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href="#Comparison_with_power_MOSFETs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Comparison with power MOSFETs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Comparison_with_power_MOSFETs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modeling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modeling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Modeling</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modeling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-IGBT_failure_mechanisms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#IGBT_failure_mechanisms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>IGBT failure mechanisms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-IGBT_failure_mechanisms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-IGBT_modules" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#IGBT_modules"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>IGBT modules</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-IGBT_modules-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" 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<input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 31 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-31" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">31 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B2%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1_%D8%AB%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%B7%D8%A8_%D8%B0%D9%88_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%B2%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A9" title="ترانزستور ثنائي القطب ذو البوابة المعزولة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="ترانزستور ثنائي القطب ذو البوابة المعزولة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%A1-%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%9F_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%B0" title="ইনসুলেটেড-গেট বাইপোলার ট্রানজিস্টর – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ইনসুলেটেড-গেট বাইপোলার ট্রানজিস্টর" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/IGBT_%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80" title="IGBT транзистор – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="IGBT транзистор" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor_bipolar_de_porta_a%C3%AFllada" title="Transistor bipolar de porta aïllada – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Transistor bipolar de porta aïllada" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/IGBT" title="IGBT – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="IGBT" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insulated-gate_bipolar_transistor" title="Insulated-gate bipolar transistor – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Insulated-gate bipolar transistor" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipolartransistor_mit_isolierter_Gate-Elektrode" title="Bipolartransistor mit isolierter Gate-Elektrode – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Bipolartransistor mit isolierter Gate-Elektrode" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isoleeritud_paisuga_bipolaartransistor" title="Isoleeritud paisuga bipolaartransistor – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Isoleeritud paisuga bipolaartransistor" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor_IGBT" title="Transistor IGBT – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Transistor IGBT" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%DB%8C%E2%80%8C%D8%AC%DB%8C%E2%80%8C%D8%A8%DB%8C%E2%80%8C%D8%AA%DB%8C" title="آی‌جی‌بی‌تی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="آی‌جی‌بی‌تی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor_bipolaire_%C3%A0_grille_isol%C3%A9e" title="Transistor bipolaire à grille isolée – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Transistor bipolaire à grille isolée" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A0%88%EC%97%B0_%EA%B2%8C%EC%9D%B4%ED%8A%B8_%EC%96%91%EA%B7%B9%EC%84%B1_%ED%8A%B8%EB%9E%9C%EC%A7%80%EC%8A%A4%ED%84%B0" title="절연 게이트 양극성 트랜지스터 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="절연 게이트 양극성 트랜지스터" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A1_%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9F_%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%88%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%B0" title="इंसुलेटेड गेट बाईपोलर ट्रांजिस्टर – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="इंसुलेटेड गेट बाईपोलर ट्रांजिस्टर" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor_dwikutub_gerbang-terisolasi" title="Transistor dwikutub gerbang-terisolasi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Transistor dwikutub gerbang-terisolasi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor_bipolare_a_gate_isolato" title="Transistor bipolare a gate isolato – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Transistor bipolare a gate isolato" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%98%D7%A8%D7%A0%D7%96%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%95%D7%A8_IGBT" title="טרנזיסטור IGBT – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="טרנזיסטור IGBT" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insulated-gate_bipolar_transistor" title="Insulated-gate bipolar transistor – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Insulated-gate bipolar transistor" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%B5%B6%E7%B8%81%E3%82%B2%E3%83%BC%E3%83%88%E3%83%90%E3%82%A4%E3%83%9D%E3%83%BC%E3%83%A9%E3%83%88%E3%83%A9%E3%83%B3%E3%82%B8%E3%82%B9%E3%82%BF" title="絶縁ゲートバイポーラトランジスタ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="絶縁ゲートバイポーラトランジスタ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/IGBT" title="IGBT – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="IGBT" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/IGBT" title="IGBT – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="IGBT" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tranzistor_IGBT" title="Tranzistor IGBT – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Tranzistor IGBT" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80_%D1%81_%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%BC_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Биполярный транзистор с изолированным затвором – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Биполярный транзистор с изолированным затвором" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipol%C3%A1rny_tranzistor_s_izolovan%C3%BDm_hradlom" title="Bipolárny tranzistor s izolovaným hradlom – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Bipolárny tranzistor s izolovaným hradlom" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/IGBT" title="IGBT – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="IGBT" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/IGBT" title="IGBT – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="IGBT" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/IGBT" title="IGBT – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="IGBT" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/IGBT" title="IGBT – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="IGBT" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D8%A6%DB%8C_%D8%AC%DB%8C_%D8%A8%DB%8C_%D9%B9%DB%8C" title="آئی جی بی ٹی – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="آئی جی بی ٹی" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/IGBT" title="IGBT – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="IGBT" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BB%9D%E7%BC%98%E6%A0%85%E5%8F%8C%E6%9E%81%E6%99%B6%E4%BD%93%E7%AE%A1" title="绝缘栅双极晶体管 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="绝缘栅双极晶体管" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%B5%95%E7%B7%A3%E6%9F%B5%E9%9B%99%E6%A5%B5%E6%99%B6%E9%AB%94%E7%AE%A1" title="絕緣柵雙極晶體管 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="絕緣柵雙極晶體管" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q176110#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Insulated-gate_bipolar_transistor" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li 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.infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><caption class="infobox-title">Insulated-gate bipolar transistor</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:IGBT_3300V_1200A_Mitsubishi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/IGBT_3300V_1200A_Mitsubishi.jpg/220px-IGBT_3300V_1200A_Mitsubishi.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/IGBT_3300V_1200A_Mitsubishi.jpg/330px-IGBT_3300V_1200A_Mitsubishi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/IGBT_3300V_1200A_Mitsubishi.jpg/440px-IGBT_3300V_1200A_Mitsubishi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="525" data-file-height="371" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">IGBT module (IGBTs and freewheeling diodes) with a rated current of 1200 A and a maximum voltage of 3300 V</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><span class="nowrap">Working principle<span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span></span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">Semiconductor</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Inventor</th><td class="infobox-data">1959</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header"><a href="/wiki/Electronic_symbol" title="Electronic symbol">Electronic symbol</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:IGBT_symbol.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/IGBT_symbol.svg/164px-IGBT_symbol.svg.png" decoding="async" width="164" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/IGBT_symbol.svg/246px-IGBT_symbol.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/IGBT_symbol.svg/328px-IGBT_symbol.