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<div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Reactivity control</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reactivity_control-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electrical_power_generation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electrical_power_generation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Electrical power generation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electrical_power_generation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Life-times" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Life-times"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Life-times</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Life-times-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_reactors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_reactors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Early reactors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_reactors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reactor_types" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reactor_types"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Reactor types</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Reactor_types-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Reactor types subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Reactor_types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Classifications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classifications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Classifications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classifications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-By_type_of_nuclear_reaction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#By_type_of_nuclear_reaction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>By type of nuclear reaction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-By_type_of_nuclear_reaction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-By_moderator_material" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#By_moderator_material"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2</span> <span>By moderator material</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-By_moderator_material-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-By_coolant" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#By_coolant"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.3</span> <span>By coolant</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-By_coolant-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-By_generation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#By_generation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.4</span> <span>By generation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-By_generation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-By_phase_of_fuel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#By_phase_of_fuel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.5</span> <span>By phase of fuel</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-By_phase_of_fuel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-By_shape_of_the_core" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#By_shape_of_the_core"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.6</span> <span>By shape of the core</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-By_shape_of_the_core-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-By_use" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#By_use"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.7</span> <span>By use</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-By_use-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Current_technologies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Current_technologies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Current technologies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Current_technologies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Future_and_developing_technologies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Future_and_developing_technologies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Future and developing technologies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Future_and_developing_technologies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Advanced_reactors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Advanced_reactors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.1</span> <span>Advanced reactors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Advanced_reactors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Generation_IV_reactors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Generation_IV_reactors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.2</span> <span>Generation IV reactors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Generation_IV_reactors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Generation_V+_reactors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Generation_V+_reactors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.3</span> <span>Generation V+ reactors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Generation_V+_reactors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fusion_reactors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fusion_reactors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.4</span> <span>Fusion reactors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fusion_reactors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nuclear_fuel_cycle" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nuclear_fuel_cycle"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Nuclear fuel cycle</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Nuclear_fuel_cycle-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Nuclear fuel cycle subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Nuclear_fuel_cycle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Fueling_of_nuclear_reactors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fueling_of_nuclear_reactors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Fueling of nuclear reactors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fueling_of_nuclear_reactors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nuclear_safety" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nuclear_safety"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Nuclear safety</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nuclear_safety-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nuclear_accidents" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nuclear_accidents"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Nuclear accidents</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nuclear_accidents-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Natural_nuclear_reactors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Natural_nuclear_reactors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Natural nuclear reactors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Natural_nuclear_reactors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Emissions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emissions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Emissions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Emissions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Nuclear reactor</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 84 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-84" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">84 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernreaktor" title="Kernreaktor – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Kernreaktor" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%B9%D9%84_%D9%86%D9%88%D9%88%D9%8A" title="مفاعل نووي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مفاعل نووي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reactor_nuclear" title="Reactor nuclear – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Reactor nuclear" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%BCv%C9%99_reaktoru" title="Nüvə reaktoru – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Nüvə reaktoru" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A3%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%9A%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%80" title="পারমাণবিক চুল্লী – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="পারমাণবিক চুল্লী" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B4%D0%B7%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Ядзерны рэактар – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Ядзерны рэактар" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B4%D0%B7%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Ядзерны рэактар – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Ядзерны рэактар" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Ядрен реактор – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Ядрен реактор" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuklearni_reaktor" title="Nuklearni reaktor – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Nuklearni reaktor" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reactor_nuclear" title="Reactor nuclear – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Reactor nuclear" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Нуклонсарла реактор – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Нуклонсарла реактор" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jadern%C3%BD_reaktor" title="Jaderný reaktor – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Jaderný reaktor" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adweithydd_niwclear" title="Adweithydd niwclear – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Adweithydd niwclear" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernereaktor" title="Kernereaktor – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Kernereaktor" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernreaktor" title="Kernreaktor – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Kernreaktor" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuumareaktor" title="Tuumareaktor – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Tuumareaktor" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CF%85%CF%81%CE%B7%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%82_%CE%B1%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%B4%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%83%CF%84%CE%AE%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%82" title="Πυρηνικός αντιδραστήρας – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Πυρηνικός αντιδραστήρας" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reactor_nuclear" title="Reactor nuclear – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Reactor nuclear" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuklea_reakciujo" title="Nuklea reakciujo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Nuklea reakciujo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erreaktore_nuklear" title="Erreaktore nuklear – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Erreaktore nuklear" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%A2%DA%A9%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1_%D9%87%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%A7%DB%8C" title="رآکتور هسته‌ای – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="رآکتور هسته‌ای" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9acteur_nucl%C3%A9aire" title="Réacteur nucléaire – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Réacteur nucléaire" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imoibreoir_n%C3%BAicl%C3%A9ach" title="Imoibreoir núicléach – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Imoibreoir núicléach" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reactor_nuclear" title="Reactor nuclear – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Reactor nuclear" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9B%90%EC%9E%90%EB%A1%9C" title="원자로 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="원자로" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%AB%D5%BB%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%BC%D5%A5%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%80" title="Միջուկային ռեակտոր – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Միջուկային ռեակտոր" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A0%E0%A5%80" title="परमाणु भट्ठी – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="परमाणु भट्ठी" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuklearni_reaktor" title="Nuklearni reaktor – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Nuklearni reaktor" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reaktor_nuklir" title="Reaktor nuklir – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Reaktor nuklir" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reattore_nucleare" title="Reattore nucleare – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Reattore nucleare" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9B%D7%95%D7%A8_%D7%92%D7%A8%D7%A2%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%99" title="כור גרעיני – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="כור גרעיני" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AC%E0%B3%88%E0%B2%9C%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%95_%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%95%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%BF" title="ಬೈಜಿಕ ಕ್ರಿಯಾಕಾರಿ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಬೈಜಿಕ ಕ್ರಿಯಾಕಾರಿ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%A0%E1%83%97%E1%83%95%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%90%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98" title="ბირთვული რეაქტორი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ბირთვული რეაქტორი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%88%DA%A9%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%B1_%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D8%A7%DB%8C%DA%A9%D9%B9%D8%B1" title="نیوکلیر ری ایکٹر – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="نیوکلیر ری ایکٹر" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>कॉशुर / کٲشُر</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%9B_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Ядролық реактор – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ядролық реактор" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanuri_la_nyuklia" title="Tanuri la nyuklia – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Tanuri la nyuklia" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reyakt%C3%A8_nikley%C3%A8" title="Reyaktè nikleyè – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Reyaktè nikleyè" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reaktora_dendik%C3%AE" title="Reaktora dendikî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Reaktora dendikî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reactorium_nucleare" title="Reactorium nucleare – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Reactorium nucleare" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kodolreaktors" title="Kodolreaktors – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Kodolreaktors" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Branduolinis_reaktorius" title="Branduolinis reaktorius – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Branduolinis reaktorius" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomreaktor" title="Atomreaktor – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Atomreaktor" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%88%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Јадрен реактор – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Јадрен реактор" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%86%E0%B4%A3%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%B1%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%BC" title="ആണവറിയാക്റ്റർ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ആണവറിയാക്റ്റർ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%80" title="अणुभट्टी – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="अणुभट्टी" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reaktor_nuklear" title="Reaktor nuklear – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Reaktor nuklear" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reaktor_nuklir" title="Reaktor nuklir – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Reaktor nuklir" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C5%8Fk_hu%C4%81ng-%C3%A9ng-d%C5%8Fi" title="Hŏk huāng-éng-dŏi – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Hŏk huāng-éng-dŏi" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%94%E1%80%BB%E1%80%B0%E1%80%B8%E1%80%80%E1%80%9C%E1%80%AE%E1%80%B8%E1%80%9A%E1%80%AC%E1%80%B8_%E1%80%93%E1%80%AC%E1%80%90%E1%80%BA%E1%80%95%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AB%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%96%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF" title="နျူးကလီးယား ဓာတ်ပေါင်းဖို – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="နျူးကလီးယား ဓာတ်ပေါင်းဖို" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernreactor" title="Kernreactor – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Kernreactor" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%80" title="परमाणु भट्टी – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="परमाणु भट्टी" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E7%82%89" title="原子炉 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="原子炉" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomreaktor" title="Atomreaktor – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Atomreaktor" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kjernereaktor" title="Kjernereaktor – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Kjernereaktor" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom_reaktori" title="Atom reaktori – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Atom reaktori" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%8A%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%B2%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%AD%E0%A9%B1%E0%A8%A0%E0%A9%80" title="ਨਿਊਕਲੀ ਭੱਠੀ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਨਿਊਕਲੀ ਭੱਠੀ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%88%DA%A9%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%A6%D8%B1_%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D8%A7%DB%8C%DA%A9%D9%B9%D8%B1" title="نیوکلیئر ری ایکٹر – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="نیوکلیئر ری ایکٹر" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%BC%D9%88%D9%85%D9%8A_%D8%A8%D9%BC%DB%8D" title="اټومي بټۍ – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="اټومي بټۍ" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reaktor_j%C4%85drowy" title="Reaktor jądrowy – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Reaktor jądrowy" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reator_nuclear" title="Reator nuclear – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Reator nuclear" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reactor_nuclear" title="Reactor nuclear – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Reactor nuclear" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Ядерный реактор – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Ядерный реактор" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reaktori_b%C3%ABrthamor" title="Reaktori bërthamor – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Reaktori bërthamor" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%82%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%A7%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%9A_%E0%B6%B4%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BB%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%BB%E0%B6%9A" title="න්‍යෂ්ටික ප්‍රතික්‍රියාකාරක – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="න්‍යෂ්ටික ප්‍රතික්‍රියාකාරක" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Nuclear reactor" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jadrov%C3%BD_reaktor" title="Jadrový reaktor – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Jadrový reaktor" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jedrski_reaktor" title="Jedrski reaktor – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Jedrski reaktor" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA%DB%8C%D8%A7%DA%A9%DB%95%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%88%DA%A9%DB%8C" title="کارتیاکەری ناوکی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="کارتیاکەری ناوکی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Нуклеарни реактор – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Нуклеарни реактор" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuklearni_reaktor" title="Nuklearni reaktor – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Nuklearni reaktor" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ydinreaktori" title="Ydinreaktori – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Ydinreaktori" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%A4rnreaktor" title="Kärnreaktor – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Kärnreaktor" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81_%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%88" title="அணுக்கரு உலை – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="அணுக்கரு உலை" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D3%A9%D1%88_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8B" title="Төш реакторы – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Төш реакторы" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%85%E0%B0%A3%E0%B1%81_%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%9F%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%81" title="అణు రియాక్టరు – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="అణు రియాక్టరు" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B7%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%8F%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%93%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A7%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C" title="เครื่องปฏิกรณ์นิวเคลียร์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="เครื่องปฏิกรณ์นิวเคลียร์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%BCkleer_reakt%C3%B6r" title="Nükleer reaktör – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Nükleer reaktör" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Ядерний реактор – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Ядерний реактор" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%88%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C_%D9%85%D8%B9%D9%85%D9%84" title="نویاتی معمل – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="نویاتی معمل" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%B2_ph%E1%BA%A3n_%E1%BB%A9ng_h%E1%BA%A1t_nh%C3%A2n" title="Lò phản ứng hạt nhân – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Lò phản ứng hạt nhân" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reaktor_nukleyar" title="Reaktor nukleyar – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Reaktor nukleyar" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A0%B8%E5%8F%8D%E5%BA%94%E5%A0%86" title="核反应堆 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="核反应堆" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A0%B8%E5%8F%8D%E6%87%89%E5%A0%86" title="核反應堆 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="核反應堆" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li 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</div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Device for controlled nuclear reactions</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about nuclear fission reactors. For nuclear fusion reactors, see <a href="/wiki/Fusion_power" title="Fusion power">Fusion power</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Nuclear pile" redirects here. For nuclear stockpiles, see <a href="/wiki/List_of_states_with_nuclear_weapons" title="List of states with nuclear weapons">List of states with nuclear weapons</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti 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class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">From top, left to right <ol><li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Pile-1" title="Chicago Pile-1">Chicago Pile-1</a>, the first nuclear reactor</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shippingport_Atomic_Power_Station" title="Shippingport Atomic Power Station">Shippingport Atomic Power Station</a>, the first peacetime reactor</li> <li><a href="/wiki/HTR-10" title="HTR-10">HTR-10</a>, a prototype to the first Generation IV reactor, <a href="/wiki/HTR-PM" title="HTR-PM">HTR-PM</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Convair_NB-36H" title="Convair NB-36H">Convair NB-36H</a>, the first aircraft to test an onboard reactor</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Sea_Orbit" title="Operation Sea Orbit">Operation Sea Orbit</a>, the first nuclear-powered circumnavigation</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_sarcophagus" class="mw-redirect" title="Chernobyl sarcophagus">Chernobyl sarcophagus</a>, built to contain the effects of the <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster" title="Chernobyl disaster">1986 disaster</a></li></ol></div></div></div></div> <p>A <b>nuclear reactor</b> is a device used to initiate and control a fission <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_chain_reaction" title="Nuclear chain reaction">nuclear chain reaction</a>. Nuclear reactors are used at <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_plant" title="Nuclear power plant">nuclear power plants</a> for <a href="/wiki/Electricity_generation" title="Electricity generation">electricity generation</a> and in <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_marine_propulsion" title="Nuclear marine propulsion">nuclear marine propulsion</a>. When a fissile nucleus like <a href="/wiki/Uranium-235" title="Uranium-235">uranium-235</a> or <a href="/wiki/Plutonium-239" title="Plutonium-239">plutonium-239</a> absorbs a <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutron</a>, it splits into lighter nuclei, releasing energy, gamma radiation, and free neutrons, which can induce further fission in a self-sustaining <a href="/wiki/Chain_reaction" title="Chain reaction">chain reaction</a>. The process is carefully controlled using <a href="/wiki/Control_rods" class="mw-redirect" title="Control rods">control rods</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neutron_moderator" title="Neutron moderator">neutron moderators</a> to regulate the number of neutrons that continue the reaction, ensuring the reactor operates safely, although inherent control by means of <a href="/wiki/Delayed_neutron" title="Delayed neutron">delayed neutrons</a> also plays an important role in reactor output control. The efficiency of nuclear fuel is much higher than fossil fuels; the <a href="/wiki/Enriched_uranium#Low-enriched_uranium_(LEU)" title="Enriched uranium">5% enriched uranium</a> used in the newest reactors has an energy density 120,000 times higher than coal.<sup id="cite_ref-r199_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-r199-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-y385_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-y385-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nuclear reactors have their origins in the World War II Allied <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-a_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-a-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The world's first artificial<sup id="cite_ref-b_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-b-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> nuclear reactor, Chicago Pile-1, achieved <a href="/wiki/Criticality_(status)" title="Criticality (status)">criticality</a> on 2 December 1942.