Lobkowitz worked extensively on logarithms including logarithms with base 2.<sup id="cite_ref-160" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thomas Harriot's manuscripts contained a table of binary numbers and their notation, which demonstrated that any number could be written on a base 2 system.<sup id="cite_ref-161" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Regardless, Leibniz simplified the binary system and articulated logical properties such as conjunction, disjunction, negation, identity, inclusion, and the empty set.<sup id="cite_ref-162" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He anticipated <a href="/wiki/Lagrange_polynomial" title="Lagrange polynomial">Lagrangian interpolation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Algorithmic_information_theory" title="Algorithmic information theory">algorithmic information theory</a>. His <a href="/wiki/Calculus_ratiocinator" title="Calculus ratiocinator">calculus ratiocinator</a> anticipated aspects of the <a href="/wiki/Universal_Turing_machine" title="Universal Turing machine">universal Turing machine</a>. In 1961, <a href="/wiki/Norbert_Wiener" title="Norbert Wiener">Norbert Wiener</a> suggested that Leibniz should be considered the patron saint of <a href="/wiki/Cybernetics" title="Cybernetics">cybernetics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-163" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wiener is quoted with "Indeed, the general idea of a computing machine is nothing but a mechanization of Leibniz's Calculus Ratiocinator."<sup id="cite_ref-164" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1671, Leibniz began to invent a machine that could execute all four arithmetic operations, gradually improving it over a number of years. This "<a href="/wiki/Stepped_reckoner" title="Stepped reckoner">stepped reckoner</a>" attracted fair attention and was the basis of his election to the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a> in 1673. A number of such machines were made during his years in <a href="/wiki/Hanover" title="Hanover">Hanover</a> by a craftsman working under his supervision. They were not an unambiguous success because they did not fully mechanize the <a href="/wiki/Carry_(arithmetic)" title="Carry (arithmetic)">carry operation</a>. Couturat reported finding an unpublished note by Leibniz, dated 1674, describing a machine capable of performing some algebraic operations.<sup id="cite_ref-165" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Leibniz also devised a (now reproduced) cipher machine, recovered by <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Rescher" title="Nicholas Rescher">Nicholas Rescher</a> in 2010.<sup id="cite_ref-166" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1693, Leibniz described a design of a machine which could, in theory, integrate differential equations, which he called "integraph".<sup id="cite_ref-167" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Leibniz was groping towards hardware and software concepts worked out much later by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Babbage" title="Charles Babbage">Charles Babbage</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ada_Lovelace" title="Ada Lovelace">Ada Lovelace</a>. In 1679, while mulling over his binary arithmetic, Leibniz imagined a machine in which binary numbers were represented by marbles, governed by a rudimentary sort of punched cards.<sup id="cite_ref-168" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-169" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Modern electronic digital computers replace Leibniz's marbles moving by gravity with shift registers, voltage gradients, and pulses of electrons, but otherwise they run roughly as Leibniz envisioned in 1679. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Librarian">Librarian</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Librarian"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Later in Leibniz's career (after the death of von Boyneburg), Leibniz moved to Paris and accepted a position as a librarian in the Hanoverian court of Johann Friedrich, Duke of Brunswick-Luneburg.<sup id="cite_ref-170" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Leibniz's predecessor, Tobias Fleischer, had already created a cataloging system for the Duke's library but it was a clumsy attempt. At this library, Leibniz focused more on advancing the library than on the cataloging. For instance, within a month of taking the new position, he developed a comprehensive plan to expand the library. He was one of the first to consider developing a core collection for a library and felt "that a library for display and ostentation is a luxury and indeed superfluous, but a well-stocked and organized library is important and useful for all areas of human endeavor and is to be regarded on the same level as schools and churches".<sup id="cite_ref-:0_171-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Leibniz lacked the funds to develop the library in this manner. After working at this library, by the end of 1690 Leibniz was appointed as privy-councilor and librarian of the <a href="/wiki/Herzog_August_Library" title="Herzog August Library">Bibliotheca Augusta</a> at Wolfenbüttel. It was an extensive library with at least 25,946 printed volumes.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_171-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At this library, Leibniz sought to improve the catalog. He was not allowed to make complete changes to the existing closed catalog, but was allowed to improve upon it so he started on that task immediately. He created an alphabetical author catalog and had also created other cataloging methods that were not implemented. While serving as librarian of the ducal libraries in <a href="/wiki/Hanover" title="Hanover">Hanover</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wolfenb%C3%BCttel" title="Wolfenbüttel">Wolfenbüttel</a>, Leibniz effectively became one of the founders of <a href="/wiki/Library_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Library science">library science</a>. Seemingly, Leibniz paid a good deal of attention to the classification of subject matter, favoring a well-balanced library covering a host of numerous subjects and interests.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_172-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Leibniz, for example, proposed the following classification system in the Otivm Hanoveranvm Sive Miscellanea (1737):<sup id="cite_ref-:1_172-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-173" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Theology</li> <li>Jurisprudence</li> <li>Medicine</li> <li>Intellectual Philosophy</li> <li>Philosophy of the Imagination or Mathematics</li> <li>Philosophy of Sensible Things or Physics</li> <li>Philology or Language</li> <li>Civil History</li> <li>Literary History and Libraries</li> <li>General and Miscellaneous</li></ul> <p>He also designed a book <a href="/wiki/Library_classification" title="Library classification">indexing system</a> in ignorance of the only other such system then extant, that of the <a href="/wiki/Bodleian_Library" title="Bodleian Library">Bodleian Library</a> at <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxford University">Oxford University</a>. He also called on publishers to distribute abstracts of all new titles they produced each year, in a standard form that would facilitate indexing. He hoped that this abstracting project would eventually include everything printed from his day back to <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg">Gutenberg</a>. Neither proposal met with success at the time, but something like them became standard practice among English language publishers during the 20th century, under the aegis of the <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a> and the <a href="/wiki/British_Library" title="British Library">British Library</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>He called for the creation of an <a href="/wiki/Empirical" class="mw-redirect" title="Empirical">empirical</a> <a href="/wiki/Database" title="Database">database</a> as a way to further all sciences. His <i><a href="/wiki/Characteristica_universalis" title="Characteristica universalis">characteristica universalis</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Calculus_ratiocinator" title="Calculus ratiocinator">calculus ratiocinator</a>, and a "community of minds"—intended, among other things, to bring political and religious unity to Europe—can be seen as distant unwitting anticipations of artificial languages (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Esperanto" title="Esperanto">Esperanto</a> and its rivals), <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_logic" title="Mathematical logic">symbolic logic</a>, even the <a href="/wiki/World_Wide_Web" title="World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Advocate_of_scientific_societies">Advocate of scientific societies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Advocate of scientific societies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Leibniz emphasized that research was a collaborative endeavor. Hence he warmly advocated the formation of national scientific societies along the lines of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">British Royal Society</a> and the French Académie Royale des Sciences. More specifically, in his correspondence and travels he urged the creation of such societies in Dresden, <a href="/wiki/Saint_Petersburg" title="Saint Petersburg">Saint Petersburg</a>, Vienna, and Berlin. Only one such project came to fruition; in 1700, the <a href="/wiki/Prussian_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Prussian Academy of Sciences">Berlin Academy of Sciences</a> was created. Leibniz drew up its first statutes, and served as its first President for the remainder of his life. That Academy evolved into the German Academy of Sciences, the publisher of the ongoing critical edition of his works.<sup id="cite_ref-174" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Law_and_Morality">Law and Morality</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Law and Morality"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Leibniz's writings on law, ethics, and politics<sup id="cite_ref-175" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> were long overlooked by English-speaking scholars, but this has changed of late.<sup id="cite_ref-176" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While Leibniz was no apologist for <a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">absolute monarchy</a> like <a href="/wiki/Hobbes" class="mw-redirect" title="Hobbes">Hobbes</a>, or for tyranny in any form, neither did he echo the political and constitutional views of his contemporary <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a>, views invoked in support of liberalism, in 18th-century America and later elsewhere. The following excerpt from a 1695 letter to Baron J. C. Boyneburg's son Philipp is very revealing of Leibniz's political sentiments: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>As for ... the great question of the power of sovereigns and the obedience their peoples owe them, I usually say that it would be good for princes to be persuaded that their people have the <a href="/wiki/Right_to_resist" title="Right to resist">right to resist</a> them, and for the people, on the other hand, to be persuaded to obey them passively. I am, however, quite of the opinion of <a href="/wiki/Grotius" class="mw-redirect" title="Grotius">Grotius</a>, that one ought to obey as a rule, the evil of revolution being greater beyond comparison than the evils causing it. Yet I recognize that a prince can go to such excess, and place the well-being of the state in such danger, that the obligation to endure ceases. This is most rare, however, and the theologian who authorizes violence under this pretext should take care against excess; excess being infinitely more dangerous than deficiency.<sup id="cite_ref-177" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>175<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>In 1677, Leibniz called for a European confederation, governed by a council or senate, whose members would represent entire nations and would be free to vote their consciences;<sup id="cite_ref-178" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-178"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>176<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> this is sometimes considered an anticipation of the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a>. He believed that Europe would adopt a uniform religion. He reiterated these proposals in 1715. </p><p>But at the same time, he arrived to propose an interreligious and multicultural project to create a universal system of justice, which required from him a broad interdisciplinary perspective. In order to propose it, he combined linguistics (especially sinology), moral and legal philosophy, management, economics, and politics.<sup id="cite_ref-179" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-179"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Law">Law</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Leibniz trained as a legal academic, but under the tutelage of Cartesian-sympathiser <a href="/wiki/Erhard_Weigel" title="Erhard Weigel">Erhard Weigel</a> we already see an attempt to solve legal problems by rationalist mathematical methods (Weigel's influence being most explicit in the Specimen Quaestionum Philosophicarum ex Jure collectarum (An Essay of Collected Philosophical Problems of Right)). For example, the Inaugural Disputation on Perplexing Cases<sup id="cite_ref-180" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>178<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> uses early combinatorics to solve some legal disputes, while the 1666 Dissertation on the Combinatorial Art<sup id="cite_ref-181" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-181"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>179<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> includes simple legal problems by way of illustration. </p><p>The use of combinatorial methods to solve legal and moral problems seems, via <a href="/wiki/Athanasius_Kircher" title="Athanasius Kircher">Athanasius Kircher</a> and <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Schwenter" title="Daniel Schwenter">Daniel Schwenter</a> to be of Llullist inspiration: <a href="/wiki/Ram%C3%B3n_Llull" class="mw-redirect" title="Ramón Llull">Ramón Llull</a> attempted to solve ecumenical disputes through recourse to a combinatorial mode of reasoning he regarded as universal (a mathesis universalis).<sup id="cite_ref-182" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the late 1660s the enlightened Prince-Bishop of Mainz <a href="/wiki/Johann_Philipp_von_Sch%C3%B6nborn" title="Johann Philipp von Schönborn">Johann Philipp von Schönborn</a> announced a review of the legal system and made available a position to support his current law commissioner. Leibniz left Franconia and made for Mainz before even winning the role. On reaching <a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_am_Main" class="mw-redirect" title="Frankfurt am Main">Frankfurt am Main</a> Leibniz penned The New Method of Teaching and Learning the Law, by way of application.<sup id="cite_ref-183" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-183"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>181<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The text proposed a reform of legal education and is characteristically syncretic, integrating aspects of Thomism, Hobbesianism, Cartesianism and traditional jurisprudence. Leibniz's argument that the function of legal teaching was not to impress rules as one might train a dog, but to aid the student in discovering their own public reason, evidently impressed von Schönborn as he secured the job. </p><p>Leibniz's next major attempt to find a universal rational core to law and so found a legal "science of right",<sup id="cite_ref-184" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-184"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> came when Leibniz worked in Mainz from 1667–72. Starting initially from Hobbes' mechanistic doctrine of power, Leibniz reverted to logico-combinatorial methods in an attempt to define justice.<sup id="cite_ref-185" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-185"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As Leibniz's so-called Elementa Juris Naturalis advanced, he built in modal notions of right (possibility) and obligation (necessity) in which we see perhaps the earliest elaboration of his possible worlds doctrine within a deontic frame.<sup id="cite_ref-186" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-186"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While ultimately the Elementa remained unpublished, Leibniz continued to work on his drafts and promote their ideas to correspondents up until his death. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ecumenism">Ecumenism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Ecumenism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Special:EditPage/Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">September 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Leibniz devoted considerable intellectual and diplomatic effort to what would now be called an <a href="/wiki/Ecumenism" title="Ecumenism">ecumenical</a> endeavor, seeking to reconcile the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic">Roman Catholic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lutheran" class="mw-redirect" title="Lutheran">Lutheran</a> churches. In this respect, he followed the example of his early patrons, Baron von Boyneburg and the Duke <a href="/wiki/John_Frederick,_Duke_of_Brunswick-L%C3%BCneburg" class="mw-redirect" title="John Frederick, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg">John Frederick</a>—both cradle Lutherans who converted to Catholicism as adults—who did what they could to encourage the reunion of the two faiths, and who warmly welcomed such endeavors by others. (The House of <a href="/wiki/Brunswick-L%C3%BCneburg" class="mw-redirect" title="Brunswick-Lüneburg">Brunswick</a> remained Lutheran, because the Duke's children did not follow their father.) These efforts included corresponding with French bishop <a href="/wiki/Jacques-B%C3%A9nigne_Bossuet" title="Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet">Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet</a>, and involved Leibniz in some theological controversy. He evidently thought that the thoroughgoing application of reason would suffice to heal the breach caused by the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Reformation</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Philology">Philology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Philology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Leibniz the <a href="/wiki/Philologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Philologist">philologist</a> was an avid student of languages, eagerly latching on to any information about vocabulary and grammar that came his way. In 1710, he applied ideas of <a href="/wiki/Gradualism" title="Gradualism">gradualism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Uniformitarianism" title="Uniformitarianism">uniformitarianism</a> to linguistics in a short essay.<sup id="cite_ref-187" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-187"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>185<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He refuted the belief, widely held by Christian scholars of the time, that <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> was the primeval language of the human race. At the same time, he rejected the idea of unrelated language groups and considered them all to have a common source.<sup id="cite_ref-188" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-188"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also refuted the argument, advanced by Swedish scholars in his day, that a form of proto-<a href="/wiki/Swedish_language" title="Swedish language">Swedish</a> was the ancestor of the <a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic languages</a>. He puzzled over the origins of the <a href="/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic languages</a> and was fascinated by <a href="/wiki/Classical_Chinese" title="Classical Chinese">classical Chinese</a>. Leibniz was also an expert in the <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> language.<sup id="cite_ref-Springer,_Cham_189-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Springer,_Cham-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>187<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>He published the <i>princeps editio</i> (first modern edition) of the <a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">late medieval</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Chronicon_Holtzatiae" title="Chronicon Holtzatiae">Chronicon Holtzatiae</a></i>, a Latin chronicle of the <a href="/wiki/County_of_Holstein" class="mw-redirect" title="County of Holstein">County of Holstein</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sinophology">Sinophology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Sinophology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Diagram_of_I_Ching_hexagrams_owned_by_Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz,_1701.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Diagram_of_I_Ching_hexagrams_owned_by_Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz%2C_1701.jpg/220px-Diagram_of_I_Ching_hexagrams_owned_by_Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz%2C_1701.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="211" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Diagram_of_I_Ching_hexagrams_owned_by_Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz%2C_1701.jpg/330px-Diagram_of_I_Ching_hexagrams_owned_by_Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz%2C_1701.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Diagram_of_I_Ching_hexagrams_owned_by_Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz%2C_1701.jpg/440px-Diagram_of_I_Ching_hexagrams_owned_by_Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz%2C_1701.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1313" data-file-height="1262" /></a><figcaption>A diagram of <i><a href="/wiki/I_Ching" title="I Ching">I Ching</a></i> hexagrams sent to Leibniz from <a href="/wiki/Joachim_Bouvet" title="Joachim Bouvet">Joachim Bouvet</a>. The Arabic numerals were added by Leibniz.<sup id="cite_ref-190" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-190"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>188<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Leibniz was perhaps the first major European intellectual to take a close interest in Chinese civilization, which he knew by corresponding with, and reading other works by, <a href="/wiki/Jesuit_China_missions" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesuit China missions">European Christian missionaries</a> posted in China. He apparently read <i><a href="/wiki/Philippe_Couplet" title="Philippe Couplet">Confucius Sinarum Philosophus</a></i> in the first year of its publication.<sup id="cite_ref-Mungello_191-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mungello-191"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He came to the conclusion that Europeans could learn much from the <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucian</a> ethical tradition. He mulled over the possibility that the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese characters</a> were an unwitting form of his <a href="/wiki/Characteristica_universalis" title="Characteristica universalis">universal characteristic</a>. He noted how the <i><a href="/wiki/I_Ching" title="I Ching">I Ching</a></i> hexagrams correspond to the <a href="/wiki/Binary_number" title="Binary number">binary numbers</a> from 000000 to 111111, and concluded that this mapping was evidence of major Chinese accomplishments in the sort of philosophical mathematics he admired.<sup id="cite_ref-192" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-192"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>190<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Leibniz communicated his ideas of the binary system representing Christianity to the Emperor of China, hoping it would convert him.<sup id="cite_ref-Springer,_Cham_189-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Springer,_Cham-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>187<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Leibniz was one of the western philosophers of the time who attempted to accommodate Confucian ideas to prevailing European beliefs.<sup id="cite_ref-193" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-193"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>191<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Leibniz's attraction to <a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese philosophy</a> originates from his perception that Chinese philosophy was similar to his own.<sup id="cite_ref-Mungello_191-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mungello-191"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The historian E.R. Hughes suggests that Leibniz's ideas of "simple substance" and "<a href="/wiki/Pre-established_harmony" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-established harmony">pre-established harmony</a>" were directly influenced by Confucianism, pointing to the fact that they were conceived during the period when he was reading <i>Confucius Sinarum Philosophus</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Mungello_191-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mungello-191"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Polymath">Polymath</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Polymath"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Special:EditPage/Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">September 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>While making his grand tour of European archives to research the Brunswick family history that he never completed, Leibniz stopped in <a href="/wiki/Vienna" title="Vienna">Vienna</a> between May 1688 and February 1689, where he did much legal and diplomatic work for the Brunswicks. He visited mines, talked with mine engineers, and tried to negotiate export contracts for lead from the ducal mines in the <a href="/wiki/Harz_mountains" class="mw-redirect" title="Harz mountains">Harz mountains</a>. His proposal that the streets of Vienna be lit with lamps burning <a href="/wiki/Rapeseed_oil" title="Rapeseed oil">rapeseed oil</a> was implemented. During a formal audience with the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Holy Roman Emperor">Austrian Emperor</a> and in subsequent memoranda, he advocated reorganizing the Austrian economy, reforming the coinage of much of central Europe, negotiating a <a href="/wiki/Concordat" title="Concordat">Concordat</a> between the <a href="/wiki/Habsburg" class="mw-redirect" title="Habsburg">Habsburgs</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Holy_See" title="Holy See">Vatican</a>, and creating an imperial research library, official archive, and public insurance fund. He wrote and published an important paper on <a href="/wiki/Mechanics" title="Mechanics">mechanics</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Posthumous_reputation">Posthumous reputation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Posthumous reputation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Leibnizstrasse_street_sign_Berlin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Leibnizstrasse_street_sign_Berlin.jpg/220px-Leibnizstrasse_street_sign_Berlin.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Leibnizstrasse_street_sign_Berlin.jpg/330px-Leibnizstrasse_street_sign_Berlin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Leibnizstrasse_street_sign_Berlin.jpg/440px-Leibnizstrasse_street_sign_Berlin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1036" data-file-height="596" /></a><figcaption>Leibnizstrasse street sign Berlin</figcaption></figure> <p>When Leibniz died, his reputation was in decline. He was remembered for only one book, the <i><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9odic%C3%A9e" title="Théodicée">Théodicée</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-194" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-194"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>192<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> whose supposed central argument <a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a> lampooned in his popular book <i><a href="/wiki/Candide" title="Candide">Candide</a></i>, which concludes with the character Candide saying, "<i><a href="/wiki/Non_liquet" title="Non liquet">Non liquet</a></i>" (it is not clear), a term that was applied during the Roman Republic to a legal verdict of "not proven". Voltaire's depiction of Leibniz's ideas was so influential that many believed it to be an accurate description. Thus Voltaire and his <i>Candide</i> bear some of the blame for the lingering failure to appreciate and understand Leibniz's ideas. Leibniz had an ardent disciple, <a href="/wiki/Christian_Wolff_(philosopher)" title="Christian Wolff (philosopher)">Christian Wolff</a>, whose dogmatic and facile outlook did Leibniz's reputation much harm. Leibniz also influenced <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a>, who read his <i><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9odic%C3%A9e" title="Théodicée">Théodicée</a></i> and used some of his ideas.<sup id="cite_ref-195" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-195"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>193<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In any event, philosophical fashion was moving away from the rationalism and system building of the 17th century, of which Leibniz had been such an ardent proponent. His work on law, diplomacy, and history was seen as of ephemeral interest. The vastness and richness of his correspondence went unrecognized. </p><p>Leibniz's reputation began to recover with the 1765 publication of the <i>Nouveaux Essais</i>. In 1768, <a href="/wiki/Louis_Dutens" title="Louis Dutens">Louis Dutens</a> edited the first multi-volume edition of Leibniz's writings, followed in the 19th century by a number of editions, including those edited by Erdmann, Foucher de Careil, Gerhardt, Gerland, Klopp, and Mollat. Publication of Leibniz's correspondence with notables such as <a href="/wiki/Antoine_Arnauld" title="Antoine Arnauld">Antoine Arnauld</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Clarke" title="Samuel Clarke">Samuel Clarke</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sophia_of_Hanover" title="Sophia of Hanover">Sophia of Hanover</a>, and her daughter <a href="/wiki/Sophia_Charlotte_of_Hanover" title="Sophia Charlotte of Hanover">Sophia Charlotte of Hanover</a>, began. </p><p>In 1900, <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a> published a critical study of Leibniz's <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-196" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-196"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>194<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shortly thereafter, <a href="/wiki/Louis_Couturat" title="Louis Couturat">Louis Couturat</a> published an important study of Leibniz, and edited a volume of Leibniz's heretofore unpublished writings, mainly on logic. They made Leibniz somewhat respectable among 20th-century <a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">analytical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_philosophy" title="Linguistic philosophy">linguistic</a> philosophers in the English-speaking world (Leibniz had already been of great influence to many Germans such as <a href="/wiki/Bernhard_Riemann" title="Bernhard Riemann">Bernhard Riemann</a>). For example, Leibniz's phrase <i><a href="/wiki/Salva_veritate" title="Salva veritate">salva veritate</a></i>, meaning interchangeability without loss of or compromising the truth, recurs in <a href="/wiki/Willard_Quine" class="mw-redirect" title="Willard Quine">Willard Quine</a>'s writings. Nevertheless, the secondary literature on Leibniz did not really blossom until after World War II. This is especially true of English speaking countries; in Gregory Brown's bibliography fewer than 30 of the English language entries were published before 1946. American Leibniz studies owe much to <a href="/w/index.php?title=Leroy_Loemker&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Leroy Loemker (page does not exist)">Leroy Loemker</a> (1904–1985) through his translations and his interpretive essays in LeClerc (1973). Leibniz's philosophy was also highly regarded by Gilles Deleuze,<sup id="cite_ref-197" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-197"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>195<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who in 1988 published <a href="/wiki/The_Fold:_Leibniz_and_the_Baroque" title="The Fold: Leibniz and the Baroque">The Fold: Leibniz and the Baroque</a>, an important part of Deleuze's own corpus. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nicholas_Jolley&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nicholas Jolley (page does not exist)">Nicholas Jolley</a> has surmised that Leibniz's reputation as a philosopher is now perhaps higher than at any time since he was alive.<sup id="cite_ref-198" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-198"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>196<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Analytic and contemporary philosophy continue to invoke his notions of <a href="/wiki/Identity_(philosophy)" title="Identity (philosophy)">identity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Principle_of_individuation" title="Principle of individuation">individuation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Possible_worlds" class="mw-redirect" title="Possible worlds">possible worlds</a>. Work in the history of 17th- and 18th-century <a href="/wiki/History_of_ideas" class="mw-redirect" title="History of ideas">ideas</a> has revealed more clearly the 17th-century "Intellectual Revolution" that preceded the better-known <a href="/wiki/Industrial_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrial revolution">Industrial</a> and commercial revolutions of the 18th and 19th centuries. </p><p>In Germany, various important institutions were named after Leibniz. In Hanover in particular, he is the namesake for some of the most important institutions in the town: </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Leibniz_University_Hannover" title="Leibniz University Hannover">Leibniz University Hannover</a></i></li> <li><i>Leibniz-Akademie</i>, Institution for academic and non-academic training and further education in the business sector</li> <li><i>Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Bibliothek – Niedersächsische Landesbibliothek</i>, one of the largest regional and academic libraries in Germany and, alongside the Oldenburg State Library and the Herzog August Library in Wolfenbüttel, one of the three state libraries in Lower Saxony</li> <li><i>Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz-Gesellschaft</i>, Society for the cultivation and dissemination of Leibniz's teachings</li></ul> <p>outside of Hanover: </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Leibniz_Association" title="Leibniz Association">Leibniz Association</a></i>, Berlin</li> <li><i>Leibniz-Sozietät der Wissenschaften zu Berlin</i>, Association of scientists founded in Berlin in 1993 with the legal form of a registered association; It continues the activities of the Academy of Sciences of the GDR with personnel continuity</li> <li><i>Leibniz Kolleg</i> of <a href="/wiki/University_of_T%C3%BCbingen" title="University of Tübingen">Tübingen University</a>, central propaedeutic institution of the university, which aims to enable high school graduates to make a well-founded study decision through a ten-month, comprehensive general course of study and at the same time to introduce them to academic work</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leibniz_Supercomputing_Centre" title="Leibniz Supercomputing Centre">Leibniz Supercomputing Centre</a>, Munich</li> <li>more than 20 schools all over Germany</li></ul> <p>Awards: </p> <ul><li><i>Leibniz-Ring-Hannover</i>, Honor given since 1997 by the Hannover Press Club to personalities or institutions “who have drawn attention to themselves through an outstanding performance or have made a special mark through their life’s work.”</li> <li><i>Leibniz-Medaille</i> of the <a href="/wiki/Berlin-Brandenburg_Academy_of_Sciences_and_Humanities" title="Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities">Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities</a>, established in 1906 and awarded previously by the <a href="/wiki/Prussian_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Prussian Academy of Sciences">Prussian Academy of Sciences</a> and later the <a href="/wiki/German_Academy_of_Sciences_at_Berlin" title="German Academy of Sciences at Berlin">German Academy of Sciences at Berlin</a></li> <li><i>Gottfried-Wilhelm-Leibniz-Medaille</i> of the Leibniz-Sozietät</li> <li><i>Leibniz-Medaille der <a href="/wiki/Akademie_der_Wissenschaften_und_der_Literatur" title="Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur">Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur Mainz</a></i></li></ul> <p>In 1985, the German government created the <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz_Prize" class="mw-redirect" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Prize">Leibniz Prize</a>, offering an annual award of 1.55 million <a href="/wiki/Euro" title="Euro">euros</a> for experimental results and 770,000 euros for theoretical ones. It was the world's largest prize for scientific achievement prior to the <a href="/wiki/Fundamental_Physics_Prize" class="mw-redirect" title="Fundamental Physics Prize">Fundamental Physics Prize</a>. </p><p>The collection of manuscript papers of Leibniz at the Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Bibliothek – Niedersächische Landesbibliothek was inscribed on <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Memory_of_the_World_Register" class="mw-redirect" title="Memory of the World Register">Memory of the World Register</a> in 2007.<sup id="cite_ref-mow_199-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mow-199"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>197<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cultural_references">Cultural references</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Cultural references"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Leibniz still receives popular attention. The <a href="/wiki/Google_Doodle" title="Google Doodle">Google Doodle</a> for 1 July 2018 celebrated Leibniz's 372nd birthday.<sup id="cite_ref-200" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-200"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>198<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-201" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-201"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>199<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-202" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-202"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>200<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Using a <a href="/wiki/Quill" title="Quill">quill</a>, his hand is shown writing "Google" in binary <a href="/wiki/ASCII" title="ASCII">ASCII</a> code. </p><p>One of the earliest popular but indirect expositions of Leibniz was <a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a>'s satire <i><a href="/wiki/Candide" title="Candide">Candide</a></i>, published in 1759. Leibniz was lampooned as Professor Pangloss, described as "the greatest philosopher of the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>". </p><p>Leibniz also appears as one of the main historical figures in <a href="/wiki/Neal_Stephenson" title="Neal Stephenson">Neal Stephenson</a>'s series of novels <i><a href="/wiki/The_Baroque_Cycle" title="The Baroque Cycle">The Baroque Cycle</a></i>. Stephenson credits readings and discussions concerning Leibniz for inspiring him to write the series.