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="164" data-file-height="146" /></a></span><br />IGBT schematic symbol</td></tr></tbody></table> <p>An <b>insulated-gate bipolar transistor</b> (<b>IGBT</b>) is a three-terminal <a href="/wiki/Power_semiconductor_device" title="Power semiconductor device">power semiconductor device</a> primarily forming an electronic switch. It was developed to combine high efficiency with fast switching. It consists of four alternating layers (NPNP)<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:4_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that are controlled by a <a href="/wiki/Metal%E2%80%93oxide%E2%80%93semiconductor" class="mw-redirect" title="Metal–oxide–semiconductor">metal–oxide–semiconductor</a> (MOS) <a href="/wiki/Metal_gate" title="Metal gate">gate</a> structure. </p><p>Although the structure of the IGBT is topologically similar to a <a href="/wiki/Thyristor" title="Thyristor">thyristor</a> with a "MOS" gate (<a href="/wiki/MOS-controlled_thyristor" title="MOS-controlled thyristor">MOS-gate thyristor</a>), the thyristor action is completely suppressed, and only the <a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">transistor</a> action is permitted in the entire device operation range. It is used in <a href="/wiki/Switching_power_supply" class="mw-redirect" title="Switching power supply">switching power supplies</a> in high-power applications: <a href="/wiki/Variable-frequency_drive" title="Variable-frequency drive">variable-frequency drives</a> (VFDs) for motor control in <a href="/wiki/Electric_car" title="Electric car">electric cars</a>, trains, variable-speed refrigerators, and air conditioners, as well as lamp ballasts, arc-welding machines, photovoltaic and hybrid inverters, <a href="/wiki/Uninterruptible_Power_Supply" class="mw-redirect" title="Uninterruptible Power Supply">uninterruptible power supply</a> systems (UPS), and <a href="/wiki/Induction_cooking" title="Induction cooking">induction stoves</a>. </p><p>Since it is designed to turn on and off rapidly, the IGBT can synthesize complex waveforms with <a href="/wiki/Pulse-width_modulation" title="Pulse-width modulation">pulse-width modulation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Low-pass_filter" title="Low-pass filter">low-pass filters</a>, thus it is also used in <a href="/wiki/Switching_amplifier" class="mw-redirect" title="Switching amplifier">switching amplifiers</a> in sound systems and industrial <a href="/wiki/Control_system" title="Control system">control systems</a>. In switching applications modern devices feature <a href="/wiki/Pulse_repetition_frequency" class="mw-redirect" title="Pulse repetition frequency">pulse repetition rates</a> well into the ultrasonic-range frequencies, which are at least ten times higher than audio frequencies handled by the device when used as an analog audio amplifier. As of 2010<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Insulated-gate_bipolar_transistor&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>, the IGBT was the second most widely used power transistor, after the <a href="/wiki/Power_MOSFET" title="Power MOSFET">power MOSFET</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>IGBT comparison table<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Device characteristic </th> <th>Power <a href="/wiki/Bipolar_junction_transistor" title="Bipolar junction transistor">BJT</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Power_MOSFET" title="Power MOSFET">Power MOSFET</a> </th> <th>IGBT </th></tr> <tr> <td>Voltage rating </td> <td>High <1 kV </td> <td>High <1 kV </td> <td>Very high >1 kV </td></tr> <tr> <td>Current rating </td> <td>High <500 A </td> <td>Low <200 A </td> <td>High >500 A </td></tr> <tr> <td>Input drive </td> <td>Current ratio<br /> <i>h</i><sub>FE</sub> ~ 20–200 </td> <td>Voltage<br /> <i>V</i><sub>GS</sub> ~ 3–10 V </td> <td>Voltage<br /> <i>V</i><sub>GE</sub> ~ 4–8 V </td></tr> <tr> <td>Input impedance </td> <td>Low </td> <td>High </td> <td>High </td></tr> <tr> <td>Output impedance </td> <td>Low </td> <td>Medium </td> <td>Low </td></tr> <tr> <td>Switching speed </td> <td>Slow (μs) </td> <td>Fast (ns) </td> <td>Medium </td></tr> <tr> <td>Cost </td> <td>Low </td> <td>Medium </td> <td>High </td></tr></tbody></table> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Device_structure">Device structure</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Insulated-gate_bipolar_transistor&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Device structure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:IGBT_Cross_Section.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/IGBT_Cross_Section.jpg/220px-IGBT_Cross_Section.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/IGBT_Cross_Section.jpg/330px-IGBT_Cross_Section.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/IGBT_Cross_Section.jpg/440px-IGBT_Cross_Section.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1220" data-file-height="920" /></a><figcaption>Cross-section of a typical IGBT showing internal connection of MOSFET and bipolar device</figcaption></figure> <p>An IGBT cell is constructed similarly to an n-channel vertical-construction <a href="/wiki/Power_MOSFET" title="Power MOSFET">power MOSFET</a>, except the n+ drain is replaced with a p+ collector layer, thus forming a vertical PNP <a href="/wiki/Bipolar_junction_transistor" title="Bipolar junction transistor">bipolar junction transistor</a>. This additional p+ region creates a cascade connection of a PNP bipolar junction transistor with the surface n-channel <a href="/wiki/MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOSFET</a>. The whole structure comprises a four layered NPNP.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:4_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Difference_between_thyristor_and_IGBT">Difference between thyristor and IGBT</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Insulated-gate_bipolar_transistor&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Difference between thyristor and IGBT"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Difference between thyristor and IGBT<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Aspect</th> <th>Thyristor</th> <th>IGBT </th></tr> <tr> <td>Definition</td> <td>A four-layer semiconductor device with a P-N-P-N structure</td> <td>An insulated-gate bipolar transistor combining features from bipolar transistors and MOSFETs </td></tr> <tr> <td>Terminals</td> <td>Anode, cathode, gate</td> <td>Emitter, collector, gate </td></tr> <tr> <td>Layers</td> <td>Four layers</td> <td>Three layers </td></tr> <tr> <td>Junction</td> <td>PNPN structure</td> <td>NPN(P) structure </td></tr> <tr> <td>Modes of operation</td> <td>Reverse blocking, forward blocking, forward conducting</td> <td>On-state, off-state </td></tr> <tr> <td>Design structure</td> <td>Coupled transistors (PNP and NPN)</td> <td>Combined bipolar and MOSFET features </td></tr> <tr> <td>Carrier source</td> <td>Two sources of carriers</td> <td>One source of carriers </td></tr> <tr> <td>Turn-on voltage</td> <td>N/A</td> <td>Low gate voltage required </td></tr> <tr> <td>Turn off loss</td> <td>Higher</td> <td>Lower </td></tr> <tr> <td>Plasma density</td> <td>Higher</td> <td>Lower </td></tr> <tr> <td>Operating frequency range</td> <td>Suitable for line frequency, typically lower</td> <td>Suitable for high frequencies, typically higher </td></tr> <tr> <td>Die size and paralleling requirements</td> <td>Larger die size, can be manufactured as monolithic devices up to 6" (15 cm) in diameter</td> <td>Smaller die size, often paralleled in a package </td></tr> <tr> <td>Power range</td> <td>Suitable for high-power applications</td> <td>Suitable for medium-power applications </td></tr> <tr> <td>Control requirements</td> <td>Requires gate current</td> <td>Requires continuous gate voltage </td></tr> <tr> <td>Value for money</td> <td>Cost-effective</td> <td>Relatively higher cost </td></tr> <tr> <td>Control method</td> <td>Pulse triggering</td> <td>Gate voltage control </td></tr> <tr> <td>Switching speed</td> <td>Slower</td> <td>Faster </td></tr> <tr> <td>Current switching capability</td> <td>High</td> <td>Moderate </td></tr> <tr> <td>Control current</td> <td>High current drive</td> <td>Low current drive </td></tr> <tr> <td>Voltage capability</td> <td>High voltage handling</td> <td>Lower voltage handling </td></tr> <tr> <td>Power loss</td> <td>Higher power dissipation</td> <td>Lower power dissipation </td></tr> <tr> <td>Application</td> <td>High voltage, robustness</td> <td>High-speed switching, efficiency </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Insulated-gate_bipolar_transistor&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1957(Figure_7)-Gate_oxide_transistor_by_Frosch_and_Derrick.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/1957%28Figure_7%29-Gate_oxide_transistor_by_Frosch_and_Derrick.png/340px-1957%28Figure_7%29-Gate_oxide_transistor_by_Frosch_and_Derrick.png" decoding="async" width="340" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/1957%28Figure_7%29-Gate_oxide_transistor_by_Frosch_and_Derrick.png/510px-1957%28Figure_7%29-Gate_oxide_transistor_by_Frosch_and_Derrick.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/1957%28Figure_7%29-Gate_oxide_transistor_by_Frosch_and_Derrick.png/680px-1957%28Figure_7%29-Gate_oxide_transistor_by_Frosch_and_Derrick.png 2x" data-file-width="851" data-file-height="371" /></a><figcaption>Diagram of NPNP transistor made by Frosch and Derrick at Bell Labs, 1957<sup id="cite_ref-iopscience.iop.org_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iopscience.iop.org-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The bipolar point-contact transistor was invented in December 1947<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> at the <a href="/wiki/Bell_Telephone_Laboratories" class="mw-redirect" title="Bell Telephone Laboratories">Bell Telephone Laboratories</a> by <a href="/wiki/John_Bardeen" title="John Bardeen">John Bardeen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Walter_Brattain" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter Brattain">Walter Brattain</a> under the direction of <a href="/wiki/William_Shockley" title="William Shockley">William Shockley</a>. The junction version known as the bipolar junction transistor (BJT), invented by Shockley in 1948.