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class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1 Origins and early political uses </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origins_and_early_political_uses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Academic_adoption_and_conceptual_drift" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Academic_adoption_and_conceptual_drift"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 Academic adoption and conceptual drift </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Academic_adoption_and_conceptual_drift-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_populist_hype_and_scholarly_debate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_populist_hype_and_scholarly_debate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 The populist hype and scholarly debate </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_populist_hype_and_scholarly_debate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Theories </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Theories-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Theories subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Theories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ideational_approaches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ideational_approaches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Ideational approaches </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ideational_approaches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Class-based_approaches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Class-based_approaches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Class-based approaches </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Class-based_approaches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Discursive_approaches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Discursive_approaches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Discursive approaches </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Discursive_approaches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stylistic/socio-cultural_approaches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stylistic/socio-cultural_approaches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Stylistic/socio-cultural approaches </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stylistic/socio-cultural_approaches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Strategic_approaches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Strategic_approaches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Strategic approaches </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Strategic_approaches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economic_approaches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_approaches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6 Economic approaches </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_approaches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Possible_causes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Possible_causes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Possible causes </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Possible_causes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Possible causes subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Possible_causes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Economic_grievance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_grievance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Economic grievance </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_grievance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modernisation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modernisation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Modernisation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modernisation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cultural_backlash" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cultural_backlash"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Cultural backlash </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cultural_backlash-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Recent_democratization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recent_democratization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Recent democratization </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recent_democratization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post-democracy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-democracy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Post-democracy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post-democracy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mobilisation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mobilisation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Mobilisation </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Mobilisation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Mobilisation subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Mobilisation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Leaders" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Leaders"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Leaders </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Leaders-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Rhetorical_styles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rhetorical_styles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.1 Rhetorical styles </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rhetorical_styles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Media" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Media"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.2 Media </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Media-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electoral_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electoral_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.3 Electoral systems </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electoral_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_parties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_parties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Political parties </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_parties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_movements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_movements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Social movements </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_movements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_themes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_themes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Other themes </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Other_themes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Other themes subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Other_themes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mainstream_responses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mainstream_responses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Mainstream responses </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mainstream_responses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Authoritarianism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Authoritarianism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Authoritarianism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Authoritarianism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 History </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle History subsection </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Europe </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-19th_and_20th_centuries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#19th_and_20th_centuries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1.1 19th and 20th centuries </div> </a> <ul id="toc-19th_and_20th_centuries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-21st_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#21st_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1.2 