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Early reactor designs sought to produce <a href="/wiki/Weapons-grade_plutonium" class="mw-redirect" title="Weapons-grade plutonium">weapons-grade plutonium</a> for <a href="/wiki/Fission_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Fission bomb">fission bombs</a>, later incorporating grid electricity production in addition. In 1957, <a href="/wiki/Shippingport_Atomic_Power_Station" title="Shippingport Atomic Power Station">Shippingport Atomic Power Station</a> became the first reactor dedicated to peaceful use; in Russia, in 1954, the first small nuclear power reactor APS-1 OBNINSK reached criticality. Other countries followed suit. </p><p>Heat from <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">nuclear fission</a> is passed to a <a href="/wiki/Working_fluid" title="Working fluid">working fluid</a> <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#By_coolant">coolant</a> (water or gas), which in turn runs through <a href="/wiki/Turbine" title="Turbine">turbines</a>. In commercial reactors, turbines drive <a href="/wiki/Electrical_generator" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical generator">electrical generator</a> shafts. The heat can also be used for <a href="/wiki/District_heating" title="District heating">district heating</a>, and industrial applications including <a href="/wiki/Desalination" title="Desalination">desalination</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_production#Steam_reforming_–_gray_or_blue" title="Hydrogen production">hydrogen production</a>. Some reactors are used to produce <a href="/wiki/Isotopes" class="mw-redirect" title="Isotopes">isotopes</a> for <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_medicine" title="Nuclear medicine">medical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Industrial_radiography" title="Industrial radiography">industrial</a> use. Reactors pose a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_proliferation" title="Nuclear proliferation">nuclear proliferation</a> risk as they can be configured to produce plutonium, as well as <a href="/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium">tritium</a> gas used in <a href="/wiki/Boosted_fission_weapon" title="Boosted fission weapon">boosted fission weapons</a>. Reactor spent fuel can be <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reprocessing" title="Nuclear reprocessing">reprocessed</a> to yield up to 25% more nuclear fuel, which can be used in reactors again. Reprocessing can also significantly reduce the volume of nuclear waste, and has been practiced in Europe, Russia, India and Japan. Due to concerns of proliferation risks, the United States does not engage in or encourage reprocessing.<sup id="cite_ref-z699_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-z699-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Reactors are also used in <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_propulsion" title="Nuclear propulsion">nuclear propulsion</a> of vehicles. <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_marine_propulsion" title="Nuclear marine propulsion">Nuclear marine propulsion</a> of ships and submarines is largely restricted to naval use. Reactors have also been tested for nuclear <a href="/wiki/Nuclear-powered_aircraft" title="Nuclear-powered aircraft">aircraft propulsion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_thermal_rocket" title="Nuclear thermal rocket">spacecraft propulsion</a>. </p><p>Reactor safety is maintained through various systems that control the rate of fission. The insertion of control rods, which absorb neutrons, can rapidly decrease the reactor's output, while other systems automatically shut down the reactor in the event of unsafe conditions. The buildup of neutron-absorbing fission products like <a href="/wiki/Xenon-135" title="Xenon-135">xenon-135</a> can influence reactor behavior, requiring careful management to prevent issues such as the <a href="/wiki/Iodine_pit" title="Iodine pit">iodine pit</a>, which can complicate reactor restarts. There have been two reactor accidents classed as an <a href="/wiki/International_Nuclear_Event_Scale" title="International Nuclear Event Scale">International Nuclear Event Scale</a> Level 7 "major accident": the 1986 <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster" title="Chernobyl disaster">Chernobyl disaster</a> and 2011 <a href="/wiki/Fukushima_nuclear_accident" title="Fukushima nuclear accident">Fukushima disaster</a>. </p><p>As of 2022<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_reactor&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>, the <a href="/wiki/International_Atomic_Energy_Agency" title="International Atomic Energy Agency">International Atomic Energy Agency</a> reported there are 422 nuclear power reactors and 223 nuclear <a href="/wiki/Research_reactors" class="mw-redirect" title="Research reactors">research reactors</a> in operation around the world.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The US <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Energy" title="United States Department of Energy">Department of Energy</a> classes reactors into generations, with the majority of the global fleet being <a href="/wiki/Generation_II_reactor" title="Generation II reactor">Generation II reactors</a> constructed from the 1960s to 1990s, and <a href="/wiki/Generation_IV_reactor" title="Generation IV reactor">Generation IV reactors</a> currently in development. Reactors can also be grouped by the choices of coolant and moderator. Almost 90% of global nuclear energy comes from <a href="/wiki/Pressurized_water_reactors" class="mw-redirect" title="Pressurized water reactors">pressurized water reactors</a> and <a href="/wiki/Boiling_water_reactors" class="mw-redirect" title="Boiling water reactors">boiling water reactors</a>, which use it as a coolant and moderator.<sup id="cite_ref-c847_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-c847-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other designs include <a href="/wiki/Heavy-water_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Heavy-water reactor">heavy water reactors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gas-cooled_reactor" title="Gas-cooled reactor">gas-cooled reactors</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fast-breeder_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Fast-breeder reactor">fast breeder reactors</a>, variously optimizing efficiency, safety, and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fuel" title="Nuclear fuel">fuel type</a>, <a href="/wiki/Enriched_uranium" title="Enriched uranium">enrichment</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Burnup" title="Burnup">burnup</a>. <a href="/wiki/Small_modular_reactor" title="Small modular reactor">Small modular reactors</a> are also an area of current development. These reactors play a crucial role in generating large amounts of electricity with low carbon emissions, contributing significantly to the global energy mix. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Operation">Operation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_reactor&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Operation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor_physics" title="Nuclear reactor physics">Nuclear reactor physics</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuclear_fission.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Nuclear_fission.svg/250px-Nuclear_fission.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="390" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Nuclear_fission.svg/375px-Nuclear_fission.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Nuclear_fission.svg/500px-Nuclear_fission.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="309" data-file-height="482" /></a><figcaption>An example of an induced nuclear fission event. A neutron is absorbed by the nucleus of a uranium-235 atom, which in turn splits into fast-moving lighter elements (fission products) and free neutrons. Though both reactors and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear weapons">nuclear weapons</a> rely on nuclear chain reactions, the rate of reactions in a reactor is much slower than in a bomb.</figcaption></figure> <p>Just as conventional <a href="/wiki/Thermal_power_station" title="Thermal power station">thermal power stations</a> generate electricity by harnessing the <a href="/wiki/Thermal_energy" title="Thermal energy">thermal energy</a> released from burning <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuels" class="mw-redirect" title="Fossil fuels">fossil fuels</a>, nuclear reactors convert the energy released by controlled <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">nuclear fission</a> into thermal energy for further conversion to mechanical or electrical forms. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fission">Fission</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_reactor&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Fission"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">Nuclear fission</a></div> <p>When a large <a href="/wiki/Fissile" class="mw-redirect" title="Fissile">fissile</a> <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">atomic nucleus</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Uranium-235" title="Uranium-235">uranium-235</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uranium-233" title="Uranium-233">uranium-233</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Plutonium-239" title="Plutonium-239">plutonium-239</a> absorbs a neutron, it may undergo nuclear fission. The heavy nucleus splits into two or more lighter nuclei, (the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission_product" title="Nuclear fission product">fission products</a>), releasing <a href="/wiki/Kinetic_energy" title="Kinetic energy">kinetic energy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gamma_rays" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma rays">gamma radiation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">free neutrons</a>. A portion of these neutrons may be absorbed by other fissile atoms and trigger further fission events, which release more neutrons, and so on. This is known as a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_chain_reaction" title="Nuclear chain reaction">nuclear chain reaction</a>. </p><p>To control such a nuclear chain reaction, <a href="/wiki/Control_rod" title="Control rod">control rods</a> containing <a href="/wiki/Neutron_poison" title="Neutron poison">neutron poisons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neutron_moderators" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutron moderators">neutron moderators</a> are able to change the portion of neutrons that will go on to cause more fission.<sup id="cite_ref-DOE_HAND_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DOE_HAND-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nuclear reactors generally have automatic and manual systems to shut the fission reaction down if monitoring or instrumentation detects unsafe conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Heat_generation">Heat generation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_reactor&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Heat generation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The reactor core generates heat in a number of ways: </p> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Kinetic_energy" title="Kinetic energy">kinetic energy</a> of fission products is converted to <a href="/wiki/Thermal_energy" title="Thermal energy">thermal energy</a> when these nuclei collide with nearby atoms.</li> <li>The reactor absorbs some of the <a href="/wiki/Gamma_rays" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma rays">gamma rays</a> produced during fission and converts their energy into heat.</li> <li>Heat is produced by the <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">radioactive decay</a> of fission products and materials that have been activated by <a href="/wiki/Neutron_absorption" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutron absorption">neutron absorption</a>. This decay heat source will remain for some time even after the reactor is shut down.</li></ul> <p>A kilogram of <a href="/wiki/Uranium-235" title="Uranium-235">uranium-235</a> (U-235) converted via nuclear processes releases approximately three million times more energy than a kilogram of coal burned conventionally (7.2 × 10<sup>13</sup> <a href="/wiki/Joules" class="mw-redirect" title="Joules">joules</a> per kilogram of uranium-235 versus 2.4 × 10<sup>7</sup> joules per kilogram of coal).<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research" title="Wikipedia:No original research"><span title="The material near this tag possibly contains original research. (March 2012)">original research?</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The fission of one kilogram of <a href="/wiki/Uranium-235" title="Uranium-235">uranium-235</a> releases about 19 billion <a href="/wiki/Kilocalories" class="mw-redirect" title="Kilocalories">kilocalories</a>, so the energy released by 1 kg of uranium-235 corresponds to that released by burning 2.7 million kg of coal. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cooling">Cooling</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_reactor&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Cooling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor_coolant" title="Nuclear reactor coolant">nuclear reactor coolant</a> – usually water but sometimes a gas or a liquid metal (like liquid sodium or lead) or <a href="/wiki/Molten_salt" title="Molten salt">molten salt</a> – is circulated past the reactor core to absorb the heat that it generates. The heat is carried away from the reactor and is then used to generate steam. Most reactor systems employ a cooling system that is physically separated from the water that will be boiled to produce pressurized steam for the <a href="/wiki/Turbines" class="mw-redirect" title="Turbines">turbines</a>, like the <a href="/wiki/Pressurized_water_reactor" title="Pressurized water reactor">pressurized water reactor</a>. However, in some reactors the water for the steam turbines is boiled directly by the <a href="/wiki/Reactor_core" class="mw-redirect" title="Reactor core">reactor core</a>; for example the <a href="/wiki/Boiling_water_reactor" title="Boiling water reactor">boiling water reactor</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-HSWCOOLANT_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HSWCOOLANT-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reactivity_control">Reactivity control</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_reactor&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Reactivity control"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor_physics" title="Nuclear reactor physics">Nuclear reactor physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Passive_nuclear_safety" title="Passive nuclear safety">Passive nuclear safety</a>, <a href="/wiki/Delayed_neutron" title="Delayed neutron">Delayed neutron</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iodine_pit" title="Iodine pit">Iodine pit</a>, <a href="/wiki/SCRAM" class="mw-redirect" title="SCRAM">SCRAM</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Decay_heat" title="Decay heat">Decay heat</a></div> <p>The rate of fission reactions within a reactor core can be adjusted by controlling the quantity of neutrons that are able to induce further fission events. Nuclear reactors typically employ several methods of neutron control to adjust the reactor's power output. Some of these methods arise naturally from the physics of radioactive decay and are simply accounted for during the reactor's operation, while others are mechanisms engineered into the reactor design for a distinct purpose. </p><p>The fastest method for adjusting levels of fission-inducing neutrons in a reactor is via movement of the <a href="/wiki/Control_rod" title="Control rod">control rods</a>. Control rods are made of <a href="/wiki/Neutron_poison" title="Neutron poison">neutron poisons</a> and therefore absorb neutrons. When a control rod is inserted deeper into the reactor, it absorbs more neutrons than the material it displaces – often the moderator. This action results in fewer neutrons available to cause fission and reduces the reactor's power output. Conversely, extracting the control rod will result in an increase in the rate of fission events and an increase in power. </p><p>The physics of radioactive decay also affects neutron populations in a reactor. One such process is <a href="/wiki/Delayed_neutron" title="Delayed neutron">delayed neutron</a> emission by a number of neutron-rich fission isotopes. These delayed neutrons account for about 0.65% of the total neutrons produced in fission, with the remainder (termed "<a href="/wiki/Prompt_neutron" title="Prompt neutron">prompt neutrons</a>") released immediately upon fission. The fission products which produce delayed neutrons have <a href="/wiki/Half-life" title="Half-life">half-lives</a> for their <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">decay</a> by <a href="/wiki/Neutron_emission" title="Neutron emission">neutron emission</a> that range from milliseconds to as long as several minutes, and so considerable time is required to determine exactly when a reactor reaches the <a href="/wiki/Critical_mass_(nuclear)" class="mw-redirect" title="Critical mass (nuclear)">critical</a> point. Keeping the reactor in the zone of chain reactivity where delayed neutrons are <i>necessary</i> to achieve a <a href="/wiki/Critical_mass" title="Critical mass">critical mass</a> state allows mechanical devices or human operators to control a chain reaction in "real time"; otherwise the time between achievement of criticality and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_meltdown" title="Nuclear meltdown">nuclear meltdown</a> as a result of an exponential power surge from the normal nuclear chain reaction, would be too short to allow for intervention. This last stage, where delayed neutrons are no longer required to maintain criticality, is known as the <a href="/wiki/Prompt_critical" class="mw-redirect" title="Prompt critical">prompt critical</a> point. There is a scale for describing criticality in numerical form, in which bare criticality is known as <i>zero <a href="/wiki/Dollar_(reactivity)" title="Dollar (reactivity)">dollars</a></i> and the prompt critical point is <i>one dollar</i>, and other points in the process interpolated in cents. </p><p>In some reactors, the <a href="/wiki/Coolant" title="Coolant">coolant</a> also acts as a <a href="/wiki/Neutron_moderator" title="Neutron moderator">neutron moderator</a>. A moderator increases the power of the reactor by causing the fast neutrons that are released from fission to lose energy and become thermal neutrons. <a href="/wiki/Thermal_neutron" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal neutron">Thermal neutrons</a> are more likely than <a href="/wiki/Fast_neutron" class="mw-redirect" title="Fast neutron">fast neutrons</a> to cause fission. If the coolant is a moderator, then temperature changes can affect the density of the coolant/moderator and therefore change power output. A higher temperature coolant would be less dense, and therefore a less effective moderator. </p><p>In other reactors, the coolant acts as a poison by absorbing neutrons in the same way that the control rods do. In these reactors, power output can be increased by heating the coolant, which makes it a less dense poison. Nuclear reactors generally have automatic and manual systems to <a href="/wiki/Scram" title="Scram">scram</a> the reactor in an emergency shut down. These systems insert large amounts of poison (often <a href="/wiki/Boron" title="Boron">boron</a> in the form of <a href="/wiki/Boric_acid" title="Boric acid">boric acid</a>) into the reactor to shut the fission reaction down if unsafe conditions are detected or anticipated.<sup id="cite_ref-TOURISTRP_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TOURISTRP-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most types of reactors are sensitive to a process variously known as xenon poisoning, or the <a href="/wiki/Iodine_pit" title="Iodine pit">iodine pit</a>. The common <a href="/wiki/Fission_product" class="mw-redirect" title="Fission product">fission product</a> <a href="/wiki/Xenon-135" title="Xenon-135">Xenon-135</a> produced in the fission process acts as a neutron poison that absorbs neutrons and therefore tends to shut the reactor down. Xenon-135 accumulation can be controlled by keeping power levels high enough to destroy it by neutron absorption as fast as it is produced. Fission also produces <a href="/wiki/Iodine-135" class="mw-redirect" title="Iodine-135">iodine-135</a>, which in turn decays (with a half-life of 6.57 hours) to new xenon-135. When the reactor is shut down, iodine-135 continues to decay to xenon-135, making restarting the reactor more difficult for a day or two, as the xenon-135 decays into cesium-135, which is not nearly as poisonous as xenon-135, with a half-life of 9.2 hours. This temporary state is the "iodine pit." If the reactor has sufficient extra reactivity capacity, it can be restarted. As the extra xenon-135 is transmuted to xenon-136, which is much less a neutron poison, within a few hours the reactor experiences a "xenon burnoff (power) transient". Control rods must be further inserted to replace the neutron absorption of the lost xenon-135. Failure to properly follow such a procedure was a key step in the <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster" title="Chernobyl disaster">Chernobyl disaster</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Reactors used in <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_marine_propulsion" title="Nuclear marine propulsion">nuclear marine propulsion</a> (especially <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_submarine" title="Nuclear submarine">nuclear submarines</a>) often cannot be run at continuous power around the clock in the same way that land-based power reactors are normally run, and in addition often need to have a very long core life without <a href="/wiki/Reactor_refueling" class="mw-redirect" title="Reactor refueling">refueling</a>. For this reason many designs use highly enriched uranium but incorporate burnable neutron poison in the fuel rods.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This allows the reactor to be constructed with an excess of fissionable material, which is nevertheless made relatively safe early in the reactor's fuel burn cycle by the presence of the neutron-absorbing material which is later replaced by normally produced long-lived neutron poisons (far longer-lived than xenon-135) which gradually accumulate over the fuel load's operating life. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electrical_power_generation">Electrical power generation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_reactor&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Electrical power generation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The energy released in the fission process generates heat, some of which can be converted into usable energy. A common method of harnessing this <a href="/wiki/Thermal_energy" title="Thermal energy">thermal energy</a> is to use it to boil water to produce pressurized steam which will then drive a <a href="/wiki/Steam_turbine" title="Steam turbine">steam turbine</a> that turns an <a href="/wiki/Alternator" title="Alternator">alternator</a> and generates electricity.<sup id="cite_ref-TOURISTRP_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TOURISTRP-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Life-times">Life-times</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_reactor&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Life-times"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Modern nuclear power plants are typically designed for a lifetime of 60 years, while older reactors were built with a planned typical lifetime of 30-40 years, though many of those have received renovations and life extensions of 15-20 years.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some believe nuclear power plants can operate for as long as 80 years or longer with proper maintenance and management. While most components of a nuclear power plant, such as steam generators, are replaced when they reach the end of their useful lifetime, the overall lifetime of the power plant is limited by the life of components that cannot be replaced when aged by wear and <a href="/wiki/Neutron_embrittlement" title="Neutron embrittlement">neutron embrittlement</a>, such as the reactor pressure vessel. <sup id="cite_ref-dismantling_sci-am-2009_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dismantling_sci-am-2009-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the end of their planned life span, plants may get an extension of the operating license for some 20 years and in the US even a "subsequent license renewal" (SLR) for an additional 20 years.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Even when a license is extended, it does not guarantee the reactor will continue to operate, particularly in the face of safety concerns or incident.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many reactors are closed long before their license or design life expired and are <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_decommissioning" title="Nuclear decommissioning">decommissioned</a>. The costs for replacements or improvements required for continued safe operation may be so high that they are not cost-effective. Or they may be shut down due to technical failure.<sup id="cite_ref-sapl-2017_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sapl-2017-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other ones have been shut down because the area was contaminated, like Fukushima, Three Mile Island, Sellafield, Chernobyl.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The British branch of the French concern <a href="/wiki/EDF_Energy" title="EDF Energy">EDF Energy</a>, for example, extended the operating lives of its <a href="/wiki/Advanced_Gas-cooled_Reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Advanced Gas-cooled Reactor">Advanced Gas-cooled Reactors</a> with only between 3 and 10 years.<sup id="cite_ref-edf-lifetime_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-edf-lifetime-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All seven AGR plants are expected to be shut down in 2022 and in decommissioning by 2028.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Hinkley_Point_B_nuclear_power_station" title="Hinkley Point B nuclear power station">Hinkley Point B</a> was extended from 40 to 46 years, and closed. The same happened with <a href="/wiki/Hunterston_B_nuclear_power_station" title="Hunterston B nuclear power station">Hunterston B</a>, also after 46 years. </p><p>An increasing number of reactors is reaching or crossing their design lifetimes of 30 or 40 years. In 2014, <a href="/wiki/Greenpeace" title="Greenpeace">Greenpeace</a> warned that the lifetime extension of ageing nuclear power plants amounts to entering a new era of risk. It estimated the current European nuclear liability coverage in average to be too low by a factor of between 100 and 1,000 to cover the likely costs, while at the same time, the likelihood of a serious accident happening in Europe continues to increase as the reactor fleet grows older.