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later the similar thyristor was proposed by William Shockley in 1950 and developed in 1956 by power engineers at <a href="/wiki/General_Electric" title="General Electric">General Electric</a> (GE). The <a href="/wiki/Metal%E2%80%93oxide%E2%80%93semiconductor_field-effect_transistor" class="mw-redirect" title="Metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor">metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor</a> (MOSFET) was also invented at Bell Labs.<sup id="cite_ref-iopscience.iop.org_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iopscience.iop.org-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1957 Frosch and Derick published their work on building the first silicon dioxide transistors, including a NPNP transistor, the same structure as the IGBT.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The basic IGBT mode of operation, where a pnp transistor is driven by a MOSFET, was first proposed by K. Yamagami and Y. Akagiri of <a href="/wiki/Mitsubishi_Electric" title="Mitsubishi Electric">Mitsubishi Electric</a> in the Japanese <a href="/wiki/Patent" title="Patent">patent</a> S47-21739, which was filed in 1968.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:IvsV_IGBT-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/IvsV_IGBT-en.svg/300px-IvsV_IGBT-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/IvsV_IGBT-en.svg/450px-IvsV_IGBT-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/IvsV_IGBT-en.svg/600px-IvsV_IGBT-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="756" data-file-height="461" /></a><figcaption>Static characteristic of an IGBT</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1978 J. D. Plummer and B. Scharf patented a NPNP transistor device combining MOS and bipolar capabilities for power control and switching.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:8_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The development of IGBT was characterized by the efforts to completely suppress the thyristor operation or the latch-up in the four-layer device because the latch-up caused the fatal device failure. IGBTs had, thus, been established when the complete suppression of the latch-up of the parasitic thyristor was achieved. Later, Hans W. Becke and Carl F. Wheatley developed a similar device claiming non-latch-up. They patented the device in 1980, referring to it as "power MOSFET with an anode region" for which "no thyristor action occurs under any device operating conditions".<sup id="cite_ref-U._S._Patent_No._4,364,073_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-U._S._Patent_No._4,364,073-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A. Nakagawa et al. invented the device design concept of non-latch-up IGBTs in 1984.<sup id="cite_ref-Nakagawa_Ohashi_Kurata_et_al_1984_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nakagawa_Ohashi_Kurata_et_al_1984-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-patents.google.com_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-patents.google.com-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The invention is characterized by the device design setting the device saturation current below the latch-up current, which triggers the parasitic thyristor. This invention realized complete suppression of the parasitic thyristor action, for the first time, because the maximal collector current was limited by the saturation current and never exceeded the latch-up current. </p><p>In the early development stage of IGBT, all the researchers tried to increase the latch-up current itself in order to suppress the latch-up of the parasitic thyristor. However, all these efforts failed because IGBT could conduct enormously large current. Successful suppression of the latch-up was made possible by limiting the maximal collector current, which IGBT could conduct, below the latch-up current by controlling/reducing the saturation current of the inherent MOSFET. This was the concept of non-latch-up IGBT. "Becke’s device" was made possible by the non-latch-up IGBT. </p><p>The IGBT is characterized by its ability to simultaneously handle a high voltage and a large current. The product of the voltage and the current density that the IGBT can handle reached more than 5<span style="margin:0 .15em 0 .25em">×</span>10<sup><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7000500000000000000♠"></span>5</span></sup> W/cm<sup>2</sup>,<sup id="cite_ref-A.Nakagawa_1987_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-A.Nakagawa_1987-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-A._Nakagawa_pp._150–153_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-A._Nakagawa_pp._150–153-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which far exceeded the value, 2<span style="margin:0 .15em 0 .25em">×</span>10<sup><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7000500000000000000♠"></span>5</span></sup> W/cm<sup>2</sup>, of existing power devices such as bipolar transistors and power MOSFETs. This is a consequence of the large <a href="/wiki/Safe_operating_area" title="Safe operating area">safe operating area</a> of the IGBT. The IGBT is the most rugged and the strongest power device yet developed, affording ease of use and so displacing bipolar transistors and even <a href="/wiki/Gate_turn-off_thyristor" title="Gate turn-off thyristor">gate turn-off thyristors</a> (GTOs). This excellent feature of the IGBT had suddenly emerged when the non-latch-up IGBT was established in 1984 by solving the problem of so-called "latch-up", which is the main cause of device destruction or device failure. Before that, the developed devices were very weak and were easily destroyed by "latch-up". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Practical_devices">Practical devices</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Insulated-gate_bipolar_transistor&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Practical devices"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Practical devices capable of operating over an extended current range were first reported by <a href="/wiki/B._Jayant_Baliga" title="B. Jayant Baliga">B. Jayant Baliga</a> et al. in 1982.<sup id="cite_ref-J._Baliga,_pp._264–267_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-J._Baliga,_pp._264–267-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first experimental demonstration of a practical discrete vertical IGBT device was reported by Baliga at the <a href="/wiki/IEEE_International_Electron_Devices_Meeting" class="mw-redirect" title="IEEE International Electron Devices Meeting">IEEE International Electron Devices Meeting</a> (IEDM) that year.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-J._Baliga,_pp._264–267_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-J._Baliga,_pp._264–267-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/General_Electric" title="General Electric">General Electric</a> commercialized Baliga's IGBT device the same year.<sup id="cite_ref-Baliga_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baliga-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Baliga was inducted into the <a href="/wiki/National_Inventors_Hall_of_Fame" title="National Inventors Hall of Fame">National Inventors Hall of Fame</a> for the invention of the IGBT.<sup id="cite_ref-NIHF_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NIHF-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A similar paper was also submitted by J. P. Russel et al. to IEEE Electron Device Letter in 1982.<sup id="cite_ref-COMFET_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-COMFET-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The applications for the device were initially regarded by the <a href="/wiki/Power_electronics" title="Power electronics">power electronics</a> community to be severely restricted by its slow switching speed and latch-up of the parasitic thyristor structure inherent within the device. However, it was demonstrated by Baliga and also by A. M. Goodman et al. in 1983 that the switching speed could be adjusted over a broad range by using <a href="/wiki/Electron_irradiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron irradiation">electron irradiation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-J._Baliga,_pp._452–454_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-J._Baliga,_pp._452–454-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was followed by demonstration of operation of the device at elevated temperatures by Baliga in 1985.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Successful efforts to suppress the latch-up of the parasitic thyristor and the scaling of the voltage rating of the devices at GE allowed the introduction of commercial devices in 1983,<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which could be used for a wide variety of applications. The electrical characteristics of GE's device, IGT D94FQ/FR4, were reported in detail by Marvin W. Smith in the proceedings of PCI April 1984.<sup id="cite_ref-archive1982.web.fc2.com_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-archive1982.web.fc2.com-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Smith showed in Fig. 12 of the proceedings that turn-off above 10 amperes for gate resistance of 5 kΩ and above 5 amperes for gate resistance of 1 kΩ was limited by switching safe operating area although IGT D94FQ/FR4 was able to conduct 40 amperes of collector current. Smith also stated that the switching safe operating area was limited by the latch-up of the parasitic thyristor. </p><p>Complete suppression of the parasitic thyristor action and the resultant non-latch-up IGBT operation for the entire device operation range was achieved by A. Nakagawa et al. in 1984.<sup id="cite_ref-Nakagawa_Ohashi_Kurata_et_al_1984_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nakagawa_Ohashi_Kurata_et_al_1984-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The non-latch-up design concept was filed for US patents.