21st century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-21st_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-North_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#North_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 North America </div> </a> <ul id="toc-North_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Latin_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Latin_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Latin America </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Latin_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Oceania" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oceania"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Oceania </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oceania-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sub-Saharan_Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sub-Saharan_Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5 Sub-Saharan Africa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sub-Saharan_Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Asia_and_the_Arab_world" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Asia_and_the_Arab_world"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.6 Asia and the Arab world </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Asia_and_the_Arab_world-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_20th-_and_early_21st-century_growth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_20th-_and_early_21st-century_growth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.7 Late 20th- and early 21st-century growth </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late_20th-_and_early_21st-century_growth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Further reading </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Further reading subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-General" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 General </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Europe_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Europe_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Europe </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Europe_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Latin_America_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Latin_America_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3 Latin America </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Latin_America_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.4 United States </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Populism</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 77 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-77" aria-hidden="true" > 77 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populisme" title="Populisme – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Populisme" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D8%B9%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="شعبوية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="شعبوية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populismu" title="Populismu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Populismu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populizm" title="Populizm – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Populizm" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%AA" title="پوپولیست – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="پوپولیست" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%B7%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6" title="জনতুষ্টিবাদ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="জনতুষ্টিবাদ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Папулізм – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Папулізм" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Папулізм – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Папулізм" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D1%8A%D0%BC" title="Популизъм – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Популизъм" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populisme" title="Populisme – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Populisme" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populismus" title="Populismus – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Populismus" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poblyddiaeth" title="Poblyddiaeth – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Poblyddiaeth" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populisme" title="Populisme – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Populisme" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populismus" title="Populismus – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Populismus" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populism" title="Populism – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Populism" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9B%CE%B1%CF%8A%CE%BA%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82" title="Λαϊκισμός – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Λαϊκισμός" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populismo" title="Populismo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Populismo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popolismo" title="Popolismo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Popolismo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populismo" title="Populismo – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Populismo" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%85%E2%80%8C%DA%AF%D8%B1%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="عوام‌گرایی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="عوام‌گرایی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populisme_(politique)" title="Populisme (politique) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Populisme (politique)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pobalachas" title="Pobalachas – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Pobalachas" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populismo" title="Populismo – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Populismo" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%8F%AC%ED%93%B0%EB%A6%AC%EC%A6%98" title="포퓰리즘 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="포퓰리즘" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8A%D5%B8%D5%BA%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%AC%D5%AB%D5%A6%D5%B4" title="Պոպուլիզմ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Պոպուլիզմ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6" title="लोकलुभावनवाद – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="लोकलुभावनवाद" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populizam" title="Populizam – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Populizam" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populismo" title="Populismo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Populismo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populisme" title="Populisme – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Populisme" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%BD%C3%B0hyggja" title="Lýðhyggja – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Lýðhyggja" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populismo" title="Populismo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Populismo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%96%D7%9D" title="פופוליזם – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פופוליזם" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Популизм – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Популизм" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upopulisti" title="Upopulisti – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Upopulisti" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gelperest%C3%AE" title="Gelperestî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Gelperestî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Популизм – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Популизм" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populisms" title="Populisms – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Populisms" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populismus" title="Populismus – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Populismus" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populizmas" title="Populizmas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Populizmas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popolism" title="Popolism – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Popolism" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populizmus" title="Populizmus – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Populizmus" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Популизам – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Популизам" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AF" title="लोकानुनय – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="लोकानुनय" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%B3%D9%85" title="پوپولیسم – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="پوپولیسم" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populisme" title="Populisme – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Populisme" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Популизм – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Популизм" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populisme" title="Populisme – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Populisme" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%9D%E3%83%94%E3%83%A5%E3%83%AA%E3%82%BA%E3%83%A0" title="ポピュリズム – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ポピュリズム" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populisme" title="Populisme – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Populisme" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populisme" title="Populisme – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Populisme" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populisme" title="Populisme – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Populisme" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populizm" title="Populizm – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Populizm" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populizm" title="Populizm – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Populizm" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populismo" title="Populismo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Populismo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populism" title="Populism – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Populism" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Популизм – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Популизм" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populismu" title="Populismu – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Populismu" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popullizmi" title="Popullizmi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Popullizmi" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%A2%E0%B6%B1%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%AF%E0%B6%BA" title="ජනතාවාදය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ජනතාවාදය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populism" title="Populism – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Populism" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populizmus_(politika)" title="Populizmus (politika) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Populizmus (politika)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populizem" title="Populizem – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Populizem" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%DB%86%D9%BE%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%B2%D9%85" title="پۆپیولیزم – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="پۆپیولیزم" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Популизам – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Популизам" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populizam" title="Populizam – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Populizam" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populismi" title="Populismi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Populismi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populism" title="Populism – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Populism" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populismo" title="Populismo – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Populismo" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%A1" title="ประชานิยม – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ประชานิยม" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pop%C3%BClizm" title="Popülizm – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Popülizm" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Популізм – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Популізм" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%A7_ngh%C4%A9a_d%C3%A2n_t%C3%BAy" title="Chủ nghĩa dân túy – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Chủ nghĩa dân túy" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populisse" title="Populisse – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Populisse" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Walon</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B0%91%E7%B2%B9" title="民粹 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="民粹" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B0%91%E7%B2%B9%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="民粹主义 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="民粹主义" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B0%91%E7%B2%B9%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="民粹主義 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="民粹主義" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B0%91%E7%B2%B9%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="民粹主義 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="民粹主義" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a 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.sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of the <a href="/wiki/Category:Politics" title="Category:Politics">Politics series</a></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="border-top:1px #fafafa solid; border-bottom:1px #fafafa solid; background:#efefef; background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); padding:0.2em;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Populism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Variants</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_populism" title="Black populism">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Fascism" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Fascism">Neo-</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volkism" class="mw-redirect" title="Volkism">Volkism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_populism" title="Judicial populism">Judicial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Left-wing_populism" title="Left-wing populism">Left-wing (Social)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroeconomic_populism" title="Macroeconomic populism">Macroeconomic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_populism" title="Market populism">Market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_populism" title="Penal populism">Penal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-wing_populism" title="Right-wing populism">Right-wing (National)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trumpism" title="Trumpism">Trumpism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Techno-populism" title="Techno-populism">Techno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valence_populism" title="Valence populism">Valence</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Ideologies</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Berlusconism" title="Berlusconism">Berlusconism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bonapartism" title="Bonapartism">Bonapartism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesarism" title="Caesarism">Caesarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chavismo" title="Chavismo">Chavismo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_positions_of_Rodrigo_Duterte" title="Political