<sup id="cite_ref-203" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-203"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>201<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Leibniz also stars in Adam Ehrlich Sachs's novel <i>The Organs of Sense</i>. </p><p>The German biscuit <a href="/wiki/Choco_Leibniz" class="mw-redirect" title="Choco Leibniz">Choco Leibniz</a> is named after Leibniz, a famous resident of <a href="/wiki/Hanover" title="Hanover">Hanover</a> where the manufacturer <a href="/wiki/Bahlsen" title="Bahlsen">Bahlsen</a> is based. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Writings_and_publication">Writings and publication</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Writings and publication"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz_(1).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz_%281%29.jpg/220px-Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz_%281%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz_%281%29.jpg/330px-Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz_%281%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz_%281%29.jpg/440px-Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz_%281%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="765" data-file-height="1019" /></a><figcaption>Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, c. 1710</figcaption></figure> <p>Leibniz mainly wrote in three languages: scholastic <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>, French and German. During his lifetime, he published many pamphlets and scholarly articles, but only two "philosophical" books, the <i>Combinatorial Art</i> and the <i><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9odic%C3%A9e" title="Théodicée">Théodicée</a></i>. (He published numerous pamphlets, often anonymous, on behalf of the House of <a href="/wiki/Brunswick-L%C3%BCneburg" class="mw-redirect" title="Brunswick-Lüneburg">Brunswick-Lüneburg</a>, most notably the "De jure suprematum" a major consideration of the nature of <a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">sovereignty</a>.) One substantial book appeared posthumously, his <i><a href="/wiki/Nouveaux_essais_sur_l%27entendement_humain" class="mw-redirect" title="Nouveaux essais sur l'entendement humain">Nouveaux essais sur l'entendement humain</a></i>, which Leibniz had withheld from publication after the death of <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a>. Only in 1895, when Bodemann completed his catalogue of Leibniz's manuscripts and correspondence, did the enormous extent of Leibniz's <i><a href="/wiki/Nachlass" title="Nachlass">Nachlass</a></i> become clear: about 15,000 letters to more than 1000 recipients plus more than 40,000 other items. Moreover, quite a few of these letters are of essay length. Much of his vast correspondence, especially the letters dated after 1700, remains unpublished, and much of what is published has appeared only in recent decades. The more than 67,000 records of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://leibniz-katalog.bbaw.de/en">Leibniz Edition's Catalogue</a> cover almost all of his known writings and the letters from him and to him. The amount, variety, and disorder of Leibniz's writings are a predictable result of a situation he described in a letter as follows: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>I cannot tell you how extraordinarily distracted and spread out I am. I am trying to find various things in the archives; I look at old papers and hunt up unpublished documents. From these I hope to shed some light on the history of the [House of] Brunswick. I receive and answer a huge number of letters. At the same time, I have so many mathematical results, philosophical thoughts, and other literary innovations that should not be allowed to vanish that I often do not know where to begin.<sup id="cite_ref-204" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-204"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>202<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The extant parts of the critical edition<sup id="cite_ref-ce_205-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ce-205"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>203<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of Leibniz's writings are organized as follows: </p> <ul><li>Series 1. <i>Political, Historical, and General Correspondence</i>. 25 vols., 1666–1706.</li> <li>Series 2. <i>Philosophical Correspondence</i>. 3 vols., 1663–1700.</li> <li>Series 3. <i>Mathematical, Scientific, and Technical Correspondence</i>. 8 vols., 1672–1698.</li> <li>Series 4. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://leibniz-potsdam.bbaw.de/">Political Writings</a></i>. 9 vols., 1667–1702.</li> <li>Series 5. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://leibniz-potsdam.bbaw.de/">Historical and Linguistic Writings</a></i>. In preparation.</li> <li>Series 6. <i>Philosophical Writings</i>. 7 vols., 1663–90, and <i>Nouveaux essais sur l'entendement humain</i>.</li> <li>Series 7. <i>Mathematical Writings</i>. 6 vols., 1672–76.</li> <li>Series 8. <i>Scientific, Medical, and Technical Writings</i>. 1 vol., 1668–76.</li></ul> <p>The systematic cataloguing of all of Leibniz's <i>Nachlass</i> began in 1901. It was hampered by two world wars and then by decades of German division into two states with the Cold War's "iron curtain" in between, separating scholars, and also scattering portions of his literary estates. The ambitious project has had to deal with writings in seven languages, contained in some 200,000 written and printed pages. In 1985 it was reorganized and included in a joint program of German federal and state (<i>Länder</i>) academies. Since then the branches in <a href="/wiki/Potsdam" title="Potsdam">Potsdam</a>, <a href="/wiki/M%C3%BCnster" title="Münster">Münster</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hanover" title="Hanover">Hanover</a> and <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a> have jointly published 57 volumes of the critical edition, with an average of 870 pages, and prepared index and <a href="/wiki/Concordance_(publishing)" title="Concordance (publishing)">concordance</a> works. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Selected_works">Selected works</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Selected works"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The year given is usually that in which the work was completed, not of its eventual publication. </p> <ul><li>1666 (publ. 1690). <i><a href="/wiki/De_Arte_Combinatoria" title="De Arte Combinatoria">De Arte Combinatoria</a></i> (<i>On the Art of Combination</i>); partially translated in Loemker §1 and Parkinson (1966)</li> <li>1667. <i>Nova Methodus Discendae Docendaeque Iurisprudentiae</i> (<i>A New Method for Learning and Teaching Jurisprudence</i>)</li> <li>1667. "Dialogus de connexione inter res et verba"</li> <li>1671. <i>Hypothesis Physica Nova</i> (<i>New Physical Hypothesis</i>); Loemker §8.I (part)</li> <li>1673 <i><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/la:Confessio_philosophi" class="extiw" title="wikisource:la:Confessio philosophi">Confessio philosophi</a></i> (<i>A Philosopher's Creed</i>); an English translation is <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Translation:Confessio_philosophi" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Translation:Confessio philosophi">available</a> online.</li> <li>Oct. 1684. "Meditationes de cognitione, veritate et ideis" ("Meditations on Knowledge, Truth, and Ideas")</li> <li>Nov. 1684. "<a href="/wiki/Nova_methodus_pro_maximis_et_minimis" class="mw-redirect" title="Nova methodus pro maximis et minimis">Nova methodus pro maximis et minimis</a>" ("New method for maximums and minimums"); translated in Struik, D. J., 1969. <i>A Source Book in Mathematics, 1200–1800</i>. Harvard University Press: 271–81.</li> <li>1686. <i><a href="/wiki/Discourse_on_Metaphysics_(book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Discourse on Metaphysics (book)">Discours de métaphysique</a></i>; Martin and Brown (1988), Ariew and Garber 35, Loemker §35, Wiener III.3, Woolhouse and Francks 1</li> <li>1686. <i>Generales inquisitiones de analysi notionum et veritatum</i> (<i>General Inquiries About the Analysis of Concepts and of Truths</i>)</li> <li>1694. "De primae philosophiae Emendatione, et de Notione Substantiae" ("On the Correction of First Philosophy and the Notion of Substance")</li> <li>1695. <i>Système nouveau de la nature et de la communication des substances</i> (<i>New System of Nature</i>)</li> <li>1700. <i>Accessiones historicae</i><sup id="cite_ref-Holland1910_206-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holland1910-206"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>204<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1703. "Explication de l'Arithmétique Binaire" ("Explanation of Binary Arithmetic"); Carl Immanuel Gerhardt, <i>Mathematical Writings</i> VII.223. An English translation by <a href="/wiki/Lloyd_Strickland" title="Lloyd Strickland">Lloyd Strickland</a> is <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.leibniz-translations.com/binary.htm">available</a> online.</li> <li>1704 (publ. 1765). <i><a href="/wiki/Nouveaux_essais_sur_l%27entendement_humain" class="mw-redirect" title="Nouveaux essais sur l'entendement humain">Nouveaux essais sur l'entendement humain</a></i>. Translated in: Remnant, Peter, and Bennett, Jonathan, trans., 1996. <i>New Essays on Human Understanding</i> Langley translation 1896. Cambridge University Press. Wiener III.6 (part)</li> <li>1707–1710. <i>Scriptores rerum Brunsvicensium</i><sup id="cite_ref-Holland1910_206-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holland1910-206"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>204<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (3 Vols.)</li> <li>1710. <i><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9odic%C3%A9e" title="Théodicée">Théodicée</a></i>; Farrer, A. M., and Huggard, E. M., trans., 1985 (1952). Wiener III.11 (part). An English translation is <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/17147/17147-h/17147-h.htm">available</a> online at <a href="/wiki/Project_Gutenberg" title="Project Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a>.</li> <li>1714. "Principes de la nature et de la Grâce fondés en raison"</li> <li>1714. <i><a href="/wiki/Monadologie" class="mw-redirect" title="Monadologie">Monadologie</a></i>; translated by <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Rescher" title="Nicholas Rescher">Nicholas Rescher</a>, 1991. <i>The Monadology: An Edition for Students</i>. University of Pittsburgh Press. Ariew and Garber 213, Loemker §67, Wiener III.13, Woolhouse and Francks 19. An English translation by Robert Latta is <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151117200947/http://www.rbjones.com/rbjpub/philos/classics/leibniz/monad.htm">available</a> online.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Posthumous_works">Posthumous works</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Posthumous works"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Leibniz_-_Opere._Lettere_e_carteggi,_1745_-_1359735_F.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Leibniz_-_Opere._Lettere_e_carteggi%2C_1745_-_1359735_F.jpeg/220px-Leibniz_-_Opere._Lettere_e_carteggi%2C_1745_-_1359735_F.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="307" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Leibniz_-_Opere._Lettere_e_carteggi%2C_1745_-_1359735_F.jpeg/330px-Leibniz_-_Opere._Lettere_e_carteggi%2C_1745_-_1359735_F.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Leibniz_-_Opere._Lettere_e_carteggi%2C_1745_-_1359735_F.jpeg/440px-Leibniz_-_Opere._Lettere_e_carteggi%2C_1745_-_1359735_F.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="777" data-file-height="1085" /></a><figcaption><i>Commercium philosophicum et mathematicum</i> (1745), a collection of letters between Leibnitz and <a href="/wiki/Johann_Bernoulli" title="Johann Bernoulli">Johann Bernoulli</a></figcaption></figure> <ul><li>1717. <i>Collectanea Etymologica</i>, edited by the secretary of Leibniz <a href="/wiki/Johann_Georg_von_Eckhart" title="Johann Georg von Eckhart">Johann Georg von Eckhart</a></li> <li>1749. <i><a href="/wiki/Protogaea" title="Protogaea">Protogaea</a></i></li> <li>1750. <i>Origines Guelficae</i><sup id="cite_ref-Holland1910_206-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holland1910-206"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>204<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Collections">Collections</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Collections"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Six important collections of English translations are Wiener (1951), Parkinson (1966), Loemker (1969), Ariew and Garber (1989), Woolhouse and Francks (1998), and Strickland (2006). The ongoing critical edition of all of Leibniz's writings is <i>Sämtliche Schriften und Briefe</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-ce_205-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ce-205"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>203<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output 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title="Mathesis universalis">Mathesis universalis</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leibniz_University_Hannover" title="Leibniz University Hannover">Leibniz University Hannover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bartholomew_Des_Bosses" title="Bartholomew Des Bosses">Bartholomew Des Bosses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joachim_Bouvet" title="Joachim Bouvet">Joachim Bouvet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Outline of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Outline of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz_bibliography" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz bibliography">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz bibliography</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">English: <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="/aɪ/: 'i' in 'tide'">aɪ</span><span title="'b' in 'buy'">b</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span></span>/</a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key"><i title="English pronunciation respelling"><span style="font-size:90%">LYBE</span>-nits</i></a>,<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <span class="IPA-label">German:</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="de-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Standard_German" title="Help:IPA/Standard German">[ˈɡɔtfʁiːt<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈvɪlhɛlm<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈlaɪbnɪts]</a></span> <span class="noprint"><span class="ext-phonos"><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-1" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/9\/9c\/De-Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz.ogg\/De-Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"De-Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz.ogg"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/9c/De-Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz.ogg/De-Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"><span class="oo-ui-iconElement-icon oo-ui-icon-volumeUp"></span><span class="oo-ui-labelElement-label"></span><span class="oo-ui-indicatorElement-indicator oo-ui-indicatorElement-noIndicator"></span></a></span><sup class="ext-phonos-attribution noexcerpt navigation-not-searchable"><a href="/wiki/File:De-Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz.ogg" title="File:De-Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz.ogg">ⓘ</a></sup></span></span><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <span class="IPA-label">or</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="de-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Standard_German" title="Help:IPA/Standard German">[-<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈlaɪpnɪts]</a></span> <span class="noprint"><span class="ext-phonos"><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-2" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/7\/77\/De-Leibniz.ogg\/De-Leibniz.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"De-Leibniz.ogg"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/77/De-Leibniz.ogg/De-Leibniz.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"><span class="oo-ui-iconElement-icon oo-ui-icon-volumeUp"></span><span class="oo-ui-labelElement-label"></span><span class="oo-ui-indicatorElement-indicator oo-ui-indicatorElement-noIndicator"></span></a></span><sup class="ext-phonos-attribution noexcerpt navigation-not-searchable"><a href="/wiki/File:De-Leibniz.ogg" title="File:De-Leibniz.ogg">ⓘ</a></sup></span></span>;<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>: <i lang="fr">Godefroi Guillaume Leibnitz</i><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="fr-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/French" title="Help:IPA/French">[ɡɔdfʁwa<span class="wrap"> </span>ɡijom<span class="wrap"> </span>lɛbnits]</a></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">There is no complete gathering of the writings of Leibniz translated into English.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michael Blamauer (ed.), <i>The Mental as Fundamental: New Perspectives on Panpsychism</i>, Walter de Gruyter, 2013, p. 111.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-SEP-FTJ-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-SEP-FTJ_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFFumerton,_Richard2000" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Fumerton, Richard (21 February 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/justep-foundational/#4">"Foundationalist Theories of Epistemic Justification"</a>. <i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 August</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Foundationalist+Theories+of+Epistemic+Justification&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.date=2000-02-21&rft.au=Fumerton%2C+Richard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fjustep-foundational%2F%234&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stefano Di Bella, Tad M. Schmaltz (eds.), <i>The Problem of Universals in Early Modern Philosophy</i>, Oxford University Press, 2017, p. 207 n. 25: "Leibniz's conceptualism [is related to] the Ockhamist tradition..."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A. B. Dickerson, <i>Kant on Representation and Objectivity</i>, Cambridge University Press, 2003, p. 85.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid2022" class="citation book cs1">David, Marian (10 July 2022). Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2022/entriesruth-correspondence/"><i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i></a>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University – via Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Lab%2C+Stanford+University&rft.date=2022-07-10&rft.aulast=David&rft.aufirst=Marian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Fsum2022%2Fentriesruth-correspondence%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged June 2024">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kurt Huber, <i>Leibniz: Der Philosoph der universalen Harmonie</i>, Severus Verlag, 2014, p. 29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mathgenealogy.org/id.php?id=60985">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Mathematics_Genealogy_Project" title="Mathematics Genealogy Project">Mathematics Genealogy Project</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Arthur_p._16-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Arthur_p._16_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Arthur_p._16_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Arthur_p._16_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Arthur 2014, p. 16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Arthur_p._13-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Arthur_p._13_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Arthur_p._13_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Arthur 2014, p. 13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/leibniz">"Leibniz"</a> entry in <i><a href="/wiki/Collins_English_Dictionary" title="Collins English Dictionary">Collins English Dictionary</a></i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMangold2005" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Mangold, Max, ed. (2005). <i>Duden-Aussprachewörterbuch (Duden Pronunciation Dictionary)</i> (in German) (7th ed.). Mannheim: Bibliographisches Institut GmbH. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-411-04066-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-411-04066-7"><bdi>978-3-411-04066-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Duden-Aussprachew%C3%B6rterbuch+%28Duden+Pronunciation+Dictionary%29&rft.place=Mannheim&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=Bibliographisches+Institut+GmbH&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-3-411-04066-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWells2008" class="citation cs2">Wells, John C. (2008), <i>Longman Pronunciation Dictionary</i> (3rd ed.), Longman, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781405881180" title="Special:BookSources/9781405881180"><bdi>9781405881180</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Longman+Pronunciation+Dictionary&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9781405881180&rft.aulast=Wells&rft.aufirst=John+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEva-Maria_Krech2010" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Eva-Maria Krech; et al., eds. (2010). <i>Deutsches Aussprachewörterbuch (German Pronunciation Dictionary)</i> (in German) (1st ed.). Berlin: Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. KG. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-018203-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-018203-3"><bdi>978-3-11-018203-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Deutsches+Aussprachew%C3%B6rterbuch+%28German+Pronunciation+Dictionary%29&rft.place=Berlin&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter+GmbH+%26+Co.+KG&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-3-11-018203-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See inscription of the engraving depicted in the "<a href="#1666–1676">1666–1676</a>" section.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDunne2022" class="citation web cs1">Dunne, Luke (21 December 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thecollector.com/leibniz-last-genius-philosopher/">"Gottfried W. Leibniz: The Last True Genius"</a>. <i>TheCollector</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 October</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=TheCollector&rft.atitle=Gottfried+W.+Leibniz%3A+The+Last+True+Genius&rft.date=2022-12-21&rft.aulast=Dunne&rft.aufirst=Luke&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thecollector.com%2Fleibniz-last-genius-philosopher%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurray2009" class="citation book cs1">Murray, Stuart A.P. (2009). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/libraryillustrat0000murr"><i>The library : an illustrated history</i></a></span>. New York, NY: <a href="/wiki/Skyhorse_Pub." class="mw-redirect" title="Skyhorse Pub.">Skyhorse Pub.</a> <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60239-706-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60239-706-4"><bdi>978-1-60239-706-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+library+%3A+an+illustrated+history&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pub=Skyhorse+Pub.&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-60239-706-4&rft.aulast=Murray&rft.aufirst=Stuart+A.P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flibraryillustrat0000murr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Palumbo, Margherita, 'Leibniz as Librarian', in Maria Rosa Antognazza (ed.), <i>The Oxford Handbook of Leibniz</i>, Oxford Handbooks (2018; online edn, Oxford Academic, 28 Jan. 2013), <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199744725.013.008">https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199744725.013.008</a>, accessed 25 Aug. 2024.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Roughly 40%, 35% and 25%, respectively.<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gwlb.de/Leibniz/Leibniz-Nachlass/index.htm">www.gwlb.de</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110707122856/http://www.gwlb.de/Leibniz/Leibniz-Nachlass/index.htm">Archived</a> 7 July 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. <i>Leibniz-Nachlass</i> (i.e. Legacy of Leibniz), <i>Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Bibliothek</i> (one of the three Official Libraries of the German state <a href="/wiki/Lower_Saxony" title="Lower Saxony">Lower Saxony</a>).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBairdKaufmann2008" class="citation book cs1">Baird, Forrest E.; Kaufmann, Walter (2008). <i>From Plato to Derrida</i>. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-158591-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-13-158591-1"><bdi>978-0-13-158591-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Plato+to+Derrida&rft.place=Upper+Saddle+River%2C+New+Jersey&rft.pub=Pearson+Prentice+Hall&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-13-158591-1&rft.aulast=Baird&rft.aufirst=Forrest+E.&rft.au=Kaufmann%2C+Walter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell2013" class="citation book cs1">Russell, Bertrand (15 April 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Gm_cCZBiOhQC"><i>History of Western Philosophy: Collectors Edition</i></a> (revised ed.). Routledge. p. 469. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-69284-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-135-69284-1"><bdi>978-1-135-69284-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Western+Philosophy%3A+Collectors+Edition&rft.pages=469&rft.edition=revised&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013-04-15&rft.isbn=978-1-135-69284-1&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Bertrand&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGm_cCZBiOhQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Gm_cCZBiOhQC&pg=PA469">Extract of page 469</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHandleyFoster2020" class="citation book cs1">Handley, Lindsey D.; Foster, Stephen R. (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=l3zWDwAAQBAJ"><i>Don't Teach Coding: Until You Read This Book</i></a>. John Wiley & Sons. p. 29. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781119602620" title="Special:BookSources/9781119602620"><bdi>9781119602620</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Don%27t+Teach+Coding%3A+Until+You+Read+This+Book&rft.pages=29&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=9781119602620&rft.aulast=Handley&rft.aufirst=Lindsey+D.&rft.au=Foster%2C+Stephen+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dl3zWDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=l3zWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA29">Extract of page 29</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFApostol1991" class="citation book cs1">Apostol, Tom M. (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=o2D4DwAAQBAJ"><i>Calculus, Volume 1</i></a> (illustrated ed.). John Wiley & Sons. p. 172. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780471000051" title="Special:BookSources/9780471000051"><bdi>9780471000051</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Calculus%2C+Volume+1&rft.pages=172&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=9780471000051&rft.aulast=Apostol&rft.aufirst=Tom+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Do2D4DwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=o2D4DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA172">Extract of page 172</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaor2003" class="citation book cs1">Maor, Eli (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=e1CwvYNfvwgC"><i>The Facts on File Calculus Handbook</i></a>. The Facts on File Calculus Handbook. p. 58. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781438109541" title="Special:BookSources/9781438109541"><bdi>9781438109541</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Facts+on+File+Calculus+Handbook&rft.pages=58&rft.pub=The+Facts+on+File+Calculus+Handbook&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9781438109541&rft.aulast=Maor&rft.aufirst=Eli&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3De1CwvYNfvwgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=e1CwvYNfvwgC&pg=PA58">Extract of page 58</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#SMITH">David Smith</a>, pp. 173–181 (1929)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sariel, Aviram. "Diabolic Philosophy." Studia Leibnitiana H. 1 (2019): 99–118.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kurt Müller, Gisela Krönert, <i>Leben und Werk von Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz: Eine Chronik</i>. Frankfurt a.M., Klostermann 1969, p. 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMates1989" class="citation book cs1">Mates, Benson (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=b3M8DwAAQBAJ&q=Gottfried+Leibniz+father+died+when+he+was+six+and+a+half+years+old&pg=PA17"><i>The Philosophy of Leibniz: Metaphysics and Language</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-505946-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-505946-5"><bdi>978-0-19-505946-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Philosophy+of+Leibniz%3A+Metaphysics+and+Language&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-19-505946-5&rft.aulast=Mates&rft.aufirst=Benson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Db3M8DwAAQBAJ%26q%3DGottfried%2BLeibniz%2Bfather%2Bdied%2Bwhen%2Bhe%2Bwas%2Bsix%2Band%2Ba%2Bhalf%2Byears%2Bold%26pg%3DPA17&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mackie (1845), 21</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mackie (1845), 22</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Leibniz.html">"Leibniz biography"</a>. <i>history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 May</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk&rft.atitle=Leibniz+biography&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk%2FBiographies%2FLeibniz.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mackie (1845), 26</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Arthur_p._x-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Arthur_p._x_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Arthur_p._x_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Arthur_p._x_34-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Arthur_p._x_34-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Arthur_p._x_34-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Arthur 2014, p. x.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hubertus Busche, <i>Leibniz' Weg ins perspektivische Universum: Eine Harmonie im Zeitalter der Berechnung</i>, Meiner Verlag, 1997, p. 120.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A few copies of <i>De Arte Combinatoria</i> were produced as requested for the habilitation procedure; it was reprinted without his consent in 1690.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJolley1995" class="citation book cs1">Jolley, Nicholas (1995). <i>The Cambridge Companion to Leibniz</i>. Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+Leibniz&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Jolley&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span>:20</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimmons2007" class="citation book cs1">Simmons, George (2007). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/calculusgemsbrie0000simm"><i>Calculus Gems: Brief Lives and Memorable Mathematics</i></a></span>. MAA.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Calculus+Gems%3A+Brief+Lives+and+Memorable+Mathematics&rft.pub=MAA&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Simmons&rft.aufirst=George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcalculusgemsbrie0000simm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span>:143</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mackie (1845), 38</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mackie (1845), 39</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mackie (1845), 40</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Aiton 1985: 312</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ariew R., G.W. Leibniz, life and works, p. 21 in <i>The Cambridge Companion to Leibniz</i>, ed. by N. Jolley, Cambridge University Press, 1994, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-36588-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-36588-0">0-521-36588-0</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SnRis5Gdi8gC&pg=PA21">Extract of page 21</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mackie (1845), 43</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mackie (1845), 44–45</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBenaroyaHanNagurka2013" class="citation book cs1">Benaroya, Haym; Han, Seon Mi; Nagurka, Mark (2 May 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rYEqBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA135"><i>Probabilistic Models for Dynamical Systems</i></a>. CRC Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4398-5015-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4398-5015-2"><bdi>978-1-4398-5015-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Probabilistic+Models+for+Dynamical+Systems&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2013-05-02&rft.isbn=978-1-4398-5015-2&rft.aulast=Benaroya&rft.aufirst=Haym&rft.au=Han%2C+Seon+Mi&rft.au=Nagurka%2C+Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrYEqBgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA135&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mackie (1845), 58–61</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/leibniz/#Life"><i>Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</i></a>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz&rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Lab%2C+Stanford+University&rft.date=2017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fleibniz%2F%23Life&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|website=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mackie (1845), 69–70</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mackie (1845), 73–74</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CRC_Press-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CRC_Press_51-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CRC_Press_51-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavis2018" class="citation book cs1">Davis, Martin (2018). <i>The Universal Computer : The Road from Leibniz to Turing</i>. CRC Press. p. 9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-138-50208-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-138-50208-6"><bdi>978-1-138-50208-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Universal+Computer+%3A+The+Road+from+Leibniz+to+Turing&rft.pages=9&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1-138-50208-6&rft.aulast=Davis&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">On the encounter between Newton and Leibniz and a review of the evidence, see Alfred Rupert Hall, <i>Philosophers at War: The Quarrel Between Newton and Leibniz</i>, (Cambridge, 2002), pp. 44–69.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mackie (1845), 117–118</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For a study of Leibniz's correspondence with Sophia Charlotte, see MacDonald Ross, George, 1990, "Leibniz's Exposition of His System to Queen Sophie Charlotte and Other Ladies." In <i>Leibniz in Berlin</i>, ed. H. Poser and A. Heinekamp, Stuttgart: Franz Steiner, 1990, 61–69.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mackie (1845), 109</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ayton, Leibniz, a biography, p. 308</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown2023" class="citation book cs1">Brown, Stuart (2023). <i>Historical Dictionary of Leibniz's Philosophy</i> (2nd ed.). Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781538178447" title="Special:BookSources/9781538178447"><bdi>9781538178447</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Dictionary+of+Leibniz%27s+Philosophy&rft.place=Lanham&rft.pages=1&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Rowman+and+Littlefield&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=9781538178447&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Stuart&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeibniz1920" class="citation book cs1">Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm Freiherr von (1920). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bOIGAAAAYAAJ&q=leibniz+altered+manuscripts&pg=PA90"><i>The Early Mathematical Manuscripts of Leibniz: Translated from the Latin Texts Published by Carl Immanuel Gerhardt with Critical and Historical Notes</i></a>. Open court publishing Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780598818461" title="Special:BookSources/9780598818461"><bdi>9780598818461</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Early+Mathematical+Manuscripts+of+Leibniz%3A+Translated+from+the+Latin+Texts+Published+by+Carl+Immanuel+Gerhardt+with+Critical+and+Historical+Notes&rft.pub=Open+court+publishing+Company&rft.date=1920&rft.isbn=9780598818461&rft.aulast=Leibniz&rft.aufirst=Gottfried+Wilhelm+Freiherr+von&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbOIGAAAAYAAJ%26q%3Dleibniz%2Baltered%2Bmanuscripts%26pg%3DPA90&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Wir IV.6 and Loemker §50. Also see a curious passage titled "Leibniz's Philosophical Dream", first published by Bodemann in 1895 and translated on p. 253 of Morris, Mary, ed. and trans., 1934. <i>Philosophical Writings</i>. Dent & Sons Ltd.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://godandmath.com/2012/01/30/christian-mathematicians-leibniz/">"Christian Mathematicians – Leibniz – God & Math – Thinking Christianly About Math Education"</a>. 31 January 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Christian+Mathematicians+%E2%80%93+Leibniz+%E2%80%93+God+%26+Math+%E2%80%93+Thinking+Christianly+About+Math+Education&rft.date=2012-01-31&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgodandmath.com%2F2012%2F01%2F30%2Fchristian-mathematicians-leibniz%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz2012" class="citation book cs1">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (2012). Loptson, Peter (ed.). <i>Discourse on Metaphysics and Other Writings</i>. Broadview Press. pp. 23–24. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55481-011-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55481-011-6"><bdi>978-1-55481-011-6</bdi></a>. <q>The answer is unknowable, but it may not be unreasonable to see him, at least in theological terms, as essentially a deist. He is a determinist: there are no miracles (the events so called being merely instances of infrequently occurring natural laws); Christ has no real role in the system; we live forever, and hence we carry on after our deaths, but then everything—every individual substance—carries on forever. Nonetheless, Leibniz is a theist. His system is generated from, and needs, the postulate of a creative god. In fact, though, despite Leibniz's protestations, his God is more the architect and engineer of the vast complex world-system than the embodiment of love of Christian orthodoxy.