<sup id="cite_ref-greenpeace-2014_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-greenpeace-2014-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_reactors">Early reactors</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_reactor&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Early reactors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission#History" title="Nuclear fission">Nuclear fission § History</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stagg_Field_reactor.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Stagg_Field_reactor.jpg/220px-Stagg_Field_reactor.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Stagg_Field_reactor.jpg/330px-Stagg_Field_reactor.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Stagg_Field_reactor.jpg/440px-Stagg_Field_reactor.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2352" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Chicago_Pile-1" title="Chicago Pile-1">Chicago Pile</a>, the first artificial nuclear reactor, built in secrecy at the University of Chicago in 1942 during World War II as part of the US's <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_project" class="mw-redirect" title="Manhattan project">Manhattan project</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Otto_Hahn_und_Lise_Meitner.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Otto_Hahn_und_Lise_Meitner.jpg/170px-Otto_Hahn_und_Lise_Meitner.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="223" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Otto_Hahn_und_Lise_Meitner.jpg/255px-Otto_Hahn_und_Lise_Meitner.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Otto_Hahn_und_Lise_Meitner.jpg/340px-Otto_Hahn_und_Lise_Meitner.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2291" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Lise_Meitner" title="Lise Meitner">Lise Meitner</a> and <a href="/wiki/Otto_Hahn" title="Otto Hahn">Otto Hahn</a> in their laboratory</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ChicagoPileTeam.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/ChicagoPileTeam.png/220px-ChicagoPileTeam.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/ChicagoPileTeam.png/330px-ChicagoPileTeam.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/ChicagoPileTeam.png/440px-ChicagoPileTeam.png 2x" data-file-width="1546" data-file-height="1148" /></a><figcaption>Some of the <a href="/wiki/Chicago_Pile-1" title="Chicago Pile-1">Chicago Pile Team</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Enrico Fermi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Le%C3%B3_Szil%C3%A1rd" class="mw-redirect" title="Leó Szilárd">Leó Szilárd</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutron</a> was discovered in 1932 by British physicist <a href="/wiki/James_Chadwick" title="James Chadwick">James Chadwick</a>. The concept of a nuclear chain reaction brought about by <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reaction" title="Nuclear reaction">nuclear reactions</a> mediated by neutrons was first realized shortly thereafter, by <a href="/wiki/Hungary" title="Hungary">Hungarian</a> scientist <a href="/wiki/Le%C3%B3_Szil%C3%A1rd" class="mw-redirect" title="Leó Szilárd">Leó Szilárd</a>, in 1933. He filed a patent for his idea of a simple reactor the following year while working at the <a href="/wiki/British_Admiralty" class="mw-redirect" title="British Admiralty">Admiralty</a> in London.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, Szilárd's idea did not incorporate the idea of nuclear fission as a neutron source, since that process was not yet discovered. Szilárd's ideas for nuclear reactors using neutron-mediated nuclear chain reactions in light elements proved unworkable. </p><p>Inspiration for a new type of reactor using uranium came from the discovery by <a href="/wiki/Otto_Hahn" title="Otto Hahn">Otto Hahn</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lise_Meitner" title="Lise Meitner">Lise Meitner</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Strassmann" title="Fritz Strassmann">Fritz Strassmann</a> in 1938 that bombardment of uranium with neutrons (provided by an alpha-on-beryllium fusion reaction, a "<a href="/wiki/Neutron_howitzer" title="Neutron howitzer">neutron howitzer</a>") produced a <a href="/wiki/Barium" title="Barium">barium</a> residue, which they reasoned was created by the fissioning of the uranium nuclei. In their second publication on nuclear fission in February 1939, Hahn and Strassmann predicted the existence and liberation of additional neutrons during the fission process, opening up the possibility of a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_chain_reaction" title="Nuclear chain reaction">nuclear chain reaction</a>. Subsequent studies in early 1939 (one of them by Szilárd and Fermi) revealed that several neutrons were indeed released during the fissioning, making available the opportunity for the nuclear chain reaction that Szilárd had envisioned six years previously. </p><p>On 2 August 1939, <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> signed a letter to President <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> (written by Szilárd) suggesting that the discovery of uranium's fission could lead to the development of "extremely powerful bombs of a new type", giving impetus to the study of reactors and fission. Szilárd and Einstein knew each other well and had worked together years previously, but Einstein had never thought about this possibility for nuclear energy until Szilard reported it to him, at the beginning of his quest to produce the <a href="/wiki/Einstein-Szil%C3%A1rd_letter" class="mw-redirect" title="Einstein-Szilárd letter">Einstein-Szilárd letter</a> to alert the U.S. government. </p><p>Shortly after, <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a> invaded Poland in 1939, starting <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> in Europe. The U.S. was not yet officially at war, but in October, when the Einstein-Szilárd letter was delivered to him, Roosevelt commented that the purpose of doing the research was to make sure "the Nazis don't blow us up." The U.S. nuclear project followed, although with some delay as there remained skepticism (some of it from Fermi) and also little action from the small number of officials in the government who were initially charged with moving the project forward. </p><p>The following year, the U.S. Government received the <a href="/wiki/Frisch%E2%80%93Peierls_memorandum" title="Frisch–Peierls memorandum">Frisch–Peierls memorandum</a> from the UK, which stated that the amount of <a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">uranium</a> needed for a <a href="/wiki/Chain_reaction" title="Chain reaction">chain reaction</a> was far lower than had previously been thought. The memorandum was a product of the <a href="/wiki/MAUD_Committee" title="MAUD Committee">MAUD Committee</a>, which was working on the UK atomic bomb project, known as <a href="/wiki/Tube_Alloys" title="Tube Alloys">Tube Alloys</a>, later <a href="/wiki/British_contribution_to_the_Manhattan_Project" title="British contribution to the Manhattan Project">to be subsumed</a> within the <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a>. </p><p>Eventually, the first artificial nuclear reactor, <a href="/wiki/Chicago_Pile-1" title="Chicago Pile-1">Chicago Pile-1</a>, was constructed at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a>, by a team led by <a href="/wiki/Italians" title="Italians">Italian</a> physicist <a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Enrico Fermi</a>, in late 1942. By this time, the program had been pressured for a year by U.S. entry into the war. The Chicago Pile achieved <a href="/wiki/Critical_mass" title="Critical mass">criticality</a> on 2 December 1942<sup id="cite_ref-:0_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> at 3:25 PM. The reactor support structure was made of wood, which supported a pile (hence the name) of graphite blocks, embedded in which was natural uranium oxide 'pseudospheres' or 'briquettes'. </p><p>Soon after the Chicago Pile, the <a href="/wiki/Metallurgical_Laboratory" title="Metallurgical Laboratory">Metallurgical Laboratory</a> developed a number of nuclear reactors for the <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a> starting in 1943. The primary purpose for the largest reactors (located at the <a href="/wiki/Hanford_Site" title="Hanford Site">Hanford Site</a> in <a href="/wiki/Washington_(state)" title="Washington (state)">Washington</a>), was the mass production of <a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">plutonium</a> for nuclear weapons. Fermi and Szilard applied for a patent on reactors on 19 December 1944. Its issuance was delayed for 10 years because of wartime secrecy.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>"World's first nuclear power plant" is the claim made by signs at the site of the <a href="/wiki/EBR-I" class="mw-redirect" title="EBR-I">EBR-I</a>, which is now a museum near <a href="/wiki/Arco,_Idaho" title="Arco, Idaho">Arco, Idaho</a>. Originally called "Chicago Pile-4", it was carried out under the direction of <a href="/wiki/Walter_Zinn" title="Walter Zinn">Walter Zinn</a> for <a href="/wiki/Argonne_National_Laboratory" title="Argonne National Laboratory">Argonne National Laboratory</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This experimental <a href="/wiki/LMFBR" class="mw-redirect" title="LMFBR">LMFBR</a> operated by the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Atomic_Energy_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Atomic Energy Commission">U.S. Atomic Energy Commission</a> produced 0.8 kW in a test on 20 December 1951<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and 100 kW (electrical) the following day,<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> having a design output of 200 kW (electrical). </p><p>Besides the military uses of nuclear reactors, there were political reasons to pursue civilian use of atomic energy. U.S. President <a href="/wiki/Dwight_Eisenhower" class="mw-redirect" title="Dwight Eisenhower">Dwight Eisenhower</a> made his famous <a href="/wiki/Atoms_for_Peace" title="Atoms for Peace">Atoms for Peace</a> speech to the <a href="/wiki/UN_General_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="UN General Assembly">UN General Assembly</a> on 8 December 1953. This diplomacy led to the dissemination of reactor technology to U.S. institutions and worldwide.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first nuclear power plant built for civil purposes was the AM-1 <a href="/wiki/Obninsk_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Obninsk Nuclear Power Plant">Obninsk Nuclear Power Plant</a>, launched on 27 June 1954 in the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>. It produced around 5 MW (electrical). It was built after the <a href="/wiki/F-1_(nuclear_reactor)" title="F-1 (nuclear reactor)">F-1 (nuclear reactor)</a> which was the first reactor to go critical in Europe, and was also built by the Soviet Union. </p><p>After World War II, the U.S. military sought other uses for nuclear reactor technology. Research by the Army led to the power stations for Camp Century, Greenland and McMurdo Station, Antarctica <a href="/wiki/Army_Nuclear_Power_Program" title="Army Nuclear Power Program">Army Nuclear Power Program</a>. The Air Force Nuclear Bomber project resulted in the <a href="/wiki/Molten-Salt_Reactor_Experiment" title="Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment">Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment</a>. The U.S. Navy succeeded when they steamed the <a href="/wiki/USS_Nautilus_(SSN-571)" title="USS Nautilus (SSN-571)">USS <i>Nautilus</i></a> (SSN-571) on nuclear power 17 January 1955. </p><p>The first commercial nuclear power station, <a href="/wiki/Calder_Hall_nuclear_power_station" title="Calder Hall nuclear power station">Calder Hall</a> in <a href="/wiki/Sellafield" title="Sellafield">Sellafield</a>, England was opened in 1956 with an initial capacity of 50 MW (later 200 MW).<sup id="cite_ref-Kragh_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kragh-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-bbc17oct_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bbc17oct-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first portable nuclear reactor "Alco PM-2A" was used to generate electrical power (2 MW) for <a href="/wiki/Camp_Century" title="Camp Century">Camp Century</a> from 1960 to 1963.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HPR1000,_reactor_coolant_system.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/HPR1000%2C_reactor_coolant_system.png/220px-HPR1000%2C_reactor_coolant_system.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="244" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/HPR1000%2C_reactor_coolant_system.png/330px-HPR1000%2C_reactor_coolant_system.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/HPR1000%2C_reactor_coolant_system.png/440px-HPR1000%2C_reactor_coolant_system.png 2x" data-file-width="738" data-file-height="817" /></a><figcaption>Primary coolant system showing <a href="/wiki/Reactor_pressure_vessel" title="Reactor pressure vessel">reactor pressure vessel</a> (red), <a href="/wiki/Steam_generator_(nuclear_power)" title="Steam generator (nuclear power)">steam generators</a> (purple), <a href="/wiki/Pressurizer" class="mw-redirect" title="Pressurizer">pressurizer</a> (blue), and pumps (green) in the three coolant loop <a href="/wiki/Hualong_One" title="Hualong One">Hualong One</a> <a href="/wiki/Pressurized_water_reactor" title="Pressurized water reactor">pressurized water reactor</a> design</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reactor_types">Reactor types</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_reactor&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Reactor types"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="thumb tright" style=""><div class="thumbinner" style="width:212px"><div class="thumbimage noresize" style="width:210px;"> <div style="text-align:left"> <div style="margin-top:0.5em;max-width:200px;" class="chart noresize"> <div style="position:relative;min-width:200px;min-height:200px;max-width:200px;overflow:hidden;"> <div style="border:solid transparent;position:absolute;bottom:100px;left:100px;width:100px;height:100px;border:0;background-color:red"></div> <div style="border:solid transparent;position:absolute;bottom:100px;right:100px;width:100px;height:100px;border:0;background-color:red"></div> <div style="border:solid transparent;position:absolute;top:100px;right:100px;width:100px;height:100px;border:0;background-color:red"></div> <div style="border:solid transparent;position:absolute;top:100px;right:100px;width:100px;height:100px;border-width:73.929309496002px 67.338378339876px 0px 0px;border-right-color:blue"></div> <div style="border:solid transparent;position:absolute;top:100px;left:100px;width:100px;height:100px;border:0;background-color:blue"></div> <div style="border:solid transparent;position:absolute;top:100px;left:100px;width:100px;height:100px;border-width:91.758362605939px 0px 0px 39.754281428256px;border-top-color:green"></div> <div style="border:solid transparent;position:absolute;top:100px;left:100px;width:100px;height:100px;border-width:81.153905900736px 0px 0px 58.429817362837px;border-top-color:yellow"></div> <div style="border:solid transparent;position:absolute;top:100px;left:100px;width:100px;height:100px;border-width:24.145789932575px 0px 0px 97.041129571599px;border-top-color:fuchsia"></div> <div style="border:solid transparent;position:absolute;top:100px;left:100px;width:100px;height:100px;border-width:2.8686408022049px 0px 0px 99.958846031494px;border-top-color:aqua"></div> <div style="position:absolute;min-width:200px;min-height:200px;overflow:hidden;"> <figure class="noresize" typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Circle_frame.svg/200px-Circle_frame.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Circle_frame.svg/300px-Circle_frame.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Circle_frame.svg/400px-Circle_frame.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" usemap="#ImageMap_56278a50cb1cb3d7" /></span><map name="ImageMap_56278a50cb1cb3d7"><area href="/wiki/Pressurized_Water_Reactor" shape="poly" 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coords="100,100,158,182,160,180,161,179,163,178,164,177,166,175,167,174,169,173,170,171,172,170,173,168,174,167,176,165,177,164,178,162,179,161,180,159,182,158,183,156,184,154,185,152,186,151,187,149,188,147,189,146,190,144,191,142,191,140,192,138,193,136,194,134,194,133,195,131,195,129,196,127,196,125,197,125,100,100" alt="Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor" title="Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor" /><area href="/wiki/LWGR" shape="poly" coords="100,100,197,125,197,123,197,121,198,119,198,117,198,115,199,113,199,111,199,109,199,107,199,105,199,103,100,100" alt="LWGR" title="LWGR" /><area href="/wiki/Fast_Breeder_Reactor" shape="poly" coords="100,100,199,103,199,101,200,101,100,100" alt="Fast Breeder Reactor" title="Fast Breeder Reactor" /></map><figcaption></figcaption></figure> </div> </div> <div> <ul style="list-style:none;column-width:12em;"><li><span style="padding:0 1em;background-color:red;border:1px solid red;margin-right:1em;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;"> </span> PWR: 277 (63.2%)</li> <li><span style="padding:0 1em;background-color:blue;border:1px solid blue;margin-right:1em;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;"> </span> BWR: 80 (18.3%)</li> <li><span style="padding:0 1em;background-color:green;border:1px solid green;margin-right:1em;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;"> </span> GCR: 15 (3.4%)</li> <li><span style="padding:0 1em;background-color:yellow;border:1px solid yellow;margin-right:1em;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;"> </span> PHWR: 49 (11.2%)</li> <li><span style="padding:0 1em;background-color:fuchsia;border:1px solid fuchsia;margin-right:1em;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;"> </span> LWGR: 15 (3.4%)</li> <li><span style="padding:0 1em;background-color:aqua;border:1px solid aqua;margin-right:1em;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;"> </span> FBR: 2 (0.5%)</li></ul> </div> </div></div></div><div class="thumbcaption">Number of reactors by type (end 2014)<sup id="cite_ref-IAEA_reactors_stats_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IAEA_reactors_stats-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div></div> <div class="thumb tright" style=""><div class="thumbinner" style="width:212px"><div class="thumbimage noresize" style="width:210px;"> <div style="text-align:left"> <div style="margin-top:0.5em;max-width:200px;" class="chart noresize"> <div style="position:relative;min-width:200px;min-height:200px;max-width:200px;overflow:hidden;"> <div style="border:solid transparent;position:absolute;bottom:100px;left:100px;width:100px;height:100px;border:0;background-color:red"></div> <div style="border:solid transparent;position:absolute;bottom:100px;right:100px;width:100px;height:100px;border:0;background-color:red"></div> <div style="border:solid transparent;position:absolute;top:100px;right:100px;width:100px;height:100px;border:0;background-color:red"></div> <div style="border:solid 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alt="Pressurized Water Reactor" title="Pressurized Water Reactor" /><area href="/wiki/Boiling_Water_Reactor" shape="poly" coords="100,100,59,192,61,193,63,193,64,194,66,195,68,195,70,196,72,197,74,197,76,198,78,198,80,199,82,199,84,199,86,200,88,200,90,200,92,200,94,200,96,200,98,200,100,200,102,200,104,200,106,200,108,200,110,200,112,200,114,199,116,199,118,199,120,198,122,198,123,198,125,197,127,197,129,196,131,195,133,195,135,194,137,193,139,193,140,192,142,191,144,190,146,189,148,188,149,187,151,186,153,185,154,184,156,183,158,182,159,181,161,179,163,178,164,177,166,176,167,174,169,173,170,171,171,170,173,169,174,167,174,167,100,100" alt="Boiling Water Reactor" title="Boiling Water Reactor" /><area href="/wiki/Gas_Cooled_Reactor" shape="poly" coords="100,100,174,167,175,166,177,164,178,162,179,161,180,159,182,158,183,156,100,100" alt="Gas Cooled Reactor" title="Gas Cooled Reactor" /><area href="/wiki/Pressurized_Heavy_Water_Reactor" shape="poly" coords="100,100,183,156,184,155,185,153,186,151,187,149,188,148,189,146,189,144,190,142,191,140,192,139,193,137,193,135,194,133,195,131,195,129,196,127,196,125,197,123,197,121,198,119,198,118,100,100" alt="Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor" title="Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor" /><area href="/wiki/LWGR" shape="poly" coords="100,100,198,118,198,116,199,114,199,113,199,111,199,109,199,107,199,105,199,103,199,102,100,100" alt="LWGR" title="LWGR" /><area href="/wiki/Fast_Breeder_Reactor" shape="poly" coords="100,100,199,102,200,101,100,100" alt="Fast Breeder Reactor" title="Fast Breeder Reactor" /></map><figcaption></figcaption></figure> </div> </div> <div> <ul style="list-style:none;column-width:12em;"><li><span style="padding:0 1em;background-color:red;border:1px solid red;margin-right:1em;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;"> </span> PWR: 257.2 (68.3%)</li> <li><span style="padding:0 1em;background-color:blue;border:1px solid blue;margin-right:1em;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;"> </span> BWR: 75.5 (20.1%)</li> <li><span style="padding:0 1em;background-color:green;border:1px solid green;margin-right:1em;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;"> </span> GCR: 8.2 (2.2%)</li> <li><span style="padding:0 1em;background-color:yellow;border:1px solid yellow;margin-right:1em;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;"> </span> PHWR: 24.6 (6.5%)</li> <li><span style="padding:0 1em;background-color:fuchsia;border:1px solid fuchsia;margin-right:1em;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;"> </span> LWGR: 10.2 (2.7%)</li> <li><span style="padding:0 1em;background-color:aqua;border:1px solid aqua;margin-right:1em;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;"> </span> FBR: 0.6 (0.2%)</li></ul> </div> </div></div></div><div class="thumbcaption">Net power capacity (GWe) by type (end 2014)<sup id="cite_ref-IAEA_reactors_stats_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IAEA_reactors_stats-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pulstar2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Pulstar2.jpg/170px-Pulstar2.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Pulstar2.jpg/255px-Pulstar2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Pulstar2.jpg/340px-Pulstar2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="480" data-file-height="640" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/North_Carolina_State_University" title="North Carolina State University">NC State</a>'s PULSTAR Reactor is a 1 MW pool-type <a href="/wiki/Research_reactor" title="Research reactor">research reactor</a> with 4% enriched, pin-type fuel consisting of UO<sub>2</sub> pellets in <a href="/wiki/Zircaloy" class="mw-redirect" title="Zircaloy">zircaloy</a> cladding.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classifications">Classifications</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_reactor&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Classifications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="By_type_of_nuclear_reaction">By type of nuclear reaction</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_reactor&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: By type of nuclear reaction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>All commercial power reactors are based on <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">nuclear fission</a>. They generally use <a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">uranium</a> and its product <a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">plutonium</a> as <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fuel" title="Nuclear fuel">nuclear fuel</a>, though a <a href="/wiki/Thorium_fuel_cycle" title="Thorium fuel cycle">thorium fuel cycle</a> is also possible. Fission reactors can be divided roughly into two classes, depending on the energy of the neutrons that sustain the fission <a href="/wiki/Chain_reaction" title="Chain reaction">chain reaction</a>: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal reactor">Thermal-neutron reactors</a> use slowed or <a href="/wiki/Thermal_neutron" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal neutron">thermal neutrons</a> to keep up the fission of their fuel. Almost all current reactors are of this type. These contain <a href="/wiki/Neutron_moderator" title="Neutron moderator">neutron moderator</a> materials that slow neutrons until their <a href="/wiki/Neutron_temperature" title="Neutron temperature">neutron temperature</a> is <i>thermalized</i>, that is, until their <a href="/wiki/Kinetic_energy" title="Kinetic energy">kinetic energy</a> approaches the average kinetic energy of the surrounding particles. Thermal neutrons have a far higher <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_cross_section" title="Nuclear cross section">cross section</a> (probability) of fissioning the <a href="/wiki/Fissile" class="mw-redirect" title="Fissile">fissile</a> nuclei <a href="/wiki/Uranium-235" title="Uranium-235">uranium-235</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plutonium-239" title="Plutonium-239">plutonium-239</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Plutonium-241" title="Plutonium-241">plutonium-241</a>, and a relatively lower probability of <a href="/wiki/Neutron_capture" title="Neutron capture">neutron capture</a> by <a href="/wiki/Uranium-238" title="Uranium-238">uranium-238</a> (U-238) compared to the faster neutrons that originally result from fission, allowing use of <a href="/wiki/Low-enriched_uranium" class="mw-redirect" title="Low-enriched uranium">low-enriched uranium</a> or even <a href="/wiki/Natural_uranium" title="Natural uranium">natural uranium</a> fuel. The moderator is often also the <a href="/wiki/Coolant" title="Coolant">coolant</a>, usually water under high pressure to increase the <a href="/wiki/Boiling_point" title="Boiling point">boiling point</a>. These are surrounded by a <a href="/wiki/Reactor_vessel" class="mw-redirect" title="Reactor vessel">reactor vessel</a>, instrumentation to monitor and control the reactor, <a href="/wiki/Radiation_shielding" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation shielding">radiation shielding</a>, and a <a href="/wiki/Containment_building" title="Containment building">containment building</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fast-neutron_reactor" title="Fast-neutron reactor">Fast-neutron reactors</a> use <a href="/wiki/Fast_neutron" class="mw-redirect" title="Fast neutron">fast neutrons</a> to cause fission in their fuel. They do not have a <a href="/wiki/Neutron_moderator" title="Neutron moderator">neutron moderator</a>, and use less-moderating coolants. Maintaining a chain reaction requires the fuel to be more highly <a href="/wiki/Isotope_separation" title="Isotope separation">enriched</a> in <a href="/wiki/Fissile" class="mw-redirect" title="Fissile">fissile</a> material (about 20% or more) due to the relatively lower probability of fission versus capture by U-238. Fast reactors have the potential to produce less <a href="/wiki/Transuranic" class="mw-redirect" title="Transuranic">transuranic</a> waste because all <a href="/wiki/Actinides" class="mw-redirect" title="Actinides">actinides</a> are fissionable with fast neutrons,<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but they are more difficult to build and more expensive to operate. Overall, fast reactors are less common than thermal reactors in most applications. Some early power stations were fast reactors, as are some Russian naval propulsion units. Construction of prototypes is continuing (see <a href="/wiki/Fast_breeder" class="mw-redirect" title="Fast breeder">fast breeder</a> or <a href="/wiki/Generation_IV_reactor#Fast_reactors" title="Generation IV reactor">generation IV reactors</a>).