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To test the lack of latch-up, the prototype 1200 V IGBTs were directly connected without any loads across a 600 V constant-voltage source and were switched on for 25 microseconds. The entire 600 V was dropped across the device, and a large short-circuit current flowed. The devices successfully withstood this severe condition. This was the first demonstration of so-called "short-circuit-withstanding-capability" in IGBTs. Non-latch-up IGBT operation was ensured, for the first time, for the entire device operation range.<sup id="cite_ref-A._Nakagawa_pp._150–153_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-A._Nakagawa_pp._150–153-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this sense, the non-latch-up IGBT proposed by Hans W. Becke and Carl F. Wheatley was realized by A. Nakagawa et al. in 1984. Products of non-latch-up IGBTs were first commercialized by <a href="/wiki/Toshiba" title="Toshiba">Toshiba</a> in 1985. This was the real birth of the present IGBT. </p><p>Once the non-latch-up capability was achieved in IGBTs, it was found that IGBTs exhibited very rugged and a very large <a href="/wiki/Safe_operating_area" title="Safe operating area">safe operating area</a>. It was demonstrated that the product of the operating current density and the collector voltage exceeded the theoretical limit of bipolar transistors, 2<span style="margin:0 .15em 0 .25em">×</span>10<sup><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7000500000000000000♠"></span>5</span></sup> W/cm<sup>2</sup> and reached 5<span style="margin:0 .15em 0 .25em">×</span>10<sup><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7000500000000000000♠"></span>5</span></sup> W/cm<sup>2</sup>.<sup id="cite_ref-A.Nakagawa_1987_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-A.Nakagawa_1987-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-A._Nakagawa_pp._150–153_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-A._Nakagawa_pp._150–153-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The insulating material is typically made of solid polymers, which have issues with degradation. There are developments that use an <a href="/wiki/Ion_gel" title="Ion gel">ion gel</a> to improve manufacturing and reduce the voltage required.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first-generation IGBTs of the 1980s and early 1990s were prone to failure through effects such as <a href="/wiki/Latchup" class="mw-redirect" title="Latchup">latchup</a> (in which the device will not turn off as long as current is flowing) and <a href="/wiki/Secondary_breakdown" class="mw-redirect" title="Secondary breakdown">secondary breakdown</a> (in which a localized hotspot in the device goes into <a href="/wiki/Thermal_runaway" title="Thermal runaway">thermal runaway</a> and burns the device out at high currents). Second-generation devices were much improved. The current third-generation IGBTs are even better, with speed rivaling <a href="/wiki/Power_MOSFET" title="Power MOSFET">power MOSFETs</a> and excellent ruggedness and tolerance of overloads.<sup id="cite_ref-A.Nakagawa_1987_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-A.Nakagawa_1987-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Extremely high pulse ratings of second- and third-generation devices also make them useful for generating large power pulses in areas including <a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">particle</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plasma_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Plasma physics">plasma physics</a>, where they are starting to supersede older devices such as <a href="/wiki/Thyratron" title="Thyratron">thyratrons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Triggered_spark_gap" class="mw-redirect" title="Triggered spark gap">triggered spark gaps</a>. High pulse ratings and low prices on the surplus market also make them attractive to the high-voltage hobbyists for controlling large amounts of power to drive devices such as solid-state <a href="/wiki/Tesla_coil" title="Tesla coil">Tesla coils</a> and <a href="/wiki/Coilgun" title="Coilgun">coilguns</a>. </p><p><br /> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Insulated-gate_bipolar_transistor&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_MOSFET_applications#Insulated-gate_bipolar_transistor_(IGBT)" title="List of MOSFET applications">List of MOSFET applications § Insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT)</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/LDMOS#Applications" title="LDMOS">LDMOS § Applications</a>, <a href="/wiki/Power_MOSFET" title="Power MOSFET">Power MOSFET</a>, and <a href="/wiki/RF_CMOS#Applications" title="RF CMOS">RF CMOS § Applications</a></div> <p>As of 2010<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Insulated-gate_bipolar_transistor&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>, the IGBT is the second most widely used <a href="/wiki/Power_transistor" class="mw-redirect" title="Power transistor">power transistor</a>, after the power MOSFET. The IGBT accounts for 27% of the power transistor market, second only to the power MOSFET (53%), and ahead of the <a href="/wiki/RF_amplifier" class="mw-redirect" title="RF amplifier">RF amplifier</a> (11%) and <a href="/wiki/Bipolar_junction_transistor" title="Bipolar junction transistor">bipolar junction transistor</a> (9%).<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The IGBT is widely used in <a href="/wiki/Consumer_electronics" title="Consumer electronics">consumer electronics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Industrial_technology" title="Industrial technology">industrial technology</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Energy_sector" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy sector">energy sector</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aerospace" title="Aerospace">aerospace</a> electronic devices, and <a href="/wiki/Transportation" class="mw-redirect" title="Transportation">transportation</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Advantages">Advantages</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Insulated-gate_bipolar_transistor&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Advantages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The IGBT combines the simple gate-drive characteristics of <a href="/wiki/Power_MOSFET" title="Power MOSFET">power MOSFETs</a> with the high-current and low-saturation-voltage capability of <a href="/wiki/Bipolar_junction_transistor" title="Bipolar junction transistor">bipolar transistors</a>. The IGBT combines an isolated-gate <a href="/wiki/Field-effect_transistor" title="Field-effect transistor">FET</a> for the control input and a bipolar power <a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">transistor</a> as a switch in a single device. The IGBT is used in medium- to high-power applications like <a href="/wiki/Switched-mode_power_supplies" class="mw-redirect" title="Switched-mode power supplies">switched-mode power supplies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Traction_motor" title="Traction motor">traction motor</a> control and <a href="/wiki/Induction_heating" title="Induction heating">induction heating</a>. Large IGBT modules typically consist of many devices in parallel and can have very high current-handling capabilities in the order of hundreds of <a href="/wiki/Ampere" title="Ampere">amperes</a> with blocking voltages of <span class="nowrap">6500 <a href="/wiki/Volts" class="mw-redirect" title="Volts">V</a></span>. These IGBTs can control loads of hundreds of <a href="/wiki/Kilowatts" class="mw-redirect" title="Kilowatts">kilowatts</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Comparison_with_power_MOSFETs">Comparison with power MOSFETs</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Insulated-gate_bipolar_transistor&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Comparison with power MOSFETs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An IGBT features a significantly lower forward voltage drop compared to a conventional MOSFET in higher blocking voltage rated devices, although MOSFETS exhibit much lower forward voltage at lower current densities due to the absence of a diode Vf in the IGBT's output BJT. As the blocking voltage rating of both MOSFET and IGBT devices increases, the depth of the n- drift region must increase and the doping must decrease, resulting in roughly square relationship decrease in forward conduction versus blocking voltage capability of the device. By injecting minority carriers (holes) from the collector p+ region into the n- drift region during forward conduction, the resistance of the n- drift region is considerably reduced. However, this resultant reduction in on-state forward voltage comes with several penalties: </p> <ul><li>The additional PN junction blocks reverse current flow. This means that unlike a MOSFET, IGBTs cannot conduct in the reverse direction. In bridge circuits, where reverse current flow is needed, an additional diode (called a <a href="/wiki/Flyback_diode" title="Flyback diode">freewheeling diode</a>) is placed in anti-parallel with the IGBT to conduct current in the opposite direction. The penalty isn't overly severe because at higher voltages, where IGBT usage dominates, discrete diodes have a significantly higher performance than the body diode of a MOSFET.</li> <li>The reverse bias rating of the N-drift region to collector P+ diode is usually only of tens of volts, so if the circuit application applies a reverse voltage to the IGBT, an additional series diode must be used.</li> <li>The minority carriers injected into the N-drift region take time to enter and exit or recombine at turn-on and turn-off. This results in longer switching times, and hence higher <a href="/w/index.php?title=Switching_loss&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Switching loss (page does not exist)">switching loss</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schaltverluste" class="extiw" title="de:Schaltverluste">de</a>]</span> compared to a power MOSFET.