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Discourse+on+Metaphysics+and+Other+Writings&rft.pages=23-24&rft.pub=Broadview+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-55481-011-6&rft.au=Gottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChristopher_Ernest_Cosans2009" class="citation book cs1">Christopher Ernest Cosans (2009). <i>Owen's Ape & Darwin's Bulldog: Beyond Darwinism and Creationism</i>. Indiana University Press. pp. 102–103. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-22051-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-253-22051-6"><bdi>978-0-253-22051-6</bdi></a>. <q>In advancing his system of mechanics, Newton claimed that collisions of celestial objects would cause a loss of energy that would require God to intervene from time to time to maintain order in the solar system (Vailati 1997, 37–42). In criticizing this implication, Leibniz remarks: "Sir Isaac Newton and his followers have also a very odd opinion concerning the work of God. According to their doctrine, God Almighty wants to wind up his watch from time to time; otherwise it would cease to move." (Leibniz 1715, 675) Leibniz argues that any scientific theory that relies on God to perform miracles after He had first made the universe indicates that God lacked sufficient foresight or power to establish adequate natural laws in the first place. In defense of Newton's theism, Clarke is unapologetic: "'tis not a diminution but the true glory of his workmanship that nothing is done without his continual government and inspection"' (Leibniz 1715, 676–677). Clarke is believed to have consulted closely with Newton on how to respond to Leibniz. He asserts that Leibniz's deism leads to "the notion of materialism and fate" (1715, 677), because it excludes God from the daily workings of nature.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Owen%27s+Ape+%26+Darwin%27s+Bulldog%3A+Beyond+Darwinism+and+Creationism&rft.pages=102-103&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-253-22051-6&rft.au=Christopher+Ernest+Cosans&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHunt2003" class="citation book cs1">Hunt, Shelby D. (2003). <i>Controversy in Marketing Theory: For Reason, Realism, Truth, and Objectivity</i>. M. E. Sharpe. p. 33. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7656-0931-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7656-0931-1"><bdi>978-0-7656-0931-1</bdi></a>. <q>Consistent with the liberal views of the Enlightenment, Leibniz was an optimist with respect to human reasoning and scientific progress (Popper 1963, p. 69). Although he was a great reader and admirer of Spinoza, Leibniz, being a confirmed deist, rejected emphatically Spinoza's pantheism: God and nature, for Leibniz, were not simply two different "labels" for the same "thing".</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Controversy+in+Marketing+Theory%3A+For+Reason%2C+Realism%2C+Truth%2C+and+Objectivity&rft.pages=33&rft.pub=M.+E.+Sharpe&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-7656-0931-1&rft.aulast=Hunt&rft.aufirst=Shelby+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Leibniz on the Trinity and the Incarnation: Reason and Revelation in the Seventeenth Century (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007, pp. xix–xx).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ariew & Garber, 69; Loemker, §§36, 38</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ariew & Garber, 138; Loemker, §47; Wiener, II.4</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Later translated as Loemker 267 and Woolhouse and Francks 30</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A VI, 4, n. 324, pp. 1643–1649 with the title: <i>Principia Logico-Metaphysica</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ariew & Garber, 272–284; Loemker, §§14, 20, 21; Wiener, III.8</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mates (1986), chpts. 7.3, 9</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Loemker 717</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Jolley (1995: 129–131), Woolhouse and Francks (1998), and Mercer (2001).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Saltus-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Saltus_73-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Saltus_73-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Gottfried Leibniz, <a href="/wiki/New_Essays_on_Human_Understanding" title="New Essays on Human Understanding"><i>New Essays</i></a>, IV, 16: "<i>la nature ne fait jamais des sauts</i>". <i>Natura non-facit saltus</i> is the Latin translation of the phrase (originally put forward by <a href="/wiki/Carolus_Linnaeus" class="mw-redirect" title="Carolus Linnaeus">Linnaeus</a>' <i><a href="/wiki/Philosophia_Botanica" title="Philosophia Botanica">Philosophia Botanica</a></i>, 1st ed., 1751, Chapter III, § 77, p. 27; see also <a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/continuity/">"Continuity and Infinitesimals"</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Baumgarten" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander Baumgarten">Alexander Baumgarten</a>, <i>Metaphysics: A Critical Translation with Kant's Elucidations</i>, Translated and Edited by Courtney D. Fugate and John Hymers, Bloomsbury, 2013, "Preface of the Third Edition (1750)", <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Jw-Q3hfXTqoC&q=%22must+also+have+in+mind+Leibniz%27s+%22natura+non+facit+saltus%22+%5Bnature+does+not%22&pg=PA79">p. 79 n.d.</a>: "[Baumgarten] must also have in mind Leibniz's "<i>natura non-facit saltus</i> [nature does not make leaps]" (<a href="/wiki/Nouveaux_essais_sur_l%27entendement_humain" class="mw-redirect" title="Nouveaux essais sur l'entendement humain">NE</a> IV, 16)."). A variant translation is "<i>natura non-saltum facit</i>" (literally, "Nature does not make a jump") (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrittonSedgwickBock2008" class="citation book cs1">Britton, Andrew; Sedgwick, Peter H.; Bock, Burghard (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=goW6JsEUz4EC"><i>Ökonomische Theorie und christlicher Glaube</i></a>. LIT Verlag Münster. p. 289. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-8258-0162-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-8258-0162-5"><bdi>978-3-8258-0162-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%C3%96konomische+Theorie+und+christlicher+Glaube&rft.pages=289&rft.pub=LIT+Verlag+M%C3%BCnster&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-3-8258-0162-5&rft.aulast=Britton&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft.au=Sedgwick%2C+Peter+H.&rft.au=Bock%2C+Burghard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgoW6JsEUz4EC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=goW6JsEUz4EC&pg=PA289">Extract of page 289</a>.)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Loemker 311</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Lovejoy" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthur Lovejoy">Arthur Lovejoy</a>, <i>The <a href="/wiki/Great_Chain_of_Being" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Chain of Being">Great Chain of Being</a></i>. Harvard University Press, 1936, Chapter V "Plenitude and Sufficient Reason in Leibniz and Spinoza", pp. 144–182.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For a precis of what Leibniz meant by these and other Principles, see Mercer (2001: 473–484). For a classic discussion of Sufficient Reason and Plenitude, see Lovejoy (1957).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Leary-HawthorneCover2008" class="citation book cs1">O'Leary-Hawthorne, John; Cover, J. A. (4 September 2008). <i>Substance and Individuation in Leibniz</i>. Cambridge University Press. p. 65. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-07303-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-07303-5"><bdi>978-0-521-07303-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Substance+and+Individuation+in+Leibniz&rft.pages=65&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2008-09-04&rft.isbn=978-0-521-07303-5&rft.aulast=O%27Leary-Hawthorne&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Cover%2C+J.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRescher1991" class="citation book cs1">Rescher, Nicholas (1991). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/gwleibnizsmonado00resc"><i>G. W. Leibniz's Monadology: an edition for students</i></a></span>. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/gwleibnizsmonado00resc/page/n40">40</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8229-5449-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8229-5449-1"><bdi>978-0-8229-5449-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=G.+W.+Leibniz%27s+Monadology%3A+an+edition+for+students&rft.place=Pittsburgh&rft.pages=40&rft.pub=University+of+Pittsburgh+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-8229-5449-1&rft.aulast=Rescher&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgwleibnizsmonado00resc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ferraro-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ferraro_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFerraro2007" class="citation book cs1">Ferraro, Rafael (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wa3CskhHaIgC&q=time+%22absolute+space%22&pg=PA1"><i>Einstein's Space-Time: An Introduction to Special and General Relativity</i></a>. Springer. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-69946-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-387-69946-2"><bdi>978-0-387-69946-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Einstein%27s+Space-Time%3A+An+Introduction+to+Special+and+General+Relativity&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-387-69946-2&rft.aulast=Ferraro&rft.aufirst=Rafael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dwa3CskhHaIgC%26q%3Dtime%2B%2522absolute%2Bspace%2522%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-See_H._G_pp._25-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-See_H._G_pp._25_80-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-See_H._G_pp._25_80-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">See H. G. Alexander, ed., <i>The <a href="/wiki/Leibniz-Clarke_Correspondence" class="mw-redirect" title="Leibniz-Clarke Correspondence">Leibniz-Clarke Correspondence</a></i>, Manchester: Manchester University Press, pp. 25–26.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAgassi1969" class="citation journal cs1">Agassi, Joseph (September 1969). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2708561">"Leibniz's Place in the History of Physics"</a>. <i>Journal of the History of Ideas</i>. <b>30</b> (3): 331–344. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2708561">10.2307/2708561</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2708561">2708561</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+History+of+Ideas&rft.atitle=Leibniz%27s+Place+in+the+History+of+Physics&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=331-344&rft.date=1969-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2708561&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2708561%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Agassi&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2708561&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Leibniz:_A_Guide_for_the_Perplexed-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Leibniz:_A_Guide_for_the_Perplexed_82-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Leibniz:_A_Guide_for_the_Perplexed_82-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerkins2007" class="citation book cs1">Perkins, Franklin (10 July 2007). <i>Leibniz: A Guide for the Perplexed</i>. Bloomsbury Academic. p. 22. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8264-8921-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8264-8921-0"><bdi>978-0-8264-8921-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Leibniz%3A+A+Guide+for+the+Perplexed&rft.pages=22&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Academic&rft.date=2007-07-10&rft.isbn=978-0-8264-8921-0&rft.aulast=Perkins&rft.aufirst=Franklin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerkins2007" class="citation book cs1">Perkins, Franklin (10 July 2007). <i>Leibniz: A Guide for the Perplexed</i>. Bloomsbury Academic. p. 23. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8264-8921-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8264-8921-0"><bdi>978-0-8264-8921-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Leibniz%3A+A+Guide+for+the+Perplexed&rft.pages=23&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Academic&rft.date=2007-07-10&rft.isbn=978-0-8264-8921-0&rft.aulast=Perkins&rft.aufirst=Franklin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rutherford (1998) is a detailed scholarly study of Leibniz's <a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">theodicy</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFranklin2022" class="citation journal cs1">Franklin, James (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14746700.2022.2124481">"The global/local distinction vindicates Leibniz's theodicy"</a>. <i>Theology and Science</i>. <b>20</b> (4): 445–462. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14746700.2022.2124481">10.1080/14746700.2022.2124481</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1959.4%2Funsworks_80586">1959.4/unsworks_80586</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:252979403">252979403</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Theology+and+Science&rft.atitle=The+global%2Flocal+distinction+vindicates+Leibniz%27s+theodicy&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=445-462&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1959.4%2Funsworks_80586&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A252979403%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F14746700.2022.2124481&rft.aulast=Franklin&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%252F14746700.2022.2124481&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Magill, Frank (ed.). <i>Masterpieces of World Philosophy</i>. New York: Harper Collins (1990).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Magill, Frank (ed.) (1990)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnderson_Csiszar2015" class="citation book cs1">Anderson Csiszar, Sean (26 July 2015). <i>The Golden Book About Leibniz</i>. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform. p. 20. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1515243915" title="Special:BookSources/978-1515243915"><bdi>978-1515243915</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Golden+Book+About+Leibniz&rft.pages=20&rft.pub=CreateSpace+Independent+Publishing+Platform&rft.date=2015-07-26&rft.isbn=978-1515243915&rft.aulast=Anderson+Csiszar&rft.aufirst=Sean&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm. <i>Discourse on Metaphysics. The Rationalists: Rene Descartes – Discourse on Method, Meditations</i>. N.Y.: Dolphin., n.d., n.p.,</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Monadology" title="Monadology">Monadologie</a></i> (1714). <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Rescher" title="Nicholas Rescher">Nicholas Rescher</a>, trans., 1991. <i>The Monadology: An Edition for Students</i>. Uni. of Pittsburgh Press, p. 135.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hedweb.com/witherall/existence.htm">"The Fundamental Question"</a>. hedweb.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 April</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Fundamental+Question&rft.pub=hedweb.com&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hedweb.com%2Fwitherall%2Fexistence.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeier2017" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Geier, Manfred (17 February 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JUiFDQAAQBAJ&pg=PP166"><i>Wittgenstein und Heidegger: Die letzten Philosophen</i></a> (in German). Rowohlt Verlag. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-644-04511-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-644-04511-8"><bdi>978-3-644-04511-8</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 April</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wittgenstein+und+Heidegger%3A+Die+letzten+Philosophen&rft.pub=Rowohlt+Verlag&rft.date=2017-02-17&rft.isbn=978-3-644-04511-8&rft.aulast=Geier&rft.aufirst=Manfred&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJUiFDQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPP166&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKulstadCarlin2020" class="citation cs2">Kulstad, Mark; Carlin, Laurence (2020), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2020/entries/leibniz-mind/">"Leibniz's Philosophy of Mind"</a>, in Zalta, Edward N. (ed.), <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i> (Winter 2020 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 June</span> 2023</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Leibniz%27s+Philosophy+of+Mind&rft.btitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.edition=Winter+2020&rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Lab%2C+Stanford+University&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Kulstad&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft.au=Carlin%2C+Laurence&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Fwin2020%2Fentries%2Fleibniz-mind%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGray" class="citation web cs1">Gray, Jonathan. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://publicdomainreview.org/essay/let-us-calculate-leibniz-llull-and-the-computational-imagination/">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Let us Calculate!": Leibniz, Llull, and the Computational Imagination"</a>. <i>The Public Domain Review</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 June</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Public+Domain+Review&rft.atitle=%22Let+us+Calculate%21%22%3A+Leibniz%2C+Llull%2C+and+the+Computational+Imagination&rft.aulast=Gray&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpublicdomainreview.org%2Fessay%2Flet-us-calculate-leibniz-llull-and-the-computational-imagination%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Art of Discovery</i> 1685, Wiener 51</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Many of his memoranda are translated in <a href="/wiki/George_Henry_Radcliffe_Parkinson" title="George Henry Radcliffe Parkinson">Parkinson</a> 1966.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Marcelo Dascal, <i>Leibniz. Language, Signs and Thought: A Collection of Essays</i> (<i>Foundations of Semiotics</i> series), John Benjamins Publishing Company, 1987, p. 42.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Loemker, however, who translated some of Leibniz's works into English, said that the symbols of chemistry were real characters, so there is disagreement among Leibniz scholars on this point.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Preface to the General Science</i>, 1677. Revision of Rutherford's translation in Jolley 1995: 234. Also Wiener I.4</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A good introductory discussion of the "characteristic" is Jolley (1995: 226–240). An early, yet still classic, discussion of the "characteristic" and "calculus" is Couturat (1901: chpts. 3, 4).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lenzen, W., 2004, "Leibniz's Logic," in <i>Handbook of the History of Logic</i> by D. M. Gabbay/J. Woods (eds.), volume 3: <i>The Rise of Modern Logic: From Leibniz to Frege</i>, Amsterdam et al.: Elsevier-North-Holland, pp. 1–83.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell1900" class="citation book cs1">Russell, Bertrand (1900). <i>A Critical Exposition of the Philosophy of Leibniz</i>. The University Press, Cambridge.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Critical+Exposition+of+the+Philosophy+of+Leibniz&rft.pub=The+University+Press%2C+Cambridge&rft.date=1900&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Bertrand&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Leibniz: Die philosophischen Schriften</i> VII, 1890, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/diephilosophisc00gerhgoog/page/n251/mode/2up">pp. 236</a>–247; translated as <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://171.67.193.21/cm/leibniz/leibniz-1690.pdf">"A Study in the Calculus of Real Addition" (1690)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210719231443/http://171.67.193.21/cm/leibniz/leibniz-1690.pdf">Archived</a> 19 July 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> by G. H. R. Parkinson, <i>Leibniz: Logical Papers – A Selection</i>, Oxford 1966, pp. 131–144.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Edward N. Zalta</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mally.stanford.edu/Papers/leibniz.pdf">"A (Leibnizian) Theory of Concepts"</a>, <i>Philosophiegeschichte und logische Analyse / Logical Analysis and History of Philosophy</i>, 3 (2000): 137–183.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLenzen" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Lenzen, Wolfgang. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/leib-log">"Leibniz: Logic"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Leibniz%3A+Logic&rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.aulast=Lenzen&rft.aufirst=Wolfgang&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fleib-log&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jesse Alama, Paul E. Oppenheimer, <a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Edward N. Zalta</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mally.stanford.edu/Papers/cade.pdf">"Automating Leibniz's Theory of Concepts"</a>, in A. Felty and A. Middeldorp (eds.), <i>Automated Deduction – CADE 25: Proceedings of the 25th International Conference on Automated Deduction</i> (Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence: Volume 9195), Berlin: Springer, 2015, pp. 73–97.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Struik (1969), 367</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGowersBarrow-GreenLeader2008" class="citation book cs1">Gowers, Timothy; Barrow-Green, June; Leader, Imre (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/princetoncompanio00gowe"><i>The Princeton Companion to Mathematics</i></a>. Princeton: Princeton University Press. p. 745. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-11880-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-11880-2"><bdi>978-0-691-11880-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Princeton+Companion+to+Mathematics&rft.place=Princeton&rft.pages=745&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-691-11880-2&rft.aulast=Gowers&rft.aufirst=Timothy&rft.au=Barrow-Green%2C+June&rft.au=Leader%2C+Imre&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fprincetoncompanio00gowe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Douglas_M._Jesseph,_1998-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Douglas_M._Jesseph,_1998_109-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJesseph1998" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Jesseph, Douglas M. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/perspectives_on_science/v006/6.1jesseph.html">"Leibniz on the Foundations of the Calculus: The Question of the Reality of Infinitesimal Magnitudes"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Perspectives_on_Science" title="Perspectives on Science">Perspectives on Science</a></i>. 6.1&2 (1–2): 6–40. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1162%2Fposc_a_00543">10.1162/posc_a_00543</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:118227996">118227996</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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University of Chicago Press. pp. 237–239. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-40955-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-40955-9"><bdi>978-0-226-40955-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Good+Life+in+the+Scientific+Revolution%3A+Descartes%2C+Pascal%2C+Leibniz%2C+and+the+Cultivation+of+Virtue&rft.pages=237-239&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2006-10-01&rft.isbn=978-0-226-40955-9&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Matthew+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAgarwalSen2014" class="citation book cs1">Agarwal, Ravi P; Sen, Syamal K (2014). <i>Creators of Mathematical and Computational Sciences</i>. Springer, Cham. p. 180. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-10870-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-10870-4"><bdi>978-3-319-10870-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Creators+of+Mathematical+and+Computational+Sciences&rft.pages=180&rft.pub=Springer%2C+Cham&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-3-319-10870-4&rft.aulast=Agarwal&rft.aufirst=Ravi+P&rft.au=Sen%2C+Syamal+K&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Princeton_University_Press-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Princeton_University_Press_113-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Princeton_University_Press_113-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGowersBarrow-GreenLeader2008" class="citation book cs1">Gowers, Timothy; Barrow-Green, June; Leader, Imre, eds. 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Princeton: Princeton University Press. p. 744. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-11880-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-11880-2"><bdi>978-0-691-11880-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Princeton+Companion+to+Mathematics&rft.place=Princeton&rft.pages=744&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-691-11880-2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fprincetoncompanio00gowe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKnobloch2013" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Eberhard_Knobloch" title="Eberhard Knobloch">Knobloch, Eberhard</a> (13 March 2013). <i>Leibniz's Theory of Elimination and Determinants</i>. 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Berlin [etc.]: Springer. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/algorithmscomput00toku/page/n613">599</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-77120-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-77120-3"><bdi>978-3-540-77120-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Algorithms+and+Computation%3A+18th+International+Symposium%2C+ISAAC+2007%2C+Sendai%2C+Japan%2C+December+17%E2%80%9319%2C+2007+%3A+proceedings&rft.place=Berlin+%5Betc.%5D&rft.pages=599&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-3-540-77120-3&rft.aulast=Tokuyama&rft.aufirst=Takeshi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Falgorithmscomput00toku&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones2006" class="citation book cs1">Jones, Matthew L. 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CRC Press. p. 7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-138-50208-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-138-50208-6"><bdi>978-1-138-50208-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Universal+Computer+%3A+The+Road+from+Leibniz+to+Turing%2C+Third+Edition&rft.pages=7&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2018-02-28&rft.isbn=978-1-138-50208-6&rft.aulast=Davis&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDe_Risi2016" class="citation book cs1">De Risi, Vincenzo (2016). <i>Leibniz on the Parallel Postulate and the Foundations of Geometry</i>. Birkhäuser. p. 4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-19863-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-19863-7"><bdi>978-3-319-19863-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Leibniz+on+the+Parallel+Postulate+and+the+Foundations+of+Geometry&rft.pages=4&rft.pub=Birkh%C3%A4user&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-3-319-19863-7&rft.aulast=De+Risi&rft.aufirst=Vincenzo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDe_Risi2016" class="citation book cs1">De Risi, Vincenzo (10 February 2016). <i>Leibniz on the Parallel Postulate and the Foundations of Geometry</i>. Birkhäuser, Cham. p. 58. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-19862-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-19862-0"><bdi>978-3-319-19862-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Leibniz+on+the+Parallel+Postulate+and+the+Foundations+of+Geometry&rft.pages=58&rft.pub=Birkh%C3%A4user%2C+Cham&rft.date=2016-02-10&rft.isbn=978-3-319-19862-0&rft.aulast=De+Risi&rft.aufirst=Vincenzo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Leibniz1920-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Leibniz1920_122-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeibnizGerhardt1920" class="citation book cs1">Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm Freiherr von; Gerhardt, Carl Immanuel (trans.) (1920). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/earlymathematic01gerhgoog"><i>The Early Mathematical Manuscripts of Leibniz</i></a>. Open Court Publishing. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/earlymathematic01gerhgoog/page/n100">93</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 November</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Early+Mathematical+Manuscripts+of+Leibniz&rft.pages=93&rft.pub=Open+Court+Publishing&rft.date=1920&rft.aulast=Leibniz&rft.aufirst=Gottfried+Wilhelm+Freiherr+von&rft.au=Gerhardt%2C+Carl+Immanuel+%28trans.%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fearlymathematic01gerhgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For an English translation of this paper, see Struik (1969: 271–284), who also translates parts of two other key papers by Leibniz on calculus.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Dirk_Jan_Struik" title="Dirk Jan Struik">Dirk Jan Struik</a>, <i>A Source Book in Mathematics</i> (1969) pp. 282–284</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Supplementum geometriae dimensoriae, seu generalissima omnium tetragonismorum effectio per motum: similiterque multiplex constructio lineae ex data tangentium conditione</i>, <i>Acta Euriditorum</i> (Sep. 1693) pp. 385–392</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/John_Stillwell" title="John Stillwell">John Stillwell</a>, <i>Mathematics and its History</i> (1989, 2002) p.159</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKatzSherry2012" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Katz" title="Mikhail Katz">Katz, Mikhail</a>; Sherry, David (2012), "Leibniz's Infinitesimals: Their Fictionality, Their Modern Implementations, and Their Foes from Berkeley to Russell and Beyond", <i><a href="/wiki/Erkenntnis" title="Erkenntnis">Erkenntnis</a></i>, <b>78</b> (3): 571–625, <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1205.0174">1205.0174</a></span>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10670-012-9370-y">10.1007/s10670-012-9370-y</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119329569">119329569</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Erkenntnis&rft.atitle=Leibniz%27s+Infinitesimals%3A+Their+Fictionality%2C+Their+Modern+Implementations%2C+and+Their+Foes+from+Berkeley+to+Russell+and+Beyond&rft.volume=78&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=571-625&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1205.0174&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A119329569%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10670-012-9370-y&rft.aulast=Katz&rft.aufirst=Mikhail&rft.au=Sherry%2C+David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDauben2003" class="citation journal cs1">Dauben, Joseph W (December 2003). "Mathematics, ideology, and the politics of infinitesimals: mathematical logic and nonstandard analysis in modern China". <i>History and Philosophy of Logic</i>. <b>24</b> (4): 327–363. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01445340310001599560">10.1080/01445340310001599560</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0144-5340">0144-5340</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:120089173">120089173</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+and+Philosophy+of+Logic&rft.atitle=Mathematics%2C+ideology%2C+and+the+politics+of+infinitesimals%3A+mathematical+logic+and+nonstandard+analysis+in+modern+China&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=327-363&rft.date=2003-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A120089173%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0144-5340&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F01445340310001599560&rft.aulast=Dauben&rft.aufirst=Joseph+W&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Loemker §27</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mates (1986), 240</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHirano" class="citation web cs1">Hirano, Hideaki. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090522130455/http://www.t.hosei.ac.jp/~hhirano/academia/leibniz.htm">"Leibniz's Cultural Pluralism And Natural Law"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.t.hosei.ac.jp/~hhirano/academia/leibniz.htm">the original</a> on 22 May 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 March</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Leibniz%27s+Cultural+Pluralism+And+Natural+Law&rft.aulast=Hirano&rft.aufirst=Hideaki&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.t.hosei.ac.jp%2F~hhirano%2Facademia%2Fleibniz.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mandelbrot (1977), 419. Quoted in Hirano (1997).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ariew and Garber 117, Loemker §46, W II.5. On Leibniz and physics, see the chapter by Garber in Jolley (1995) and Wilson (1989).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Futch, Michael. <i>Leibniz's Metaphysics of Time and Space</i>. New York: Springer, 2008.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ray, Christopher. <i>Time, Space and Philosophy</i>. London: Routledge, 1991.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rickles, Dean. <i>Symmetry, Structure and Spacetime</i>. Oxford: Elsevier, 2008.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Arthur_p._56-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Arthur_p._56_137-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Arthur_p._56_137-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Arthur 2014, p. 56.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Ariew and Garber 155–86, Loemker §§53–55, W II.6–7a</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">On Leibniz and biology, see Loemker (1969a: VIII).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">L. E. Loemker: <i>Introduction to Philosophical papers and letters: A selection.</i> Gottfried W. Leibniz (transl. and ed., by Leroy E. Loemker). Dordrecht: Riedel (2nd ed. 1969).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">T. Verhave: <i>Contributions to the history of psychology: III. G. W. Leibniz (1646–1716)</i>. <i>On the Association of Ideas and Learning</i>. <i>Psychological Report</i>, 1967, Vol. 20, 11–116.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">R. E. Fancher & H. Schmidt: Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz: <i>Underappreciated pioneer of psychology</i>. In: G. A. Kimble & M. Wertheimer (Eds.). <i>Portraits of pioneers in psychology</i>, Vol. V. American Psychological Association, Washington, DC, 2003, pp. 1–17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeibniz2007" class="citation book cs1">Leibniz, G. W. (2007) [1714/1720]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlymoderntexts.com/authors/leibniz"><i>The Principles of Philosophy known as Monadology</i></a>. Translated by Jonathan Bennett. p. 11.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Principles+of+Philosophy+known+as+Monadology&rft.pages=11&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Leibniz&rft.aufirst=G.+W.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.earlymoderntexts.com%2Fauthors%2Fleibniz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Larry M. Jorgensen, The Principle of Continuity and Leibniz's Theory of Consciousness.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The German scholar Johann Thomas Freigius was the first to use this Latin term 1574 in print: <i>Quaestiones logicae et ethicae</i>, Basel, Henricpetri.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Leibniz, Nouveaux essais, 1765, Livre II, Des Idées, Chapitre 1, § 6. <i>New Essays on Human Understanding</i> Book 2. p. 36; transl. by Jonathan Bennett, 2009.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wundt: <i>Leibniz zu seinem zweihundertjährigen Todestag, 14. November 1916.</i> Alfred Kröner Verlag, Leipzig 1917.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wundt (1917), p. 117.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFahrenberg2017" class="citation web cs1">Fahrenberg, Jochen (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://psydok.psycharchives.de/jspui/bitstream/20.500.11780/3772/1/The%20influence%20of%20Gottfried%20Wilhelm%20Leibniz%20on%20the%20Psychology%2C%20Philosophy%2C%20and%20Ethics%20of%20Wilhelm%20Wundt.pdf">"The influence of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz on the Psychology, philosophy, and Ethics of Wilhelm Wundt"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 June</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+influence+of+Gottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz+on+the+Psychology%2C+philosophy%2C+and+Ethics+of+Wilhelm+Wundt&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Fahrenberg&rft.aufirst=Jochen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpsydok.psycharchives.de%2Fjspui%2Fbitstream%2F20.500.11780%2F3772%2F1%2FThe%2520influence%2520of%2520Gottfried%2520Wilhelm%2520Leibniz%2520on%2520the%2520Psychology%252C%2520Philosophy%252C%2520and%2520Ethics%2520of%2520Wilhelm%2520Wundt.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">D. Brett King, Wayne Viney and William Woody. <i>A History of Psychology: Ideas and Context</i> (2009), 150–153.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nicholls and Leibscher <i>Thinking the Unconscious: Nineteenth-Century German Thought</i> (2010), 6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nicholls and Leibscher (2010).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">King et al. (2009), 150–153.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKlempe2011" class="citation journal cs1">Klempe, SH (2011). "The role of tone sensation and musical stimuli in early experimental psychology". <i>Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences</i>. <b>47</b> (2): 187–199. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fjhbs.20495">10.1002/jhbs.20495</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21462196">21462196</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+History+of+the+Behavioral+Sciences&rft.atitle=The+role+of+tone+sensation+and+musical+stimuli+in+early+experimental+psychology&rft.volume=47&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=187-199&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fjhbs.20495&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21462196&rft.aulast=Klempe&rft.aufirst=SH&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Aiton (1985), 107–114, 136</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Davis (2000) discusses Leibniz's prophetic role in the emergence of calculating machines and of formal languages.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Couturat (1901): 473–478.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRyan1996" class="citation journal cs1">Ryan, James A. (1996). 