</li></ul> <p>In principle, <a href="/wiki/Fusion_power" title="Fusion power">fusion power</a> could be produced by <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">nuclear fusion</a> of elements such as the <a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">deuterium</a> isotope of <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a>. While an ongoing rich research topic since at least the 1940s, no self-sustaining fusion reactor for any purpose has ever been built. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="By_moderator_material">By moderator material</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_reactor&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: By moderator material"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Used by thermal reactors: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Graphite-moderated_reactor" title="Graphite-moderated reactor">Graphite-moderated reactors</a> <ul><li>Mostly early reactors such as the Chicago pile, Obninsk am 1, Windscale piles, RBMK, Magnox, and others such as AGR use graphite as a moderator.</li></ul></li> <li>Water moderated reactors <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heavy-water_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Heavy-water reactor">Heavy-water reactors</a> (Used in Canada,<sup id="cite_ref-hyperphysics_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hyperphysics-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> India, Argentina, China, Pakistan, Romania and South Korea).<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light-water_reactor" title="Light-water reactor">Light-water-moderated reactors</a> (LWRs). Light-water reactors (the most common type of thermal reactor) use ordinary water to moderate and cool the reactors.<sup id="cite_ref-hyperphysics_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hyperphysics-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because the light hydrogen isotope is a slight neutron poison these reactors need artificially enriched fuels. When at <a href="/wiki/Operating_temperature" title="Operating temperature">operating temperature</a>, if the temperature of the water increases, its density drops, and fewer neutrons passing through it are slowed enough to trigger further reactions. That <a href="/wiki/Negative_feedback" title="Negative feedback">negative feedback</a> stabilizes the reaction rate. Graphite and heavy-water reactors tend to be more thoroughly thermalized than light water reactors. Due to the extra thermalization, and the absence of the light hydrogen poisoning effects these types can use <a href="/wiki/Natural_uranium" title="Natural uranium">natural uranium</a>/unenriched fuel.</li></ul></li> <li>Light-element-moderated reactors. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Molten-salt_reactor" title="Molten-salt reactor">Molten-salt reactors</a> (MSRs) are moderated by light elements such as lithium or beryllium, which are constituents of the coolant/fuel matrix salts <a href="/wiki/Lithium_fluoride" title="Lithium fluoride">"LiF"</a> and <a href="/wiki/Beryllium_fluoride" title="Beryllium fluoride">"BeF<sub>2</sub></a>", <a href="/wiki/Lithium_chloride" title="Lithium chloride">"LiCl"</a> and <a href="/wiki/Beryllium_chloride" title="Beryllium chloride">"BeCl<sub>2</sub></a>" and other light element containing salts can all cause a moderating effect.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquid_metal_cooled_reactor" title="Liquid metal cooled reactor">Liquid metal cooled reactors</a>, such as those whose coolant is a mixture of lead and bismuth, may use BeO as a moderator.</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_nuclear_reactor" title="Organic nuclear reactor">Organically moderated reactors</a> (OMR) use <a href="/wiki/Biphenyl" title="Biphenyl">biphenyl</a> and <a href="/wiki/Terphenyl" title="Terphenyl">terphenyl</a> as moderator and coolant.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="By_coolant">By coolant</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_reactor&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: By coolant"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RIAN_archive_450312_Treatment_of_interior_part_of_reactor_frame.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/RIAN_archive_450312_Treatment_of_interior_part_of_reactor_frame.jpg/220px-RIAN_archive_450312_Treatment_of_interior_part_of_reactor_frame.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/RIAN_archive_450312_Treatment_of_interior_part_of_reactor_frame.jpg/330px-RIAN_archive_450312_Treatment_of_interior_part_of_reactor_frame.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/RIAN_archive_450312_Treatment_of_interior_part_of_reactor_frame.jpg/440px-RIAN_archive_450312_Treatment_of_interior_part_of_reactor_frame.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1010" /></a><figcaption>Treatment of the interior part of a <a href="/wiki/VVER" title="VVER">VVER-1000</a> reactor frame at <a href="/wiki/Atommash" title="Atommash">Atommash</a> </figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thermal_reactor_diagram.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Thermal_reactor_diagram.png/220px-Thermal_reactor_diagram.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Thermal_reactor_diagram.png/330px-Thermal_reactor_diagram.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Thermal_reactor_diagram.png/440px-Thermal_reactor_diagram.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="714" /></a><figcaption>In thermal nuclear reactors (LWRs in specific), the coolant acts as a moderator that must slow down the neutrons before they can be efficiently absorbed by the fuel.</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>Water cooled reactor. These constitute the great majority of operational nuclear reactors: as of 2014, 93% of the world's nuclear reactors are water cooled, providing about 95% of the world's total nuclear generation capacity.<sup id="cite_ref-IAEA_reactors_stats_40-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IAEA_reactors_stats-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pressurized_water_reactor" title="Pressurized water reactor">Pressurized water reactor</a> (PWR) Pressurized water reactors constitute the large majority of all Western nuclear power plants. <ul><li>A primary characteristic of PWRs is a pressurizer, a specialized <a href="/wiki/Pressure_vessel" title="Pressure vessel">pressure vessel</a>. Most commercial PWRs and naval reactors use pressurizers. During normal operation, a pressurizer is partially filled with water, and a steam bubble is maintained above it by heating the water with submerged heaters. During normal operation, the pressurizer is connected to the primary reactor pressure vessel (RPV) and the pressurizer "bubble" provides an expansion space for changes in water volume in the reactor. This arrangement also provides a means of pressure control for the reactor by increasing or decreasing the steam pressure in the pressurizer using the pressurizer heaters.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pressurized_heavy_water_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Pressurized heavy water reactor">Pressurized heavy water reactors</a> are a subset of pressurized water reactors, sharing the use of a pressurized, isolated heat transport loop, but using <a href="/wiki/Heavy_water" title="Heavy water">heavy water</a> as coolant and moderator for the greater neutron economies it offers.</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boiling_water_reactor" title="Boiling water reactor">Boiling water reactor</a> (BWR) <ul><li>BWRs are characterized by boiling water around the fuel rods in the lower portion of a primary reactor pressure vessel. A boiling water reactor uses <sup>235</sup>U, enriched as uranium dioxide, as its fuel. The fuel is assembled into rods housed in a steel vessel that is submerged in water. The nuclear fission causes the water to boil, generating steam. This steam flows through pipes into turbines. The turbines are driven by the steam, and this process generates electricity.<sup id="cite_ref-nuclear_energy_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nuclear_energy-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During normal operation, pressure is controlled by the amount of steam flowing from the reactor pressure vessel to the turbine.</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supercritical_water_reactor" title="Supercritical water reactor">Supercritical water reactor</a> (SCWR) <ul><li>SCWRs are a <a href="/wiki/Generation_IV_reactor" title="Generation IV reactor">Generation IV reactor</a> concept where the reactor is operated at supercritical pressures and water is heated to a supercritical fluid, which never undergoes a transition to steam yet behaves like saturated steam, to power a <a href="/wiki/Steam_generator_(boiler)" title="Steam generator (boiler)">steam generator</a>.</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reduced_moderation_water_reactor" title="Reduced moderation water reactor">Reduced moderation water reactor</a> [RMWR] which use more highly enriched fuel with the fuel elements set closer together to allow a faster neutron spectrum sometimes called an <a href="/wiki/Epithermal_neutron" class="mw-redirect" title="Epithermal neutron">Epithermal neutron</a> Spectrum.</li> <li>Pool-type reactor can refer to unpressurized water cooled <a href="/wiki/Open_pool_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Open pool reactor">open pool reactors</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Pool_type_LMFBR" class="mw-redirect" title="Pool type LMFBR">pool type LMFBRs</a> which are sodium cooled</li> <li>Some reactors have been cooled by <a href="/wiki/Heavy_water" title="Heavy water">heavy water</a> which also served as a moderator. Examples include: <ul><li>Early <a href="/wiki/CANDU" class="mw-redirect" title="CANDU">CANDU</a> reactors (later ones use heavy water moderator but light water coolant)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/DIDO_(nuclear_reactor)" title="DIDO (nuclear reactor)">DIDO</a> class research reactors</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquid_metal_cooled_reactor" title="Liquid metal cooled reactor">Liquid metal cooled reactor</a>. Since water is a moderator, it cannot be used as a coolant in a fast reactor. Liquid metal coolants have included <a href="/wiki/Sodium" title="Sodium">sodium</a>, <a href="/wiki/NaK" class="mw-redirect" title="NaK">NaK</a>, lead, <a href="/wiki/Lead-bismuth_eutectic" title="Lead-bismuth eutectic">lead-bismuth eutectic</a>, and in early reactors, <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">mercury</a>. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sodium-cooled_fast_reactor" title="Sodium-cooled fast reactor">Sodium-cooled fast reactor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead-cooled_fast_reactor" title="Lead-cooled fast reactor">Lead-cooled fast reactor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_cooled_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas cooled reactor">Gas cooled reactors</a> are cooled by a circulating gas. In commercial nuclear power plants carbon dioxide has usually been used, for example in current British AGR nuclear power plants and formerly in a number of first generation British, French, Italian, & Japanese plants. <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">Nitrogen</a><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and helium have also been used, helium being considered particularly suitable for high temperature designs. Utilization of the heat varies, depending on the reactor. Commercial nuclear power plants run the gas through a <a href="/wiki/Heat_exchanger" title="Heat exchanger">heat exchanger</a> to make steam for a steam turbine. Some experimental designs run hot enough that the gas can directly power a gas turbine.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molten-salt_reactor" title="Molten-salt reactor">Molten-salt reactors</a> (MSRs) are cooled by circulating a molten salt, typically a eutectic mixture of fluoride salts, such as <a href="/wiki/FLiBe" title="FLiBe">FLiBe</a>. In a typical MSR, the coolant is also used as a matrix in which the fissile material is dissolved. Other eutectic salt combinations used include <a href="/wiki/Zirconium_tetrafluoride" title="Zirconium tetrafluoride">"ZrF<sub>4</sub>"</a> with <a href="/wiki/Sodium_Fluoride" class="mw-redirect" title="Sodium Fluoride">"NaF"</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lithium_chloride" title="Lithium chloride">"LiCl"</a> with <a href="/wiki/Beryllium_chloride" title="Beryllium chloride">"BeCl<sub>2</sub>"</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_nuclear_reactor" title="Organic nuclear reactor">Organic nuclear reactors</a> use organic fluids such as biphenyl and terphenyl as coolant rather than water.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="By_generation">By generation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_reactor&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: By generation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Generation I reactor (early prototypes such as <a href="/wiki/Shippingport_Atomic_Power_Station" title="Shippingport Atomic Power Station">Shippingport Atomic Power Station</a>, research reactors, non-commercial power producing reactors)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generation_II_reactor" title="Generation II reactor">Generation II reactor</a> (most current <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_plant" title="Nuclear power plant">nuclear power plants</a>, 1965–1996)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generation_III_reactor" title="Generation III reactor">Generation III reactor</a> (evolutionary improvements of existing designs, 1996–2016)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generation_III_reactor#Lists_of_Generation_III+_reactors" title="Generation III reactor">Generation III+ reactor</a> (evolutionary development of Gen III reactors, offering improvements in safety over Gen III reactor designs, 2017–2021)<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generation_IV_reactor" title="Generation IV reactor">Generation IV reactor</a> (technologies still under development; unknown start date, see below)<sup id="cite_ref-gen-iv_wna-2020_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gen-iv_wna-2020-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Generation V reactor (designs which are theoretically possible, but which are not being actively considered or researched at present).</li></ul> <p>In 2003, the French <a href="/wiki/Commissariat_%C3%A0_l%27%C3%89nergie_Atomique" class="mw-redirect" title="Commissariat à l'Énergie Atomique">Commissariat à l'Énergie Atomique</a> (CEA) was the first to refer to "Gen II" types in <i>Nucleonics Week</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first mention of "Gen III" was in 2000, in conjunction with the launch of the <a href="/wiki/Generation_IV_International_Forum" class="mw-redirect" title="Generation IV International Forum">Generation IV International Forum</a> (GIF) plans. </p><p>"Gen IV" was named in 2000, by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Energy" title="United States Department of Energy">United States Department of Energy</a> (DOE), for developing new plant types.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="By_phase_of_fuel">By phase of fuel</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_reactor&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: By phase of fuel"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Solid fueled</li> <li>Fluid fueled <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aqueous_homogeneous_reactor" title="Aqueous homogeneous reactor">Aqueous homogeneous reactor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molten-salt_reactor" title="Molten-salt reactor">Molten-salt reactor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaseous_fission_reactor" title="Gaseous fission reactor">Gas fueled</a> (theoretical)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="By_shape_of_the_core">By shape of the core</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_reactor&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: By shape of the core"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Cubical</li> <li>Cylindrical</li> <li>Octagonal</li> <li>Spherical</li> <li>Slab</li> <li>Annulus</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="By_use">By use</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_reactor&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: By use"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Electricity <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_plant" title="Nuclear power plant">Nuclear power plants</a> including <a href="/wiki/Small_modular_reactor" title="Small modular reactor">small modular reactors</a></li></ul></li> <li>Propulsion, see <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_propulsion" title="Nuclear propulsion">nuclear propulsion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_marine_propulsion" title="Nuclear marine propulsion">Nuclear marine propulsion</a></li> <li>Various proposed forms of <a href="/wiki/Rocket_propulsion" class="mw-redirect" title="Rocket propulsion">rocket propulsion</a></li></ul></li> <li>Other uses of heat <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Desalination" title="Desalination">Desalination</a></li> <li>Heat for domestic and industrial heating</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_production" title="Hydrogen production">Hydrogen production</a> for use in a <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_economy" title="Hydrogen economy">hydrogen economy</a></li></ul></li> <li>Production reactors for <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_transmutation" title="Nuclear transmutation">transmutation</a> of elements <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breeder_reactor" title="Breeder reactor">Breeder reactors</a> are capable of producing more <a href="/wiki/Fissile_material" title="Fissile material">fissile material</a> than they consume during the fission chain reaction (by converting <a href="/wiki/Fertile_material" title="Fertile material">fertile</a> U-238 to Pu-239, or Th-232 to U-233). Thus, a uranium breeder reactor, once running, can be refueled with <a href="/wiki/Natural_uranium" title="Natural uranium">natural</a> or even <a href="/wiki/Depleted_uranium" title="Depleted uranium">depleted uranium</a>, and a thorium breeder reactor can be refueled with <a href="/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium">thorium</a>; however, an initial stock of fissile material is required.<sup id="cite_ref-Gen4_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gen4-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Creating various <a href="/wiki/Radiation" title="Radiation">radioactive</a> <a href="/wiki/Isotope" title="Isotope">isotopes</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Americium" title="Americium">americium</a> for use in <a href="/wiki/Smoke_detector" title="Smoke detector">smoke detectors</a>, and cobalt-60, molybdenum-99 and others, used for imaging and medical treatment.</li> <li>Production of materials for <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">nuclear weapons</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Weapons-grade" class="mw-redirect" title="Weapons-grade">weapons-grade</a> <a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">plutonium</a></li></ul></li> <li>Providing a source of <a href="/wiki/Neutron_radiation" title="Neutron radiation">neutron radiation</a> (for example with the pulsed <a href="/wiki/Godiva_device" title="Godiva device">Godiva device</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Positron_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Positron radiation">positron radiation</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="Neither linked article mentions reactors used to generate positrons. Needs explanation. (March 2008)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Neutron_activation_analysis" title="Neutron activation analysis">neutron activation analysis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Potassium-argon_dating" class="mw-redirect" title="Potassium-argon dating">potassium-argon dating</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (March 2008)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research_reactor" title="Research reactor">Research reactor</a>: Typically reactors used for research and training, materials testing, or the production of radioisotopes for medicine and industry. These are much smaller than power reactors or those propelling ships, and many are on university campuses. There are about 280 such reactors operating, in 56 countries. Some operate with high-enriched uranium fuel, and international efforts are underway to substitute low-enriched fuel.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Current_technologies">Current technologies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_reactor&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Current technologies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Nuclear_reactor" title="Special:EditPage/Nuclear reactor">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2015</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Diablo_canyon_nuclear_power_plant.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Diablo_canyon_nuclear_power_plant.jpg/220px-Diablo_canyon_nuclear_power_plant.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Diablo_canyon_nuclear_power_plant.jpg/330px-Diablo_canyon_nuclear_power_plant.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Diablo_canyon_nuclear_power_plant.jpg/440px-Diablo_canyon_nuclear_power_plant.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1728" data-file-height="1360" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Diablo_Canyon_Power_Plant" title="Diablo Canyon Power Plant">Diablo Canyon</a> – a PWR</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pressurized_water_reactor" title="Pressurized water reactor">Pressurized water reactors</a> (PWR) [moderator: high-pressure water; coolant: high-pressure water]</li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>These reactors use a pressure vessel to contain the nuclear fuel, control rods, moderator, and coolant. The hot radioactive water that leaves the pressure vessel is looped through a steam generator, which in turn heats a secondary (nonradioactive) loop of water to steam that can run turbines. They represent the majority (around 80%) of current reactors. This is a <a href="/wiki/Thermal_neutron" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal neutron">thermal neutron</a> reactor design, the newest of which are the Russian <a href="/wiki/VVER-1200" class="mw-redirect" title="VVER-1200">VVER-1200</a>, Japanese <a href="/wiki/Advanced_Pressurized_Water_Reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Advanced Pressurized Water Reactor">Advanced Pressurized Water Reactor</a>, American <a href="/wiki/AP1000" title="AP1000">AP1000</a>, Chinese <a href="/wiki/Hualong_One" title="Hualong One">Hualong Pressurized Reactor</a> and the Franco-German <a href="/wiki/European_Pressurized_Reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="European Pressurized Reactor">European Pressurized Reactor</a>. All the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Naval_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Naval reactor">United States Naval reactors</a> are of this type.</dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boiling_water_reactor" title="Boiling water reactor">Boiling water reactors</a> (BWR) [moderator: low-pressure water; coolant: low-pressure water]</li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>A BWR is like a PWR without the steam generator. The lower pressure of its cooling water allows it to boil inside the pressure vessel, producing the steam that runs the turbines. Unlike a PWR, there is no primary and secondary loop. The <a href="/wiki/Thermal_efficiency" title="Thermal efficiency">thermal efficiency</a> of these reactors can be higher, and they can be simpler, and even potentially more stable and safe. This is a thermal-neutron reactor design, the newest of which are the <a href="/wiki/Advanced_Boiling_Water_Reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Advanced Boiling Water Reactor">Advanced Boiling Water Reactor</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Economic_Simplified_Boiling_Water_Reactor" title="Economic Simplified Boiling Water Reactor">Economic Simplified Boiling Water Reactor</a>.</dd></dl></dd></dl> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CANDU_at_Qinshan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/CANDU_at_Qinshan.jpg/220px-CANDU_at_Qinshan.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/CANDU_at_Qinshan.jpg/330px-CANDU_at_Qinshan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/CANDU_at_Qinshan.jpg/440px-CANDU_at_Qinshan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="580" data-file-height="386" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/CANDU" class="mw-redirect" title="CANDU">CANDU</a> <a href="/wiki/Qinshan_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Qinshan Nuclear Power Plant">Qinshan Nuclear Power Plant</a></figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pressurised_heavy_water_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Pressurised heavy water reactor">Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor</a> (PHWR) [moderator: high-pressure heavy water; coolant: high-pressure heavy water]</li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>A Canadian design (known as <a href="/wiki/CANDU" class="mw-redirect" title="CANDU">CANDU</a>), very similar to PWRs but using <a href="/wiki/Heavy_water" title="Heavy water">heavy water</a>. While heavy water is significantly more expensive than ordinary water, it has greater <a href="/wiki/Neutron_economy" title="Neutron economy">neutron economy</a> (creates a higher number of thermal neutrons), allowing the reactor to operate without <a href="/wiki/Isotope_separation" title="Isotope separation">fuel enrichment facilities</a>. Instead of using a single large pressure vessel as in a PWR, the fuel is contained in hundreds of pressure tubes. These reactors are fueled with natural <a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">uranium</a> and are thermal-neutron reactor designs. PHWRs can be refueled while at full power, (<a href="/wiki/Online_refueling" class="mw-redirect" title="Online refueling">online refueling</a>) which makes them very efficient in their use of uranium (it allows for precise flux control in the core). CANDU PHWRs have been built in Canada, <a href="/wiki/Argentina" title="Argentina">Argentina</a>, China, <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Romania" title="Romania">Romania</a>, and <a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korea</a>. India also operates a number of PHWRs, often termed 'CANDU derivatives', built after the Government of Canada halted nuclear dealings with India following the 1974 <a href="/wiki/Smiling_Buddha" title="Smiling Buddha">Smiling Buddha</a> nuclear weapon test.