positions of Rodrigo Duterte">Dutertism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erdo%C4%9Fanism" title="Erdoğanism">Erdoğanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-fascism" title="Neo-fascism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fortuynism" title="Fortuynism">Fortuynism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaullism" title="Gaullism">Gaullism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hansonism" title="Hansonism">Hansonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindutva" title="Hindutva">Hindutva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacksonian_democracy" title="Jacksonian democracy">Jacksonian democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Janismo" title="Janismo">Janismo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeffersonian_democracy" title="Jeffersonian democracy">Jeffersonian democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kemalism" title="Kemalism">Kemalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirchnerism" title="Kirchnerism">Kirchnerism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_socialism" title="Libertarian socialism">Libertarian socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lulism" title="Lulism">Lulism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasserism" title="Nasserism">Nasserism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peronism" title="Peronism">Peronism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poporanism" title="Poporanism">Poporanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qasimism" title="Qasimism">Qasimism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trumpism" title="Trumpism">Trumpism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workplace_democracy" title="Workplace democracy">Workplace democracy</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-corruption" title="Anti-corruption">Anti-corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-globalization_movement" title="Anti-globalization movement">Anti-globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-politics" title="Anti-politics">Anti-politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Backlash_(sociology)" title="Backlash (sociology)">Backlash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Common people">Common people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuismo" title="Continuismo">Continuismo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_democracy" title="Direct democracy">Direct democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Egalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Establishment" title="The Establishment">The Establishment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-establishment" title="Anti-establishment">Anti-establishment</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_will" title="General will">General will</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grassroots_democracy" title="Grassroots democracy">Grassroots democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_politics" title="Identity politics">Identity politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_order_(politics)" title="Law and order (politics)">Law and order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Localism_(politics)" title="Localism (politics)">Localism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(political_theory)" title="Pluralism (political theory)">Pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_democracy" title="Popular democracy">Popular democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_sovereignty" title="Popular sovereignty">Popular sovereignty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-politics" title="Post-politics">Post-politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">Social justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wedge_issue" title="Wedge issue">Wedge issue</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Politicians</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mahmoud_Ahmadinejad" title="Mahmoud Ahmadinejad">Ahmadinejad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mustafa_Kemal_Atat%C3%BCrk" title="Mustafa Kemal Atatürk">Atatürk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silvio_Berlusconi" title="Silvio Berlusconi">Berlusconi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maxime_Bernier" title="Maxime Bernier">Bernier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noel_Pemberton_Billing" title="Noel Pemberton Billing">Billing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jair_Bolsonaro" title="Jair Bolsonaro">Bolsonaro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Bonaparte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Ernest_Boulanger" title="Georges Ernest Boulanger">Boulanger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Jennings_Bryan" title="William Jennings Bryan">Bryan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pat_Buchanan" title="Pat Buchanan">Buchanan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Butler" title="Benjamin Butler">Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_Castillo" title="Pedro Castillo">Castillo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Ch%C3%A1vez" title="Hugo Chávez">Chávez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Corbyn" title="Jeremy Corbyn">Corbyn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rafael_Correa" title="Rafael Correa">Correa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_Dean" title="Howard Dean">Dean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rodrigo_Duterte" title="Rodrigo Duterte">Duterte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Dutton" title="Peter Dutton">Dutton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recep_Tayyip_Erdo%C4%9Fan" title="Recep Tayyip Erdoğan">Erdoğan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigel_Farage" title="Nigel Farage">Farage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Fetterman" title="John Fetterman">Fetterman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pim_Fortuyn" title="Pim Fortuyn">Fortuyn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Franco" title="Francisco Franco">Franco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muammar_Gaddafi" title="Muammar Gaddafi">Gaddafi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle" title="Charles de Gaulle">de Gaulle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_Kuo-yu" title="Han Kuo-yu">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pauline_Hanson" title="Pauline Hanson">Hanson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_H%C3%A9bert" title="Jacques Hébert">Hébert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Hitler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ollanta_Humala" title="Ollanta Humala">Humala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pablo_Iglesias_Turri%C3%B3n" title="Pablo Iglesias Turrión">Iglesias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson" title="Andrew Jackson">Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Janez_Jan%C5%A1a" title="Janez Janša">Janša</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boris_Johnson" title="Boris Johnson">Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaros%C5%82aw_Kaczy%C5%84ski" title="Jarosław Kaczyński">Kaczyński</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cristina_Fern%C3%A1ndez_de_Kirchner" title="Cristina Fernández de Kirchner">Kirchner (Cristina)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%C3%A9stor_Kirchner" title="Néstor Kirchner">Kirchner (Néstor)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imran_Khan" title="Imran Khan">Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruhollah_Khomeini" title="Ruhollah Khomeini">Khomenei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ko_Wen-je" title="Ko Wen-je">Ko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_M._La_Follette" title="Robert M. La Follette">La Follette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Lenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Marie_Le_Pen" title="Jean-Marie Le Pen">Le Pen (Jean-Marie)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_Le_Pen" title="Marine Le Pen">Le Pen (Marine)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huey_Long" title="Huey Long">Long</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Lukashenko" title="Alexander Lukashenko">Lukashenko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luiz_In%C3%A1cio_Lula_da_Silva" title="Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva">Lula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicol%C3%A1s_Maduro" title="Nicolás Maduro">Maduro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Luc_M%C3%A9lenchon" title="Jean-Luc Mélenchon">Mélenchon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giorgia_Meloni" title="Giorgia Meloni">Meloni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Javier_Milei" title="Javier Milei">Milei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narendra_Modi" title="Narendra Modi">Modi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evo_Morales" title="Evo Morales">Morales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini">Mussolini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamal_Abdel_Nasser" title="Gamal Abdel Nasser">Nasser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Netanyahu" title="Benjamin Netanyahu">Netanyahu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9s_Manuel_L%C3%B3pez_Obrador" title="Andrés Manuel López Obrador">Obrador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandria_Ocasio-Cortez" title="Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez">Ocasio-Cortez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viktor_Orb%C3%A1n" title="Viktor Orbán">Orbán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Ortega" title="Daniel Ortega">Ortega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarah_Palin" title="Sarah Palin">Palin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andreas_Papandreou" title="Andreas Papandreou">Papandreou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Per%C3%B3n" title="Juan Perón">Perón</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winston_Peters" title="Winston Peters">Peters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Poilievre" title="Pierre Poilievre">Poilievre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Putin" title="Vladimir Putin">Putin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%A2nio_Quadros" title="Jânio Quadros">Quadros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matteo_Salvini" title="Matteo Salvini">Salvini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernie_Sanders" title="Bernie Sanders">Sanders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thaksin_Shinawatra" title="Thaksin Shinawatra">Shinawatra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantin_Stere" title="Constantin Stere">Stere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prabowo_Subianto" title="Prabowo Subianto">Subianto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Trump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/JD_Vance" title="JD Vance">Vance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Get%C3%BAlio_Vargas" title="Getúlio Vargas">Vargas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Wallace" title="George Wallace">Wallace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Warren" title="Elizabeth Warren">Warren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_B._Weaver" title="James B. Weaver">Weaver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geert_Wilders" title="Geert Wilders">Wilders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xi_Jinping" title="Xi Jinping">Xi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoon_Suk_Yeol" title="Yoon Suk Yeol">Yoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milo%C5%A1_Zeman" title="Miloš Zeman">Zeman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Zhirinovsky" title="Vladimir Zhirinovsky">Zhirinovsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Zuma" title="Jacob Zuma">Zuma</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">History</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Administration_party" title="Anti-Administration party">Anti-Administration party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_national_revival" title="Ukrainian national revival">Ukrainian national revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hromada_(secret_society)" title="Hromada (secret society)">Hromada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narodniks" title="Narodniks">Narodniks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farmers%27_Alliance" title="Farmers' Alliance">Farmers' Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ch%C5%82opomania" title="Chłopomania">Chłopomania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C3%B6lkisch_movement" title="Völkisch movement">Völkisch movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilded_Age" title="Gilded Age">Gilded Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C4%83m%C4%83n%C4%83torul" title="Sămănătorul">Sămănătorul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiosomaggismo" title="Radiosomaggismo">Radiosomaggismo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vargas_Era" title="Vargas Era">Vargas Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Share_Our_Wealth" title="Share Our Wealth">Share Our Wealth</a></li> <li>Radical right <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radical_right_(United_States)" title="Radical right (United States)">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_right_(Europe)" title="Radical right (Europe)">Europe</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1989" title="Revolutions of 1989">Revolutions of 1989</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pink_tide" title="Pink tide">Pink tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession" title="Great Recession">Great Recession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tea_Party_movement" title="Tea Party movement">Tea Party movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupy_movement" title="Occupy movement">Occupy movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brexit" title="Brexit">Brexit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2016_United_States_presidential_election" title="2016 United States presidential election">Election of Donald Trump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_vests_protests" title="Yellow vests protests">Yellow vests protests</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">By region</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Populism_in_Canada" title="Populism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Populism_in_Europe" title="Populism in Europe">Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Populism_in_Latin_America" title="Populism in Latin America">Latin America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Populism_in_New_Zealand" title="Populism in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Populism_in_the_United_States" title="Populism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alt-right" title="Alt-right">Alt-right</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chauvinism" title="Chauvinism">Chauvinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_radicalism" title="Classical radicalism">Classical radicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_backsliding" title="Democratic backsliding">Democratic backsliding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgism" title="Georgism">Georgism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-nationalism" title="Neo-nationalism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Left" title="New Left">New Left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Right" title="New Right">New Right</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoconservatism" title="Paleoconservatism">Paleoconservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Putinism" title="Putinism">Putinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_center_(politics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Radical center (politics)">Radical centrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Position" title="Third Position">Third Position</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="background:#efefef;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);"> <a href="/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/20px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/40px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Populism_sidebar" title="Template:Populism sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Populism_sidebar" title="Template talk:Populism sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Populism_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Populism sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Populism is a contested concept,<a href="#cite_note-Kalwasser-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Weyland-2">[2]</a> used to refer to a variety of political stances that emphasize the idea of the common 'people' and often position this group in opposition to a perceived '<a href="/wiki/Elite" title="Elite">elite</a>'.