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nyaspubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1948.tb39853.x">the original</a> on 23 July 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 July</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+the+New+York+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Time%2C+Communication%2C+and+the+Nervous+System&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=4+Teleological&rft.pages=197-220&rft.date=1948&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1749-6632.1948.tb39853.x&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A28452205%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18886381&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1948NYASA..50..197W&rft.aulast=Wiener&rft.aufirst=Norbert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnyaspubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1111%2Fj.1749-6632.1948.tb39853.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Couturat (1901), 115</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See N. Rescher, <i>Leibniz and Cryptography</i> (Pittsburgh, University Library Systems, University of Pittsburgh, 2012).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amatterofmind.org/Pierres_PDFs/TRANSLATIONS/4._GOTTFRIED_LEIBNIZ_SELECTIONS_FROM_ACTA_ERUDITORUM.pdf">"The discoveries of principle of the calculus in Acta Eruditorum"</a> (commentary, pp. 60–61), translated by Pierre Beaudry, amatterofmind.org, Leesburg, Va., September 2000. (pdf)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051228133959/http://www.edge.org/discourse/schirrmacher_eurotech.html">"The Reality Club: Wake Up Call for Europe Tech"</a>. <i>www.edge.org</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.edge.org/discourse/schirrmacher_eurotech.html">the original</a> on 28 December 2005<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 January</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.edge.org&rft.atitle=The+Reality+Club%3A+Wake+Up+Call+for+Europe+Tech&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.edge.org%2Fdiscourse%2Fschirrmacher_eurotech.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAgarwalSen2014" class="citation book cs1">Agarwal, Ravi P; Sen, Syamal K (2014). <i>Creators of Mathematical and Computational Sciences</i>. 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(1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25540286">"Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz and Library Classification"</a>. <i>The Journal of Library History</i>. <b>6</b> (2): 133–152. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25540286">25540286</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Library+History&rft.atitle=Gottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz+and+Library+Classification&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=133-152&rft.date=1971&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25540286%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Schulte-Albert&rft.aufirst=H.+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25540286&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digitale.bibliothek.uni-halle.de/vd18/5254469"><i>Otivm Hanoveranvm Sive Miscellanea Ex ore & schedis Illustris Viri, piæ memoriæ, Godofr. Gvilielmi Leibnitii ... / Quondam notata & descripta, Cum ipsi in collendis & excerpendis rebus ad Historiam Brunsvicensem pertinentibus operam navaret, Joachimvs Fridericvs Fellervs, Secretarius Ducalis Saxo-Vinariensis. Additæ sunt coronidis loco Epistolæ Gallicæ amœbeæ Leibnitii & Pellissonii de Tolerantia Religionum & de controversiis quibusdam Theologicis ...</i></a> 1737.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Otivm+Hanoveranvm+Sive+Miscellanea+Ex+ore+%26+schedis+Illustris+Viri%2C+pi%C3%A6+memori%C3%A6%2C+Godofr.+Gvilielmi+Leibnitii+...+%2F+Quondam+notata+%26+descripta%2C+Cum+ipsi+in+collendis+%26+excerpendis+rebus+ad+Historiam+Brunsvicensem+pertinentibus+operam+navaret%2C+Joachimvs+Fridericvs+Fellervs%2C+Secretarius+Ducalis+Saxo-Vinariensis.+Addit%C3%A6+sunt+coronidis+loco+Epistol%C3%A6+Gallic%C3%A6+am%C5%93be%C3%A6+Leibnitii+%26+Pellissonii+de+Tolerantia+Religionum+%26+de+controversiis+quibusdam+Theologicis+...&rft.date=1737&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdigitale.bibliothek.uni-halle.de%2Fvd18%2F5254469&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">On Leibniz's projects for scientific societies, see Couturat (1901), App. IV.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See, for example, Ariew and Garber 19, 94, 111, 193; Riley 1988; Loemker §§2, 7, 20, 29, 44, 59, 62, 65; W I.1, IV.1–3</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See (in order of difficulty) Jolley (2005: ch. 7), Gregory Brown's chapter in Jolley (1995), Hostler (1975), Connelly (2021), and Riley (1996).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Loemker: 59, fn 16. Translation revised.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Loemker: 58, fn 9</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndrés-Gallego2015" class="citation journal cs1">Andrés-Gallego, José (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160827170922/http://mmr.sagepub.com/content/9/2/118.abstract">"Are Humanism and Mixed Methods Related? Leibniz's Universal (Chinese) Dream"</a>. <i>Journal of Mixed Methods Research</i>. <b>29</b> (2): 118–132. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1558689813515332">10.1177/1558689813515332</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:147266697">147266697</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mmr.sagepub.com/content/9/2/118.abstract">the original</a> on 27 August 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 June</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Mixed+Methods+Research&rft.atitle=Are+Humanism+and+Mixed+Methods+Related%3F+Leibniz%27s+Universal+%28Chinese%29+Dream&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=118-132&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F1558689813515332&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A147266697%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Andr%C3%A9s-Gallego&rft.aufirst=Jos%C3%A9&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmmr.sagepub.com%2Fcontent%2F9%2F2%2F118.abstract&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Artosi ed.(2013)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Loemker, 1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Connelly, 2018, ch.5; Artosi et al. 2013, pref.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Connelly, 2021, ch.6</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Christopher Johns, 2018</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(Akademie Ed VI ii 35–93)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Connelly, 2021, chs.6–8</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gottfried Leibniz, "Brevis designatio meditationum de originibus gentium, ductis potissimum ex indicio linguarum", <i>Miscellanea Berolinensia</i>. 1710.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Henry Hoenigswald, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GXttDfuc4NEC&dq=leibniz+historical+linguistics&pg=PA93">"Descent, Perfection and the Comparative Method since Leibniz"</a>, <i>Leibniz, Humboldt, and the Origins of Comparativism</i>, eds. Tullio De Mauro & Lia Formigari (Amsterdam–Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 1990), 119–134.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Springer,_Cham-189"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Springer,_Cham_189-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Springer,_Cham_189-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAgarwalSen2014" class="citation book cs1">Agarwal, Ravi P; Sen, Syamal K (2014). <i>Creators of Mathematical and Computational Sciences</i>. Springer, Cham. p. 186. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-10870-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-10870-4"><bdi>978-3-319-10870-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Creators+of+Mathematical+and+Computational+Sciences&rft.pages=186&rft.pub=Springer%2C+Cham&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-3-319-10870-4&rft.aulast=Agarwal&rft.aufirst=Ravi+P&rft.au=Sen%2C+Syamal+K&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Perkins (2004), 117</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mungello-191"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mungello_191-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mungello_191-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mungello_191-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMungello1971" class="citation journal cs1">Mungello, David E. (1971). "Leibniz's Interpretation of Neo-Confucianism". <i>Philosophy East and West</i>. <b>21</b> (1): 3–22. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1397760">10.2307/1397760</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1397760">1397760</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophy+East+and+West&rft.atitle=Leibniz%27s+Interpretation+of+Neo-Confucianism&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=3-22&rft.date=1971&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1397760&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1397760%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Mungello&rft.aufirst=David+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">On Leibniz, the <i>I Ching</i>, and binary numbers, see Aiton (1985: 245–248). Leibniz's writings on Chinese civilization are collected and translated in Cook and Rosemont (1994), and discussed in Perkins (2004).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCook2015" class="citation journal cs1">Cook, Daniel (2015). "Leibniz, China, and the Problem of Pagan Wisdom". <i>Philosophy East and West</i>. <b>65</b> (3): 936–947. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fpew.2015.0074">10.1353/pew.2015.0074</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:170208696">170208696</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophy+East+and+West&rft.atitle=Leibniz%2C+China%2C+and+the+Problem+of+Pagan+Wisdom&rft.volume=65&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=936-947&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fpew.2015.0074&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A170208696%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Cook&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-194"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Irenaean_theodicy#Gottfried_Leibniz" title="Irenaean theodicy">Irenaean theodicy § Gottfried Leibniz</a></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-195"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-195">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110223062622/http://www.humesociety.org/hs/issues/v19n1/vasilyeu/vasilyeu-v19n1.pdf">"Vasilyev, 1993"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.humesociety.org/hs/issues/v19n1/vasilyeu/vasilyeu-v19n1.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 23 February 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 June</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Vasilyev%2C+1993&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.humesociety.org%2Fhs%2Fissues%2Fv19n1%2Fvasilyeu%2Fvasilyeu-v19n1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-196"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Russell, 1900</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Smith, Daniel W. (2005). Deleuze on Leibniz : Difference, Continuity, and the Calculus. In Stephen H. Daniel (ed.), Current Continental Theory and Modern Philosophy. Northwestern University Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-198"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jolley, 217–219</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-mow-199"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-mow_199-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100719082140/http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ev.php-URL_ID%3D22464%26URL_DO%3DDO_TOPIC%26URL_SECTION%3D201.html">"Letters from and to Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz within the collection of manuscript papers of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz"</a>. UNESCO Memory of the World Programme. 16 May 2008. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 December</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Letters+from+and+to+Gottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz+within+the+collection+of+manuscript+papers+of+Gottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz&rft.pub=UNESCO+Memory+of+the+World+Programme&rft.date=2008-05-16&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fportal.unesco.org%2Fci%2Fen%2Fev.php-URL_ID%3D22464%26URL_DO%3DDO_TOPIC%26URL_SECTION%3D201.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-200"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-200">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doodles.google/doodle/gottfried-wilhelm-leibnizs-372nd-birthday/">"Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz's 372nd Birthday"</a>. <i>Google Doodle Archive</i>. 1 July 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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(30 June 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/kionasmith/2018/06/30/sundays-google-doodle-celebrates-mathematician-gottfried-wilhelm-leibniz/#49745a8e1398">"Sunday's Google Doodle Celebrates Mathematician Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz"</a>. <i>Forbes</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Forbes&rft.atitle=Sunday%27s+Google+Doodle+Celebrates+Mathematician+Gottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz&rft.date=2018-06-30&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Kiona+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.forbes.com%2Fsites%2Fkionasmith%2F2018%2F06%2F30%2Fsundays-google-doodle-celebrates-mathematician-gottfried-wilhelm-leibniz%2F%2349745a8e1398&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-203"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-203">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stephenson, Neal. "How the Baroque Cycle Began" in P.S. of <i><a href="/wiki/Quicksilver_(novel)" title="Quicksilver (novel)">Quicksilver</a></i> Perennial ed. 2004.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-204"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-204">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Letter to <a href="/wiki/Vincent_Placcius" title="Vincent Placcius">Vincent Placcius</a>, 15 September 1695, in <a href="/wiki/Louis_Dutens" title="Louis Dutens">Louis Dutens</a> (ed.), <i>Gothofridi Guillemi Leibnitii Opera Omnia</i>, vol. 6.1, 1768, pp. 59–60.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ce-205"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ce_205-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ce_205-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080107012231/http://www.leibniz-edition.de/">"Leibniz-Edition"</a> (in German). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.leibniz-edition.de/">the original</a> on 7 January 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Leibniz-Edition&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.leibniz-edition.de%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Holland1910-206"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Holland1910_206-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Holland1910_206-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Holland1910_206-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolland1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Holland, Arthur William (1911). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Germany/History"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Germany/History">"Germany/History" </a></span>. In <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 11 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 828–901, see page 899, para two. <q>The two chief collections which were issued by the philosopher are the Accessiones historicae (1698–1700) and the Scriptores rerum Brunsvicensium....</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Germany%2FHistory&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=828-901%2C+see+page+899%2C+para+two&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Holland&rft.aufirst=Arthur+William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Bibliographies">Bibliographies</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Bibliographies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Bodemann, Eduard, <i>Die Leibniz-Handschriften der Königlichen öffentlichen Bibliothek zu Hannover</i>, 1895, (anastatic reprint: Hildesheim, Georg Olms, 1966).</li> <li>Bodemann, Eduard, <i>Der Briefwechsel des Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz in der Königlichen öffentlichen Bibliothek zu Hannover</i>, 1889, (anastatic reprint: Hildesheim, Georg Olms, 1966).</li> <li>Ravier, Émile, <i>Bibliographie des œuvres de Leibniz</i>, Paris: Alcan, 1937 (anastatic reprint Hildesheim: Georg Olms, 1966).</li> <li>Heinekamp, Albert and Mertens, Marlen. <i>Leibniz-Bibliographie. Die Literatur über Leibniz bis 1980</i>, Frankfurt: Vittorio Klostermann, 1984.</li> <li>Heinekamp, Albert and Mertens, Marlen. <i>Leibniz-Bibliographie. Die Literatur über Leibniz. Band II: 1981–1990</i>, Frankfurt: Vittorio Klostermann, 1996.</li></ul> <p>An updated bibliography of more than 25.000 titles is available at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.leibniz-bibliographie.de/DB=1.95/LNG=EN/">Leibniz Bibliographie</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Primary_literature_(chronologically)"><span id="Primary_literature_.28chronologically.29"></span>Primary literature (chronologically)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Primary literature (chronologically)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Wiener, Philip, (ed.), 1951. <i>Leibniz: Selections</i>. Scribner.</li> <li>Schrecker, Paul & Schrecker, Anne Martin, (eds.), 1965. <i>Monadology and other Philosophical Essays</i>. Prentice-Hall.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Henry_Radcliffe_Parkinson" title="George Henry Radcliffe Parkinson">Parkinson, G. H. R.</a> (ed.), 1966. <i>Logical Papers</i>. Clarendon Press.</li> <li>Mason, H. T. & Parkinson, G. H. R. (eds.), 1967. <i>The Leibniz-Arnauld Correspondence</i>. Manchester University Press.</li> <li>Loemker, Leroy, (ed.), 1969 [1956]. <i>Leibniz: Philosophical Papers and Letters</i>. Reidel.</li> <li>Morris, Mary & Parkinson, G. H. R. (eds.), 1973. <i>Philosophical Writings</i>. Everyman's University Library.</li> <li>Riley, Patrick, (ed.), 1988. <i>Leibniz: Political Writings</i>. Cambridge University Press.</li> <li>Niall, R. Martin, D. & Brown, Stuart (eds.), 1988. <i>Discourse on Metaphysics and Related Writings</i>. Manchester University Press.</li> <li>Ariew, Roger and Garber, Daniel. (eds.), 1989. <i>Leibniz: Philosophical Essays</i>. Hackett.</li> <li>Rescher, Nicholas (ed.), 1991. <i>G. W. Leibniz's Monadology. An Edition for Students</i>, University of Pittsburgh Press.</li> <li>Rescher, Nicholas, <i>On Leibniz</i>, (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2013).</li> <li>Parkinson, G. H. R. (ed.) 1992. <i>De Summa Rerum. Metaphysical Papers, 1675–1676</i>. Yale University Press.</li> <li>Cook, Daniel, & Rosemont, Henry Jr., (eds.), 1994. <i>Leibniz: Writings on China</i>. Open Court.</li> <li>Farrer, Austin (ed.), 1995. <i>Theodicy</i>, Open Court.</li> <li>Remnant, Peter, & Bennett, Jonathan, (eds.), 1996 (1981). <i>Leibniz: New Essays on Human Understanding</i>. Cambridge University Press.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Woolhouse" title="Roger Woolhouse">Woolhouse, R. S.</a>, and Francks, R., (eds.), 1997. <i>Leibniz's 'New System' and Associated Contemporary Texts</i>. Oxford University Press.</li> <li>Woolhouse, R. S., and Francks, R., (eds.), 1998. <i>Leibniz: Philosophical Texts</i>. Oxford University Press.</li> <li>Ariew, Roger, (ed.), 2000. <i>G. W. Leibniz and Samuel Clarke: Correspondence</i>. Hackett.</li> <li>Richard T. W. Arthur, (ed.), 2001. <i>The Labyrinth of the Continuum: Writings on the Continuum Problem, 1672–1686</i>. Yale University Press.</li> <li>Richard T. W. Arthur, 2014. <i>Leibniz</i>. John Wiley & Sons.</li> <li>Robert C. Sleigh Jr., (ed.), 2005. <i>Confessio Philosophi: Papers Concerning the Problem of Evil, 1671–1678</i>. Yale University Press.</li> <li>Dascal, Marcelo (ed.), 2006. <i>G. W. Leibniz. The Art of Controversies</i>, Springer.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lloyd_Strickland" title="Lloyd Strickland">Strickland, Lloyd</a>, 2006 (ed.). <i>The Shorter Leibniz Texts: A Collection of New Translations</i>. Continuum.</li> <li>Look, Brandon and Rutherford, Donald (eds.), 2007. <i>The Leibniz-Des Bosses Correspondence</i>, Yale University Press.</li> <li>Cohen, Claudine and Wakefield, Andre, (eds.), 2008. <i>Protogaea</i>. University of Chicago Press.</li> <li>Murray, Michael, (ed.) 2011. <i>Dissertation on Predestination and Grace</i>, Yale University Press.</li> <li>Strickand, Lloyd (ed.), 2011. <i>Leibniz and the two Sophies. The Philosophical Correspondence</i>, Toronto.</li> <li>Lodge, Paul (ed.), 2013. <i>The Leibniz-De Volder Correspondence: With Selections from the Correspondence Between Leibniz and Johann Bernoulli</i>, Yale University Press.</li> <li>Artosi, Alberto, Pieri, Bernardo, Sartor, Giovanni (eds.), 2014. <i>Leibniz: Logico-Philosophical Puzzles in the Law</i>, Springer.</li> <li>De Iuliis, Carmelo Massimo, (ed.), 2017. <i>Leibniz: The New Method of Learning and Teaching Jurisprudence</i>, Talbot, Clark NJ.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Secondary_literature_up_to_1950">Secondary literature up to 1950</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Secondary literature up to 1950"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emil_du_Bois-Reymond" title="Emil du Bois-Reymond">Du Bois-Reymond, Emil</a>, 1912. <i>Leibnizsche Gedanken in der neueren Naturwissenschaft</i>, Berlin: Dummler, 1871 (reprinted in <i>Reden</i>, Leipzig: Veit, vol. 1).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Couturat" title="Louis Couturat">Couturat, Louis</a>, 1901. <i>La Logique de Leibniz</i>. Paris: Felix Alcan.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger, Martin</a>, 1983. <i>The Metaphysical Foundations of Logic</i>. Indiana University Press (lecture course, 1928).</li> <li>Lovejoy, Arthur O., 1957 (1936). "Plenitude and Sufficient Reason in Leibniz and Spinoza" in his <i>The Great Chain of Being</i>. Harvard University Press: 144–182. Reprinted in Frankfurt, H. G., (ed.), 1972. <i>Leibniz: A Collection of Critical Essays</i>. Anchor Books 1972.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton_Mackie" title="John Milton Mackie">Mackie, John Milton</a>; <a href="/wiki/Gottschalk_Eduard_Guhrauer" title="Gottschalk Eduard Guhrauer">Guhrauer, Gottschalk Eduard</a>, 1845. <i>Life of Godfrey William von Leibnitz</i>. Gould, Kendall and Lincoln.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell, Bertrand</a>, 1900, <i>A Critical Exposition of the Philosophy of Leibniz</i>, Cambridge: The University Press.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="SMITH" class="citation book cs1">Smith, David Eugene (1929). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sourcebookinmath0000smit_a3b7"><i>A Source Book in Mathematics</i></a></span>. New York and London: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Source+Book+in+Mathematics&rft.place=New+York+and+London&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Book+Company%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1929&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=David+Eugene&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsourcebookinmath0000smit_a3b7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Adolf_Trendelenburg" title="Friedrich Adolf Trendelenburg">Trendelenburg, F. A.</a>, 1857, "Über Leibnizens Entwurf einer allgemeinen Charakteristik," <i>Philosophische Abhandlungen der Königlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin. Aus dem Jahr 1856</i>, Berlin: Commission Dümmler, pp. 36–69.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdolphus_William_Ward1911" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Adolphus_Ward" title="Adolphus Ward">Adolphus William Ward</a> (1911), <i><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Leibniz_as_a_Politician" class="extiw" title="s:Leibniz as a Politician">Leibniz as a Politician: The Adamson Lecture, 1910</a></i> (1st ed.), Manchester, <a href="/wiki/WDQ_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="WDQ (identifier)">Wikidata</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q19095295" class="extiw" title="d:Q19095295">Q19095295</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Leibniz+as+a+Politician%3A+The+Adamson+Lecture%2C+1910&rft.place=Manchester&rft.edition=1st&rft.date=1911&rft.au=Adolphus+William+Ward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Citation" title="Template:Citation">citation</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span> (lecture)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Secondary_literature_post-1950">Secondary literature post-1950</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Secondary literature post-1950"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Adams, Robert Merrihew. 1994. <i>Leibniz: Determinist, Theist, Idealist</i>. New York: Oxford, Oxford University Press.</li> <li>Aiton, Eric J., 1985. <i>Leibniz: A Biography</i>. Hilger (UK).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Rosa_Antognazza" title="Maria Rosa Antognazza">Antognazza, Maria Rosa</a>, 2008. <i>Leibniz: An Intellectual Biography</i>. Cambridge Univ. Press.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarrowTipler1986" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_D._Barrow" title="John D. Barrow">Barrow, John D.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Frank_J._Tipler" title="Frank J. Tipler">Tipler, Frank J.</a> (1986). <i><a href="/wiki/The_Anthropic_Cosmological_Principle" class="mw-redirect" title="The Anthropic Cosmological Principle">The Anthropic Cosmological Principle</a></i> (1st ed.). <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-282147-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-282147-8"><bdi>978-0-19-282147-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/87028148">87028148</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Anthropic+Cosmological+Principle&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F87028148&rft.isbn=978-0-19-282147-8&rft.aulast=Barrow&rft.aufirst=John+D.&rft.au=Tipler%2C+Frank+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Borowski, Audrey, 2024. <i>Leibniz in His World: The Making of a Savant</i>. Princeton University Press. (<a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://press.princeton.edu/books/hardcover/9780691260747/leibniz-in-his-world">https://press.princeton.edu/books/hardcover/9780691260747/leibniz-in-his-world</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBos1974" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Henk_J._M._Bos" title="Henk J. M. Bos">Bos, H. J. M.</a> (1974). "Differentials, higher-order differentials and the derivative in the Leibnizian calculus". <i>Archive for History of Exact Sciences</i>. <b>14</b>: 1–90. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fbf00327456">10.1007/bf00327456</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:120779114">120779114</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Archive+for+History+of+Exact+Sciences&rft.atitle=Differentials%2C+higher-order+differentials+and+the+derivative+in+the+Leibnizian+calculus&rft.volume=14&rft.pages=1-90&rft.date=1974&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fbf00327456&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A120779114%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Bos&rft.aufirst=H.+J.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Brown, Stuart (ed.), 1999. <i>The Young Leibniz and His Philosophy (1646–76)</i>, Dordrecht, Kluwer.</li> <li>Connelly, Stephen, 2021. ‘’Leibniz: A Contribution to the Archaeology of Power’’, Edinburgh University Press <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4744-1808-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4744-1808-9">978-1-4744-1808-9</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Davis_(mathematician)" title="Martin Davis (mathematician)">Davis, Martin</a>, 2000. <i>The Universal Computer: The Road from Leibniz to Turing</i>. WW Norton.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Deleuze, Gilles</a>, 1993. <i>The Fold: Leibniz and the Baroque</i>. University of Minnesota Press.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jochen_Fahrenberg" title="Jochen Fahrenberg">Fahrenberg, Jochen</a>, 2017. PsyDok ZPID <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://psydok.psycharchives.de/jspui/bitstream/20.500.11780/3772/1/The%20influence%20of%20Gottfried%20Wilhelm%20Leibniz%20on%20the%20Psychology%2C%20Philosophy%2C%20and%20Ethics%20of%20Wilhelm%20Wundt.pdf">The influence of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz on the Psychology, Philosophy, and Ethics of Wilhelm Wundt.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jochen_Fahrenberg" title="Jochen Fahrenberg">Fahrenberg, Jochen</a>, 2020. <i>Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920). Introduction, Quotations, Reception, Commentaries, Attempts at Reconstruction</i>. Pabst Science Publishers, Lengerich 2020, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-95853-574-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-95853-574-9">978-3-95853-574-9</a>.</li> <li>Finster, Reinhard & van den Heuvel, Gerd 2000. <i>Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</i>. Mit Selbstzeugnissen und Bilddokumenten. 4. Auflage. Rowohlt, Reinbek bei Hamburg (Rowohlts Monographien, 50481), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-499-50481-2" title="Special:BookSources/3-499-50481-2">3-499-50481-2</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivor_Grattan-Guinness" title="Ivor Grattan-Guinness">Grattan-Guinness, Ivor</a>, 1997. <i>The Norton History of the Mathematical Sciences</i>. W W Norton.</li> <li>Hall, A. R., 1980. <i>Philosophers at War: The Quarrel between Newton and Leibniz</i>. Cambridge University Press.</li> <li>Hamza, Gabor, 2005. "Le développement du droit privé européen". ELTE Eotvos Kiado Budapest.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoeflich1986" class="citation journal cs1">Hoeflich, M. H. (1986). "Law & Geometry: Legal Science from Leibniz to Langdell". <i>American Journal of Legal History</i>. <b>30</b> (2): 95–121. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F845705">10.2307/845705</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/845705">845705</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Legal+History&rft.atitle=Law+%26+Geometry%3A+Legal+Science+from+Leibniz+to+Langdell&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=95-121&rft.date=1986&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F845705&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F845705%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Hoeflich&rft.aufirst=M.+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Hostler, John, 1975. <i>Leibniz's Moral Philosophy</i>. UK: Duckworth.</li> <li>Ishiguro, Hidé 1990. <i>Leibniz's Philosophy of Logic and Language</i>. Cambridge University Press.</li> <li>Jolley, Nicholas, (ed.), 1995. <i>The Cambridge Companion to Leibniz</i>. Cambridge University Press.</li> <li>Kaldis, Byron, 2011. <i>Leibniz' Argument for Innate Ideas</i> in Just the Arguments: 100 of the Most Important Arguments in Western Philosophy edited by M Bruce & S Barbone. Blackwell.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKarabell2003" class="citation book cs1">Karabell, Zachary (2003). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/partingdesertcre00kara"><i>Parting the desert: the creation of the Suez Canal</i></a></span>. Alfred A. Knopf. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-375-40883-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-375-40883-0"><bdi>978-0-375-40883-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Parting+the+desert%3A+the+creation+of+the+Suez+Canal&rft.pub=Alfred+A.+Knopf&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-375-40883-0&rft.aulast=Karabell&rft.aufirst=Zachary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpartingdesertcre00kara&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Kromer, Ralf, and Yannick Chin-Drian. <i>New Essays on Leibniz Reception: In Science and Philosophy of Science 1800-2000.</i> 1st ed. 2012. Heidelberg: Birkhauser, 2012.</li> <li>LeClerc, Ivor (ed.), 1973. <i>The Philosophy of Leibniz and the Modern World</i>. Vanderbilt University Press.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLuchte2006" class="citation journal cs1">Luchte, James (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://luchte.wordpress.com/mathesis-and-analysis-finitude-and-the-infinite-in-the-monadology-of-leibniz/">"Mathesis and Analysis: Finitude and the Infinite in the Monadology of Leibniz"</a>. <i>Heythrop Journal</i>. <b>47</b> (4): 519–543. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1468-2265.2006.00296.x">10.1111/j.1468-2265.2006.00296.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Heythrop+Journal&rft.atitle=Mathesis+and+Analysis%3A+Finitude+and+the+Infinite+in+the+Monadology+of+Leibniz&rft.volume=47&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=519-543&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1468-2265.2006.00296.x&rft.aulast=Luchte&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fluchte.wordpress.com%2Fmathesis-and-analysis-finitude-and-the-infinite-in-the-monadology-of-leibniz%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benson_Mates" title="Benson Mates">Mates, Benson</a>, 1986. <i>The Philosophy of Leibniz: Metaphysics and Language</i>. Oxford University Press.</li> <li>Mercer, Christia, 2001. <i>Leibniz's Metaphysics: Its Origins and Development</i>. Cambridge University Press.</li> <li>Perkins, Franklin, 2004. <i>Leibniz and China: A Commerce of Light</i>. Cambridge University Press.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_T._Riley" title="Patrick T. Riley">Riley, Patrick</a>, 1996. <i>Leibniz's Universal Jurisprudence: Justice as the Charity of the Wise</i>. Harvard University Press.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Rutherford_(philosopher)" title="Donald Rutherford (philosopher)">Rutherford, Donald</a>, 1998. <i><a href="/wiki/Leibniz_and_the_Rational_Order_of_Nature" title="Leibniz and the Rational Order of Nature">Leibniz and the Rational Order of Nature</a></i>. Cambridge University Press.</li> <li>Schulte-Albert, H. G. (1971). Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz and Library Classification. <i>The Journal of Library History</i> (1966–1972), (2). 133–152.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSepioł2003" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Sepioł, Zbigniew (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=7331">"Legal and political thought of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz"</a>. <i>Studia Iuridica</i> (in Polish). <b>41</b>: 227–250 – via <a href="/wiki/CEEOL" class="mw-redirect" title="CEEOL">CEEOL</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Studia+Iuridica&rft.atitle=Legal+and+political+thought+of+Gottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz&rft.volume=41&rft.pages=227-250&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Sepio%C5%82&rft.aufirst=Zbigniew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ceeol.com%2Fsearch%2Farticle-detail%3Fid%3D7331&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Smith, Justin E. H., 2011. <i>Divine Machines. Leibniz and the Sciences of Life</i>, Princeton University Press.</li> <li>Wilson, Catherine, 1989. <i>Leibniz's Metaphysics: A Historical and Comparative Study</i>. <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZalta2000" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta, E. N.</a> (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mally.stanford.edu/Papers/leibniz.pdf">"A (Leibnizian) Theory of Concepts"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Philosophiegeschichte und Logische Analyse / Logical Analysis and History of Philosophy</i>. <b>3</b>: 137–183. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.30965%2F26664275-00301008">10.30965/26664275-00301008</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophiegeschichte+und+Logische+Analyse+%2F+Logical+Analysis+and+History+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=A+%28Leibnizian%29+Theory+of+Concepts&rft.volume=3&rft.pages=137-183&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.30965%2F26664275-00301008&rft.aulast=Zalta&rft.aufirst=E.+N.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmally.stanford.edu%2FPapers%2Fleibniz.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has the text of the <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">1911 <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i></a> article "<span style="font-weight:bold;"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Leibnitz,_Gottfried_Wilhelm" class="extiw" title="wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Leibnitz, Gottfried Wilhelm">Leibnitz, Gottfried Wilhelm</a></span>".</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; 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In <a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta, Edward N.</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Gottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.aulast=Look&rft.aufirst=Brandon+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fleibniz%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeckhaus" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Peckhaus, Volker. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/leibniz-logic-influence/">"Leibniz's Influence on 19th Century Logic"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta, Edward N.</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Leibniz%27s+Influence+on+19th+Century+Logic&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.aulast=Peckhaus&rft.aufirst=Volker&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fleibniz-logic-influence%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurnham" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Burnham, Douglas. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/leib-met">"Gottfried Leibniz: Metaphysics"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Gottfried+Leibniz%3A+Metaphysics&rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.aulast=Burnham&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fleib-met&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarlin" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Carlin, Laurence. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/leib-cau">"Gottfried Leibniz: Causation"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Gottfried+Leibniz%3A+Causation&rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.aulast=Carlin&rft.aufirst=Laurence&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fleib-cau&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Horn, Joshua. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/leibniz-modal-metaphysics">"Leibniz: Modal Metaphysics"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Leibniz%3A+Modal+Metaphysics&rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fleibniz-modal-metaphysics&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Jorarti, Julia. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/leibniz-mind">"Leibniz: Philosophy of Mind"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Leibniz%3A+Philosophy+of+Mind&rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fleibniz-mind&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLenzen" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Lenzen, Wolfgang. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/leib-log">"Leibniz: Logic"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Leibniz%3A+Logic&rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.aulast=Lenzen&rft.aufirst=Wolfgang&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fleib-log&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'ConnorRobertson" class="citation cs2">O'Connor, John J.; <a href="/wiki/Edmund_F._Robertson" title="Edmund F. Robertson">Robertson, Edmund F.</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Leibniz.html">"Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz"</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/MacTutor_History_of_Mathematics_Archive" title="MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive">MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_St_Andrews" title="University of St Andrews">University of St Andrews</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Gottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz&rft.btitle=MacTutor+History+of+Mathematics+Archive&rft.pub=University+of+St+Andrews&rft.aulast=O%27Connor&rft.aufirst=John+J.&rft.au=Robertson%2C+Edmund+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk%2FBiographies%2FLeibniz.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mathgenealogy.org/id.php?id=60985">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Mathematics_Genealogy_Project" title="Mathematics Genealogy Project">Mathematics Genealogy Project</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlymoderntexts.com/">Translations</a> by <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Bennett_(philosopher)" title="Jonathan Bennett (philosopher)">Jonathan Bennett</a>, of the <i>New Essays</i>, the exchanges with Bayle, Arnauld and Clarke, and about 15 shorter works.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110411024054/http://philosophyfaculty.ucsd.edu/faculty/rutherford/Leibniz/index.html">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz: Texts and Translations</a>, compiled by Donald Rutherford, <a href="/wiki/UCSD" class="mw-redirect" title="UCSD">UCSD</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160609145125/http://www.gwleibniz.com/">Leibnitiana</a>, links and resources edited by Gregory Brown, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Houston" title="University of Houston">University of Houston</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/philosophicalwor00leibuoft">Philosophical Works of Leibniz translated by G.M. Duncan (1890)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181106203853/https://simplycharly.com/people/gottfried-wilhelm-von-leibniz/read/interviews/nicholas-rescher-on-gottfried-wilhelm-von-leibniz">The Best of All Possible Worlds: Nicholas Rescher Talks About Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz's "Versatility and Creativity"</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lhldigital.lindahall.org/cdm/ref/collection/earththeory/id/10169">"Protogæa"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200801085250/http://lhldigital.lindahall.org/cdm/ref/collection/earththeory/id/10169">Archived</a> 1 August 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (1693, Latin, in <i>Acta eruditorum</i>) – <a href="/wiki/Linda_Hall_Library" title="Linda Hall Library">Linda Hall Library</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lhldigital.lindahall.org/cdm/ref/collection/earththeory/id/1694"><i>Protogaea</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200801045045/http://lhldigital.lindahall.org/cdm/ref/collection/earththeory/id/1694">Archived</a> 1 August 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (1749, German) – full digital facsimile from <a href="/wiki/Linda_Hall_Library" title="Linda Hall Library">Linda Hall Library</a></li> <li>Leibniz's (1768, 6-volume) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lhldigital.lindahall.org/cdm/search/collection/philsci/searchterm/omnia!Leibniz/field/title!creato/mode/all!all/conn/and!and/order/nosort"><i>Opera omnia</i></a> – digital facsimile</li> <li>Leibniz's arithmetical machine, 1710, online and analyzed on <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bibnum.education.fr/calculinformatique/calcul/la-machine-calculer-de-leibniz">BibNum</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170724141910/https://www.bibnum.education.fr/calculinformatique/calcul/la-machine-calculer-de-leibniz">Archived</a> 24 July 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i> <small>[click 'à télécharger' for English analysis]</small></li> <li>Leibniz's binary numeral system, 'De progressione dyadica', 1679, online and analyzed on <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bibnum.education.fr/calculinformatique/calcul/de-la-numeration-binaire">BibNum</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170724144833/https://www.bibnum.education.fr/calculinformatique/calcul/de-la-numeration-binaire">Archived</a> 24 July 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i> <small>[click 'à télécharger' for English analysis]</small></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link 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href="/wiki/Template_talk:Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Template talk:Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Mathematics and<br />philosophy</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternating_series_test" title="Alternating series test">Alternating series test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Best_of_all_possible_worlds" title="Best of all possible worlds">Best of all possible worlds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leibniz%E2%80%93Newton_calculus_controversy" title="Leibniz–Newton calculus controversy">Calculus controversy</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Calculus_ratiocinator" title="Calculus ratiocinator">Calculus ratiocinator</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Characteristica_universalis" title="Characteristica universalis">Characteristica universalis</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compossibility" title="Compossibility">Compossibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Difference_(philosophy)" title="Difference (philosophy)">Difference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamism_(metaphysics)" title="Dynamism (metaphysics)">Dynamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_of_indiscernibles" title="Identity of indiscernibles">Identity of indiscernibles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individuation" title="Individuation">Individuation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_continuity" title="Law of continuity">Law of continuity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leibniz_wheel" title="Leibniz wheel">Leibniz wheel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leibniz%27s_gap" title="Leibniz's gap">Leibniz's gap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leibniz%27s_notation" title="Leibniz's notation">Leibniz's notation</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lingua_generalis" title="Lingua generalis">Lingua generalis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mathesis_universalis" title="Mathesis universalis">Mathesis universalis</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-established_harmony" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-established harmony">Pre-established harmony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_plenitude" title="Principle of plenitude">Plenitude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_sufficient_reason" title="Principle of sufficient reason">Sufficient reason</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Salva_veritate" title="Salva veritate">Salva veritate</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_law_of_homogeneity" title="Transcendental law of homogeneity">Transcendental law of homogeneity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_science" title="Universal science">Universal science</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vis_viva" title="Vis viva">Vis viva</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Well-founded_phenomenon" class="mw-redirect" title="Well-founded phenomenon">Well-founded phenomenon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/De_Arte_Combinatoria" title="De Arte Combinatoria">De Arte Combinatoria</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1666)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Discourse_on_Metaphysics" title="Discourse on Metaphysics">Discourse on Metaphysics</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1686)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/New_Essays_on_Human_Understanding" title="New Essays on Human Understanding">New Essays on Human Understanding</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1704)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9odic%C3%A9e" title="Théodicée">Théodicée</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1710)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Monadology" title="Monadology">Monadology</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1714)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leibniz%E2%80%93Clarke_correspondence" title="Leibniz–Clarke correspondence">Leibniz–Clarke correspondence</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1715–1716)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Category:Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Category</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Links_to_related_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#e8e8ff;"><div id="Links_to_related_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Links to related articles</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-size:114%"><div style="padding:0px"> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Age_of_Enlightenment" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Template:Age of Enlightenment"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Template talk:Age of Enlightenment"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Age of Enlightenment"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Age_of_Enlightenment" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atheism_during_the_Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Atheism during the Age of Enlightenment">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">Civil liberties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classicism" title="Classicism">Classicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Enlightenment" title="Counter-Enlightenment">Counter-Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_thinking" title="Critical thinking">Critical thinking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">Deism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A9distes" title="Encyclopédistes">Encyclopédistes</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enlightened_absolutism" title="Enlightened absolutism">Enlightened absolutism</a></li> <li><span title="Hebrew-language text"><i lang="he-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Libert%C3%A9,_%C3%A9galit%C3%A9,_fraternit%C3%A9" title="Liberté, égalité, fraternité">Liberté, égalité, fraternité</a></i></span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lumi%C3%A8res" title="Lumières">Lumières</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartesian_doubt" title="Cartesian doubt">Methodological skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midlands_Enlightenment" title="Midlands Enlightenment">Midlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">Modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">Natural philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressivism" title="Progressivism">Progressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationality" title="Rationality">Rationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">Reason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Sapere_aude" title="Sapere aude">Sapere aude</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Science in the Age of Enlightenment">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_American_Enlightenment" title="Spanish American Enlightenment">Spanish America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universality_(philosophy)" title="Universality (philosophy)">Universality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utopianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Utopianism">Utopianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Thinkers" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Thinkers</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">England</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Addison" title="Joseph Addison">Addison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Ashley-Cooper,_3rd_Earl_of_Shaftesbury" title="Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury">Ashley-Cooper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Collins_(philosopher)" title="Anthony Collins (philosopher)">Collins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Gibbon" title="Edward Gibbon">Gibbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Godwin" title="William Godwin">Godwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Harrington_(author)" title="James Harrington (author)">Harrington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Hooke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Johnson" title="Samuel Johnson">Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pope" title="Alexander Pope">Pope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Price" title="Richard Price">Price</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Priestley" title="Joseph Priestley">Priestley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joshua_Reynolds" title="Joshua Reynolds">Reynolds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algernon_Sidney" title="Algernon Sidney">Sidney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Tindal" title="Matthew Tindal">Tindal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Wollstonecraft" title="Mary Wollstonecraft">Wollstonecraft</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">France</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jean_le_Rond_d%27Alembert" title="Jean le Rond d'Alembert">d'Alembert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Louis_de_Voyer_de_Paulmy_d%27Argenson" class="mw-redirect" title="René Louis de Voyer de Paulmy d'Argenson">d'Argenson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Bayle" title="Pierre Bayle">Bayle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Beaumarchais" title="Pierre Beaumarchais">Beaumarchais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Chamfort" title="Nicolas Chamfort">Chamfort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89milie_du_Ch%C3%A2telet" title="Émilie du Châtelet">Châtelet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Bonnot_de_Condillac" title="Étienne Bonnot de Condillac">Condillac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denis_Diderot" title="Denis Diderot">Diderot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Le_Bovier_de_Fontenelle" title="Bernard Le Bovier de Fontenelle">Fontenelle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olympe_de_Gouges" title="Olympe de Gouges">Gouges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius" title="Claude Adrien Helvétius">Helvétius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baron_d%27Holbach" title="Baron d'Holbach">d'Holbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Jaucourt" title="Louis de Jaucourt">Jaucourt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julien_Offray_de_La_Mettrie" title="Julien Offray de La Mettrie">La Mettrie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Lavoisier" title="Antoine Lavoisier">Lavoisier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges-Louis_Leclerc,_Comte_de_Buffon" title="Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon">Leclerc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Bonnot_de_Mably" title="Gabriel Bonnot de Mably">Mably</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylvain_Mar%C3%A9chal" title="Sylvain Maréchal">Maréchal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Meslier" title="Jean Meslier">Meslier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne-Gabriel_Morelly" title="Étienne-Gabriel Morelly">Morelly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Pascal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Quesnay" title="François Quesnay">Quesnay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guillaume_Thomas_Fran%C3%A7ois_Raynal" title="Guillaume Thomas François Raynal">Raynal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Sade" title="Marquis de Sade">Sade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot" title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot">Turgot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Geneva</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Firmin_Abauzit" title="Firmin Abauzit">Abauzit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Bonnet" title="Charles Bonnet">Bonnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Burlamaqui" title="Jean-Jacques Burlamaqui">Burlamaqui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Pr%C3%A9vost_(physicist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pierre Prévost (physicist)">Prévost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horace_B%C3%A9n%C3%A9dict_de_Saussure" title="Horace Bénédict de Saussure">Saussure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Germany</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Goethe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_von_Humboldt" title="Wilhelm von Humboldt">Humboldt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gotthold_Ephraim_Lessing" title="Gotthold Ephraim Lessing">Lessing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Christoph_Lichtenberg" title="Georg Christoph Lichtenberg">Lichtenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moses_Mendelssohn" title="Moses Mendelssohn">Mendelssohn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_von_Pufendorf" title="Samuel von Pufendorf">Pufendorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schiller" title="Friedrich Schiller">Schiller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Thomasius" title="Christian Thomasius">Thomasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Weishaupt" title="Adam Weishaupt">Weishaupt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christoph_Martin_Wieland" title="Christoph Martin Wieland">Wieland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Wolff_(philosopher)" title="Christian Wolff (philosopher)">Wolff</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_Greek_Enlightenment" title="Modern Greek Enlightenment">Greece</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theoklitos_Farmakidis" title="Theoklitos Farmakidis">Farmakidis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rigas_Feraios" title="Rigas Feraios">Feraios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theophilos_Kairis" title="Theophilos Kairis">Kairis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adamantios_Korais" title="Adamantios Korais">Korais</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ireland</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyle" title="Robert Boyle">Boyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Swift" title="Jonathan Swift">Swift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Toland" title="John Toland">Toland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Italian_Enlightenment" title="Italian Enlightenment">Italy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferdinando_Galiani" title="Ferdinando Galiani">Galiani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luigi_Galvani" title="Luigi Galvani">Galvani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Genovesi" title="Antonio Genovesi">Genovesi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Mario_Pagano" title="Francesco Mario Pagano">Pagano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pietro_Verri" title="Pietro Verri">Verri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giambattista_Vico" title="Giambattista Vico">Vico</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Netherlands</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balthasar_Bekker" title="Balthasar Bekker">Bekker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pieter_de_la_Court" title="Pieter de la Court">de la Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Grotius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Huygens" title="Christiaan Huygens">Huygens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adriaan_Koerbagh" title="Adriaan Koerbagh">Koerbagh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonie_van_Leeuwenhoek" title="Antonie van Leeuwenhoek">Leeuwenhoek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Mandeville" title="Bernard Mandeville">Mandeville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lodewijk_Meyer" title="Lodewijk Meyer">Meyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Nieuwentyt" title="Bernard Nieuwentyt">Nieuwentyt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Swammerdam" title="Jan Swammerdam">Swammerdam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Enlightenment in Poland">Poland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Ko%C5%82%C5%82%C4%85taj" title="Hugo Kołłątaj">Kołłątaj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Konarski" title="Stanisław Konarski">Konarski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignacy_Krasicki" title="Ignacy Krasicki">Krasicki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Ursyn_Niemcewicz" title="Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz">Niemcewicz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_August_Poniatowski" title="Stanisław August Poniatowski">Poniatowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C4%99drzej_%C5%9Aniadecki" title="Jędrzej Śniadecki">Śniadecki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Staszic" title="Stanisław Staszic">Staszic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Wybicki" title="Józef Wybicki">Wybicki</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Portugal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sebasti%C3%A3o_Jos%C3%A9_de_Carvalho_e_Melo,_1st_Marquis_of_Pombal" title="Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, 1st Marquis of Pombal">Carvalho e Melo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Romania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ion_Budai-Deleanu" title="Ion Budai-Deleanu">Budai-Deleanu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petru_Maior" title="Petru Maior">Maior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuil_Micu-Klein" title="Samuil Micu-Klein">Micu-Klein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gheorghe_%C8%98incai" title="Gheorghe Șincai">Șincai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Russian_Enlightenment" title="Russian Enlightenment">Russia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catherine_the_Great" title="Catherine the Great">Catherine II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denis_Fonvizin" title="Denis Fonvizin">Fonvizin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiochus_Kantemir" title="Antiochus Kantemir">Kantemir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Kheraskov" title="Mikhail Kheraskov">Kheraskov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Lomonosov" title="Mikhail Lomonosov">Lomonosov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Novikov" title="Nikolay Novikov">Novikov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Radishchev" title="Alexander Radishchev">Radishchev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yekaterina_Vorontsova-Dashkova" title="Yekaterina Vorontsova-Dashkova">Vorontsova-Dashkova</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Serbia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dositej_Obradovi%C4%87" title="Dositej Obradović">Obradović</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avram_Mrazovi%C4%87" title="Avram Mrazović">Mrazović</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Spain" title="Enlightenment in Spain">Spain</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Cadalso" title="José Cadalso">Cadalso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_III_of_Spain" title="Charles III of Spain">Charles III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benito_Jer%C3%B3nimo_Feij%C3%B3o_y_Montenegro" title="Benito Jerónimo Feijóo y Montenegro">Feijóo y Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leandro_Fern%C3%A1ndez_de_Morat%C3%ADn" title="Leandro Fernández de Moratín">Moratín</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaspar_Melchor_de_Jovellanos" title="Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos">Jovellanos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diego_de_Torres_Villarroel" title="Diego de Torres Villarroel">Villarroel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Enlightenment" title="Scottish Enlightenment">Scotland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_Beattie_(poet)" title="James Beattie (poet)">Beattie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Black" title="Joseph Black">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Blair" title="Hugh Blair">Blair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Boswell" title="James Boswell">Boswell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Burnett,_Lord_Monboddo" title="James Burnett, Lord Monboddo">Burnett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Burns" title="Robert Burns">Burns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Cullen" title="William Cullen">Cullen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Ferguson" title="Adam Ferguson">Ferguson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Hutcheson_(philosopher)" title="Francis Hutcheson (philosopher)">Hutcheson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Hutton" title="James Hutton">Hutton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Mill" title="James Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Playfair" title="John Playfair">Playfair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Reid" title="Thomas Reid">Reid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dugald_Stewart" title="Dugald Stewart">Stewart</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/American_Enlightenment" title="American Enlightenment">United States</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Mason" title="George Mason">Mason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div><div style="position:relative;"> <div style="position:absolute;right:0;"><b><a href="/wiki/Template:Romanticism" title="Template:Romanticism">Romanticism</a> →</b></div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Category:Age of Enlightenment">Category</a></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Infinitesimals" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Infinitesimals" title="Template:Infinitesimals"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Infinitesimals" title="Template talk:Infinitesimals"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Infinitesimals" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Infinitesimals"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Infinitesimals" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Infinitesimal" title="Infinitesimal">Infinitesimals</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adequality" title="Adequality">Adequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leibniz%27s_notation" title="Leibniz's notation">Leibniz's notation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integral_symbol" title="Integral symbol">Integral symbol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_nonstandard_analysis" title="Criticism of nonstandard analysis">Criticism of nonstandard analysis</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Analyst" title="The Analyst">The Analyst</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Method_of_Mechanical_Theorems" title="The Method of Mechanical Theorems">The Method of Mechanical Theorems</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cavalieri%27s_principle" title="Cavalieri's principle">Cavalieri's principle</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:German_integral.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/German_integral.gif/50px-German_integral.gif" decoding="async" width="50" height="92" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/German_integral.gif/75px-German_integral.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b5/German_integral.gif 2x" data-file-width="84" data-file-height="155" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related branches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nonstandard_analysis" title="Nonstandard analysis">Nonstandard analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonstandard_calculus" title="Nonstandard calculus">Nonstandard calculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_set_theory" title="Internal set theory">Internal set theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_differential_geometry" title="Synthetic differential geometry">Synthetic differential geometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smooth_infinitesimal_analysis" title="Smooth infinitesimal analysis">Smooth infinitesimal analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_nonstandard_analysis" title="Constructive nonstandard analysis">Constructive nonstandard analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infinitesimal_strain_theory" title="Infinitesimal strain theory">Infinitesimal strain theory (physics)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Formalizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Differential_(mathematics)" title="Differential (mathematics)">Differentials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperreal_number" title="Hyperreal number">Hyperreal numbers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_number" title="Dual number">Dual numbers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surreal_number" title="Surreal number">Surreal numbers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Individual concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Standard_part_function" title="Standard part function">Standard part function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transfer_principle" title="Transfer principle">Transfer principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperinteger" title="Hyperinteger">Hyperinteger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Increment_theorem" title="Increment theorem">Increment theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monad_(nonstandard_analysis)" title="Monad (nonstandard analysis)">Monad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_set" title="Internal set">Internal set</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levi-Civita_field" title="Levi-Civita field">Levi-Civita field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperfinite_set" title="Hyperfinite set">Hyperfinite set</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_continuity" title="Law of continuity">Law of continuity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overspill" title="Overspill">Overspill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microcontinuity" title="Microcontinuity">Microcontinuity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_law_of_homogeneity" title="Transcendental law of homogeneity">Transcendental law of homogeneity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mathematicians</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Robinson" title="Abraham Robinson">Abraham Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_de_Fermat" title="Pierre de Fermat">Pierre de Fermat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustin-Louis_Cauchy" title="Augustin-Louis Cauchy">Augustin-Louis Cauchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonhard_Euler" title="Leonhard Euler">Leonhard Euler</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Textbooks</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-style:italic;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analyse_des_Infiniment_Petits_pour_l%27Intelligence_des_Lignes_Courbes" title="Analyse des Infiniment Petits pour l'Intelligence des Lignes Courbes">Analyse des Infiniment Petits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elementary_Calculus:_An_Infinitesimal_Approach" title="Elementary Calculus: An Infinitesimal Approach">Elementary Calculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cours_d%27Analyse" title="Cours d'Analyse">Cours d'Analyse</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Metaphysics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Metaphysics" title="Template:Metaphysics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Metaphysics" title="Template talk:Metaphysics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Metaphysics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Metaphysics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Metaphysics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_object_theory" title="Abstract object theory">Abstract object theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enactivism" title="Enactivism">Enactivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essentialism" title="Essentialism">Essentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_of_life" title="Meaning of life">Meaning of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(philosophy)" title="Spiritualism (philosophy)">Spiritualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substance_theory" title="Substance theory">Substance theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_forms" title="Theory of forms">Theory of forms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truthmaker_theory" title="Truthmaker theory">Truthmaker theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type_theory" title="Type theory">Type theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_and_concrete" title="Abstract and concrete">Abstract object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anima_mundi" title="Anima mundi">Anima mundi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category_of_being" class="mw-redirect" title="Category of being">Category of being</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">Causality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causal_closure" title="Causal closure">Causal closure</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cogito,_ergo_sum" title="Cogito, ergo sum">Cogito, ergo sum</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">Concept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embodied_cognition" title="Embodied cognition">Embodied cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entity" title="Entity">Entity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essence" title="Essence">Essence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existence" title="Existence">Existence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experience" title="Experience">Experience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypostatic_abstraction" title="Hypostatic abstraction">Hypostatic abstraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idea" title="Idea">Idea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(philosophy)" title="Identity (philosophy)">Identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information" title="Information">Information</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Data" title="Data">Data</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insight" title="Insight">Insight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intention" title="Intention">Intention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_modality" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic modality">Linguistic modality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_matter" title="Philosophy of matter">Matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_(existential)" title="Meaning (existential)">Meaning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_representation" title="Mental representation">Mental representation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">Mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motion" title="Motion">Motion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_(philosophy)" title="Nature (philosophy)">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_necessity" title="Metaphysical necessity">Necessity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Object_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Object (philosophy)">Object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pattern" title="Pattern">Pattern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_object" title="Physical object">Physical object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle" title="Principle">Principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_(philosophy)" title="Property (philosophy)">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualia" title="Qualia">Qualia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quality_(philosophy)" title="Quality (philosophy)">Quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relations_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Relations (philosophy)">Relation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self" title="Self">Self</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">Soul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subject_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject (philosophy)">Subject</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substantial_form" title="Substantial form">Substantial form</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thought" title="Thought">Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">Time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type%E2%80%93token_distinction" title="Type–token distinction">Type–token distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_(metaphysics)" title="Universal (metaphysics)">Universal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unobservable" title="Unobservable">Unobservable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Value (ethics)">Value</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Index_of_metaphysics_articles" title="Index of metaphysics articles">more ...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_metaphysicians" title="List of metaphysicians">Metaphysicians</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parmenides" title="Parmenides">Parmenides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclus" title="Proclus">Proclus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plotinus" title="Plotinus">Plotinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duns_Scotus" title="Duns Scotus">Scotus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Suárez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Malebranche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Wolff_(philosopher)" title="Christian Wolff (philosopher)">Wolff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Reid" title="Thomas Reid">Reid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Bolzano" title="Bernard Bolzano">Bolzano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Lotze" title="Hermann Lotze">Lotze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Peirce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexius_Meinong" title="Alexius Meinong">Meinong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Bergson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Whitehead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._G._Collingwood" title="R. G. Collingwood">Collingwood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Carnap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Ryle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Davidson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">Strawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">Anscombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Deleuze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Dummett" title="Michael Dummett">Dummett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Malet_Armstrong" title="David Malet Armstrong">Armstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Putnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Plantinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Kripke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Parfit</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_metaphysicians" title="List of metaphysicians">more ...