</li> <li>The on-state forward voltage drop in IGBTs behaves very differently from power MOSFETS. The MOSFET voltage drop can be modeled as a resistance, with the voltage drop proportional to current. By contrast, the IGBT has a diode-like voltage drop (typically of the order of 2V) increasing only with the <a href="/wiki/Natural_logarithm" title="Natural logarithm">log</a> of the current. Additionally, MOSFET resistance is typically lower for smaller blocking voltages, so the choice between IGBTs and power MOSFETS will depend on both the blocking voltage and current involved in a particular application.</li></ul> <p>In general, high voltage, high current and lower frequencies favor the IGBT while low voltage, medium current and high switching frequencies are the domain of the MOSFET. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modeling">Modeling</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Insulated-gate_bipolar_transistor&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Modeling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Circuits with IGBTs can be developed and <a href="/wiki/Computer_modeling" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer modeling">modeled</a> with various <a href="/wiki/Electronic_circuit_simulation" title="Electronic circuit simulation">circuit simulating</a> computer programs such as <a href="/wiki/SPICE" title="SPICE">SPICE</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saber_(software)" title="Saber (software)">Saber</a>, and other programs. To simulate an IGBT circuit, the device (and other devices in the circuit) must have a model which predicts or simulates the device's response to various voltages and currents on their electrical terminals. For more precise simulations the effect of temperature on various parts of the IGBT may be included with the simulation. Two common methods of modeling are available: <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_device_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Semiconductor device physics">device physics</a>-based model, <a href="/wiki/Equivalent_circuit" title="Equivalent circuit">equivalent circuits</a> or macromodels. <a href="/wiki/SPICE" title="SPICE">SPICE</a> simulates IGBTs using a macromodel that combines an ensemble of components like <a href="/wiki/Field-effect_transistor" title="Field-effect transistor">FETs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bipolar_junction_transistor" title="Bipolar junction transistor">BJTs</a> in a <a href="/wiki/Darlington_transistor" title="Darlington transistor">Darlington configuration</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2007)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> An alternative physics-based model is the Hefner model, introduced by Allen Hefner of the <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_of_Standards_and_Technology" title="National Institute of Standards and Technology">National Institute of Standards and Technology</a>. Hefner's model is fairly complex but has shown good results. Hefner's model is described in a 1988 paper and was later extended to a thermo-electrical model which include the IGBT's response to internal heating. This model has been added to a version of the <a href="/wiki/Saber_(software)" title="Saber (software)">Saber</a> simulation software.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="IGBT_failure_mechanisms">IGBT failure mechanisms</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Insulated-gate_bipolar_transistor&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: IGBT failure mechanisms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The failure mechanisms of IGBTs includes overstress (O) and wearout (wo) separately. </p><p>The wearout failures mainly include bias temperature instability (BTI), hot carrier injection (HCI), time-dependent dielectric breakdown (TDDB), electromigration (ECM), solder fatigue, material reconstruction, corrosion. The overstress failures mainly include electrostatic discharge (ESD), latch-up, avalanche, secondary breakdown, wire-bond liftoff and burnout.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="IGBT_modules">IGBT modules</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Insulated-gate_bipolar_transistor&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: IGBT modules"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 172px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 170px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:IGBT_3300V_1200A_Mitsubishi.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="IGBT module (IGBTs and freewheeling diodes) with a rated current of 1200 A and a maximum voltage of 3300 V"><img alt="IGBT module (IGBTs and freewheeling diodes) with a rated current of 1200 A and a maximum voltage of 3300 V" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/IGBT_3300V_1200A_Mitsubishi.jpg/255px-IGBT_3300V_1200A_Mitsubishi.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/IGBT_3300V_1200A_Mitsubishi.jpg/382px-IGBT_3300V_1200A_Mitsubishi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/IGBT_3300V_1200A_Mitsubishi.jpg/510px-IGBT_3300V_1200A_Mitsubishi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="525" data-file-height="371" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> IGBT module (IGBTs and <a href="/wiki/Flyback_diode" title="Flyback diode">freewheeling diodes</a>) with a rated current of <span class="nowrap">1200 A</span> and a maximum voltage of <span class="nowrap">3300 V</span></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 162px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:IGBT_2441.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Opened IGBT module with four IGBTs (half of H-bridge) rated for 400 A 600 V"><img alt="Opened IGBT module with four IGBTs (half of H-bridge) rated for 400 A 600 V" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/IGBT_2441.JPG/240px-IGBT_2441.JPG" decoding="async" width="160" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/IGBT_2441.JPG/360px-IGBT_2441.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/IGBT_2441.JPG/480px-IGBT_2441.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> Opened IGBT module with four IGBTs (half of <a href="/wiki/H-bridge" title="H-bridge">H-bridge</a>) rated for <span class="nowrap">400 A</span> <span class="nowrap">600 V</span></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 254px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 252px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Infineon_IGBT-Modul.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Infineon IGBT Module rated for 450 A 1200 V"><img alt="Infineon IGBT Module rated for 450 A 1200 V" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Infineon_IGBT-Modul.jpg/378px-Infineon_IGBT-Modul.jpg" decoding="async" width="252" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Infineon_IGBT-Modul.jpg/566px-Infineon_IGBT-Modul.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Infineon_IGBT-Modul.jpg/755px-Infineon_IGBT-Modul.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4599" data-file-height="2194" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> Infineon IGBT Module rated for <span class="nowrap">450 A</span> <span class="nowrap">1200 V</span></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 123.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 121.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Igbt.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Small IGBT module, rated up to 30 A, up to 900 V"><img alt="Small IGBT module, rated up to 30 A, up to 900 V" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7f/Igbt.jpg" decoding="async" width="122" height="120" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="167" data-file-height="165" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> Small IGBT module, rated up to <span class="nowrap">30 A</span>, up to <span class="nowrap">900 V</span></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 182.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:CM600DU-24NFH.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Detail of the inside of a Mitsubishi Electric CM600DU-24NFH IGBT module rated for 600 A 1200 V, showing the IGBT dies and freewheeling diodes"><img alt="Detail of the inside of a Mitsubishi Electric CM600DU-24NFH IGBT module rated for 600 A 1200 V, showing the IGBT dies and freewheeling diodes" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/CM600DU-24NFH.jpg/271px-CM600DU-24NFH.jpg" decoding="async" width="181" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/CM600DU-24NFH.jpg/407px-CM600DU-24NFH.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/CM600DU-24NFH.jpg/542px-CM600DU-24NFH.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4288" data-file-height="2848" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> Detail of the inside of a Mitsubishi Electric CM600DU-24NFH IGBT module rated for <span class="nowrap">600 A</span> <span class="nowrap">1200 V</span>, showing the IGBT dies and freewheeling diodes</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Insulated-gate_bipolar_transistor&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span 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(electronics)">Bootstrapping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Current_injection_technique" title="Current injection technique">Current injection technique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floating-gate_MOSFET" title="Floating-gate MOSFET">Floating-gate MOSFET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/JFET" title="JFET">Junction-gate field-effect transistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOSFET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_electronics" title="Power electronics">Power electronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_MOSFET" title="Power MOSFET">Power MOSFET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_semiconductor_device" title="Power semiconductor device">Power semiconductor device</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_inverter" title="Solar inverter">Solar inverter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gate_turn-off_thyristor" title="Gate turn-off thyristor">Gate turn-off thyristor</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span 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Jayant (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=f091AgAAQBAJ"><i>The IGBT Device: Physics, Design and Applications of the Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/William_Andrew_(publisher)" title="William Andrew (publisher)">William Andrew</a>. pp. xxviii, 5–12. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781455731534" title="Special:BookSources/9781455731534"><bdi>9781455731534</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+IGBT+Device%3A+Physics%2C+Design+and+Applications+of+the+Insulated+Gate+Bipolar+Transistor&rft.pages=xxviii%2C+5-12&rft.pub=William+Andrew&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9781455731534&rft.aulast=Baliga&rft.aufirst=B.+Jayant&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Df091AgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInsulated-gate+bipolar+transistor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NIHF-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NIHF_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.invent.org/inductees/bantval-jayant-baliga">"NIHF Inductee Bantval Jayant Baliga Invented IGBT Technology"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/National_Inventors_Hall_of_Fame" title="National Inventors Hall of Fame">National Inventors Hall of Fame</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 August</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Inventors+Hall+of+Fame&rft.atitle=NIHF+Inductee+Bantval+Jayant+Baliga+Invented+IGBT+Technology&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.invent.org%2Finductees%2Fbantval-jayant-baliga&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInsulated-gate+bipolar+transistor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-COMFET-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-COMFET_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussellGoodmanGoodmanNeilson1983" class="citation journal cs1">Russell, J.P.; Goodman, A. M.; Goodman, L.A.; Neilson, J. M. (1983). "The COMFET—A new high conductance MOS-gated device". <i>IEEE Electron Device Letters</i>. <b>4</b> (3): 63–65. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1983IEDL....4...63R">1983IEDL....4...63R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FEDL.1983.25649">10.1109/EDL.1983.25649</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:37850113">37850113</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IEEE+Electron+Device+Letters&rft.atitle=The+COMFET%E2%80%94A+new+high+conductance+MOS-gated+device&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=63-65&rft.date=1983&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A37850113%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FEDL.1983.25649&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1983IEDL....4...63R&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=J.P.&rft.au=Goodman%2C+A.+M.&rft.au=Goodman%2C+L.A.&rft.au=Neilson%2C+J.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInsulated-gate+bipolar+transistor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-J._Baliga,_pp._452–454-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-J._Baliga,_pp._452–454_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaliga1983" class="citation journal cs1">Baliga, B.J. (1983). "Fast-switching insulated gate transistors". <i><a href="/wiki/IEEE_Electron_Device_Letters" title="IEEE Electron Device Letters">IEEE Electron Device Letters</a></i>. <b>4</b> (12): 452–454. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1983IEDL....4..452B">1983IEDL....4..452B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FEDL.1983.25799">10.1109/EDL.1983.25799</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:40454892">40454892</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IEEE+Electron+Device+Letters&rft.atitle=Fast-switching+insulated+gate+transistors&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=452-454&rft.date=1983&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A40454892%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FEDL.1983.25799&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1983IEDL....4..452B&rft.aulast=Baliga&rft.aufirst=B.J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInsulated-gate+bipolar+transistor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoodmanRussellGoodmanNuese1983" class="citation book cs1">Goodman, A.M.; Russell, J. P.; Goodman, L. A.; Nuese, C. J.; Neilson, J. M. (1983). "Improved COMFETs with fast switching speed and high-current capability". <i>1983 International Electron Devices Meeting</i>. pp. 79–82. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FIEDM.1983.190445">10.1109/IEDM.1983.190445</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2210870">2210870</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Improved+COMFETs+with+fast+switching+speed+and+high-current+capability&rft.btitle=1983+International+Electron+Devices+Meeting&rft.pages=79-82&rft.date=1983&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FIEDM.1983.190445&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A2210870%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Goodman&rft.aufirst=A.M.&rft.au=Russell%2C+J.+P.&rft.au=Goodman%2C+L.+A.&rft.au=Nuese%2C+C.+J.&rft.au=Neilson%2C+J.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInsulated-gate+bipolar+transistor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaliga1985" class="citation journal cs1">Baliga, B. Jayant (1985). "Temperature behavior of insulated gate transistor characteristics". <i>Solid-State Electronics</i>. <b>28</b> (3): 289–297. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1985SSEle..28..289B">1985SSEle..28..289B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0038-1101%2885%2990009-7">10.1016/0038-1101(85)90009-7</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Solid-State+Electronics&rft.atitle=Temperature+behavior+of+insulated+gate+transistor+characteristics&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=289-297&rft.date=1985&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0038-1101%2885%2990009-7&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1985SSEle..28..289B&rft.aulast=Baliga&rft.aufirst=B.+Jayant&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInsulated-gate+bipolar+transistor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Product of the Year Award: "Insulated Gate Transistor", General Electric Company, Electronics Products, 1983.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-archive1982.web.fc2.com-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-archive1982.web.fc2.com_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Marvin W. Smith, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive1982.web.fc2.com/Application1984.pdf">"APPLICATIONS OF INSULATED GATE TRANSISTORS"</a>, PCI April 1984 PROCEEDINGS, pp. 121–131, 1984.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A. Nakagawa, H. Ohashi, Y. Yamaguchi, K. Watanabe and T. Thukakoshi, "Conductivity modulated MOSFET", <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://patents.google.com/patent/US6025622">US Patent No. 6025622 (Feb. 15, 2000)</a>, No. 5086323 (Feb. 4, 1992) and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://patents.google.com/patent/US4672407">No. 4672407 (Jun. 9, 1987)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111114011218/http://www.license.umn.edu/Products/Ion-Gel-as-a-Gate-Insulator-in-Field-Effect-Transistors__Z07062.aspx">"Ion Gel as a Gate Insulator in Field Effect Transistors"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.license.umn.edu/Products/Ion-Gel-as-a-Gate-Insulator-in-Field-Effect-Transistors__Z07062.aspx">the original</a> on 2011-11-14.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ion+Gel+as+a+Gate+Insulator+in+Field+Effect+Transistors&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.license.umn.edu%2FProducts%2FIon-Gel-as-a-Gate-Insulator-in-Field-Effect-Transistors__Z07062.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInsulated-gate+bipolar+transistor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icinsights.com/news/bulletins/Power-Transistor-Market-Will-Cross-130-Billion-In-2011/">"Power Transistor Market Will Cross $13.0 Billion in 2011"</a>. <i>IC Insights</i>. June 21, 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 October</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IC+Insights&rft.atitle=Power+Transistor+Market+Will+Cross+%2413.0+Billion+in+2011&rft.date=2011-06-21&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.icinsights.com%2Fnews%2Fbulletins%2FPower-Transistor-Market-Will-Cross-130-Billion-In-2011%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInsulated-gate+bipolar+transistor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHefnerDiebolt1994" class="citation journal cs1">Hefner, A.R.; Diebolt, D.M. (September 1994). "An experimentally verified IGBT model implemented in the Saber circuit simulator". <i>IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics</i>. <b>9</b> (5): 532–542. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1994ITPE....9..532H">1994ITPE....9..532H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2F63.321038">10.1109/63.321038</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:53487037">53487037</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IEEE+Transactions+on+Power+Electronics&rft.atitle=An+experimentally+verified+IGBT+model+implemented+in+the+Saber+circuit+simulator&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=532-542&rft.date=1994-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A53487037%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2F63.321038&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1994ITPE....9..532H&rft.aulast=Hefner&rft.aufirst=A.R.