</dd></dl></dd> <dd><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Elektrownia_Ignalina.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Elektrownia_Ignalina.jpg/220px-Elektrownia_Ignalina.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Elektrownia_Ignalina.jpg/330px-Elektrownia_Ignalina.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Elektrownia_Ignalina.jpg/440px-Elektrownia_Ignalina.jpg 2x" data-file-width="685" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Ignalina_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Ignalina Nuclear Power Plant">Ignalina Nuclear Power Plant</a> – a RBMK type (closed 2009)</figcaption></figure></dd></dl> <ul><li>Reaktor Bolshoy Moschnosti Kanalniy (High Power Channel Reactor) (<a href="/wiki/RBMK" title="RBMK">RBMK</a>) (also known as a Light-Water Graphite-moderated Reactor—LWGR) [moderator: graphite; coolant: high-pressure water]</li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>A Soviet design, RBMKs are in some respects similar to CANDU in that they are refuelable during power operation and employ a pressure tube design instead of a PWR-style pressure vessel. However, unlike CANDU they are very unstable and large, making <a href="/wiki/Containment_building" title="Containment building">containment buildings</a> for them expensive. A series of critical safety flaws have also been identified with the RBMK design, though some of these were corrected following the <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster" title="Chernobyl disaster">Chernobyl disaster</a>. Their main attraction is their use of light water and unenriched uranium. As of 2024, 7 remain open, mostly due to safety improvements and help from international safety agencies such as the DOE. Despite these safety improvements, RBMK reactors are still considered one of the most dangerous reactor designs in use. RBMK reactors were deployed only in the former <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>.</dd></dl></dd></dl> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sizewell_A.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Sizewell_A.jpg/220px-Sizewell_A.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Sizewell_A.jpg/330px-Sizewell_A.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Sizewell_A.jpg/440px-Sizewell_A.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2784" data-file-height="1572" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Magnox" title="Magnox">Magnox</a> <a href="/wiki/Sizewell_A" class="mw-redirect" title="Sizewell A">Sizewell A</a> nuclear power station</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Torness_Nuclear_Power_Station,_Scotland.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Torness_Nuclear_Power_Station%2C_Scotland.JPG/220px-Torness_Nuclear_Power_Station%2C_Scotland.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Torness_Nuclear_Power_Station%2C_Scotland.JPG/330px-Torness_Nuclear_Power_Station%2C_Scotland.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Torness_Nuclear_Power_Station%2C_Scotland.JPG/440px-Torness_Nuclear_Power_Station%2C_Scotland.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="996" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Torness_nuclear_power_station" title="Torness nuclear power station">Torness nuclear power station</a> – an AGR</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gas-cooled_reactor" title="Gas-cooled reactor">Gas-cooled reactor</a> (GCR) and <a href="/wiki/Advanced_gas-cooled_reactor" title="Advanced gas-cooled reactor">advanced gas-cooled reactor</a> (AGR) [moderator: graphite; coolant: carbon dioxide]</li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>These designs have a high thermal efficiency compared with PWRs due to higher operating temperatures. There are a number of operating reactors of this design, mostly in the United Kingdom, where the concept was developed. Older designs (i.e. <a href="/wiki/Magnox" title="Magnox">Magnox</a> stations) are either shut down or will be in the near future. However, the AGRs have an anticipated life of a further 10 to 20 years. This is a thermal-neutron reactor design. Decommissioning costs can be high due to large volume of reactor core.</dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breeder_reactor" title="Breeder reactor">Liquid metal</a> <a href="/wiki/Fast_breeder_reactor#Fast_breeder_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Fast breeder reactor">fast-breeder reactor</a> (LMFBR) [moderator: none; coolant: liquid metal]</li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Topaz_nuclear_reactor.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Topaz_nuclear_reactor.jpg/220px-Topaz_nuclear_reactor.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Topaz_nuclear_reactor.jpg/330px-Topaz_nuclear_reactor.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Topaz_nuclear_reactor.jpg/440px-Topaz_nuclear_reactor.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2816" data-file-height="1880" /></a><figcaption>Scaled-down model of <a href="/wiki/TOPAZ_nuclear_reactor" title="TOPAZ nuclear reactor">TOPAZ nuclear reactor</a></figcaption></figure> <dl><dd><dl><dd>This totally unmoderated reactor design produces more fuel than it consumes. They are said to "breed" fuel, because they produce fissionable fuel during operation because of <a href="/wiki/Neutron_capture" title="Neutron capture">neutron capture</a>. These reactors can function much like a PWR in terms of efficiency, and do not require much high-pressure containment, as the liquid metal does not need to be kept at high pressure, even at very high temperatures. These reactors are <a href="/wiki/Fast_neutron" class="mw-redirect" title="Fast neutron">fast neutron</a>, not thermal neutron designs. These reactors come in two types:</dd></dl></dd></dl> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Superph%C3%A9nix.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Superph%C3%A9nix.jpg/220px-Superph%C3%A9nix.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Superph%C3%A9nix.jpg/330px-Superph%C3%A9nix.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Superph%C3%A9nix.jpg/440px-Superph%C3%A9nix.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2751" data-file-height="1812" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Superph%C3%A9nix" title="Superphénix">Superphénix</a>, closed in 1998, was one of the few FBRs.</figcaption></figure> <dl><dd><dl><dd><dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Lead-cooled_fast_reactor" title="Lead-cooled fast reactor">Lead-cooled</a> <dl><dd>Using lead as the liquid metal provides excellent radiation shielding, and allows for operation at very high temperatures. Also, lead is (mostly) transparent to neutrons, so fewer neutrons are lost in the coolant, and the coolant does not become radioactive. Unlike sodium, lead is mostly inert, so there is less risk of explosion or accident, but such large quantities of lead may be problematic from toxicology and disposal points of view. Often a reactor of this type would use a <a href="/wiki/Lead-bismuth_eutectic" title="Lead-bismuth eutectic">lead-bismuth eutectic</a> mixture. In this case, the bismuth would present some minor radiation problems, as it is not quite as transparent to neutrons, and can be transmuted to a radioactive isotope more readily than lead. The Russian <a href="/wiki/Alfa_class_submarine" class="mw-redirect" title="Alfa class submarine">Alfa class submarine</a> uses a lead-bismuth-cooled fast reactor as its main power plant.</dd></dl></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Sodium-cooled_fast_reactor" title="Sodium-cooled fast reactor">Sodium-cooled</a> <dl><dd>Most LMFBRs are of this type. The <a href="/wiki/TOPAZ_nuclear_reactor" title="TOPAZ nuclear reactor">TOPAZ</a>, <a href="/wiki/BN-350" class="mw-redirect" title="BN-350">BN-350</a> and <a href="/wiki/BN-600" class="mw-redirect" title="BN-600">BN-600</a> in USSR; <a href="/wiki/Superph%C3%A9nix" title="Superphénix">Superphénix</a> in France; and <a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi_Nuclear_Generating_Station" title="Enrico Fermi Nuclear Generating Station">Fermi-I</a> in the United States were reactors of this type. The sodium is relatively easy to obtain and work with, and it also manages to actually prevent corrosion on the various reactor parts immersed in it. However, sodium explodes violently when exposed to water, so care must be taken, but such explosions would not be more violent than (for example) a leak of superheated fluid from a pressurized-water reactor. The <a href="/wiki/Monju_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Monju Nuclear Power Plant">Monju reactor</a> in Japan suffered a sodium leak in 1995 and could not be <a href="/wiki/Monju_Nuclear_Power_Plant#2010_Restart" title="Monju Nuclear Power Plant">restarted</a> until May 2010. The <a href="/wiki/EBR-I" class="mw-redirect" title="EBR-I">EBR-I</a>, the first reactor to have a core meltdown, in 1955, was also a sodium-cooled reactor.</dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pebble-bed_reactor" title="Pebble-bed reactor">Pebble-bed reactors</a> (PBR) [moderator: graphite; coolant: helium]</li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>These use fuel molded into ceramic balls, and then circulate gas through the balls. The result is an efficient, low-maintenance, very safe reactor with inexpensive, standardized fuel. The prototypes were the <a href="/wiki/AVR_reactor" title="AVR reactor">AVR</a> and the <a href="/wiki/THTR-300" title="THTR-300">THTR-300</a> in Germany, which produced up to 308MW of electricity between 1985 and 1989 until it was shut down after experiencing a series of incidents and technical difficulties. The <a href="/wiki/HTR-10" title="HTR-10">HTR-10</a> is operating in China, where the <a href="/wiki/HTR-PM" title="HTR-PM">HTR-PM</a> is being developed. The HTR-PM is expected to be the first generation IV reactor to enter operation.<sup id="cite_ref-WNN2018_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WNN2018-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Molten-salt_reactor" title="Molten-salt reactor">Molten-salt reactors</a> (MSR) [moderator: graphite, or none for fast spectrum MSRs; coolant: molten salt mixture]</li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>These dissolve the fuels in <a href="/wiki/Fluoride" title="Fluoride">fluoride</a> or <a href="/wiki/Chloride" title="Chloride">chloride</a> salts, or use such salts for coolant. MSRs potentially have many safety features, including the absence of high pressures or highly flammable components in the core. They were initially designed for aircraft propulsion due to their high efficiency and high power density. One prototype, the <a href="/wiki/Molten-Salt_Reactor_Experiment" title="Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment">Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment</a>, was built to confirm the feasibility of the <a href="/wiki/Liquid_fluoride_thorium_reactor" title="Liquid fluoride thorium reactor">Liquid fluoride thorium reactor</a>, a thermal spectrum reactor which would breed fissile uranium-233 fuel from thorium.</dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aqueous_homogeneous_reactor" title="Aqueous homogeneous reactor">Aqueous homogeneous reactor</a> (AHR) [moderator: high-pressure light or heavy water; coolant: high-pressure light or heavy water]</li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>These reactors use as fuel soluble nuclear salts (usually <a href="/wiki/Uranium_sulfate" class="mw-redirect" title="Uranium sulfate">uranium sulfate</a> or <a href="/wiki/Uranium_nitrate" class="mw-redirect" title="Uranium nitrate">uranium nitrate</a>) dissolved in water and mixed with the coolant and the moderator. As of April 2006, only five AHRs were in operation.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Future_and_developing_technologies">Future and developing technologies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_reactor&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Future and developing technologies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Advanced_reactors">Advanced reactors</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_reactor&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Advanced reactors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>More than a dozen advanced reactor designs are in various stages of development.<sup id="cite_ref-UIC_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UIC-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some are evolutionary from the <a href="/wiki/Pressurized_water_reactor" title="Pressurized water reactor">PWR</a>, <a href="/wiki/Boiling_water_reactor" title="Boiling water reactor">BWR</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pressurised_Heavy_Water_Reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Pressurised Heavy Water Reactor">PHWR</a> designs above, some are more radical departures. The former include the <a href="/wiki/Advanced_boiling_water_reactor" title="Advanced boiling water reactor">advanced boiling water reactor</a> (ABWR), two of which are now operating with others under construction, and the planned <a href="/wiki/Passively_safe" class="mw-redirect" title="Passively safe">passively safe</a> <a href="/wiki/Economic_Simplified_Boiling_Water_Reactor" title="Economic Simplified Boiling Water Reactor">Economic Simplified Boiling Water Reactor</a> (ESBWR) and <a href="/wiki/AP1000" title="AP1000">AP1000</a> units (see <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_Power_2010_Program" title="Nuclear Power 2010 Program">Nuclear Power 2010 Program</a>). </p> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Integral_fast_reactor" title="Integral fast reactor">integral fast reactor</a> (IFR) was built, tested and evaluated during the 1980s and then retired under the Clinton administration in the 1990s due to nuclear non-proliferation policies of the administration. Recycling spent fuel is the core of its design and it therefore produces only a fraction of the waste of current reactors.<sup id="cite_ref-pbs_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pbs-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Pebble-bed_reactor" title="Pebble-bed reactor">pebble-bed reactor</a>, a <a href="/wiki/High-temperature_gas-cooled_reactor" title="High-temperature gas-cooled reactor">high-temperature gas-cooled reactor</a> (HTGCR), is designed so high temperatures reduce power output by <a href="/wiki/Doppler_broadening" title="Doppler broadening">Doppler broadening</a> of the fuel's neutron cross-section. It uses ceramic fuels so its safe operating temperatures exceed the power-reduction temperature range. Most designs are cooled by inert helium. Helium is not subject to steam explosions, resists neutron absorption leading to radioactivity, and does not dissolve contaminants that can become radioactive. Typical designs have more layers (up to 7) of passive containment than light water reactors (usually 3). A unique feature that may aid safety is that the fuel balls actually form the core's mechanism, and are replaced one by one as they age. The design of the fuel makes fuel reprocessing expensive.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Small,_sealed,_transportable,_autonomous_reactor" title="Small, sealed, transportable, autonomous reactor">small, sealed, transportable, autonomous reactor</a> (SSTAR) is being primarily researched and developed in the US, intended as a fast breeder reactor that is passively safe and could be remotely shut down in case the suspicion arises that it is being tampered with.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Clean_and_Environmentally_Safe_Advanced_Reactor" title="Clean and Environmentally Safe Advanced Reactor">Clean and Environmentally Safe Advanced Reactor</a> (CAESAR) is a nuclear reactor concept that uses steam as a moderator – this design is still in development.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Reduced_moderation_water_reactor" title="Reduced moderation water reactor">reduced moderation water reactor</a> builds upon the <a href="/wiki/Advanced_boiling_water_reactor" title="Advanced boiling water reactor">Advanced boiling water reactor</a> ABWR) that is presently in use, it is not a complete fast reactor instead using mostly <a href="/wiki/Epithermal_neutron" class="mw-redirect" title="Epithermal neutron">epithermal neutrons</a>, which are between thermal and fast neutrons in speed.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen-moderated_self-regulating_nuclear_power_module" title="Hydrogen-moderated self-regulating nuclear power module">hydrogen-moderated self-regulating nuclear power module</a> (HPM) is a reactor design emanating from the <a href="/wiki/Los_Alamos_National_Laboratory" title="Los Alamos National Laboratory">Los Alamos National Laboratory</a> that uses <a href="/wiki/Uranium_hydride" title="Uranium hydride">uranium hydride</a> as fuel.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subcritical_reactor" title="Subcritical reactor">Subcritical reactors</a> are designed to be safer and more stable, but pose a number of engineering and economic difficulties. One example is the <a href="/wiki/Energy_amplifier" title="Energy amplifier">energy amplifier</a>.</li> <li>Thorium-based reactors — It is possible to convert Thorium-232 into U-233 in reactors specially designed for the purpose. In this way, thorium, which is four times more abundant than uranium, can be used to breed U-233 nuclear fuel.<sup id="cite_ref-NASA_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NASA-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> U-233 is also believed to have favourable nuclear properties as compared to traditionally used U-235, including better neutron economy and lower production of long lived transuranic waste. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_heavy-water_reactor" title="Advanced heavy-water reactor">Advanced heavy-water reactor</a> (AHWR) — A proposed heavy water moderated nuclear power reactor that will be the next generation design of the PHWR type. Under development in the <a href="/wiki/Bhabha_Atomic_Research_Centre" title="Bhabha Atomic Research Centre">Bhabha Atomic Research Centre</a> (BARC), India.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/KAMINI" title="KAMINI">KAMINI</a> – A unique reactor using Uranium-233 isotope for fuel. Built in India by <a href="/wiki/Bhabha_Atomic_Research_Centre" title="Bhabha Atomic Research Centre">BARC</a> and Indira Gandhi Center for Atomic Research (<a href="/wiki/IGCAR" class="mw-redirect" title="IGCAR">IGCAR</a>).</li> <li>India is also planning to build fast breeder reactors using the thorium – Uranium-233 fuel cycle. The FBTR (Fast Breeder Test Reactor) in operation at <a href="/wiki/Kalpakkam" title="Kalpakkam">Kalpakkam</a> (India) uses Plutonium as a fuel and liquid sodium as a coolant.</li> <li>China, which has control of the <a href="/wiki/Cerro_Impacto" title="Cerro Impacto">Cerro Impacto</a> deposit, has a reactor and hopes to replace <a href="/wiki/Coal_energy" class="mw-redirect" title="Coal energy">coal energy</a> with nuclear energy.<sup id="cite_ref-sch_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sch-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li></ul> <p>Rolls-Royce aims to sell nuclear reactors for the production of <a href="/wiki/Synfuel" class="mw-redirect" title="Synfuel">synfuel</a> for aircraft.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Generation_IV_reactors">Generation IV reactors</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_reactor&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Generation IV reactors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Generation_IV_reactor" title="Generation IV reactor">Generation IV reactors</a> are a set of theoretical nuclear reactor designs. These are generally not expected to be available for commercial use before 2040–2050,<sup id="cite_ref-sa-2014_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sa-2014-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although the World Nuclear Association suggested that some might enter commercial operation before 2030.<sup id="cite_ref-gen-iv_wna-2020_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gen-iv_wna-2020-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Current reactors in operation around the world are generally considered second- or third-generation systems, with the first-generation systems having been retired some time ago. Research into these reactor types was officially started by the Generation IV International Forum (GIF) based on eight technology goals. The primary goals being to improve nuclear safety, improve proliferation resistance, minimize waste and natural resource utilization, and to decrease the cost to build and run such plants.<sup id="cite_ref-UIC1_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UIC1-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gas-cooled_fast_reactor" title="Gas-cooled fast reactor">Gas-cooled fast reactor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead-cooled_fast_reactor" title="Lead-cooled fast reactor">Lead-cooled fast reactor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molten-salt_reactor" title="Molten-salt reactor">Molten-salt reactor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodium-cooled_fast_reactor" title="Sodium-cooled fast reactor">Sodium-cooled fast reactor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supercritical_water_reactor" title="Supercritical water reactor">Supercritical water reactor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Very-high-temperature_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Very-high-temperature reactor">Very-high-temperature reactor</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Generation_V+_reactors"><span id="Generation_V.2B_reactors"></span>Generation V+ reactors</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_reactor&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Generation V+ reactors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Generation V reactors are designs which are theoretically possible, but which are not being actively considered or researched at present. Though some generation V reactors could potentially be built with current or near term technology, they trigger little interest for reasons of economics, practicality, or safety. </p> <ul><li>Liquid-core reactor. A closed loop <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_thermal_rocket#Liquid_core" title="Nuclear thermal rocket">liquid-core nuclear reactor</a>, where the fissile material is molten uranium or uranium solution cooled by a working gas pumped in through holes in the base of the containment vessel.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaseous_fission_reactor" title="Gaseous fission reactor">Gas-core reactor</a>. A closed loop version of the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_lightbulb" title="Nuclear lightbulb">nuclear lightbulb rocket</a>, where the fissile material is gaseous uranium hexafluoride contained in a fused silica vessel. A working gas (such as hydrogen) would flow around this vessel and absorb the UV light produced by the reaction. This reactor design could also function <a href="/wiki/Gas_core_reactor_rocket" title="Gas core reactor rocket">as a rocket engine</a>, as featured in Harry Harrison's 1976 science-fiction novel <i>Skyfall</i>. In theory, using UF<sub>6</sub> as a working fuel directly (rather than as a stage to one, as is done now) would mean lower processing costs, and very small reactors. In practice, running a reactor at such high power densities would probably produce unmanageable <a href="/wiki/Neutron_flux" title="Neutron flux">neutron flux</a>, weakening most <a href="/wiki/IFMIF" class="mw-redirect" title="IFMIF">reactor materials</a>, and therefore as the flux would be similar to that expected in fusion reactors, it would require similar materials to those selected by the <a href="/wiki/IFMIF" class="mw-redirect" title="IFMIF">International Fusion Materials Irradiation Facility</a>. <ul><li>Gas core EM reactor. As in the gas core reactor, but with <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Photovoltaic">photovoltaic</a> arrays converting the <a href="/wiki/UV_light" class="mw-redirect" title="UV light">UV light</a> directly to electricity.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This approach is similar to the experimentally proved <a href="/wiki/Photoelectric_effect" title="Photoelectric effect">photoelectric effect</a> that would convert the X-rays generated from <a href="/wiki/Aneutronic_fusion" title="Aneutronic fusion">aneutronic fusion</a> into electricity, by passing the high energy photons through an array of conducting foils to transfer some of their energy to electrons, the energy of the photon is captured electrostatically, similar to a <a href="/wiki/Capacitor" title="Capacitor">capacitor</a>. Since X-rays can go through far greater material thickness than electrons, many hundreds or thousands of layers are needed to absorb the X-rays.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fission_fragment_reactor" title="Fission fragment reactor">Fission fragment reactor</a>. A fission fragment reactor is a nuclear reactor that generates electricity by decelerating an ion beam of fission byproducts instead of using nuclear reactions to generate heat. By doing so, it bypasses the <a href="/wiki/Carnot_cycle" title="Carnot cycle">Carnot cycle</a> and can achieve efficiencies of up to 90% instead of 40–45% attainable by efficient turbine-driven thermal reactors. The fission fragment ion beam would be passed through a <a href="/wiki/Magnetohydrodynamic_generator" title="Magnetohydrodynamic generator">magnetohydrodynamic generator</a> to produce electricity.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_nuclear_fusion" class="mw-redirect" title="Hybrid nuclear fusion">Hybrid nuclear fusion</a>. Would use the neutrons emitted by fusion to fission a <a href="/wiki/Breeder_reactor" title="Breeder reactor">blanket</a> of <a href="/wiki/Fertile_material" title="Fertile material">fertile material</a>, like <a href="/wiki/Uranium-238" title="Uranium-238">U-238</a> or <a href="/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium">Th-232</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_transmutation" title="Nuclear transmutation">transmute</a> other reactor's <a href="/wiki/Spent_nuclear_fuel" title="Spent nuclear fuel">spent nuclear fuel</a>/nuclear waste into relatively more benign isotopes.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Fusion_reactors">Fusion reactors</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_reactor&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Fusion reactors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fusion_power" title="Fusion power">Fusion power</a></div> <p>Controlled <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">nuclear fusion</a> could in principle be used in <a href="/wiki/Fusion_power" title="Fusion power">fusion power</a> plants to produce power without the complexities of handling <a href="/wiki/Actinides" class="mw-redirect" title="Actinides">actinides</a>, but significant scientific and technical obstacles remain. Despite research having started in the 1950s, no commercial fusion reactor is expected before 2050. The <a href="/wiki/ITER" title="ITER">ITER</a> project is currently leading the effort to harness fusion power. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nuclear_fuel_cycle">Nuclear fuel cycle</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_reactor&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Nuclear fuel cycle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fuel_cycle" title="Nuclear fuel cycle">Nuclear fuel cycle</a></div> <p>Thermal reactors generally depend on refined and <a href="/wiki/Enriched_uranium" title="Enriched uranium">enriched uranium</a>. Some nuclear reactors can operate with a mixture of plutonium and uranium (see <a href="/wiki/MOX" class="mw-redirect" title="MOX">MOX</a>). The process by which uranium ore is mined, processed, enriched, used, possibly <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reprocessing" title="Nuclear reprocessing">reprocessed</a> and disposed of is known as the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fuel_cycle" title="Nuclear fuel cycle">nuclear fuel cycle</a>. </p><p>Under 1% of the uranium found in nature is the easily fissionable U-235 <a href="/wiki/Isotope" title="Isotope">isotope</a> and as a result most reactor designs require enriched fuel. Enrichment involves increasing the percentage of U-235 and is usually done by means of <a href="/wiki/Gaseous_diffusion" title="Gaseous diffusion">gaseous diffusion</a> or <a href="/wiki/Gas_centrifuge" title="Gas centrifuge">gas centrifuge</a>. The enriched result is then converted into <a href="/wiki/Uranium_dioxide" title="Uranium dioxide">uranium dioxide</a> powder, which is pressed and fired into pellet form. These pellets are stacked into tubes which are then sealed and called <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fuel" title="Nuclear fuel">fuel rods</a>. Many of these fuel rods are used in each nuclear reactor. </p><p>Most BWR and PWR commercial reactors use uranium enriched to about 4% U-235, and some commercial reactors with a high <a href="/wiki/Neutron_economy" title="Neutron economy">neutron economy</a> do not require the fuel to be enriched at all (that is, they can use natural uranium). According to the <a href="/wiki/International_Atomic_Energy_Agency" title="International Atomic Energy Agency">International Atomic Energy Agency</a> there are at least 100 <a href="/wiki/Research_reactor" title="Research reactor">research reactors</a> in the world fueled by highly enriched (weapons-grade/90% enrichment) uranium. Theft risk of this fuel (potentially used in the production of a nuclear weapon) has led to campaigns advocating conversion of this type of reactor to low-enrichment uranium (which poses less threat of proliferation).<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Fissile" class="mw-redirect" title="Fissile">Fissile</a> U-235 and non-fissile but <a href="/wiki/Fissionable" class="mw-redirect" title="Fissionable">fissionable</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fertile_material" title="Fertile material">fertile</a> U-238 are both used in the fission process. U-235 is fissionable by thermal (i.e. slow-moving) neutrons. A thermal neutron is one which is moving about the same speed as the atoms around it. Since all atoms vibrate proportionally to their absolute temperature, a thermal neutron has the best opportunity to fission U-235 when it is moving at this same vibrational speed. On the other hand, U-238 is more likely to capture a neutron when the neutron is moving very fast. This U-239 atom will soon decay into plutonium-239, which is another fuel. Pu-239 is a viable fuel and must be accounted for even when a highly enriched uranium fuel is used. Plutonium fissions will dominate the U-235 fissions in some reactors, especially after the initial loading of U-235 is spent. Plutonium is fissionable with both fast and thermal neutrons, which make it ideal for either nuclear reactors or nuclear bombs. </p><p>Most reactor designs in existence are thermal reactors and typically use water as a neutron moderator (moderator means that it slows down the neutron to a thermal speed) and as a coolant. But in a <a href="/wiki/Fast_breeder_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Fast breeder reactor">fast breeder reactor</a>, some other kind of coolant is used which will not moderate or slow the neutrons down much. This enables fast neutrons to dominate, which can effectively be used to constantly replenish the fuel supply. By merely placing cheap unenriched uranium into such a core, the non-fissionable U-238 will be turned into Pu-239, "breeding" fuel. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Thorium_fuel_cycle" title="Thorium fuel cycle">thorium fuel cycle</a> <a href="/wiki/Thorium-232" title="Thorium-232">thorium-232</a> absorbs a <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutron</a> in either a fast or thermal reactor. The thorium-233 <a href="/wiki/Beta_decay" title="Beta decay">beta decays</a> to <a href="/wiki/Protactinium" title="Protactinium">protactinium</a>-233 and then to <a href="/wiki/Uranium-233" title="Uranium-233">uranium-233</a>, which in turn is used as fuel. Hence, like <a href="/wiki/Uranium-238" title="Uranium-238">uranium-238</a>, thorium-232 is a <a href="/wiki/Fertile_material" title="Fertile material">fertile material</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fueling_of_nuclear_reactors">Fueling of nuclear reactors</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_reactor&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Fueling of nuclear reactors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The amount of energy in the reservoir of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fuel" title="Nuclear fuel">nuclear fuel</a> is frequently expressed in terms of "full-power days," which is the number of 24-hour periods (days) a reactor is scheduled for operation at full power output for the generation of heat energy. The number of full-power days in a reactor's operating cycle (between refueling outage times) is related to the amount of <a href="/wiki/Fissile" class="mw-redirect" title="Fissile">fissile</a> <a href="/wiki/Uranium-235" title="Uranium-235">uranium-235</a> (U-235) contained in the fuel assemblies at the beginning of the cycle. A higher percentage of U-235 in the core at the beginning of a cycle will permit the reactor to be run for a greater number of full-power days. </p><p>At the end of the operating cycle, the fuel in some of the assemblies is "spent", having spent four to six years in the reactor producing power. This spent fuel is discharged and replaced with new (fresh) fuel assemblies.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Though considered "spent," these fuel assemblies contain a large quantity of fuel.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In practice it is economics that determines the lifetime of nuclear fuel in a reactor. Long before all possible fission has taken place, the reactor is unable to maintain 100%, full output power, and therefore, income for the utility lowers as plant output power lowers. Most nuclear plants operate at a very low profit margin due to operating overhead, mainly regulatory costs, so operating below 100% power is not economically viable for very long.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The fraction of the reactor's fuel core replaced during refueling is typically one-third, but depends on how long the plant operates between refueling. Plants typically operate on 18 month refueling cycles, or 24 month refueling cycles. This means that one refueling, replacing only one-third of the fuel, can keep a nuclear reactor at full power for nearly two years.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The disposition and storage of this spent fuel is one of the most challenging aspects of the operation of a commercial nuclear power plant. This nuclear waste is highly radioactive and its toxicity presents a danger for thousands of years.<sup id="cite_ref-nuclear_energy_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nuclear_energy-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After being discharged from the reactor, spent nuclear fuel is transferred to the on-site <a href="/wiki/Spent_fuel_pool" title="Spent fuel pool">spent fuel pool</a>. The spent fuel pool is a large pool of water that provides cooling and shielding of the spent nuclear fuel as well as limit radiation exposure to on-site personnel. Once the energy has decayed somewhat (approximately five years), the fuel can be transferred from the fuel pool to dry shielded casks, that can be safely stored for thousands of years. After loading into dry shielded casks, the casks are stored on-site in a specially guarded facility in impervious concrete bunkers. On-site fuel storage facilities are designed to withstand the impact of commercial airliners, with little to no damage to the spent fuel. An average on-site fuel storage facility can hold 30 years of spent fuel in a space smaller than a football field.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Not all reactors need to be shut down for refueling; for example, <a href="/wiki/Pebble_bed_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Pebble bed reactor">pebble bed reactors</a>, <a href="/wiki/RBMK" title="RBMK">RBMK reactors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Molten-salt_reactor" title="Molten-salt reactor">molten-salt reactors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Magnox" title="Magnox">Magnox</a>, <a href="/wiki/Advanced_gas-cooled_reactor" title="Advanced gas-cooled reactor">AGR</a> and <a href="/wiki/CANDU" class="mw-redirect" title="CANDU">CANDU</a> reactors allow fuel to be shifted through the reactor while it is running. In a CANDU reactor, this also allows individual fuel elements to be situated within the reactor core that are best suited to the amount of U-235 in the fuel element. </p><p>The amount of energy extracted from nuclear fuel is called its <a href="/wiki/Burnup" title="Burnup">burnup</a>, which is expressed in terms of the heat energy produced per initial unit of fuel weight. Burnup is commonly expressed as megawatt days thermal per metric ton of initial heavy metal. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nuclear_safety">Nuclear safety</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_reactor&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Nuclear safety"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_safety" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear safety">Nuclear safety</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor_safety_system" title="Nuclear reactor safety system">Nuclear reactor safety system</a></div> <p>Nuclear safety covers the actions taken to prevent <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_and_radiation_accidents_and_incidents" title="Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents">nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents</a> or to limit their consequences. The nuclear power industry has improved the safety and performance of reactors, and has proposed new, safer (but generally untested) reactor designs but there is no guarantee that the reactors will be designed, built and operated correctly.<sup id="cite_ref-globen_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-globen-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mistakes do occur and the designers of reactors at <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Fukushima_nuclear_accidents" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of the Fukushima nuclear accidents">Fukushima</a> in Japan did not anticipate that a tsunami generated by an earthquake would disable the backup systems that were supposed to stabilize the reactor after the earthquake,<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> despite multiple warnings by the NRG and the Japanese nuclear safety administration.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> According to <a href="/wiki/UBS" title="UBS">UBS</a> AG, the <a href="/wiki/Fukushima_I_nuclear_accidents" class="mw-redirect" title="Fukushima I nuclear accidents">Fukushima I nuclear accidents</a> have cast doubt on whether even an advanced economy like Japan can master nuclear safety.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Catastrophic scenarios involving terrorist attacks are also conceivable.<sup id="cite_ref-globen_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-globen-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An interdisciplinary team from <a href="/wiki/MIT" class="mw-redirect" title="MIT">MIT</a> has estimated that given the expected growth of nuclear power from 2005 to 2055, at least four serious nuclear accidents would be expected in that period.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nuclear_accidents">Nuclear accidents</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_reactor&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Nuclear accidents"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Lists_of_nuclear_disasters_and_radioactive_incidents" title="Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents">Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fukushima_I_by_Digital_Globe.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Fukushima_I_by_Digital_Globe.jpg/220px-Fukushima_I_by_Digital_Globe.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Fukushima_I_by_Digital_Globe.jpg/330px-Fukushima_I_by_Digital_Globe.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Fukushima_I_by_Digital_Globe.jpg/440px-Fukushima_I_by_Digital_Globe.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1576" data-file-height="916" /></a><figcaption>Three of the reactors at <a href="/wiki/Fukushima_I_nuclear_accidents" class="mw-redirect" title="Fukushima I nuclear accidents">Fukushima I</a> overheated, causing the coolant water to <a href="/wiki/Water_splitting" title="Water splitting">dissociate</a> and led to the hydrogen explosions. This along with fuel <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_meltdown" title="Nuclear meltdown">meltdowns</a> released large amounts of <a href="/wiki/Radioactive" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactive">radioactive</a> material into the air.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Serious, though rare, <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_and_radiation_accidents_and_incidents" title="Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents">nuclear and radiation accidents</a> have occurred. These include the <a href="/wiki/Windscale_fire" title="Windscale fire">Windscale fire</a> (October 1957), the <a href="/wiki/SL-1" title="SL-1">SL-1</a> accident (1961), the <a href="/wiki/Three_Mile_Island_accident" title="Three Mile Island accident">Three Mile Island accident</a> (1979), <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster" title="Chernobyl disaster">Chernobyl disaster</a> (April 1986), and the <a href="/wiki/Fukushima_Daiichi_nuclear_disaster" class="mw-redirect" title="Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster">Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster</a> (March 2011).<sup id="cite_ref-timenuke_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-timenuke-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Nuclear-powered_submarine" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear-powered submarine">Nuclear-powered submarine</a> mishaps include the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_submarine_K-19" title="Soviet submarine K-19">K-19</a> reactor accident (1961),<sup id="cite_ref-rad_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rad-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_submarine_K-27" title="Soviet submarine K-27">K-27</a> reactor accident (1968),<sup id="cite_ref-johnston2007_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-johnston2007-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_submarine_K-431" title="Soviet submarine K-431">K-431</a> reactor accident (1985).<sup id="cite_ref-timenuke_70-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-timenuke-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nuclear reactors have been launched into Earth orbit at least 34 times. A number of incidents connected with the unmanned nuclear-reactor-powered Soviet <a href="/wiki/RORSAT" class="mw-redirect" title="RORSAT">RORSAT</a> especially <a href="/wiki/Kosmos_954" title="Kosmos 954">Kosmos 954</a> radar satellite which resulted in nuclear fuel reentering the Earth's atmosphere from orbit and being dispersed in northern Canada (January 1978). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Natural_nuclear_reactors">Natural nuclear reactors</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_reactor&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Natural nuclear reactors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Natural_nuclear_fission_reactor" title="Natural nuclear fission reactor">Natural nuclear fission reactor</a></div> <p>Almost two billion years ago a series of self-sustaining nuclear fission "reactors" self-assembled in the area now known as <a href="/wiki/Oklo" title="Oklo">Oklo</a> in <a href="/wiki/Gabon" title="Gabon">Gabon</a>, West Africa. The conditions at that place and time allowed a <a href="/wiki/Natural_nuclear_fission_reactor" title="Natural nuclear fission reactor">natural nuclear fission</a> to occur with circumstances that are similar to the conditions in a constructed nuclear reactor.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fifteen fossil natural fission reactors have so far been found in three separate ore deposits at the Oklo uranium mine in Gabon. First discovered in 1972 by French physicist <a href="/wiki/Francis_Perrin_(physicist)" title="Francis Perrin (physicist)">Francis Perrin</a>, they are collectively known as the <a href="/wiki/Natural_nuclear_fission_reactor" title="Natural nuclear fission reactor">Oklo Fossil Reactors</a>. Self-sustaining <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">nuclear fission</a> reactions took place in these reactors approximately 1.5 billion years ago, and ran for a few hundred thousand years, averaging 100 kW of power output during that time.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The concept of a natural nuclear reactor was theorized as early as 1956 by <a href="/wiki/Paul_Kuroda" title="Paul Kuroda">Paul Kuroda</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Arkansas" title="University of Arkansas">University of Arkansas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-OCRWM_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OCRWM-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ANS1_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ANS1-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Such reactors can no longer form on Earth in its present geologic period. Radioactive decay of formerly more abundant uranium-235 over the time span of hundreds of millions of years has reduced the proportion of this naturally occurring fissile isotope to below the amount required to sustain a chain reaction with only plain water as a moderator. </p><p>The natural nuclear reactors formed when a uranium-rich mineral deposit became inundated with groundwater that acted as a neutron moderator, and a strong chain reaction took place. The water moderator would boil away as the reaction increased, slowing it back down again and preventing a meltdown. The fission reaction was sustained for hundreds of thousands of years, cycling on the order of hours to a few days. </p><p>These natural reactors are extensively studied by scientists interested in geologic <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_waste" title="Radioactive waste">radioactive waste</a> disposal. They offer a case study of how radioactive isotopes migrate through the Earth's crust. This is a significant area of controversy as opponents of geologic waste disposal fear that isotopes from stored waste could end up in water supplies or be carried into the environment. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Emissions">Emissions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_reactor&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Emissions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Nuclear reactors produce <a href="/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium">tritium</a> as part of normal operations, which is eventually released into the environment in trace quantities. </p><p>As an <a href="/wiki/Isotope" title="Isotope">isotope</a> of <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a>, tritium (T) frequently binds to oxygen and forms <a href="/wiki/Tritiated_water" title="Tritiated water">T<sub>2</sub>O</a>. This molecule is chemically identical to <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">H<sub>2</sub>O</a> and so is both colorless and odorless, however the additional neutrons in the hydrogen nuclei cause the tritium to undergo <a href="/wiki/Beta_decay" title="Beta decay">beta decay</a> with a <a href="/wiki/Half-life" title="Half-life">half-life</a> of 12.3 years. Despite being measurable, the tritium released by nuclear power plants is minimal. The United States <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_Regulatory_Commission" title="Nuclear Regulatory Commission">NRC</a> estimates that a person drinking water for one year out of a well contaminated by what they would consider to be a significant tritiated water spill would receive a radiation dose of 0.3 millirem.<sup id="cite_ref-NRC_Tritium_Backgrounder_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NRC_Tritium_Backgrounder-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For comparison, this is an order of magnitude less than the 4 millirem a person receives on a round trip flight from Washington, D.C. to Los Angeles, a consequence of less atmospheric protection against highly energetic <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_ray" title="Cosmic ray">cosmic rays</a> at high altitudes.<sup id="cite_ref-NRC_Tritium_Backgrounder_77-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NRC_Tritium_Backgrounder-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The amounts of <a href="/wiki/Strontium-90" title="Strontium-90">strontium-90</a> released from nuclear power plants under normal operations is so low as to be undetectable above natural background radiation. Detectable strontium-90 in ground water and the general environment can be traced to weapons testing that occurred during the mid-20th century (accounting for 99% of the Strontium-90 in the environment) and the Chernobyl accident (accounting for the remaining 1%).<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_reactor&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_reactors" class="mw-redirect" title="List of nuclear reactors">List of nuclear reactors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_small_modular_reactor_designs" title="List of small modular reactor designs">List of small modular reactor designs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Naval_reactors" class="mw-redirect" title="List of United States Naval reactors">List of United States Naval reactors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_transport" title="Neutron transport">Neutron transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_decommissioning" title="Nuclear decommissioning">Nuclear decommissioning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_by_country" title="Nuclear power by country">Nuclear power by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_space" title="Nuclear power in space">Nuclear power in space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One_Less_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="One Less Nuclear Power Plant">One Less Nuclear Power Plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioisotope_thermoelectric_generator" title="Radioisotope thermoelectric generator">Radioisotope thermoelectric generator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safety_engineering" title="Safety engineering">Safety engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayonara_Nuclear_Power_Plants" title="Sayonara Nuclear Power Plants">Sayonara Nuclear Power Plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_modular_reactor" title="Small modular reactor">Small modular reactor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorium-based_nuclear_power" title="Thorium-based nuclear power">Thorium-based nuclear power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traveling_wave_reactor" title="Traveling wave reactor">Traveling-wave reactor (TWR)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/World_Nuclear_Industry_Status_Report" title="World Nuclear Industry Status Report">World Nuclear Industry Status Report</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_microreactor" title="Nuclear microreactor">Nuclear microreactor</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_reactor&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-a-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-a_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hungarian physicist <a href="/wiki/Leo_Szilard" title="Leo Szilard">Leo Szilard</a> discovered the nuclear chain reaction and patented a design in 1934, preceding the discovery of nuclear fission.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-b-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-b_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">An extinct <a href="/wiki/Natural_nuclear_fission_reactor" title="Natural nuclear fission reactor">natural nuclear fission reactor</a> was discovered in 1972 in Oklo, Gabon.<sup id="cite_ref-DavisGould2014_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DavisGould2014-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_reactor&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap 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no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 March</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nuclear+Weapons%3A+What+You+Need+to+Know&rft.pages=312&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-521-88408-2&rft.au=Bernstein%2C+Jeremy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnuclearweaponswh0000bern%2Fpage%2F312&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+reactor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-HSWCOOLANT-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-HSWCOOLANT_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://science.howstuffworks.com/nuclear-power3.htm">"How nuclear power works"</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 September</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=How+nuclear+power+works&rft.pub=HowStuffWorks.com&rft.date=2000-10-09&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscience.howstuffworks.com%2Fnuclear-power3.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+reactor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-TOURISTRP-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-TOURISTRP_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-TOURISTRP_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nucleartourist.com/systems/rp.htm">"Reactor Protection & Engineered Safety Feature Systems"</a>. <i>The Nuclear Tourist</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180822051052/http://www.nucleartourist.com/systems/rp.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 22 August 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 September</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Nuclear+Tourist&rft.atitle=Reactor+Protection+%26+Engineered+Safety+Feature+Systems&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nucleartourist.com%2Fsystems%2Frp.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+reactor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131211073343/http://www.eepublishers.co.za/images/upload/Meyer%20Chernobyl%205.pdf">"Chernobyl: what happened and why? by CM Meyer, technical journalist"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eepublishers.co.za/images/upload/Meyer%20Chernobyl%205.