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Notable works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Sophist_(dialogue)" title="Sophist (dialogue)">Sophist</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 350 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Timaeus_(dialogue)" title="Timaeus (dialogue)">Timaeus</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 350 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ny%C4%81ya_S%C5%ABtras" title="Nyāya Sūtras">Nyāya Sūtras</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 200 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_rerum_natura" title="De rerum natura">De rerum natura</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 80 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics_(Aristotle)" title="Metaphysics (Aristotle)">Metaphysics</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 50)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Enneads" title="Enneads">Enneads</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 270)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Daneshnameh-ye_Alai" class="mw-redirect" title="Daneshnameh-ye Alai">Daneshnameh-ye Alai</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 1000)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Meditations_on_First_Philosophy" title="Meditations on First Philosophy">Meditations on First Philosophy</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1641)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ethics_(Spinoza_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethics (Spinoza book)">Ethics</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1677)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Treatise_Concerning_the_Principles_of_Human_Knowledge" title="A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge">A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1710)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Monadology" title="Monadology">Monadology</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1714)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason" title="Critique of Pure Reason">Critique of Pure Reason</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1781)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Prolegomena_to_Any_Future_Metaphysics" title="Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics">Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1783)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Phenomenology_of_Spirit" title="The Phenomenology of Spirit">The Phenomenology of Spirit</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1807)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_World_as_Will_and_Representation" title="The World as Will and Representation">The World as Will and Representation</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1818)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Concluding_Unscientific_Postscript_to_Philosophical_Fragments" title="Concluding Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical Fragments">Concluding Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical Fragments</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1846)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Being_and_Time" title="Being and Time">Being and Time</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1927)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Being_and_Nothingness" title="Being and Nothingness">Being and Nothingness</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1943)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Simulacra_and_Simulation" title="Simulacra and Simulation">Simulacra and Simulation</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1981)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">Cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_metaphysics" title="Feminist metaphysics">Feminist metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interpretations_of_quantum_mechanics" title="Interpretations of quantum mechanics">Interpretations of quantum mechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mereology" title="Mereology">Mereology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta_(prefix)" title="Meta (prefix)">Meta-</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Philosophy of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Philosophy of psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_self" title="Philosophy of self">Philosophy of self</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Philosophy of space and time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teleology" title="Teleology">Teleology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" 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<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Epistemology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Epistemology" title="Template:Epistemology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Epistemology" title="Template talk:Epistemology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li 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J. Ayer">A. J. Ayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">George Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laurence_BonJour" title="Laurence BonJour">Laurence BonJour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Gilles Deleuze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keith_DeRose" title="Keith DeRose">Keith DeRose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Dretske" title="Fred Dretske">Fred Dretske</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Gettier" title="Edmund Gettier">Edmund Gettier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Goldman" title="Alvin Goldman">Alvin Goldman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nelson_Goodman" title="Nelson Goodman">Nelson Goodman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Grice" title="Paul Grice">Paul Grice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anil_Gupta_(philosopher)" title="Anil Gupta (philosopher)">Anil Gupta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_Haack" title="Susan Haack">Susan Haack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_D._Klein" title="Peter D. Klein">Peter Klein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Saul Kripke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Kornblith" title="Hilary Kornblith">Hilary Kornblith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">David Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_McDowell" title="John McDowell">John McDowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Robert Nozick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duncan_Pritchard" title="Duncan Pritchard">Duncan Pritchard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Pryor" title="James Pryor">James Pryor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Reid" title="Thomas Reid">Thomas Reid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Gilbert Ryle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilfrid_Sellars" title="Wilfrid Sellars">Wilfrid Sellars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susanna_Siegel" title="Susanna Siegel">Susanna Siegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Sosa" title="Ernest Sosa">Ernest Sosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">P. F. Strawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Williamson" title="Timothy Williamson">Timothy Williamson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Wolterstorff" title="Nicholas Wolterstorff">Nicholas Wolterstorff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_epistemologists" title="List of epistemologists">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Epistemological_theories" title="Category:Epistemological theories">Theories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contextualism" title="Contextualism">Contextualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_epistemology" title="Evolutionary epistemology">Evolutionary epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">Fallibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_epistemology" title="Feminist epistemology">Feminist epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_holism" title="Semantic holism">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infinitism" title="Infinitism">Infinitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Innatism" title="Innatism">Innatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Na%C3%AFve_realism" title="Naïve realism">Naïve realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Naturalized epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reliabilism" title="Reliabilism">Reliabilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_and_indirect_realism" title="Direct and indirect realism">Representational realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental idealism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Concepts_in_epistemology" title="Category:Concepts in epistemology">Concepts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>A priori</i> knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>A posteriori</i> knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_analysis" title="Philosophical analysis">Analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belief" title="Belief">Belief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_sense" title="Common sense">Common sense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_knowledge" class="mw-redirect" title="Descriptive knowledge">Descriptive knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exploratory_thought" title="Exploratory thought">Exploratory thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemic_injustice" title="Epistemic injustice">Epistemic injustice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemic_virtue" title="Epistemic virtue">Epistemic virtue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gettier_problem" title="Gettier problem">Gettier problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and externalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justification_(epistemology)" title="Justification (epistemology)">Justification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privileged_access" class="mw-redirect" title="Privileged access">Privileged access</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Problem of induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_other_minds" title="Problem of other minds">Problem of other minds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procedural_knowledge" title="Procedural knowledge">Procedural knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proposition" title="Proposition">Proposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regress_argument" class="mw-redirect" title="Regress argument">Regress argument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simplicity" title="Simplicity">Simplicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Index_of_epistemology_articles" title="Index of epistemology articles">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_epistemology" title="Outline of epistemology">Outline of epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_epistemology" title="Formal epistemology">Formal epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaepistemology" title="Metaepistemology">Metaepistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_perception" title="Philosophy of perception">Philosophy of perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_epistemology" title="Social epistemology">Social epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_epistemology" title="Virtue epistemology">Virtue epistemology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Epistemology" title="Category:Epistemology">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Philosophy/Epistemology" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Philosophy/Epistemology">Task Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_stubs" title="Category:Philosophy stubs">Stubs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia_talk:WikiProject_Philosophy" title="Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Philosophy">Discussion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Logic" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Logic" title="Template:Logic"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Logic" title="Template talk:Logic"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Logic" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Logic"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Logic" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_logic" title="Outline of logic">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_logic" title="History of logic">History</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Logic_in_computer_science" title="Logic in computer science">Computer science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_semantics_(natural_language)" title="Formal semantics (natural language)">Formal semantics (natural language)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inference" title="Inference">Inference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_logic" title="Philosophy of logic">Philosophy of logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_proof" title="Formal proof">Proof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantics_of_logic" title="Semantics of logic">Semantics of logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syntax_(logic)" title="Syntax (logic)">Syntax</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Logics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_logic" title="Classical logic">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Informal_logic" title="Informal logic">Informal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_thinking" title="Critical thinking">Critical thinking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">Reason</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_logic" title="Mathematical logic">Mathematical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-classical_logic" title="Non-classical logic">Non-classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_logic" title="Philosophical logic">Philosophical</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argumentation_theory" title="Argumentation theory">Argumentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metalogic" title="Metalogic">Metalogic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metamathematics" title="Metamathematics">Metamathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Set_theory" title="Set theory">Set</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Foundations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abductive_reasoning" title="Abductive reasoning">Abduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic and synthetic propositions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antecedent_(logic)" title="Antecedent (logic)">Antecedent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consequent" title="Consequent">Consequent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contradiction" title="Contradiction">Contradiction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paradox" title="Paradox">Paradox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antinomy" title="Antinomy">Antinomy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deductive_reasoning" title="Deductive reasoning">Deduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deductive_closure" title="Deductive closure">Deductive closure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Definition" title="Definition">Definition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Description" title="Description">Description</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_consequence" title="Logical consequence">Entailment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Entailment_(linguistics)" title="Entailment (linguistics)">Linguistic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_form" title="Logical form">Form</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_truth" title="Logical truth">Logical truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Name" title="Name">Name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necessity_and_sufficiency" title="Necessity and sufficiency">Necessity and sufficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Premise" title="Premise">Premise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Probability" title="Probability">Probability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proposition" title="Proposition">Proposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reference" title="Reference">Reference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statement_(logic)" title="Statement (logic)">Statement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substitution_(logic)" title="Substitution (logic)">Substitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Validity_(logic)" title="Validity (logic)">Validity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Index_of_logic_articles" title="Index of logic articles">topics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mathematical_logic_topics" title="List of mathematical logic topics">Mathematical logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Boolean_algebra_topics" title="List of Boolean algebra topics">Boolean algebra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_set_theory_topics" title="List of set theory topics">Set theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_logicians" title="List of logicians">Logicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rules_of_inference" title="List of rules of inference">Rules of inference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_paradoxes" title="List of paradoxes">Paradoxes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fallacies" title="List of fallacies">Fallacies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_logic_symbols" title="List of logic symbols">Logic symbols</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/18px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/27px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/36px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Logic" title="Category:Logic">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Logic" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Logic">WikiProject</a> (<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia_talk:WikiProject_Logic" title="Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Logic">talk</a>)</li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Recentchangeslinked&target=Template:Logic&hidebots=0">changes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Calculus" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Calculus_topics" title="Template:Calculus topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Calculus_topics" title="Template talk:Calculus topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Calculus_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Calculus topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Calculus" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Calculus" title="Calculus">Calculus</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Precalculus" title="Precalculus">Precalculus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Binomial_theorem" title="Binomial theorem">Binomial theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concave_function" title="Concave function">Concave function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuous_function" title="Continuous function">Continuous function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Factorial" title="Factorial">Factorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finite_difference" title="Finite difference">Finite difference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_variables_and_bound_variables" title="Free variables and bound variables">Free variables and bound variables</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graph_of_a_function" title="Graph of a function">Graph of a function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_function" title="Linear function">Linear function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radian" title="Radian">Radian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rolle%27s_theorem" title="Rolle's theorem">Rolle's theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secant_line" title="Secant line">Secant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slope" title="Slope">Slope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tangent" title="Tangent">Tangent</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Limit_(mathematics)" title="Limit (mathematics)">Limits</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indeterminate_form" title="Indeterminate form">Indeterminate form</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limit_of_a_function" title="Limit of a function">Limit of a function</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/One-sided_limit" title="One-sided limit">One-sided limit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limit_of_a_sequence" title="Limit of a sequence">Limit of a sequence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Order_of_approximation" title="Order of approximation">Order of approximation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/(%CE%B5,_%CE%B4)-definition_of_limit" class="mw-redirect" title="(ε, δ)-definition of limit">(ε, δ)-definition of limit</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Differential_calculus" title="Differential calculus">Differential calculus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Derivative" title="Derivative">Derivative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_derivative" title="Second derivative">Second derivative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partial_derivative" title="Partial derivative">Partial derivative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Differential_(mathematics)" title="Differential (mathematics)">Differential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Differential_operator" title="Differential operator">Differential operator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mean_value_theorem" title="Mean value theorem">Mean value theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Notation_for_differentiation" title="Notation for differentiation">Notation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leibniz%27s_notation" title="Leibniz's notation">Leibniz's notation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_notation_for_differentiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Newton's notation for differentiation">Newton's notation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Differentiation_rules" title="Differentiation rules">Rules of differentiation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Linearity_of_differentiation" title="Linearity of differentiation">linearity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_rule" title="Power rule">Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sum_rule_in_differentiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Sum rule in differentiation">Sum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chain_rule" title="Chain rule">Chain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%27H%C3%B4pital%27s_rule" title="L'Hôpital's rule">L'Hôpital's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Product_rule" title="Product rule">Product</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_Leibniz_rule" title="General Leibniz rule">General Leibniz's rule</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quotient_rule" title="Quotient rule">Quotient</a></li></ul></li> <li>Other techniques <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Implicit_differentiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Implicit differentiation">Implicit differentiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inverse_functions_and_differentiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Inverse functions and differentiation">Inverse functions and differentiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logarithmic_derivative" title="Logarithmic derivative">Logarithmic derivative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Related_rates" title="Related rates">Related rates</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stationary_point" title="Stationary point">Stationary points</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_derivative_test" class="mw-redirect" title="First derivative test">First derivative test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_derivative_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Second derivative test">Second derivative test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extreme_value_theorem" title="Extreme value theorem">Extreme value theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximum_and_minimum" title="Maximum and minimum">Maximum and minimum</a></li></ul></li> <li>Further applications <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_method" title="Newton's method">Newton's method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taylor%27s_theorem" title="Taylor's theorem">Taylor's theorem</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Differential_equation" title="Differential equation">Differential equation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_differential_equation" title="Ordinary differential equation">Ordinary differential equation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partial_differential_equation" title="Partial differential equation">Partial differential equation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stochastic_differential_equation" title="Stochastic differential equation">Stochastic differential equation</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Integral_calculus" class="mw-redirect" title="Integral calculus">Integral calculus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antiderivative" title="Antiderivative">Antiderivative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arc_length" title="Arc length">Arc length</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riemann_integral" title="Riemann integral">Riemann integral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integral#Properties" title="Integral">Basic properties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constant_of_integration" title="Constant of integration">Constant of integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamental_theorem_of_calculus" title="Fundamental theorem of calculus">Fundamental theorem of calculus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leibniz_integral_rule" title="Leibniz integral rule">Differentiating under the integral sign</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integration_by_parts" title="Integration by parts">Integration by parts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integration_by_substitution" title="Integration by substitution">Integration by substitution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trigonometric_substitution" title="Trigonometric substitution">trigonometric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euler_substitution" title="Euler substitution">Euler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tangent_half-angle_substitution" title="Tangent half-angle substitution">Tangent half-angle substitution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partial_fractions_in_integration" class="mw-redirect" title="Partial fractions in integration">Partial fractions in integration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quadratic_integral" title="Quadratic integral">Quadratic integral</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trapezoidal_rule" title="Trapezoidal rule">Trapezoidal rule</a></li> <li>Volumes <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disc_integration" title="Disc integration">Washer method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shell_integration" title="Shell integration">Shell method</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integral_equation" title="Integral equation">Integral equation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integro-differential_equation" title="Integro-differential equation">Integro-differential equation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Vector_calculus" title="Vector calculus">Vector calculus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Derivatives <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curl_(mathematics)" title="Curl (mathematics)">Curl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Directional_derivative" title="Directional derivative">Directional derivative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divergence" title="Divergence">Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gradient" title="Gradient">Gradient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laplace_operator" title="Laplace operator">Laplacian</a></li></ul></li> <li>Basic theorems <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fundamental_Theorem_of_Line_Integrals" class="mw-redirect" title="Fundamental Theorem of Line Integrals">Line integrals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green%27s_theorem" title="Green's theorem">Green's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokes%27_theorem" title="Stokes' theorem">Stokes'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divergence_theorem" title="Divergence theorem">Gauss'</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Multivariable_calculus" title="Multivariable calculus">Multivariable calculus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Divergence_theorem" title="Divergence theorem">Divergence theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geometric_calculus" title="Geometric calculus">Geometric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hessian_matrix" title="Hessian matrix">Hessian matrix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacobian_matrix_and_determinant" title="Jacobian matrix and determinant">Jacobian matrix and determinant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lagrange_multiplier" title="Lagrange multiplier">Lagrange multiplier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Line_integral" title="Line integral">Line integral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matrix_calculus" title="Matrix calculus">Matrix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_integral" title="Multiple integral">Multiple integral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partial_derivative" title="Partial derivative">Partial derivative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_integral" title="Surface integral">Surface integral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volume_integral" title="Volume integral">Volume integral</a></li> <li>Advanced topics <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Differential_form" title="Differential form">Differential forms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exterior_derivative" title="Exterior derivative">Exterior derivative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generalized_Stokes%27_theorem" class="mw-redirect" title="Generalized Stokes' theorem">Generalized Stokes' theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tensor_calculus" class="mw-redirect" title="Tensor calculus">Tensor calculus</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sequences and series</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arithmetico-geometric_sequence" title="Arithmetico-geometric sequence">Arithmetico-geometric sequence</a></li> <li>Types of series <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternating_series" title="Alternating series">Alternating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Binomial_series" title="Binomial series">Binomial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourier_series" title="Fourier series">Fourier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geometric_series" title="Geometric series">Geometric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harmonic_series_(mathematics)" title="Harmonic series (mathematics)">Harmonic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infinite_series" class="mw-redirect" title="Infinite series">Infinite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_series" title="Power series">Power</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maclaurin_series" class="mw-redirect" title="Maclaurin series">Maclaurin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taylor_series" title="Taylor series">Taylor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telescoping_series" title="Telescoping series">Telescoping</a></li></ul></li> <li>Tests of convergence <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abel%27s_test" title="Abel's test">Abel's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternating_series_test" title="Alternating series test">Alternating series</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cauchy_condensation_test" title="Cauchy condensation test">Cauchy condensation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_comparison_test" title="Direct comparison test">Direct comparison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dirichlet%27s_test" title="Dirichlet's test">Dirichlet's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integral_test_for_convergence" title="Integral test for convergence">Integral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limit_comparison_test" title="Limit comparison test">Limit comparison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ratio_test" title="Ratio test">Ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Root_test" title="Root test">Root</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Term_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Term test">Term</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Special functions<br />and numbers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bernoulli_number" title="Bernoulli number">Bernoulli numbers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E_(mathematical_constant)" title="E (mathematical constant)">e (mathematical constant)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exponential_function" title="Exponential function">Exponential function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_logarithm" title="Natural logarithm">Natural logarithm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stirling%27s_approximation" title="Stirling's approximation">Stirling's approximation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_calculus" title="History of calculus">History of calculus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adequality" title="Adequality">Adequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brook_Taylor" title="Brook Taylor">Brook Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colin_Maclaurin" title="Colin Maclaurin">Colin Maclaurin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generality_of_algebra" title="Generality of algebra">Generality of algebra</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infinitesimal" title="Infinitesimal">Infinitesimal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infinitesimal_calculus" class="mw-redirect" title="Infinitesimal calculus">Infinitesimal calculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluxion" title="Fluxion">Fluxion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Continuity" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of Continuity">Law of Continuity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonhard_Euler" title="Leonhard Euler">Leonhard Euler</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Method_of_Fluxions" title="Method of Fluxions">Method of Fluxions</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Method_of_Mechanical_Theorems" title="The Method of Mechanical Theorems">The Method of Mechanical Theorems</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Integrals" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_integrals" title="Lists of integrals">Integrals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_integrals_of_rational_functions" title="List of integrals of rational functions">rational functions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_integrals_of_irrational_functions" title="List of integrals of irrational functions">irrational functions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_integrals_of_exponential_functions" title="List of integrals of exponential functions">exponential functions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_integrals_of_logarithmic_functions" title="List of integrals of logarithmic functions">logarithmic functions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_integrals_of_hyperbolic_functions" title="List of integrals of hyperbolic functions">hyperbolic functions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_integrals_of_inverse_hyperbolic_functions" title="List of integrals of inverse hyperbolic functions">inverse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_integrals_of_trigonometric_functions" title="List of integrals of trigonometric functions">trigonometric functions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_integrals_of_inverse_trigonometric_functions" title="List of integrals of inverse trigonometric functions">inverse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integral_of_the_secant_function" title="Integral of the secant function">Secant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integral_of_secant_cubed" title="Integral of secant cubed">Secant cubed</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_limits" title="List of limits">List of limits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Differentiation_rules" title="Differentiation rules">List of derivatives</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Miscellaneous topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Complex calculus <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Contour_integral" class="mw-redirect" title="Contour integral">Contour integral</a></li></ul></li> <li>Differential geometry <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manifold" title="Manifold">Manifold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curvature" title="Curvature">Curvature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Differential_geometry_of_curves" class="mw-redirect" title="Differential geometry of curves">of curves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Differential_geometry_of_surfaces" title="Differential geometry of surfaces">of