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201725-3">[3]</a> It is frequently associated with <a href="/wiki/Anti-establishment" title="Anti-establishment">anti-establishment</a> and anti-political sentiment.<a href="#cite_note-Glaser_2018_p._20-4">[4]</a> The term developed in the late 19th century and has been applied to various politicians, parties and movements since that time, often assuming a <a href="/wiki/Pejorative" title="Pejorative">pejorative</a> tone. Within <a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">political science</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social sciences</a>, several different definitions of populism have been employed, with some scholars proposing that the term be rejected altogether.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201725-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-Berman-5">[5]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology_and_terminology">Etymology and terminology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Populism&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology and terminology">edit</a>]</div> The term "populism" has long been contested, subject to mistranslation and used to describe a broad and often contradictory array of movements and beliefs. Its usage has spanned continents and contexts, leading many scholars to characterize it as a vague or overstretched concept: widely invoked in political discourse, yet inconsistently defined and poorly understood.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECanovan19813Canovan1982544Akkerman2003148MuddeRovira_Kaltwasser20172Anselmi20185HawkinsRovira_Kaltwasser20193Brett2013410Taggart2002162-6">[6]</a> Against this backdrop, numerous studies have examined the term’s usage and diffusion across media, politics, and academic scholarship—highlighting the reciprocal influence among these spheres and tracing the semantic shifts that have shaped the evolving meaning of the concept.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Origins_and_early_political_uses">Origins and early political uses</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Populism&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Origins and early political uses">edit</a>]</div> The word first appeared in English in 1858, used as an antonym for “aristocratic” in a translation of a work by <a href="/wiki/Alphonse_de_Lamartine" title="Alphonse de Lamartine">Alphonse de Lamartine</a>.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a> of the 1860s and 1870s, the term was associated with the <a href="/wiki/Narodniki" class="mw-redirect" title="Narodniki">narodniki</a>, a left-leaning agrarian movement whose name is often translated as “populists”.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllcock1971372Canovan19815–6-10">[10]</a> Russian populism in the late <a href="/wiki/19th_century" title="19th century">19th century</a> aimed to transfer <a href="/wiki/Political_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Political power">political power</a> to the peasant <a href="/wiki/Communes" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Communes">communes</a> through a radical program of <a href="/wiki/Agrarian_reform" class="mw-redirect" title="Agrarian reform">agrarian reform</a>. In English, however, the term gained broader prominence through its use by the U.S.-based <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Party_(United_States)" title="People's Party (United States)">People's Party</a> and its predecessors, active between the 1880s and early 1900s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllcock1971372Canovan19815Akkerman2003148-11">[11]</a> The People's Party championed small-scale farmers, advocating for expansionist <a href="/wiki/Monetary_policy" title="Monetary policy">monetary policies</a> and accessible <a href="/wiki/Credit" title="Credit">credit</a>, and was relatively progressive on issues concerning women’s and minority rights for its time.<a href="#cite_note-US_Peoples_Party_history-12">[12]</a> Although both the Russian and American movements have been labeled "populist", they differed in their ideological content and historical trajectory.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllcock1971372Canovan198114-13">[13]</a> In the early <a href="/wiki/20th_century" title="20th century">20th century</a>, particularly in <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>, the term shifted into the realm of <a href="/wiki/Literature" title="Literature">literature</a>, where it came to designate a genre of <a href="/wiki/Novel" title="Novel">novel</a> that sympathetically portrayed the lives of the lower classes.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEatwell2017366-15">[15]</a> Léon Lemonnier published a manifesto for the genre in 1929, and Antonine Coullet-Tessier established a prize for it in 1931.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> The term entered the <a href="/wiki/Latin_America" title="Latin America">Latin American</a> political lexicon in the <a href="/wiki/Post-war" title="Post-war">post-war</a> period, becoming a defining feature of the region’s political landscape.<a href="#cite_note-Zicman_and_Lago-17">[17]</a> It was initially associated in the media with charismatic leaders capable of mobilizing recently urbanized populations, particularly those displaced by rural migration. These new urban groups, increasingly integrated into electoral politics, were seen as escaping older systems of clientelist control such as “halter voting” (voto de cabresto or voto cantado) and began to redefine national political life. Although often viewed with suspicion and associated with manipulation or demagoguery, populism in this context frequently carried a positive connotation and was openly embraced by political actors.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZicman_de_Barros_and_Lago43–47-18">[18]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Academic_adoption_and_conceptual_drift">Academic adoption and conceptual drift</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Populism&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Academic adoption and conceptual drift">edit</a>]</div> Until the 1950s, use of the term populism in academia remained restricted largely to historians studying the People's Party. In 1954, however, two pivotal publications marked a turning point in the conceptual development of the term. In the United States, analyzing the rise of <a href="/wiki/McCarthyism" title="McCarthyism">McCarthyism</a>, sociologist <a href="/wiki/Edward_Shils" title="Edward Shils">Edward Shils</a> published an article proposing populism as a term to describe anti-elite trends in US society more broadly.<a href="#cite_note-Shils-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllcock1971372–373-20">[20]</a> Simultaneously in Brazil, political scientist <a href="/wiki/H%C3%A9lio_Jaguaribe" title="Hélio Jaguaribe">Hélio Jaguaribe</a>, responding to the country’s emerging “populist hype” in the press, published what is considered the first academic text on Latin American populism, framing it as a form of class conciliation.