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 11 December 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Chernobyl%3A+what+happened+and+why%3F+by+CM+Meyer%2C+technical+journalist.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.eepublishers.co.za%2Fimages%2Fupload%2FMeyer%2520Chernobyl%25205.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+reactor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTsetkovUsman2011" class="citation book cs1">Tsetkov, Pavel; Usman, Shoaib (2011). Krivit, Steven (ed.). <i>Nuclear Energy Encyclopedia: Science, Technology, and Applications</i>. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. pp. 48, 85. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-89439-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-470-89439-2"><bdi>978-0-470-89439-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nuclear+Energy+Encyclopedia%3A+Science%2C+Technology%2C+and+Applications&rft.place=Hoboken%2C+NJ&rft.pages=48%2C+85&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-470-89439-2&rft.aulast=Tsetkov&rft.aufirst=Pavel&rft.au=Usman%2C+Shoaib&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+reactor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pris.iaea.org/PRIS/WorldStatistics/OperationalByAge.aspx">"PRIS - Miscellaneous reports - Operational by Age"</a>. <i>IAEA Power Reactor Information System – operational by age</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 July</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=IAEA+Power+Reactor+Information+System+%E2%80%93+operational+by+age&rft.atitle=PRIS+-+Miscellaneous+reports+-+Operational+by+Age&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpris.iaea.org%2FPRIS%2FWorldStatistics%2FOperationalByAge.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+reactor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dismantling_sci-am-2009-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-dismantling_sci-am-2009_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/nuclear-power-plant-aging-reactor-replacement-/"><i>How Long Can a Nuclear Reactor Last?</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170202073144/http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/nuclear-power-plant-aging-reactor-replacement-/">Archived</a> 2 February 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Paul Voosen, Scientific American, 20 Nov 2009</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nrc.gov/reactors/operating/licensing/renewal/subsequent-license-renewal.html"><i>Status of Subsequent License Renewal Applications.</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180121051705/https://www.nrc.gov/reactors/operating/licensing/renewal/subsequent-license-renewal.html">Archived</a> 21 January 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> NRC, 24 Feb 2022</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.energy.gov/ne/articles/whats-lifespan-nuclear-reactor-much-longer-you-might-think"><i>What's the Lifespan for a Nuclear Reactor? Much Longer Than You Might Think</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200609230342/https://www.energy.gov/ne/articles/whats-lifespan-nuclear-reactor-much-longer-you-might-think">Archived</a> 9 June 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Office of Nuclear Energy, 16 Apr 2020</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Swedish_nuclear_reactors_shut_down_over_safety_concerns">"Swedish nuclear reactors shut down over safety concerns"</a>. <i>Wikinews</i>. 5 August 2006. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230516123219/https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Swedish_nuclear_reactors_shut_down_over_safety_concerns">Archived</a> from the original on 16 May 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 May</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wikinews&rft.atitle=Swedish+nuclear+reactors+shut+down+over+safety+concerns&rft.date=2006-08-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikinews.org%2Fwiki%2FSwedish_nuclear_reactors_shut_down_over_safety_concerns&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+reactor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sapl-2017-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-sapl-2017_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://saplnh.org/about-nuclear/nuclear-plant-lifespans/"><i>The True Lifespan of a Nuclear Power Plant</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230219095448/https://saplnh.org/about-nuclear/nuclear-plant-lifespans/">Archived</a> 19 February 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Seacoast Anti-Pollution League (SAPL), 2017</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIAEA" class="citation book cs1">IAEA. <i>Cleanup of Large Areas Contaminated as a Result of a Nuclear Accident</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cleanup+of+Large+Areas+Contaminated+as+a+Result+of+a+Nuclear+Accident&rft.au=IAEA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+reactor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-edf-lifetime-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-edf-lifetime_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.edfenergy.com/energy/nuclear-lifetime-management"><i>Extending the operating lives of Advanced Gas-cooled Reactors</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230219093947/https://www.edfenergy.com/energy/nuclear-lifetime-management">Archived</a> 19 February 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. EDF Energy</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.edfenergy.com/about/nuclear/decommissioning"><i>Nuclear decommissioning</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230219093959/https://www.edfenergy.com/about/nuclear/decommissioning">Archived</a> 19 February 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 July</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Nuclear+Energy+Insider&rft.atitle=Russia+completes+world%27s+first+Gen+III%2B+reactor%3B+China+to+start+up+five+reactors+in+2017&rft.date=2017-02-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fanalysis.nuclearenergyinsider.com%2Frussia-completes-worlds-first-gen-iii-reactor-china-start-five-reactors-2017&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+reactor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-gen-iv_wna-2020-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-gen-iv_wna-2020_48-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-gen-iv_wna-2020_48-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-power-reactors/generation-iv-nuclear-reactors.aspx"><i>Generation IV Nuclear Reactors</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230330074852/https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-power-reactors/generation-iv-nuclear-reactors.aspx">Archived</a> 30 March 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. World Nuclear Association, update Dec 2020</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Nucleonics Week</i>, Vol. 44, No. 39; p. 7, 25 September 2003 Quote: "Etienne Pochon, CEA director of nuclear industry support, outlined EPR's improved performance and enhanced safety features compared to the advanced Generation II designs on which it was based."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110317125012/http://www.euronuclear.org/info/generation-IV.htm">"Generation IV"</a>. Euronuclear.org. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 March</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Generation+IV&rft.pub=Euronuclear.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.euronuclear.org%2Finfo%2Fgeneration-IV.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+reactor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gen4-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gen4_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061005211316/http://www.gen-4.org/PDFs/GenIVRoadmap.pdf">"A Technology Roadmap for Generation IV Nuclear Energy Systems"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 June</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Future+of+Nuclear+Power&rft.pages=48&rft.date=2003&rft.au=Massachusetts+Institute+of+Technology&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweb.mit.edu%2Fnuclearpower%2Fpdf%2Fnuclearpower-full.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+reactor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFackler,_Martin2011" class="citation news cs1">Fackler, Martin (1 June 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/02/world/asia/02japan.html?_r=1&ref=world">"Report Finds Japan Underestimated Tsunami Danger"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Report+Finds+Japan+Underestimated+Tsunami+Danger&rft.date=2011-06-01&rft.au=Fackler%2C+Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2011%2F06%2F02%2Fworld%2Fasia%2F02japan.html%3F_r%3D1%26ref%3Dworld&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+reactor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-timenuke-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-timenuke_70-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-timenuke_70-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090328130544/http://www.time.com/time/photogallery/0,29307,1887705,00.html">The Worst Nuclear Disasters</a>. <i>Time</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-rad-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-rad_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Magazines/Bulletin/Bull413/article1.pdf">Strengthening the Safety of Radiation Sources</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150111213912/http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Magazines/Bulletin/Bull413/article1.pdf">Archived</a> 11 January 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> p. 14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-johnston2007-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-johnston2007_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnston,_Robert2007" class="citation web cs1">Johnston, Robert (23 September 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.johnstonsarchive.net/nuclear/radevents/radevents1.html">"Deadliest radiation accidents and other events causing radiation casualties"</a>. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ocrwm.doe.gov/factsheets/doeymp0010.shtml">the original</a> on 16 March 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 June</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Office+of+Civilian+Radioactive+Waste+Management&rft.atitle=Oklo%3A+Natural+Nuclear+Reactors&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ocrwm.doe.gov%2Ffactsheets%2Fdoeymp0010.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+reactor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ANS1-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ANS1_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ans.org/pi/np/oklo">"Oklo's Natural Fission Reactors"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/American_Nuclear_Society" title="American Nuclear Society">American Nuclear Society</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210330044447/https://ans.org/pi/np/oklo/">Archived</a> from the original on 30 March 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 June</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=American+Nuclear+Society&rft.atitle=Oklo%27s+Natural+Fission+Reactors&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ans.org%2Fpi%2Fnp%2Foklo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+reactor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NRC_Tritium_Backgrounder-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NRC_Tritium_Backgrounder_77-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NRC_Tritium_Backgrounder_77-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation report cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nrc.gov/docs/ML0620/ML062020079.pdf">Backgrounder: Tritium, Radiation Protection Limits, and Drinking Water Standards</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (Report). United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission. February 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170818090910/https://www.nrc.gov/docs/ML0620/ML062020079.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 18 August 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 August</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Backgrounder%3A+Tritium%2C+Radiation+Protection+Limits%2C+and+Drinking+Water+Standards&rft.pub=United+States+Nuclear+Regulatory+Commission&rft.date=2016-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nrc.gov%2Fdocs%2FML0620%2FML062020079.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+reactor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nrc.gov/reactors/operating/ops-experience/tritium/rn-groundwater.html">"Radionuclides in Groundwater"</a>. <i>U.S. NRC</i>. nrc.gov. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171002215404/https://www.nrc.gov/reactors/operating/ops-experience/tritium/rn-groundwater.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2 October 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 October</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=U.S.+NRC&rft.atitle=Radionuclides+in+Groundwater&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nrc.gov%2Freactors%2Foperating%2Fops-experience%2Ftritium%2Frn-groundwater.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+reactor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_reactor&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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.navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Nuclear_technology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist ｜ above = * [[Outline of nuclear technology|Outline]] mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nuclear_technology" title="Template:Nuclear technology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nuclear_technology" title="Template talk:Nuclear technology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nuclear_technology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nuclear technology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Nuclear_technology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_technology" title="Nuclear technology">Nuclear technology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Science</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_chemistry" title="Nuclear chemistry">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_engineering" title="Nuclear engineering">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">Physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">Atomic nucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">Fission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">Fusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation" title="Radiation">Radiation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ionizing_radiation" title="Ionizing radiation">ionizing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bremsstrahlung" title="Bremsstrahlung">braking</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fuel" title="Nuclear fuel">Fuel</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium">Tritium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">Deuterium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helium-3" title="Helium-3">Helium-3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fertile_material" title="Fertile material">Fertile material</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fissile_material" title="Fissile material">Fissile material</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isotope_separation" title="Isotope separation">Isotope separation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_material" title="Nuclear material">Nuclear material</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">Uranium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enriched_uranium" title="Enriched uranium">enriched</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depleted_uranium" title="Depleted uranium">depleted</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">Plutonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium">Thorium</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">Neutron</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_activation" title="Neutron activation">Activation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_capture" title="Neutron capture">Capture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_poison" title="Neutron poison">Poison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_cross_section" title="Neutron cross section">Cross section</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_generator" title="Neutron generator">Generator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_radiation" title="Neutron radiation">Radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_reflector" title="Neutron reflector">Reflector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_temperature" title="Neutron temperature">Temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_neutron" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal neutron">Thermal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fast_neutron" class="mw-redirect" title="Fast neutron">Fast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron#Fusion_neutrons" title="Neutron">Fusion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">Power</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_by_country" title="Nuclear power by country">by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_plant" title="Nuclear power plant">Power plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_of_nuclear_power_plants" title="Economics of nuclear power plants">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_and_radiation_accidents_and_incidents" title="Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents">Accidents and incidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_policy" title="Nuclear energy policy">Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fusion_power" title="Fusion power">Fusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioisotope_thermoelectric_generator" title="Radioisotope thermoelectric generator">Radioisotope thermoelectric (RTG)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Multi-mission_radioisotope_thermoelectric_generator" title="Multi-mission radioisotope thermoelectric generator">MMRTG</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_propulsion" title="Nuclear propulsion">Propulsion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_thermal_rocket" title="Nuclear thermal rocket">rocket</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_safety_and_security" title="Nuclear safety and security">Safety and security</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_meltdown" title="Nuclear meltdown">Nuclear meltdown</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_medicine" title="Nuclear medicine">Medicine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.0em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Medical_imaging" title="Medical imaging">Imaging</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autoradiograph" title="Autoradiograph">Autoradiograph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RadBall" title="RadBall">RadBall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scintigraphy" title="Scintigraphy">Scintigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single-photon_emission_computed_tomography" title="Single-photon emission computed tomography">Single-photon emission (SPECT)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positron_emission_tomography" title="Positron emission tomography">Positron-emission tomography (PET)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.0em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Radiation_therapy" title="Radiation therapy">Therapy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fast_neutron_therapy" title="Fast neutron therapy">Fast-neutron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_capture_therapy_of_cancer" title="Neutron capture therapy of cancer">Neutron capture therapy of cancer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Targeted_alpha-particle_therapy" title="Targeted alpha-particle therapy">Targeted alpha-particle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proton_therapy" title="Proton therapy">Proton-beam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tomotherapy" title="Tomotherapy">Tomotherapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brachytherapy" title="Brachytherapy">Brachytherapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiosurgery" title="Radiosurgery">Radiosurgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiopharmacology" title="Radiopharmacology">Radiopharmacology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Irradiation" title="Irradiation">Processing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_gardening" title="Atomic gardening">Atomic gardening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electron-beam_processing" title="Electron-beam processing">Electron-beam processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_irradiation" title="Food irradiation">Food irradiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemstone_irradiation" title="Gemstone irradiation">Gemstone irradiation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">Weapons</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.0em;font-weight:normal;">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_arms_race" title="Nuclear arms race">Arms race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_delivery" title="Nuclear weapons delivery">Delivery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon_design" title="Nuclear weapon design">Design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_disarmament" title="Nuclear disarmament">Disarmament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_ethics" title="Nuclear ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_explosion" title="Nuclear explosion">Explosion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_nuclear_explosions" title="Effects of nuclear explosions">effects</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_nuclear_weapons" title="History of nuclear weapons">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_proliferation" title="Nuclear proliferation">Proliferation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_testing" title="Nuclear weapons testing">Testing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/High-altitude_nuclear_explosion" title="High-altitude nuclear explosion">high-altitude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_nuclear_weapons_testing" title="Underground nuclear weapons testing">underground</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_warfare" title="Nuclear warfare">Warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon_yield" title="Nuclear weapon yield">Yield</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/TNT_equivalent" title="TNT equivalent">TNTe</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.0em;font-weight:normal;">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_states_with_nuclear_weapons" title="List of states with nuclear weapons">States with nuclear weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_nuclear_weapons_stockpiles_and_nuclear_tests_by_country" title="Historical nuclear weapons stockpiles and nuclear tests by country">Historical stockpiles and tests</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_weapons_tests" title="List of nuclear weapons tests">Tests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_weapons_tests_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="List of nuclear weapons tests of the United States">Tests in the United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_weapons_of_mass_destruction_treaties" title="List of weapons of mass destruction treaties">WMD treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear-weapon-free_zone" title="Nuclear-weapon-free zone">Weapon-free zones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_weapons" title="List of nuclear weapons">Weapons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_waste" title="Radioactive waste">Waste</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.0em;font-weight:normal;">Products</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actinide" title="Actinide">Actinide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reprocessed_uranium" title="Reprocessed uranium">Reprocessed uranium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reactor-grade_plutonium" title="Reactor-grade plutonium">Reactor-grade plutonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minor_actinide" title="Minor actinide">Minor actinide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Activation_product" title="Activation product">Activation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission_product" title="Nuclear fission product">Fission</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Long-lived_fission_product" title="Long-lived fission product">LLFP</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Actinide_chemistry" title="Actinide chemistry">Actinide chemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.0em;font-weight:normal;">Disposal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fuel_cycle" title="Nuclear fuel cycle">Fuel cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-level_waste" title="High-level waste">High-level (HLW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-level_waste" title="Low-level waste">Low-level (LLW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_decommissioning" title="Nuclear decommissioning">Nuclear decommissioning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_geological_repository" title="Deep geological repository">Repository</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reprocessing" title="Nuclear reprocessing">Reprocessing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spent_nuclear_fuel" title="Spent nuclear fuel">Spent fuel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spent_fuel_pool" title="Spent fuel pool">pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dry_cask_storage" title="Dry cask storage">cask</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_transmutation" title="Nuclear transmutation">Transmutation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Debate</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_debate" title="Nuclear power debate">Nuclear power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_debate" title="Nuclear weapons debate">Nuclear weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue_Ribbon_Commission_on_America%27s_Nuclear_Future" title="Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future">Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement" title="Anti-nuclear movement">Anti-nuclear movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranium_mining_debate" title="Uranium mining debate">Uranium mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_phase-out" title="Nuclear power phase-out">Nuclear power phase-out</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Nuclear_reactors" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Nuclear reactors</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Fission" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="font-size:85%;"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Fission">Fission</a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div style="float: left;"><b><a