surfaces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tensor" title="Tensor">Tensor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euler%E2%80%93Maclaurin_formula" title="Euler–Maclaurin formula">Euler–Maclaurin formula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel%27s_horn" title="Gabriel's horn">Gabriel's horn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integration_Bee" title="Integration Bee">Integration Bee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proof_that_22/7_exceeds_%CF%80" title="Proof that 22/7 exceeds π">Proof that 22/7 exceeds π</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regiomontanus%27_angle_maximization_problem" title="Regiomontanus' angle maximization problem">Regiomontanus' angle maximization problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steinmetz_solid" title="Steinmetz solid">Steinmetz solid</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Timelines_of_computing" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Timelines_of_computing" title="Template:Timelines of computing"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Timelines_of_computing" title="Template talk:Timelines of computing"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Timelines_of_computing" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Timelines of computing"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Timelines_of_computing" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Category:Computing_timelines" title="Category:Computing timelines">Timelines of computing</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_computing" title="Timeline of computing">Computing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_computing_hardware_before_1950" title="Timeline of computing hardware before 1950">Before 1950</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_computing_1950%E2%80%931979" title="Timeline of computing 1950–1979">1950–1979</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_computing_1980%E2%80%931989" title="Timeline of computing 1980–1989">1980s</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_computing_1990%E2%80%931999" title="Timeline of computing 1990–1999">1990s</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_computing_2000%E2%80%932009" title="Timeline of computing 2000–2009">2000s</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_computing_2010%E2%80%932019" title="Timeline of computing 2010–2019">2010s</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present" title="Timeline of computing 2020–present">2020s</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_computing" title="Timeline of scientific computing">Scientific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_computing" title="Timeline of women in computing">Women in computing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">Computer science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_algorithms" title="Timeline of algorithms">Algorithms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Timeline of artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_binary_prefixes" title="Timeline of binary prefixes">Binary prefixes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_cryptography" title="Timeline of cryptography">Cryptography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_machine_learning" title="Timeline of machine learning">Machine learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_quantum_computing_and_communication" title="Timeline of quantum computing and communication">Quantum computing and communication</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Software" title="Software">Software</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_free_and_open-source_software" title="Timeline of free and open-source software">Free and open-source software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_hypertext_technology" title="Timeline of hypertext technology">Hypertext technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_operating_systems" title="Timeline of operating systems">Operating systems</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_DOS_operating_systems" title="Timeline of DOS operating systems">DOS family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Microsoft_Windows" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of Microsoft Windows">Windows</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linux_kernel_version_history" title="Linux kernel version history">Linux</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_programming_languages" title="Timeline of programming languages">Programming languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_virtualization_development" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of virtualization development">Virtualization development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_computer_viruses_and_worms" title="Timeline of computer viruses and worms">Malware</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Internet_conflicts" title="Timeline of Internet conflicts">Internet conflicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_web_browsers" title="Timeline of web browsers">Web browsers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_web_search_engines" title="Timeline of web search engines">Web search engines</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Notable people</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kathleen_Antonelli" title="Kathleen Antonelli">Kathleen Antonelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Vincent_Atanasoff" title="John Vincent Atanasoff">John Vincent Atanasoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Babbage" title="Charles Babbage">Charles Babbage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Backus" title="John Backus">John Backus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Bartik" title="Jean Bartik">Jean Bartik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Boole" title="George Boole">George Boole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vint_Cerf" title="Vint Cerf">Vint Cerf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Cocke_(computer_scientist)" title="John Cocke (computer scientist)">John Cocke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Cook" title="Stephen Cook">Stephen Cook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edsger_W._Dijkstra" title="Edsger W. Dijkstra">Edsger W. Dijkstra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Presper_Eckert" title="J. Presper Eckert">J. Presper Eckert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adele_Goldstine" title="Adele Goldstine">Adele Goldstine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lois_Haibt" title="Lois Haibt">Lois Haibt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Betty_Holberton" title="Betty Holberton">Betty Holberton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Hamilton_(software_engineer)" title="Margaret Hamilton (software engineer)">Margaret Hamilton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grace_Hopper" title="Grace Hopper">Grace Hopper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_A._Huffman" title="David A. Huffman">David A. Huffman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Kahn_(computer_scientist)" title="Robert Kahn (computer scientist)">Bob Kahn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brian_Kernighan" title="Brian Kernighan">Brian Kernighan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Koenig_(programmer)" title="Andrew Koenig (programmer)">Andrew Koenig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semyon_Korsakov" title="Semyon Korsakov">Semyon Korsakov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nancy_Leveson" title="Nancy Leveson">Nancy Leveson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ada_Lovelace" title="Ada Lovelace">Ada Lovelace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Knuth" title="Donald Knuth">Donald Knuth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Kruskal" title="Joseph Kruskal">Joseph Kruskal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Douglas_McIlroy" title="Douglas McIlroy">Douglas McIlroy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marlyn_Meltzer" title="Marlyn Meltzer">Marlyn Meltzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_von_Neumann" title="John von Neumann">John von Neumann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kl%C3%A1ra_D%C3%A1n_von_Neumann" title="Klára Dán von Neumann">Klára Dán von Neumann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dennis_Ritchie" title="Dennis Ritchie">Dennis Ritchie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guido_van_Rossum" title="Guido van Rossum">Guido van Rossum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Shannon" title="Claude Shannon">Claude Shannon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frances_Spence" title="Frances Spence">Frances Spence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bjarne_Stroustrup" title="Bjarne Stroustrup">Bjarne Stroustrup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruth_Teitelbaum" title="Ruth Teitelbaum">Ruth Teitelbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ken_Thompson" title="Ken Thompson">Ken Thompson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linus_Torvalds" title="Linus Torvalds">Linus Torvalds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_Turing" title="Alan Turing">Alan Turing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Vixie" title="Paul Vixie">Paul Vixie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larry_Wall" title="Larry Wall">Larry Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Wolfram" title="Stephen Wolfram">Stephen Wolfram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niklaus_Wirth" title="Niklaus Wirth">Niklaus Wirth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steve_Wozniak" title="Steve Wozniak">Steve Wozniak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konrad_Zuse" title="Konrad Zuse">Konrad Zuse</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophy_of_religion" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_of_religion" title="Template:Philosophy of religion"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_of_religion" title="Template talk:Philosophy of religion"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_of_religion" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy of religion"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Philosophy_of_religion" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Philosophy of religion</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Concepts in religion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afterlife" title="Afterlife">Afterlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthyphro_dilemma" title="Euthyphro dilemma">Euthyphro dilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith" title="Faith">Faith</a> <ul><li>or <a href="/wiki/Belief#Religion" title="Belief">religious belief</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligent_design" title="Intelligent design">Intelligent design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miracle" title="Miracle">Miracle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">Soul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theological_veto" title="Theological veto">Theological veto</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Conceptions_of_God" title="Conceptions of God">Conceptions of God</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demiurge" title="Demiurge">Demiurge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_simplicity" title="Divine simplicity">Divine simplicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_egoism" title="Ethical egoism">Egoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit" title="Holy Spirit">Holy Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misotheism" title="Misotheism">Misotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandeism" title="Pandeism">Pandeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_god" title="Personal god">Personal god</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_theology" title="Process theology">Process theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God" title="God">Supreme Being</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unmoved_mover" title="Unmoved mover">Unmoved mover</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;">God in</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Abrahamic_religions" title="God in Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creator_in_Buddhism" title="Creator in Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Christianity" title="God in Christianity">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Hinduism" title="God in Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Islam" title="God in Islam">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Jainism" title="God in Jainism">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Judaism" title="God in Judaism">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Mormonism" title="God in Mormonism">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Sikhism" title="God in Sikhism">Sikhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_the_Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="God in the Baháʼí Faith">Baháʼí Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wiccan_views_of_divinity" title="Wiccan views of divinity">Wicca</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Existence_of_God" title="Existence of God">Existence of God</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;">For</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_beauty" title="Argument from beauty">Beauty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christological_argument" title="Christological argument">Christological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_consciousness" title="Argument from consciousness">Consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmological_argument" title="Cosmological argument">Cosmological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kalam_cosmological_argument" title="Kalam cosmological argument">Kalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmological_argument#Argument_from_contingency" title="Cosmological argument">Contingency</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_degree" title="Argument from degree">Degree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_desire" title="Argument from desire">Desire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_religious_experience" title="Argument from religious experience">Experience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fine-tuned_universe" title="Fine-tuned universe">Fine-tuning of the universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_love" title="Argument from love">Love</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_miracles" title="Argument from miracles">Miracles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_morality" title="Argument from morality">Morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proof_of_the_Truthful" title="Proof of the Truthful">Necessary existent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontological_argument" title="Ontological argument">Ontological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pascal%27s_wager" title="Pascal's wager">Pascal's wager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Proper basis and Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_reason" title="Argument from reason">Reason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teleological_argument" title="Teleological argument">Teleological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural-law_argument" title="Natural-law argument">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watchmaker_analogy" title="Watchmaker analogy">Watchmaker analogy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_argument_for_the_existence_of_God" title="Transcendental argument for the existence of God">Transcendental</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;">Against</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ultimate_Boeing_747_gambit" title="Ultimate Boeing 747 gambit">747 gambit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheist%27s_Wager" class="mw-redirect" title="Atheist's Wager">Atheist's Wager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_free_will" title="Argument from free will">Free will</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_Hell" title="Problem of Hell">Hell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_inconsistent_revelations" class="mw-redirect" title="Argument from inconsistent revelations">Inconsistent revelations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_nonbelief" title="Argument from nonbelief">Nonbelief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theological_noncognitivism" title="Theological noncognitivism">Noncognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occam%27s_razor" title="Occam's razor">Occam's razor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omnipotence_paradox" title="Omnipotence paradox">Omnipotence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_poor_design" title="Argument from poor design">Poor design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell%27s_teapot" title="Russell's teapot">Russell's teapot</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">Theology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acosmism" title="Acosmism">Acosmism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">Agnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">Animism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antireligion" title="Antireligion">Antireligion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creationism" title="Creationism">Creationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharmism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">Deism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demonology" title="Demonology">Demonology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_command_theory" title="Divine command theory">Divine command theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dualism_in_cosmology" title="Dualism in cosmology">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_esotericism" title="Western esotericism">Esotericism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusivism" title="Exclusivism">Exclusivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheistic_existentialism" title="Atheistic existentialism">Atheistic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_theology" title="Feminist theology">Feminist theology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thealogy" title="Thealogy">Thealogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Womanist_theology" title="Womanist theology">Womanist theology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamentalism" title="Fundamentalism">Fundamentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henotheism" title="Henotheism">Henotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_humanism" title="Religious humanism">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">Secular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_humanism" title="Christian humanism">Christian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inclusivism" title="Inclusivism">Inclusivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_about_religions" class="mw-redirect" title="Theories about religions">Theories about religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">Monotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">Mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Metaphysical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_naturalism" title="Religious naturalism">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_naturalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Humanistic naturalism">Humanistic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Age" title="New Age">New Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nondualism" title="Nondualism">Nondualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nontheism" title="Nontheism">Nontheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandeism" title="Pandeism">Pandeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panentheism" title="Panentheism">Panentheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">Pantheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perennial_philosophy" title="Perennial philosophy">Perennialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">Polytheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Possibilianism" title="Possibilianism">Possibilianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_theology" title="Process theology">Process theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_skepticism" title="Religious skepticism">Religious skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(beliefs)" title="Spiritualism (beliefs)">Spiritualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shamanism" title="Shamanism">Shamanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_religions" title="East Asian religions">Taoic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theism" title="Theism">Theism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_religious_language" title="Problem of religious language">Religious language</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eschatological_verification" title="Eschatological verification">Eschatological verification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_game_(philosophy)" title="Language game (philosophy)">Language game</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apophatic_theology" title="Apophatic theology">Apophatic theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verificationism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of evil</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Augustinian_theodicy" title="Augustinian theodicy">Augustinian theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Best_of_all_possible_worlds" title="Best of all possible worlds">Best of all possible worlds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthyphro_dilemma" title="Euthyphro dilemma">Euthyphro dilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inconsistent_triad" title="Inconsistent triad">Inconsistent triad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irenaean_theodicy" title="Irenaean theodicy">Irenaean theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_evil" title="Natural evil">Natural evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_religion" title="Category:Philosophers of religion">Philosophers<br />of religion</a></div><br />(by date active)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient</a> and<br /><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">medieval</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm of Canterbury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaudapada" title="Gaudapada">Gaudapada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaunilo_of_Marmoutiers" title="Gaunilo of Marmoutiers">Gaunilo of Marmoutiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Pico_della_Mirandola" title="Giovanni Pico della Mirandola">Pico della Mirandola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraclitus" title="Heraclitus">Heraclitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I" title="James VI and I">King James VI and I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcion_of_Sinope" title="Marcion of Sinope">Marcion of Sinope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adi_Shankara" title="Adi Shankara">Adi Shankara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">William of Ockham</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Augustin_Calmet" title="Antoine Augustin Calmet">Augustin Calmet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Blaise Pascal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desiderius_Erasmus" class="mw-redirect" title="Desiderius Erasmus">Desiderius Erasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Nicolas Malebranche</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Gottfried W Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Wollaston" title="William Wollaston">William Wollaston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Chubb" title="Thomas Chubb">Thomas Chubb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baron_d%27Holbach" title="Baron d'Holbach">Baron d'Holbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Johann G Herder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1800<br />1850</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schleiermacher" title="Friedrich Schleiermacher">Friedrich Schleiermacher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Christian_Friedrich_Krause" title="Karl Christian Friedrich Krause">Karl C F Krause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg W F Hegel</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Thomas Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Whewell" title="William Whewell">William Whewell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Feuerbach" title="Ludwig Feuerbach">Ludwig Feuerbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albrecht_Ritschl" title="Albrecht Ritschl">Albrecht Ritschl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrikan_Spir" title="Afrikan Spir">Afrikan Spir</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1880<br />1900</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Haeckel" title="Ernst Haeckel">Ernst Haeckel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Kingdon_Clifford" title="William Kingdon Clifford">W K Clifford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harald_H%C3%B8ffding" title="Harald Høffding">Harald Høffding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Solovyov_(philosopher)" title="Vladimir Solovyov (philosopher)">Vladimir Solovyov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Troeltsch" title="Ernst Troeltsch">Ernst Troeltsch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Otto" title="Rudolf Otto">Rudolf Otto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lev_Shestov" title="Lev Shestov">Lev Shestov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergei_Bulgakov" title="Sergei Bulgakov">Sergei Bulgakov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pavel_Florensky" title="Pavel Florensky">Pavel Florensky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Cassirer" title="Ernst Cassirer">Ernst Cassirer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Mar%C3%A9chal" title="Joseph Maréchal">Joseph Maréchal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1920<br />postwar</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">George Santayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Buber" title="Martin Buber">Martin Buber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">René Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tillich" title="Paul Tillich">Paul Tillich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Barth" title="Karl Barth">Karl Barth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emil_Brunner" title="Emil Brunner">Emil Brunner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Bultmann" title="Rudolf Bultmann">Rudolf Bultmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Marcel" title="Gabriel Marcel">Gabriel Marcel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinhold_Niebuhr" title="Reinhold Niebuhr">Reinhold Niebuhr</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Hartshorne" title="Charles Hartshorne">Charles Hartshorne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade">Mircea Eliade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frithjof_Schuon" title="Frithjof Schuon">Frithjof Schuon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Mackie" title="J. L. Mackie">J L Mackie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Kaufmann_(philosopher)" title="Walter Kaufmann (philosopher)">Walter Kaufmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Lings" title="Martin Lings">Martin Lings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Geach" title="Peter Geach">Peter Geach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_I._Mavrodes" title="George I. Mavrodes">George I Mavrodes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Alston" title="William Alston">William Alston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antony_Flew" title="Antony Flew">Antony Flew</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1970<br />1990<br />2010</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_L._Rowe" title="William L. Rowe">William L Rowe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dewi_Zephaniah_Phillips" title="Dewi Zephaniah Phillips">Dewi Z Phillips</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Kenny" title="Anthony Kenny">Anthony Kenny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Wolterstorff" title="Nicholas Wolterstorff">Nicholas Wolterstorff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Swinburne" title="Richard Swinburne">Richard Swinburne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Merrihew_Adams" title="Robert Merrihew Adams">Robert Merrihew Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravi_Zacharias" title="Ravi Zacharias">Ravi Zacharias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_van_Inwagen" title="Peter van Inwagen">Peter van Inwagen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Daniel Dennett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyal_Rue" title="Loyal Rue">Loyal Rue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Luc_Marion" title="Jean-Luc Marion">Jean-Luc Marion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lane_Craig" title="William Lane Craig">William Lane Craig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Akbar_Rashad" title="Ali Akbar Rashad">Ali Akbar Rashad</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pruss" title="Alexander Pruss">Alexander Pruss</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_religion" title="Criticism of religion">Criticism of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desacralization_of_knowledge" title="Desacralization of knowledge">Desacralization of knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_in_religion" title="Ethics in religion">Ethics in religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exegesis" title="Exegesis">Exegesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion" title="History of religion">History of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_religious_language" title="Problem of religious language">Religious language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_philosophy" title="Religious philosophy">Religious philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Relationship between religion and science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_religion_articles" title="Index of philosophy of religion articles">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Portal</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_religion" title="Category:Philosophy of religion">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophy_of_language" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_of_language" title="Template:Philosophy of language"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_of_language" title="Template talk:Philosophy of language"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_of_language" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy of language"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Philosophy_of_language" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Index_of_language_articles" title="Index of language articles">Index of language articles</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_language" title="List of philosophers of language">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorgias" title="Gorgias">Gorgias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cratylus" title="Cratylus">Cratylus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eubulides" title="Eubulides">Eubulides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Cronus" title="Diodorus Cronus">Diodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chrysippus" title="Chrysippus">Chrysippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhuang_Zhou" title="Zhuang Zhou">Zhuangzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xunzi_(philosopher)" title="Xunzi (philosopher)">Xunzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Wilkins" title="John Wilkins">Wilkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Arnauld" title="Antoine Arnauld">Arnauld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Lancelot" title="Claude Lancelot">Lancelot</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_von_Humboldt" title="Wilhelm von Humboldt">von Humboldt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fritz_Mauthner" title="Fritz Mauthner">Mauthner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Ric%C5%93ur" title="Paul Ricœur">Ricœur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_de_Saussure" title="Ferdinand de Saussure">de Saussure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottlob_Frege" title="Gottlob Frege">Frege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Boas" title="Franz Boas">Boas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tillich" title="Paul Tillich">Tillich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Sapir" title="Edward Sapir">Sapir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Bloomfield" title="Leonard Bloomfield">Bloomfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Bergson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lev_Vygotsky" title="Lev Vygotsky">Vygotsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Carnap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Derrida" title="Jacques Derrida">Derrida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Lee_Whorf" title="Benjamin Lee Whorf">Whorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Austin" title="J. L. Austin">Austin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Georg_Gadamer" title="Hans-Georg Gadamer">Gadamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Kripke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._J._Ayer" title="A. J. Ayer">Ayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">Anscombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaakko_Hintikka" title="Jaakko Hintikka">Hintikka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Dummett" title="Michael Dummett">Dummett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Davidson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Grice" title="Paul Grice">Grice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Ryle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">Strawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Putnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Searle" title="John Searle">Searle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Watzlawick" title="Paul Watzlawick">Watzlawick</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Theories_of_language" title="Category:Theories of language">Theories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causal_theory_of_reference" title="Causal theory of reference">Causal theory of reference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contrastivism" title="Contrastivism">Contrast theory of meaning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contrastivism" title="Contrastivism">Contrastivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conventionalism" title="Conventionalism">Conventionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cratylism" title="Cratylism">Cratylism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptivist_theory_of_names" title="Descriptivist theory of names">Descriptivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_reference_theory" title="Direct reference theory">Direct reference theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dramatism" title="Dramatism">Dramatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_semantics" title="Dynamic semantics">Dynamic semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressivism" title="Expressivism">Expressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquisitive_semantics" title="Inquisitive semantics">Inquisitive semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_determinism" title="Linguistic determinism">Linguistic determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediated_reference_theory" title="Mediated reference theory">Mediated reference theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-cognitivism" title="Non-cognitivism">Non-cognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phallogocentrism" title="Phallogocentrism">Phallogocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relevance_theory" title="Relevance theory">Relevance theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_externalism" title="Semantic externalism">Semantic externalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_holism" title="Semantic holism">Semantic holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Situation_semantics" title="Situation semantics">Situation semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supposition_theory" title="Supposition theory">Supposition theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbiosism" title="Symbiosism">Symbiosism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theological_noncognitivism" title="Theological noncognitivism">Theological noncognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_descriptions" title="Theory of descriptions">Theory of descriptions</a> (<a href="/wiki/Definite_description" title="Definite description">Definite description</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_language" title="Theory of language">Theory of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unilalianism" title="Unilalianism">Unilalianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verification theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ambiguity" title="Ambiguity">Ambiguity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cant_(language)" title="Cant (language)">Cant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_relativity" title="Linguistic relativity">Linguistic relativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth-bearer" title="Truth-bearer">Truth-bearer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proposition" title="Proposition">Proposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Use%E2%80%93mention_distinction" title="Use–mention distinction">Use–mention distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">Concept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Categorization" class="mw-redirect" title="Categorization">Categories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Set_(mathematics)" title="Set (mathematics)">Set</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_(philosophy)" title="Class (philosophy)">Class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_resemblance" title="Family resemblance">Family resemblance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intension" title="Intension">Intension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_form" title="Logical form">Logical form</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metalanguage" title="Metalanguage">Metalanguage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_representation" title="Mental representation">Mental representation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modality_(natural_language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Modality (natural language)">Modality (natural language)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presupposition" title="Presupposition">Presupposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_compositionality" title="Principle of compositionality">Principle of compositionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_(philosophy)" title="Property (philosophy)">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sign_(semiotics)" title="Sign (semiotics)">Sign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sense_and_reference" title="Sense and reference">Sense and reference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech_act" title="Speech act">Speech act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbol" title="Symbol">Symbol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentence_(linguistics)" title="Sentence (linguistics)">Sentence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statement_(logic)" title="Statement (logic)">Statement</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_language_articles" title="Index of philosophy of language articles">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Cratylus_(dialogue)" title="Cratylus (dialogue)">Cratylus</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(n.d.)