<a href="#cite_note-Jaguaribe-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-Zicman_and_Lago-17">[17]</a> Following Shils’ intervention, the 1960s saw populism gain increasing traction among US <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociologists</a> and other academics in the <a href="/wiki/Social_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Social sciences">social sciences</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllcock1971371HawkinsRovira_Kaltwasser20192-22">[22]</a> Notably, historian <a href="/wiki/Richard_Hofstadter" title="Richard Hofstadter">Richard Hofstadter</a> and sociologist <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Bell" title="Daniel Bell">Daniel Bell</a> reinterpreted the legacy of the People's Party through a critical lens, portraying it as an expression of status anxiety and irrationalism.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> A parallel trend unfolded in Latin America, where scholars—often influenced by Marxist frameworks—began to investigate populism as a political phenomenon tied to modernization, mass mobilization, and developmentalist ideologies. Despite the growing interest, scholarly consensus on the definition of populism remained elusive. Notably, a 1967 conference at the <a href="/wiki/London_School_of_Economics" title="London School of Economics">London School of Economics</a> that brought together many of the era’s leading experts failed to produce a unified theoretical framework.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllcock1971378-26">[26]</a> The convergence of new—and often contested—academic interpretations with the use of the term by political forces critical of those labeled as populists has contributed to its increasingly negative connotation. The absence of a coherent ideological platform or consistent programmatic formulation among self-proclaimed populists, combined with the lack of a coordinated international movement, has further enabled the term to vary widely in meaning.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECanovan19816-27">[27]</a> As a result, populism has come to be applied across a broad range of political contexts and figures, often without clear or consistent definition.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlbertazziMcDonnell20083MuddeRovira_Kaltwasser20172-28">[28]</a> The term has often been conflated with other concepts like <a href="/wiki/Demagoguery" class="mw-redirect" title="Demagoguery">demagoguery</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStanley2008101HawkinsRovira_Kaltwasser20191-29">[29]</a> and generally presented as something to be feared and discredited.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStanley2008101-30">[30]</a> It has often been applied as a catchword to movements that are considered to be outside the political mainstream or a threat to <a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">democracy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECanovan2004244Tormey2018260MénySurel20023-31">[31]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_populist_hype_and_scholarly_debate">The populist hype and scholarly debate</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Populism&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: The populist hype and scholarly debate">edit</a>]</div> Following 2016—a year marked by the election of <a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Donald Trump</a> as president of the United States and the <a href="/wiki/2016_United_Kingdom_European_Union_membership_referendum" title="2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum">United Kingdom's vote to leave the European Union</a>, both widely associated with populist sentiment—the term populism surged to prominence in global political discourse.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnselmi20181-32">[32]</a> Reflecting this heightened attention, the <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Dictionary" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambridge Dictionary">Cambridge Dictionary</a> selected "populism" as its <a href="/wiki/Word_of_the_Year" class="mw-redirect" title="Word of the Year">Word of the Year</a> in 2017.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> This so-called "populist hype" also found its counterpart in academia.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> Whereas between 1950 and 1960 roughly 160 publications on populism were recorded, that number rose to over 1,500 between 1990 and 2000.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnselmi20183-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaggart200263-36">[36]</a> From 2000 to 2015, an average of 95 academic papers and books annually included the term "populism" in their title or abstract as catalogued by <a href="/wiki/Web_of_Science" title="Web of Science">Web of Science</a>. In 2016, that number climbed to 266; in 2017, it reached 488; and by 2018, it had grown to 615.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> The conceptual ambiguity surrounding the term—exacerbated by this spike in political and academic attention—has led some scholars to propose abandoning "populism" as an analytical category altogether. In particular, the frequent conflation of populism with <a href="/wiki/Far-right" class="mw-redirect" title="Far-right">far-right</a> <a href="/wiki/Nativism" class="mw-disambig" title="Nativism">nativism</a> has drawn criticism for misrepresenting the ethos of historical self-described populists,<a href="#cite_note-US_Peoples_Party_history-12">[12]</a> while also providing a euphemistic gloss for racist or authoritarian political actors seeking legitimacy by claiming to represent "the people."<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStanley2008101March200768–69-40">[40]</a> In contrast, others argue that the concept remains too integral to political analysis to be discarded. If clearly defined, they contend, "populism" could be a valuable tool for understanding a broad range of political actors, especially those operating on the margins of mainstream politics.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECanovan19815–6AlbertazziMcDonnell20083MuddeRovira_Kaltwasser20175-41">[41]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theories">Theories</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Populism&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Theories">edit</a>]</div> As a polysemic concept, populism has been interpreted through various theoretical lenses and given multiple definitions. Today, the main theoretical approaches to populism are the ideational, class-based, discursive, performative, strategic, and economic frameworks. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ideational_approaches">Ideational approaches</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Populism&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Ideational approaches">edit</a>]</div> The ideational approach defines populism as a "thin-centred ideology" that divides society into two antagonistic groups: "the pure people" and "the corrupt elite," and sees politics as an expression of the general will (volonté générale) of the people.<a href="#cite_note-MuddeRovira2013-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-MuddeRovira2017-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-Abi-Hassan2017-44">[44]</a> It positions populism not as a comprehensive ideology but one that attaches itself to broader political movements like <a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">nationalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">socialism</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">conservatism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Stanley2008-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-March2007-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-AlbertazziMcDonnell2008-47">[47]</a> Scholars like <a href="/wiki/Cas_Mudde" title="Cas Mudde">Cas Mudde</a> and Cristóbal Rovira Kaltwasser emphasize that populism is moralistic rather than programmatic, promoting a binary worldview that resists compromise.<a href="#cite_note-Mudde2004-48">[48]</a> This ideology is present across diverse political systems, is not limited to charismatic leadership, and can be employed flexibly to support a range of agendas on both the left and the right.<a href="#cite_note-MuddeRovira2017-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMudde2004545-49">[49]</a> According to ideational scholars, populism constructs "the people" as a virtuous and unified group, often with vague or shifting boundaries, allowing populist leaders to define inclusion or exclusion based on strategic goals.