&rft.au=Diebolt%2C+D.M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInsulated-gate+bipolar+transistor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPatilCelayaDasGoebel2009" class="citation journal cs1">Patil, N.; Celaya, J.; Das, D.; Goebel, K.; Pecht, M. (June 2009). "Precursor Parameter Identification for Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) Prognostics". <i>IEEE Transactions on Reliability</i>. <b>58</b> (2): 271–276. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FTR.2009.2020134">10.1109/TR.2009.2020134</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:206772637">206772637</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IEEE+Transactions+on+Reliability&rft.atitle=Precursor+Parameter+Identification+for+Insulated+Gate+Bipolar+Transistor+%28IGBT%29+Prognostics&rft.volume=58&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=271-276&rft.date=2009-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FTR.2009.2020134&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A206772637%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Patil&rft.aufirst=N.&rft.au=Celaya%2C+J.&rft.au=Das%2C+D.&rft.au=Goebel%2C+K.&rft.au=Pecht%2C+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInsulated-gate+bipolar+transistor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Insulated-gate_bipolar_transistor&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWintrichNicolaiTurskyReimann2015" class="citation book cs1">Wintrich, Arendt; Nicolai, Ulrich; Tursky, Werner; Reimann, Tobias (2015). <a href="/wiki/Semikron" title="Semikron">Semikron</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.semikron.com/service-support/application-manual.html"><i>Application Manual Power Semiconductors</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF-Version)</span> (2nd Revised ed.). Germany: ISLE Verlag. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-938843-83-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-938843-83-3"><bdi>978-3-938843-83-3</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-02-17</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Application+Manual+Power+Semiconductors&rft.place=Germany&rft.edition=2nd+Revised&rft.pub=ISLE+Verlag&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-3-938843-83-3&rft.aulast=Wintrich&rft.aufirst=Arendt&rft.au=Nicolai%2C+Ulrich&rft.au=Tursky%2C+Werner&rft.au=Reimann%2C+Tobias&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.semikron.com%2Fservice-support%2Fapplication-manual.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInsulated-gate+bipolar+transistor" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Insulated-gate_bipolar_transistor&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style 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id="Electronic_components" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Electronic_component" title="Electronic component">Electronic components</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_device" title="Semiconductor device">Semiconductor<br />devices</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOS <br />transistors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">Transistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NMOS_logic" title="NMOS logic">NMOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PMOS_logic" title="PMOS logic">PMOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BiCMOS" title="BiCMOS">BiCMOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bio-FET" title="Bio-FET">BioFET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_field-effect_transistor" title="Chemical field-effect transistor">Chemical field-effect transistor</a> (ChemFET)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/CMOS" title="CMOS">Complementary MOS</a> (CMOS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depletion-load_NMOS_logic" title="Depletion-load NMOS logic">Depletion-load NMOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FinFET" class="mw-redirect" title="FinFET">Fin field-effect transistor</a> (FinFET)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floating-gate_MOSFET" title="Floating-gate MOSFET">Floating-gate MOSFET</a> (FGMOS)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Insulated-gate bipolar transistor</a> (IGBT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISFET" title="ISFET">ISFET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LDMOS" title="LDMOS">LDMOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOS field-effect transistor</a> (MOSFET)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multigate_device" title="Multigate device">Multi-gate field-effect transistor</a> (MuGFET)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_MOSFET" title="Power MOSFET">Power MOSFET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thin-film_transistor" title="Thin-film transistor">Thin-film transistor</a> (TFT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/VMOS" title="VMOS">VMOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_MOSFET#UMOS" title="Power MOSFET">UMOS</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">Other <br />transistors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bipolar_junction_transistor" title="Bipolar junction transistor">Bipolar junction transistor</a> (BJT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darlington_transistor" title="Darlington transistor">Darlington transistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diffused_junction_transistor" title="Diffused junction transistor">Diffused junction transistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field-effect_transistor" title="Field-effect transistor">Field-effect transistor</a> (FET) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/JFET" title="JFET">Junction Gate FET (JFET)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_field-effect_transistor" title="Organic field-effect transistor">Organic FET (OFET)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light-emitting_transistor" title="Light-emitting transistor">Light-emitting transistor</a> (LET) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Organic_light-emitting_transistor" title="Organic light-emitting transistor">Organic LET (OLET)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentode_transistor" title="Pentode transistor">Pentode transistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Point-contact_transistor" title="Point-contact transistor">Point-contact transistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programmable_unijunction_transistor" title="Programmable unijunction transistor">Programmable unijunction transistor</a> (PUT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Static_induction_transistor" title="Static induction transistor">Static induction transistor</a> (SIT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrode_transistor" title="Tetrode transistor">Tetrode transistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unijunction_transistor" title="Unijunction transistor">Unijunction transistor</a> (UJT)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Diode" title="Diode">Diodes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avalanche_diode" title="Avalanche diode">Avalanche diode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constant-current_diode" title="Constant-current diode">Constant-current diode</a> (CLD, CRD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunn_diode" title="Gunn diode">Gunn diode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laser_diode" title="Laser diode">Laser diode</a> (LD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light-emitting_diode" title="Light-emitting diode">Light-emitting diode</a> (LED)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/OLED" title="OLED">Organic light-emitting diode</a> (OLED)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photodiode" title="Photodiode">Photodiode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PIN_diode" title="PIN diode">PIN diode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schottky_diode" title="Schottky diode">Schottky diode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Step_recovery_diode" title="Step recovery diode">Step recovery diode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zener_diode" title="Zener diode">Zener diode</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other <br />devices</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Printed_electronics" title="Printed electronics">Printed electronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Printed_circuit_board" title="Printed circuit board">Printed circuit board</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DIAC" title="DIAC">DIAC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterostructure_barrier_varactor" title="Heterostructure barrier varactor">Heterostructure barrier varactor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">Integrated circuit</a> (IC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_integrated_circuit" title="Hybrid integrated circuit">Hybrid integrated circuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light_emitting_capacitor" class="mw-redirect" title="Light emitting capacitor">Light emitting capacitor</a> (LEC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memistor" title="Memistor">Memistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memristor" title="Memristor">Memristor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memtransistor" title="Memtransistor">Memtransistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_cell_(computing)" title="Memory cell (computing)">Memory cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metal-oxide_varistor" class="mw-redirect" title="Metal-oxide varistor">Metal-oxide varistor</a> (MOV)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed-signal_integrated_circuit" title="Mixed-signal integrated circuit">Mixed-signal integrated circuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MOS_integrated_circuit" class="mw-redirect" title="MOS integrated circuit">MOS integrated circuit</a> (MOS IC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_semiconductor" title="Organic semiconductor">Organic semiconductor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photodetector" title="Photodetector">Photodetector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_circuit" title="Quantum