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Port-Royal_Grammar" title="Port-Royal Grammar">Port-Royal Grammar</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1660)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_Arte_Combinatoria" title="De Arte Combinatoria">De Arte Combinatoria</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1666)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/An_Essay_Towards_a_Real_Character,_and_a_Philosophical_Language" title="An Essay Towards a Real Character, and a Philosophical Language">An Essay Towards a Real Character, and a Philosophical Language</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1668)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Alciphron_(book)" title="Alciphron (book)">Alciphron</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1732)</span></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/On_Denoting" title="On Denoting">On Denoting</a>" <span style="font-size:85%;">(1905)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tractatus_Logico-Philosophicus" title="Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus">Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1921)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Language,_Truth,_and_Logic" title="Language, Truth, and Logic">Language, Truth, and Logic</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1936)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Two_Dogmas_of_Empiricism" title="Two Dogmas of Empiricism">Two Dogmas of Empiricism</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1951)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_Investigations" title="Philosophical Investigations">Philosophical Investigations</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1953)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Of_Grammatology" title="Of Grammatology">Of Grammatology</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1967)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Naming_and_Necessity" title="Naming and Necessity">Naming and Necessity</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1980)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wittgenstein_on_Rules_and_Private_Language" title="Wittgenstein on Rules and Private Language">Wittgenstein on Rules and Private Language</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1982)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Limited_Inc" title="Limited Inc">Limited Inc</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1988)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">Philosophy of information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_logic" title="Philosophical logic">Philosophical logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatics" title="Pragmatics">Pragmatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">Rhetoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">School of Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantics_(natural_language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Semantics (natural language)">Semantics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Formal_semantics_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Formal semantics (linguistics)">Formal semantics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">Semiotics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_language" title="Category:Philosophy of language">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Philosophy/Language" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Philosophy/Language">Task Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia_talk:WikiProject_Philosophy" title="Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Philosophy">Discussion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophy_of_mind" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_of_mind" title="Template:Philosophy of mind"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_of_mind" title="Template talk:Philosophy of mind"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_of_mind" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy of mind"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Philosophy_of_mind" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Philosophy of mind</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_mind" title="Category:Philosophers of mind">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">G. E. M. Anscombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Malet_Armstrong" title="David Malet Armstrong">Armstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Austin" title="J. L. Austin">J. L. Austin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Bain_(philosopher)" title="Alexander Bain (philosopher)">Alexander Bain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">George Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Henri Bergson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ned_Block" title="Ned Block">Ned Block</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Brentano" title="Franz Brentano">Franz Brentano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._D._Broad" title="C. D. Broad">C. D. Broad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyler_Burge" title="Tyler Burge">Tyler Burge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Chalmers" title="David Chalmers">David Chalmers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patricia_Churchland" title="Patricia Churchland">Patricia Churchland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Churchland" title="Paul Churchland">Paul Churchland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andy_Clark" title="Andy Clark">Andy Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharmakirti" title="Dharmakirti">Dharmakirti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Donald Davidson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Daniel Dennett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Dretske" title="Fred Dretske">Fred Dretske</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerry_Fodor" title="Jerry Fodor">Fodor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Goldman" title="Alvin Goldman">Goldman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Martin Heidegger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Husserl" title="Edmund Husserl">Edmund Husserl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Cameron_Jackson" title="Frank Cameron Jackson">Frank Cameron Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">David Lewis (philosopher)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty">Maurice Merleau-Ponty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marvin_Minsky" title="Marvin Minsky">Marvin Minsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nagel" title="Thomas Nagel">Thomas Nagel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alva_No%C3%AB" title="Alva Noë">Alva Noë</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Derek Parfit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Rorty" title="Richard Rorty">Richard Rorty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Gilbert Ryle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Searle" title="John Searle">John Searle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilfrid_Sellars" title="Wilfrid Sellars">Wilfrid Sellars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_Turing" title="Alan Turing">Alan Turing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Tye_(philosopher)" title="Michael Tye (philosopher)">Michael Tye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasubandhu" title="Vasubandhu">Vasubandhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Yablo" title="Stephen Yablo">Stephen Yablo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhuang_Zhou" title="Zhuang Zhou">Zhuangzi</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_mind" title="List of philosophers of mind">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_naturalism" title="Biological naturalism">Biological naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminative materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergent_materialism" title="Emergent materialism">Emergent materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interactionism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Interactionism (philosophy of mind)">Interactionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Na%C3%AFve_realism" title="Naïve realism">Naïve realism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neurophenomenology" title="Neurophenomenology">Neurophenomenology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutral_monism" title="Neutral monism">Neutral monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_mysterianism" title="New mysterianism">New mysterianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nondualism" title="Nondualism">Nondualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occasionalism" title="Occasionalism">Occasionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychophysical_parallelism" title="Psychophysical parallelism">Parallelism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Type_physicalism" title="Type physicalism">Type physicalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_dualism" title="Property dualism">Property dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_representation" title="Mental representation">Representational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substance_dualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Substance dualism">Substance dualism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_and_concrete" title="Abstract and concrete">Abstract object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_room" title="Chinese room">Chinese room</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creativity" title="Creativity">Creativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">Cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_closure_(philosophy)" title="Cognitive closure (philosophy)">Cognitive closure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">Concept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">Consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hard_problem_of_consciousness" title="Hard problem of consciousness">Hard problem of consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypostatic_abstraction" title="Hypostatic abstraction">Hypostatic abstraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idea" title="Idea">Idea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(philosophy)" title="Identity (philosophy)">Identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">Artificial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_intelligence" title="Human intelligence">Human</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intentionality" title="Intentionality">Intentionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Introspection" title="Introspection">Introspection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intuition" title="Intuition">Intuition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_of_thought_hypothesis" title="Language of thought hypothesis">Language of thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_event" title="Mental event">Mental event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_image" title="Mental image">Mental image</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Mental_processes" title="Template:Mental processes">Mental process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_state" title="Mental state">Mental property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_representation" title="Mental representation">Mental representation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">Mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_problem" title="Mind–body problem">Mind–body problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_(philosophy)" title="Pain (philosophy)">Pain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_other_minds" title="Problem of other minds">Problem of other minds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propositional_attitude" title="Propositional attitude">Propositional attitude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualia" title="Qualia">Qualia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabula_rasa" title="Tabula rasa">Tabula rasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Understanding" title="Understanding">Understanding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_zombie" title="Philosophical zombie">Zombie</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Philosophy of artificial intelligence">Philosophy of artificial intelligence</a> / <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">information</a> / <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_perception" title="Philosophy of perception">perception</a> / <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_self" title="Philosophy of self">self</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_mind" title="Category:Philosophy of mind">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_mind" title="Category:Philosophers of mind">Philosophers category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Philosophy" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Philosophy">Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Philosophy/Mind" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Philosophy/Mind">Task Force</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Political_philosophy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Political_philosophy" title="Template:Political philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Political_philosophy" title="Template talk:Political philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Political_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Political philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Political_philosophy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Terms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizenship" title="Citizenship">Citizenship‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">Duty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite" title="Elite">Elite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation" title="Emancipation">Emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom" title="Freedom">Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegemony" title="Hegemony">Hegemony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchy" title="Hierarchy">Hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legitimacy_(political)" title="Legitimacy (political)">Legitimacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly" title="Monopoly">Monopoly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation" title="Nation">Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obedience_(human_behavior)" class="mw-redirect" title="Obedience (human behavior)">Obedience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace" title="Peace">Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People" title="People">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(political_philosophy)" title="Pluralism (political philosophy)">Pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progress" title="Progress">Progress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regime" title="Regime">Regime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolution" title="Revolution">Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruling_class" title="Ruling class">Ruling class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">Sovereignty‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utopia" title="Utopia">Utopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War" title="War">War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Government</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">Aristocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">Autocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">Bureaucracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictatorship" title="Dictatorship">Dictatorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontocracy" title="Gerontocracy">Gerontocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">Meritocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">Monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">Oligarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutocracy" title="Plutocracy">Plutocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theocracy" title="Theocracy">Theocracy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ideologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agrarianism" title="Agrarianism">Agrarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_democracy" title="Christian democracy">Christian democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">Colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporatism" title="Corporatism">Corporatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_political_theory" title="Feminist political theory">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Localism_(politics)" title="Localism (politics)">Localism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism" title="Monarchism">Monarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multiculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Populism" title="Populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Darwinism" title="Social Darwinism">Social Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Way" title="Third Way">Third Way</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_power_(international_relations)" title="Balance of power (international relations)">Balance of power</a></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Bellum_omnium_contra_omnes" title="Bellum omnium contra omnes">Bellum omnium contra omnes</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_politic" title="Body politic">Body politic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clash_of_Civilizations" title="Clash of Civilizations">Clash of civilizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_good" title="Common good">Common good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">Consent of the governed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">Divine right of kings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_as_a_model_for_the_state" title="Family as a model for the state">Family as a model for the state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly_on_violence" title="Monopoly on violence">Monopoly on violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_and_positive_rights" title="Negative and positive rights">Negative and positive rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Night-watchman_state" title="Night-watchman state">Night-watchman state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_lie" title="Noble lie">Noble lie</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Noblesse_oblige" title="Noblesse oblige">Noblesse oblige</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_society" title="Open society">Open society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordered_liberty" title="Ordered liberty">Ordered liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_position" title="Original position">Original position</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overton_window" title="Overton window">Overton window</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">Separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_nature" title="State of nature">State of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statolatry" title="Statolatry">Statolatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyranny_of_the_majority" title="Tyranny of the majority">Tyranny of the majority</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_philosophers" title="List of political philosophers">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Antiquity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chanakya" title="Chanakya">Chanakya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_Fei" title="Han Fei">Han Fei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plato%27s_political_philosophy" title="Plato's political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shang_Yang" title="Shang Yang">Shang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Tzu" title="Sun Tzu">Sun Tzu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Middle Ages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Alpharabius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Bruni" title="Leonardo Bruni">Bruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gelasius_I" title="Pope Gelasius I">Gelasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">al-Ghazali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsilius_of_Padua" title="Marsilius of Padua">Marsilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nizam_al-Mulk" title="Nizam al-Mulk">Nizam al-Mulk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">Ockham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemistos_Plethon" title="Gemistos Plethon">Plethon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Anshi" title="Wang Anshi">Wang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early modern<br />period</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_de_La_Bo%C3%A9tie" title="Étienne de La Boétie">Boétie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Bodin" title="Jean Bodin">Bodin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques-B%C3%A9nigne_Bossuet" title="Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet">Bossuet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tommaso_Campanella" title="Tommaso Campanella">Campanella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Filmer" title="Robert Filmer">Filmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Grotius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Guicciardini" title="Francesco Guicciardini">Guicciardini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hobbes%27s_moral_and_political_philosophy" title="Hobbes's moral and political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I" title="James VI and I">James</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Machiavelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Müntzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_von_Pufendorf" title="Samuel von Pufendorf">Pufendorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Suárez</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th and 19th<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Bakunin" title="Mikhail Bakunin">Bakunin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Bastiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_St_John,_1st_Viscount_Bolingbroke" title="Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke">Bolingbroke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Bonald" title="Louis de Bonald">Bonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant">Constant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Donoso_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Juan Donoso Cortés">Cortés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fourier" title="Charles Fourier">Fourier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Godwin" title="William Godwin">Godwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Ludwig_von_Haller" title="Karl Ludwig von Haller">Haller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal" title="Muhammad Iqbal">Iqbal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal%27s_political_philosophy" title="Muhammad Iqbal's political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy_of_Immanuel_Kant" title="Political philosophy of Immanuel Kant">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Guillaume_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_le_Play" title="Pierre Guillaume Frédéric le Play">Le Play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Maistre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Mazzini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Owen" title="Robert Owen">Owen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan">Renan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Sade" title="Marquis de Sade">Sade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_de_Saint-Simon" title="Henri de Saint-Simon">Saint-Simon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">de Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Stirner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Taine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Tucker" title="Benjamin Tucker">Tucker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th and 21st<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Agamben" title="Giorgio Agamben">Agamben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._R._Ambedkar" title="B. R. Ambedkar">Ambedkar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_de_Benoist" title="Alain de Benoist">Benoist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Bernstein" title="Eduard Bernstein">Bernstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Burnham" title="James Burnham">Burnham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Dmowski" title="Roman Dmowski">Dmowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Dugin" title="Aleksandr Dugin">Dugin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Dworkin" title="Ronald Dworkin">Dworkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Evola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Fukuyama" title="Francis Fukuyama">Fukuyama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Hayek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_P._Huntington" title="Samuel P. Huntington">Huntington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Kautsky" title="Karl Kautsky">Kautsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk" title="Russell Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Kropotkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernesto_Laclau" title="Ernesto Laclau">Laclau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Lenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Luxemburg" title="Rosa Luxemburg">Luxemburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Mansfield" title="Harvey Mansfield">Mansfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Maurras" title="Charles Maurras">Maurras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Michels" title="Robert Michels">Michels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">Mises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaetano_Mosca" title="Gaetano Mosca">Mosca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chantal_Mouffe" title="Chantal Mouffe">Mouffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Nozick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Oakeshott" title="Michael Oakeshott">Oakeshott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayyid_Qutb" title="Sayyid Qutb">Qutb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Rand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Rothbard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Schmitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Shariati" title="Ali Shariati">Shariati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Sorel" title="Georges Sorel">Sorel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Othmar_Spann" title="Othmar Spann">Spann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss">Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Republic_(Plato)" title="Republic (Plato)">Republic</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 375 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)" title="Politics (Aristotle)">Politics</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 350 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_re_publica" title="De re publica">De re publica</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(51 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Treatise_on_Law" title="Treatise on Law">Treatise on Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 1274)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Monarchia" title="Monarchia">Monarchia</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1313)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Prince" title="The Prince">The Prince</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1532)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Leviathan_(Hobbes_book)" title="Leviathan (Hobbes book)">Leviathan</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1651)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Two_Treatises_of_Government" title="Two Treatises of Government">Two Treatises of Government</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1689)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Spirit_of_Law" title="The Spirit of Law">The Spirit of Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1748)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Social_Contract" title="The Social Contract">The Social Contract</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1762)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Reflections_on_the_Revolution_in_France" title="Reflections on the Revolution in France">Reflections on the Revolution in France</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1790)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rights_of_Man" title="Rights of Man">Rights of Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1791)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Right" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Right">Elements of the Philosophy of Right</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1820)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1835–1840)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Communist_Manifesto" title="The Communist Manifesto">The Communist Manifesto</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1848)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_Liberty" title="On Liberty">On Liberty</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1859)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Revolt_of_the_Masses" title="The Revolt of the Masses">The Revolt of the Masses</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1929)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Road_to_Serfdom" title="The Road to Serfdom">The Road to Serfdom</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1944)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Open_Society_and_Its_Enemies" title="The Open Society and Its Enemies">The Open Society and Its Enemies</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1945)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Origins_of_Totalitarianism" title="The Origins of Totalitarianism">The Origins of Totalitarianism</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1951)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1971)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_End_of_History_and_the_Last_Man" title="The End of History and the Last Man">The End of History and the Last Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1992)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_organization#Collectivism_and_individualism" title="Social organization">Collectivism and individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_theories" title="Conflict theories">Conflict theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contractualism" title="Contractualism">Contractualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy">Critique of political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Egalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite_theory" title="Elite theory">Elite theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_political_thought" title="History of political thought">History of political thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_discrimination" title="Institutional discrimination">Institutional discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justification_for_the_state" title="Justification for the state">Justification for the state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machiavellianism_(politics)" title="Machiavellianism (politics)">Machiavellianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ethics" title="Political ethics">Political ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_spectrum" title="Political spectrum">Political spectrum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Left-wing_politics" title="Left-wing politics">Left-wing politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrism" title="Centrism">Centrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-wing_politics" title="Right-wing politics">Right-wing politics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_theology" title="Political theology">Political theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_violence" title="Political violence">Political violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separatism" title="Separatism">Separatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">Social justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statism" title="Statism">Statism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Index_of_social_and_political_philosophy_articles" title="Index of social and political philosophy articles">Index</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Political_philosophy" title="Category:Political philosophy">Category:Political philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><span class="portal-bar-header"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:</span><ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/19px-P_vip.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/28px-P_vip.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/37px-P_vip.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1911" data-file-height="1944" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Biography" title="Portal:Biography">Biography</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_edu_mathematics_blue-p.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Nuvola_apps_edu_mathematics_blue-p.svg/19px-Nuvola_apps_edu_mathematics_blue-p.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Nuvola_apps_edu_mathematics_blue-p.svg/29px-Nuvola_apps_edu_mathematics_blue-p.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Nuvola_apps_edu_mathematics_blue-p.svg/38px-Nuvola_apps_edu_mathematics_blue-p.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Mathematics" title="Portal:Mathematics">Mathematics</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/12px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/19px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/25px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/19px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/29px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/38px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Science" title="Portal:Science">Science</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ballerina-icon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Ballerina-icon.jpg/16px-Ballerina-icon.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Ballerina-icon.jpg/24px-Ballerina-icon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Ballerina-icon.jpg/32px-Ballerina-icon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="306" data-file-height="367" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Art" class="mw-redirect" title="Portal:Art">Art</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg/21px-Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg/32px-Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg/42px-Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="309" data-file-height="274" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Literature" title="Portal:Literature">Literature</a></li></ul></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9047#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9047#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9047#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000120990070">ISNI</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/9849392">VIAF</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/39580/">FAST</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJxCxx9XjP7GxJkTmvXrv3">WorldCat</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/118571249">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n79081493">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11912259r">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11912259r">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00447280">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.sbn.it/nome/CFIV021597">Italy</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an36517029">Australia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=jn20000603705&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX967786">Spain</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.bnportugal.gov.pt/aut/catbnp/47238">Portugal</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p161767818">Netherlands</a></span><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p068392389">2</a></span></li></ul></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/90071719">Norway</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000036029&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://katalog.nsk.hr/F/?func=direct&doc_number=000025446&local_base=nsk10">Croatia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bncatalogo.cl/F?func=direct&local_base=red10&doc_number=000066963">Chile</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.nlg.gr/cgi-bin/koha/opac-authoritiesdetail.pl?authid=62727">Greece</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogo.bn.gov.ar/F/?func=direct&local_base=BNA10&doc_number=000048280">Argentina</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lod.nl.go.kr/resource/KAC199616304">Korea</a></span><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lod.nl.go.kr/resource/KAC2018P2500">2</a></span></li></ul></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libris.kb.se/mkz1361553f1hb2">Sweden</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810616537805606">Poland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a class="external text" href="https://wikidata-externalid-url.toolforge.org/?p=8034&url_prefix=https://opac.vatlib.it/auth/detail/&id=495/17755">Vatican</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007264301705171">Israel</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://urn.fi/URN:NBN:fi:au:finaf:000084397">Finland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cantic.bnc.cat/registre/981058521393706706">Catalonia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.kbr.be/LIBRARY/doc/AUTHORITY/14741407">Belgium</a></span><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.kbr.be/LIBRARY/doc/AUTHORITY/16923874">2</a></span></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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