href="/wiki/Neutron_moderator" title="Neutron moderator">Moderator</a></b></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Light-water_reactor" title="Light-water reactor">Light water</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aqueous_homogeneous_reactor" title="Aqueous homogeneous reactor">Aqueous homogeneous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boiling_water_reactor" title="Boiling water reactor">Boiling</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/GE_BWR" title="GE BWR">BWR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_boiling_water_reactor" title="Advanced boiling water reactor">ABWR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_Simplified_Boiling_Water_Reactor" title="Economic Simplified Boiling Water Reactor">ESBWR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerena_boiling_water_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Kerena boiling water reactor">Kerena</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_nuclear_fission_reactor" title="Natural nuclear fission reactor">Natural fission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pressurized_water_reactor" title="Pressurized water reactor">Pressurized</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AP1000" title="AP1000">AP1000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/APR-1400" title="APR-1400">APR-1400</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/APR%2B" class="mw-redirect" title="APR+">APR+</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/APWR" class="mw-redirect" title="APWR">APWR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ATMEA1" class="mw-redirect" title="ATMEA1">ATMEA1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CAP1400" title="CAP1400">CAP1400</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CPR-1000" title="CPR-1000">CPR-1000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EPR_(nuclear_reactor)" title="EPR (nuclear reactor)">EPR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hualong_One" title="Hualong One">HPR-1000</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ACPR1000" class="mw-redirect" title="ACPR1000">ACPR1000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ACP1000" class="mw-redirect" title="ACP1000">ACP1000</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VVER" title="VVER">VVER</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IPWR-900" title="IPWR-900">IPWR-900</a></li> <li>many others</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supercritical_water_reactor" title="Supercritical water reactor">Supercritical (SCWR)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Heavy-water_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Heavy-water reactor">Heavy water</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><span class="nobold">by <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor_coolant" title="Nuclear reactor coolant">coolant</a></span></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;;background:whitesmoke;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Deuterium_oxide" class="mw-redirect" title="Deuterium oxide">D<sub>2</sub>O</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pressurized_heavy-water_reactor" title="Pressurized heavy-water reactor">Pressurized</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/CANDU_reactor" title="CANDU reactor">CANDU</a> <ul><li>CANDU 6</li> <li>CANDU 9</li> <li>EC6</li> <li>AFCR</li> <li><a href="/wiki/ACR-1000" class="mw-redirect" title="ACR-1000">ACR-1000</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carolinas%E2%80%93Virginia_Tube_Reactor" title="Carolinas–Virginia Tube Reactor">CVTR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IPHWR" title="IPHWR">IPHWR</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/IPHWR-220" title="IPHWR-220">IPHWR-220</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IPHWR#IPHWR-540" title="IPHWR">IPHWR-540</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IPHWR-700" title="IPHWR-700">IPHWR-700</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_in_Argentina" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear energy in Argentina">PHWR KWU</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=MZFR&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MZFR (page does not exist)">MZFR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%85gestaverket" class="mw-redirect" title="Ågestaverket">R3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R4_nuclear_reactor" title="R4 nuclear reactor">R4 Marviken</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/H2O" class="mw-redirect" title="H2O">H<sub>2</sub>O</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=HWLWR&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="HWLWR (page does not exist)">HWLWR</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fugen_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Fugen Nuclear Power Plant">ATR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gentilly_Nuclear_Generating_Station#Gentilly-1" title="Gentilly Nuclear Generating Station">HW BLWR 250</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steam-generating_heavy_water_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Steam-generating heavy water reactor">Steam-generating (SGHWR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_heavy-water_reactor" title="Advanced heavy-water reactor">AHWR</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Organic_matter" title="Organic matter">Organic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/WR-1" title="WR-1">WR-1</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">CO<sub>2</sub></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=HWGCR&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="HWGCR (page does not exist)">HWGCR</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brennilis_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Brennilis Nuclear Power Plant">EL-4</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kernkraftwerk_Niederaichbach&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kernkraftwerk Niederaichbach (page does not exist)">KKN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KS_150" title="KS 150">KS 150</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucens_reactor" title="Lucens reactor">Lucens</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Graphite-moderated_reactor" title="Graphite-moderated reactor">Graphite</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><span class="nobold">by <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor_coolant" title="Nuclear reactor coolant">coolant</a></span></span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Water</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="H2O" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:2.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/H2O" class="mw-redirect" title="H2O">H<sub>2</sub>O</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Obninsk_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Obninsk Nuclear Power Plant">AM-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beloyarsk_Nuclear_Power_Station#Early_reactors" title="Beloyarsk Nuclear Power Station">AMB-X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EGP-6" title="EGP-6">EGP-6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RBMK" title="RBMK">RBMK</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Gas-cooled_reactor" title="Gas-cooled reactor">Gas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:2.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">CO<sub>2</sub></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/UNGG_reactor" title="UNGG reactor"><i>Uranium Naturel Graphite Gaz</i> (UNGG)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnox" title="Magnox">Magnox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_Gas-cooled_Reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Advanced Gas-cooled Reactor">Advanced gas-cooled (AGR)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:2.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">He</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gas_turbine_modular_helium_reactor" title="Gas turbine modular helium reactor">GTMHR</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=MHR-T&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MHR-T (page does not exist)">MHR-T</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UHTREX" title="UHTREX">UHTREX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Very-high-temperature_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Very-high-temperature reactor">VHTR (HTGR)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pebble-bed_reactor" title="Pebble-bed reactor">PBR (PBMR)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AVR_reactor" title="AVR reactor">AVR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HTR-10" title="HTR-10">HTR-10</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HTR-PM" title="HTR-PM">HTR-PM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/THTR-300" title="THTR-300">THTR-300</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prismatic_block_reactor&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Prismatic block reactor (page does not exist)">PMR</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Molten_salt_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Molten salt reactor">Molten-salt</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Fluorides" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:2.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/FLiBe" title="FLiBe">Fluorides</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fuji_Molten_Salt_Reactor" title="Fuji Molten Salt Reactor">Fuji MSR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquid_fluoride_thorium_reactor" title="Liquid fluoride thorium reactor">Liquid-fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molten-Salt_Reactor_Experiment" title="Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment">Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integral_Molten_Salt_Reactor" title="Integral Molten Salt Reactor">Integral Molten Salt Reactor (IMSR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TMSR-500" class="mw-redirect" title="TMSR-500">TMSR-500</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TMSR-LF1" title="TMSR-LF1">TMSR-LF1</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">None<br /><span class="nobold">(<a href="/wiki/Fast-neutron_reactor" title="Fast-neutron reactor">fast-neutron</a>)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fast_breeder_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Fast breeder reactor">Breeder (FBR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integral_fast_reactor" title="Integral fast reactor">Integral (IFR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquid_metal_cooled_reactor" title="Liquid metal cooled reactor">Liquid-metal-cooled (LMFR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small,_sealed,_transportable,_autonomous_reactor" title="Small, sealed, transportable, autonomous reactor">Small sealed transportable autonomous (SSTAR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traveling_wave_reactor" title="Traveling wave reactor">Traveling-wave (TWR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_Multiplier_Module" title="Energy Multiplier Module">Energy Multiplier Module (EM2)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reduced_moderation_water_reactor" title="Reduced moderation water reactor">Reduced-moderation (RMWR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fast_Breeder_Test_Reactor" title="Fast Breeder Test Reactor">Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_fluid_reactor" title="Dual fluid reactor">Dual fluid reactor (DFR)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Generation_IV_reactor" title="Generation IV reactor">Generation IV</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sodium-cooled_fast_reactor" title="Sodium-cooled fast reactor">Sodium (SFR)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/BN-350_reactor" title="BN-350 reactor">BN-350</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BN-600_reactor" title="BN-600 reactor">BN-600</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BN-800_reactor" title="BN-800 reactor">BN-800</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BN-1200_reactor" title="BN-1200 reactor">BN-1200</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CFR-600" title="CFR-600">CFR-600</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ph%C3%A9nix" title="Phénix">Phénix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superph%C3%A9nix" title="Superphénix">Superphénix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prototype_Fast_Breeder_Reactor" title="Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor">PFBR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FBR-600" title="FBR-600">FBR-600</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_Experimental_Fast_Reactor" title="China Experimental Fast Reactor">CEFR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dounreay#Prototype_Fast_Reactor_(PFR)" title="Dounreay">PFR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PRISM_(reactor)" title="PRISM (reactor)">PRISM</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead-cooled_fast_reactor" title="Lead-cooled fast reactor">Lead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas-cooled_fast_reactor" title="Gas-cooled fast reactor">Helium gas (GFR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stable_salt_reactor" title="Stable salt reactor">Stable Salt Reactor (SSR)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Organic_nuclear_reactor" title="Organic nuclear reactor">Organic nuclear reactor</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arbus-reactor&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Arbus-reactor (page does not exist)">Arbus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piqua_Nuclear_Generating_Station" title="Piqua Nuclear Generating Station">Piqua</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_Nuclear_Propulsion" title="Aircraft Nuclear Propulsion">Aircraft Reactor Experiment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Fusion" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="font-size:85%;"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Fusion_reactors">Fusion</a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>by <a href="/wiki/Thermonuclear_fusion#Confinement" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermonuclear fusion">confinement</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_confinement_fusion" title="Magnetic confinement fusion">Magnetic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Field-reversed_configuration" title="Field-reversed configuration">Field-reversed configuration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levitated_dipole" title="Levitated dipole">Levitated dipole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reversed_field_pinch" title="Reversed field pinch">Reversed field pinch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spheromak" title="Spheromak">Spheromak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellarator" title="Stellarator">Stellarator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tokamak" title="Tokamak">Tokamak</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Inertial_confinement_fusion" title="Inertial confinement fusion">Inertial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bubble_fusion" title="Bubble fusion">Bubble <span style="font-size:85%;">(acoustic)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fusor" title="Fusor">Fusor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inertial_electrostatic_confinement" title="Inertial electrostatic confinement">electrostatic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inertial_confinement_fusion" title="Inertial confinement fusion">Laser-driven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetized_target_fusion" title="Magnetized target fusion">Magnetized-target</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Z-pinch" title="Z-pinch">Z-pinch</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dense_plasma_focus" title="Dense plasma focus">Dense plasma focus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migma" title="Migma">Migma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muon-catalyzed_fusion" title="Muon-catalyzed fusion">Muon-catalyzed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polywell" title="Polywell">Polywell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyroelectric_fusion" title="Pyroelectric fusion">Pyroelectric</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Radioactive.svg/32px-Radioactive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Radioactive.svg/48px-Radioactive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Radioactive.svg/64px-Radioactive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="446" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Nuclear_technology" title="Portal:Nuclear technology">Nuclear technology portal</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Nuclear_technology" title="Category:Nuclear technology">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Nuclear_technology" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Nuclear technology">Commons</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div 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href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nuclear_and_radiation_accidents_and_incidents" title="Template talk:Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nuclear_and_radiation_accidents_and_incidents" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Nuclear_and_radioactive_disasters,_former_facilities,_tests_and_test_sites" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_nuclear_disasters_and_radioactive_incidents" title="Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents">Nuclear and radioactive disasters, former facilities, tests and test sites</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_nuclear_disasters_and_radioactive_incidents" title="Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents">Lists of <br /> disasters <br /> and <br /> incidents</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crimes_involving_radioactive_substances" title="Crimes involving radioactive substances">Crimes involving radioactive substances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticality_accident#Incidents" title="Criticality accident">Criticality accidents and incidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_meltdown#Nuclear_meltdown_events" title="Nuclear meltdown">Nuclear meltdown accidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_nuclear_accidents" title="List of military nuclear accidents">Military nuclear accidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_and_radiation_accidents_and_incidents" title="Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents">Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_and_radiation_accidents_by_death_toll" title="List of nuclear and radiation accidents by death toll">Nuclear and radiation accidents by death toll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_and_radiation_fatalities_by_country" title="List of nuclear and radiation fatalities by country">Nuclear and radiation fatalities by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_weapons_tests" title="List of nuclear weapons tests">Nuclear weapons tests</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_weapons_tests_of_China" title="List of nuclear weapons tests of China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_weapons_tests_of_France" title="List of nuclear weapons tests of France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_weapons_tests_of_India" title="List of nuclear weapons tests of India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_weapons_tests_of_North_Korea" title="List of nuclear weapons tests of North Korea">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chagai-I" title="Chagai-I">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Africa_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction#Testing_the_first_device" title="South Africa and weapons of mass destruction">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_weapons_tests_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of nuclear weapons tests of the Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_of_the_United_Kingdom#Nuclear_tests" title="Nuclear weapons of the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_tests_in_Australia" title="Nuclear weapons tests in Australia">in Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_nuclear_testing_in_the_United_States" title="British nuclear testing in the United States">in the United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_nuclear_weapons_tests" title="List of United States nuclear weapons tests">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sunken_nuclear_submarines" title="List of sunken nuclear submarines">Sunken nuclear submarines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_orphan_source_incidents" title="List of orphan source incidents">List of orphan source incidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_power_accidents_by_country" title="List of nuclear power accidents by country">Nuclear power accidents by country</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Individual <br /> accidents <br /> and sites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>2019 <a href="/wiki/Nyonoksa_radiation_accident" title="Nyonoksa radiation accident">Nyonoksa radiation accident</a></li> <li>2011 <a href="/wiki/Fukushima_nuclear_accident" title="Fukushima nuclear accident">Fukushima nuclear accident</a></li> <li>2001 <a href="/wiki/Instituto_Oncol%C3%B3gico_Nacional#Accident" title="Instituto Oncológico Nacional">Instituto Oncológico Nacional#Accident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1996_San_Juan_de_Dios_radiotherapy_accident" title="1996 San Juan de Dios radiotherapy accident">1996 San Juan de Dios radiotherapy accident</a></li> <li>1990 <a href="/wiki/Clinic_of_Zaragoza_radiotherapy_accident" title="Clinic of Zaragoza radiotherapy accident">Clinic of Zaragoza radiotherapy accident</a></li> <li>1987 <a href="/wiki/Goi%C3%A2nia_accident" title="Goiânia accident">Goiânia accident</a></li> <li>1986 <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster" title="Chernobyl disaster">Chernobyl disaster</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_the_Chernobyl_disaster" title="Effects of the Chernobyl disaster">Effects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chernobyl-related_articles" title="List of Chernobyl-related articles">Related articles</a></li></ul></li> <li>1985 <a href="/wiki/Soviet_submarine_K-431" title="Soviet submarine K-431">Chazhma Bay nuclear accident</a></li> <li>1985–1987 <a href="/wiki/Therac-25" title="Therac-25">Therac-25</a> accident</li> <li>1982 <a href="/wiki/Andreev_Bay_nuclear_accident" title="Andreev Bay nuclear accident">Andreev Bay nuclear accident</a></li> <li>1980 <a href="/wiki/Kramatorsk_radiological_accident" title="Kramatorsk radiological accident">Kramatorsk radiological accident</a></li> <li>1979 <a href="/wiki/Three_Mile_Island_accident" title="Three Mile Island accident">Three Mile Island accident</a> and <a href="/wiki/Three_Mile_Island_accident_health_effects" title="Three Mile Island accident health effects">Three Mile Island accident health effects</a></li> <li>1969 <a href="/wiki/Lucens_reactor" title="Lucens reactor">Lucens reactor</a></li> <li>1962 <a href="/wiki/Johnston_Atoll#National_nuclear_weapon_test_site_1958-1963#Failures" title="Johnston Atoll"> Thor missile launch failures at Johnston Atoll</a> under <a href="/wiki/Operation_Fishbowl" title="Operation Fishbowl">Operation Fishbowl</a></li> <li>1962 <a href="/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis" title="Cuban Missile Crisis">Cuban Missile Crisis</a></li> <li>1961 <a href="/wiki/Soviet_submarine_K-19#Nuclear_accident" title="Soviet submarine K-19">K-19 nuclear accident</a></li> <li>1961 <a href="/wiki/SL-1" title="SL-1">SL-1</a> nuclear meltdown</li> <li>1957 <a href="/wiki/Kyshtym_disaster" title="Kyshtym disaster">Kyshtym disaster</a></li> <li>1957 <a href="/wiki/Windscale_fire" title="Windscale fire">Windscale fire</a></li> <li>1957 <a href="/wiki/Operation_Plumbbob" title="Operation Plumbbob">Operation Plumbbob</a></li> <li>1954 <a href="/wiki/Totskoye_nuclear_exercise" title="Totskoye nuclear exercise">Totskoye nuclear exercise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bikini_Atoll" title="Bikini Atoll">Bikini Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanford_Site" title="Hanford Site">Hanford Site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination_from_the_Rocky_Flats_Plant" title="Radioactive contamination from the Rocky Flats Plant">Rocky Flats Plant</a></li> <li>1945 <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related <br /> topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Nuclear_Event_Scale" title="International Nuclear Event Scale">International Nuclear Event Scale (INES)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulnerability_of_nuclear_plants_to_attack" title="Vulnerability of nuclear plants to attack">Vulnerability of nuclear plants to attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_books_about_nuclear_issues" title="List of books about nuclear issues">Books about nuclear issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_about_nuclear_issues" title="List of films about nuclear issues">Films about nuclear issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-war_movement" title="Anti-war movement">Anti-war movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bikini_Atoll" title="Bikini Atoll">Bikini Atoll</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bulletin_of_the_Atomic_Scientists" title="Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists">Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_anti-nuclear_movement" title="History of the anti-nuclear movement">History of the anti-nuclear movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Day_against_Nuclear_Tests" title="International Day against Nuclear Tests">International Day against Nuclear Tests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_close_calls" title="Nuclear close calls">Nuclear close calls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear-Free_Future_Award" title="Nuclear-Free Future Award">Nuclear-Free Future Award</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear-free_zone" title="Nuclear-free zone">Nuclear-free zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_debate" title="Nuclear power debate">Nuclear power debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_phase-out" title="Nuclear power phase-out">Nuclear power phase-out</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_debate" title="Nuclear weapons debate">Nuclear weapons debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_peace_activists" title="List of peace activists">Peace activists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_movement" title="Peace movement">Peace movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_camp" title="Peace camp">Peace camp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell%E2%80%93Einstein_Manifesto" title="Russell–Einstein Manifesto">Russell–Einstein Manifesto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smiling_Sun" title="Smiling Sun">Smiling Sun</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Radioactive.svg/32px-Radioactive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="28" class="mw-file-element" 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