circuit">Quantum circuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RF_CMOS" title="RF CMOS">RF CMOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silicon_controlled_rectifier" title="Silicon controlled rectifier">Silicon controlled rectifier</a> (SCR)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solaristor" title="Solaristor">Solaristor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Static_induction_thyristor" title="Static induction thyristor">Static induction thyristor</a> (SITh)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-dimensional_integrated_circuit" title="Three-dimensional integrated circuit">Three-dimensional integrated circuit</a> (3D IC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thyristor" title="Thyristor">Thyristor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trancitor" title="Trancitor">Trancitor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TRIAC" title="TRIAC">TRIAC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varicap" title="Varicap">Varicap</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Voltage_regulator" title="Voltage regulator">Voltage regulators</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Linear_regulator" title="Linear regulator">Linear regulator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-dropout_regulator" title="Low-dropout regulator">Low-dropout regulator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Switching_regulator" class="mw-redirect" title="Switching regulator">Switching regulator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buck_converter" title="Buck converter">Buck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boost_converter" title="Boost converter">Boost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buck%E2%80%93boost_converter" title="Buck–boost converter">Buck–boost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Split-pi_topology" title="Split-pi topology">Split-pi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%86uk_converter" title="Ćuk converter">Ćuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single-ended_primary-inductor_converter" title="Single-ended primary-inductor converter">SEPIC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charge_pump" title="Charge pump">Charge pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Switched_capacitor" title="Switched capacitor">Switched capacitor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Vacuum_tube" title="Vacuum tube">Vacuum tubes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acorn_tube" title="Acorn tube">Acorn tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audion" title="Audion">Audion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beam_tetrode" title="Beam tetrode">Beam tetrode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hot-wire_barretter" title="Hot-wire barretter">Barretter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compactron" title="Compactron">Compactron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vacuum_diode" class="mw-redirect" title="Vacuum diode">Diode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fleming_valve" title="Fleming valve">Fleming valve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_generator" title="Neutron generator">Neutron tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonode" title="Nonode">Nonode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuvistor" title="Nuvistor">Nuvistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentagrid_converter" title="Pentagrid converter">Pentagrid</a> (Hexode, Heptode, Octode)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentode" title="Pentode">Pentode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photomultiplier_tube" title="Photomultiplier tube">Photomultiplier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phototube" title="Phototube">Phototube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrode" title="Tetrode">Tetrode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triode" title="Triode">Triode</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Vacuum_tube" title="Vacuum tube">Vacuum tubes</a> (<a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation" title="Electromagnetic radiation">RF</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Backward-wave_oscillator" title="Backward-wave oscillator">Backward-wave oscillator</a> (BWO)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cavity_magnetron" title="Cavity magnetron">Cavity magnetron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crossed-field_amplifier" title="Crossed-field amplifier">Crossed-field amplifier</a> (CFA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gyrotron" title="Gyrotron">Gyrotron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_output_tube" title="Inductive output tube">Inductive output tube</a> (IOT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klystron" title="Klystron">Klystron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maser" title="Maser">Maser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sutton_tube" title="Sutton tube">Sutton tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traveling-wave_tube" title="Traveling-wave tube">Traveling-wave tube</a> (TWT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-ray_tube" title="X-ray tube">X-ray tube</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Cathode-ray_tube" title="Cathode-ray tube">Cathode-ray tubes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beam_deflection_tube" title="Beam deflection tube">Beam deflection tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charactron" title="Charactron">Charactron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iconoscope" title="Iconoscope">Iconoscope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magic_eye_tube" title="Magic eye tube">Magic eye tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monoscope" title="Monoscope">Monoscope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selectron_tube" title="Selectron tube">Selectron tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storage_tube" title="Storage tube">Storage tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trochotron" class="mw-redirect" title="Trochotron">Trochotron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_camera_tube" title="Video camera tube">Video camera tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Williams_tube" title="Williams tube">Williams tube</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Gas-filled_tube" title="Gas-filled tube">Gas-filled tubes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cold_cathode" title="Cold cathode">Cold cathode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crossatron" title="Crossatron">Crossatron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dekatron" title="Dekatron">Dekatron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignitron" title="Ignitron">Ignitron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krytron" title="Krytron">Krytron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercury-arc_valve" title="Mercury-arc valve">Mercury-arc valve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neon_lamp" title="Neon lamp">Neon lamp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nixie_tube" title="Nixie tube">Nixie tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thyratron" title="Thyratron">Thyratron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trigatron" title="Trigatron">Trigatron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltage-regulator_tube" title="Voltage-regulator tube">Voltage-regulator tube</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Adjustable</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Potentiometer" title="Potentiometer">Potentiometer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digital_potentiometer" title="Digital potentiometer">digital</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable_capacitor" title="Variable capacitor">Variable capacitor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varicap" title="Varicap">Varicap</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Passive</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Connector <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Audio_and_video_interfaces_and_connectors" title="Audio and video interfaces and connectors">audio and video</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AC_power_plugs_and_sockets" title="AC power plugs and sockets">electrical power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RF_connector" title="RF connector">RF</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrolytic_detector" title="Electrolytic detector">Electrolytic detector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferrite_core" title="Ferrite core">Ferrite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antifuse" title="Antifuse">Antifuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuse_(electrical)" title="Fuse (electrical)">Fuse</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Resettable_fuse" title="Resettable fuse">resettable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EFUSE" class="mw-redirect" title="EFUSE">eFUSE</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistor" title="Resistor">Resistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Switch" title="Switch">Switch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermistor" title="Thermistor">Thermistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transformer" title="Transformer">Transformer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varistor" title="Varistor">Varistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wire" title="Wire">Wire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wollaston_wire" title="Wollaston wire">Wollaston wire</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Electrical_reactance" title="Electrical reactance">Reactive</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a 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