<a href="#cite_note-Stanley2008-45">[45]</a> This group is seen as sovereign and historically grounded, whose common sense is viewed as superior to elite expertise or institutional knowledge.<a href="#cite_note-MuddeRovira2017-43">[43]</a> Conversely, "the elite" is portrayed as a homogeneous, corrupt force undermining the people's will. Depending on context, elites may be defined economically, politically, culturally, or even ethnically.<a href="#cite_note-MuddeRovira2017-43">[43]</a> The concept of the general will is presented in the ideational approch as central to populist rhetoric, aligning with a critique of representative democracy in favor of direct forms of decision-making such as referendums.<a href="#cite_note-MuddeRovira2017-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-Stanley2008-45">[45]</a> This approach resonates with <a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a>'s philosophical legacy, suggesting that only "the people" know what is best for society.<a href="#cite_note-MuddeRovira2017-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-MuddeRovira2013-42">[42]</a> Ideational scholars emphasize the ambivalent relationship between populism and democracy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201779ZasloveGeurkinkJacobsAkkerman2021AlbertazziMcDonnell200810Anselmi20182March200773-50">[50]</a> While they recognize that populism can help redeem liberal democracy from its shortcomings when operating in opposition—by mobilizing social groups who feel excluded from political decision-making processes and by raising awareness among socio-political elites of popular grievances<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarch200772-73MuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201783,_84-51">[51]</a>—they generally contend that populism becomes inherently detrimental to pluralism once in power.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> By often claiming to represent the authentic will of the people, populists bypass or actively undermine liberal democratic institutions designed to safeguard minority rights—particularly the judiciary and the media, which are frequently portrayed as disconnected from the populace.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarch200773MuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201781–90McDonnellCabrera2019493Akkerman200356-53">[53]</a> In this context, populist governance may give rise to what philosopher <a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a> termed the "<a href="/wiki/Tyranny_of_the_majority" title="Tyranny of the majority">tyranny of the majority</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarch200773-54">[54]</a> The ideational definition is not without criticism. Some argue it imposes rigid assumptions—such as moral dualism or homogeneity—that may not always apply in practice.<a href="#cite_note-Freeden2017-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-Katsambekis2022-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-StavrakakisJager2018-57">[57]</a> Others caution that if broadly applied, the term risks becoming too vague, potentially encompassing most political discourse.<a href="#cite_note-DeanMaiguashca2020-58">[58]</a> Nonetheless, the approach remains highly influential.<a href="#cite_note-Mudde2004-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-MuddeRovira2013-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-HawkinsRovira2019-59">[59]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Class-based_approaches">Class-based approaches</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Populism&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Class-based approaches">edit</a>]</div> Class-based approaches interpret populism as a phenomenon rooted in social class dynamics. In American <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Seymour_Martin_Lipset" title="Seymour Martin Lipset">Seymour Martin Lipset</a> argued that populism is a movement that unites various social classes, typically around a charismatic leader.<a href="#cite_note-Lipset-60">[60]</a> While noting that this characteristic also appears in <a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">fascism</a>, Lipset emphasized a key distinction: fascism draws primarily from the middle classes, whereas populism finds its main social base among the poor. A more explicitly class-oriented interpretation comes from the Marxist tradition, particularly influential in Latin America through thinkers such as <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Weffort" title="Francisco Weffort">Francisco Weffort</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fernando_Henrique_Cardoso" title="Fernando Henrique Cardoso">Fernando Henrique Cardoso</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Weffort-61">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-FHC-62">[62]</a> Breaking with the sympathetic stance toward Russian populism found in the late writings of <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Shanin-63">[63]</a> these Latin American Marxists drew instead on Marx’s reflections on <a href="/wiki/Bonapartism" title="Bonapartism">Bonapartism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Antonio Gramsci</a>'s concept of <a href="/wiki/Caesarism" title="Caesarism">Caesarism</a>. From this perspective, populism arises in moments of equilibrium between antagonistic classes—when the bourgeoisie has lost its hegemonic capacity but the proletariat has not yet seized power.<a href="#cite_note-Ronderos-64">[64]</a> In such conditions, political power gains autonomy from dominant classes and positions itself as an arbiter, drawing support from what Marx termed the “mass”: a disorganized group lacking class consciousness and vulnerable to charismatic leadership. Marxist critics in <a href="/wiki/Latin_America" title="Latin America">Latin America</a> acknowledged populism’s role in integrating the popular masses into political life and fostering social and economic development. However, they argued that this integration was limited—proto-democratic in form but ultimately constrained within a bourgeois framework. Populist regimes, they contended, often demobilized collective organization by substituting social benefits and labor reforms for class struggle, while subordinating trade unions to state control and electoral interests. These critiques have been challenged by historians who argue that the so-called <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Brazilian_Republic" title="Fourth Brazilian Republic">populist period</a> in Latin American history was in fact marked by a growing politicization of workers—one that may have posed a challenge to established political and economic interests.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Discursive_approaches">Discursive approaches</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Populism&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Discursive approaches">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Presentaci%C3%B3n_del_Documental_CATASTROIKA_y_Presentaci%C3%B3n_de_la_Revista_Debates_y_Combates_(7215329954).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Presentaci%C3%B3n_del_Documental_CATASTROIKA_y_Presentaci%C3%B3n_de_la_Revista_Debates_y_Combates_%287215329954%29.jpg/250px-Presentaci%C3%B3n_del_Documental_CATASTROIKA_y_Presentaci%C3%B3n_de_la_Revista_Debates_y_Combates_%287215329954%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Presentaci%C3%B3n_del_Documental_CATASTROIKA_y_Presentaci%C3%B3n_de_la_Revista_Debates_y_Combates_%287215329954%29.jpg/330px-Presentaci%C3%B3n_del_Documental_CATASTROIKA_y_Presentaci%C3%B3n_de_la_Revista_Debates_y_Combates_%287215329954%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Presentaci%C3%B3n_del_Documental_CATASTROIKA_y_Presentaci%C3%B3n_de_la_Revista_Debates_y_Combates_%287215329954%29.jpg/500px-Presentaci%C3%B3n_del_Documental_CATASTROIKA_y_Presentaci%C3%B3n_de_la_Revista_Debates_y_Combates_%287215329954%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5616" data-file-height="3744" /></a><figcaption>The Argentine political theorist <a href="/wiki/Ernesto_Laclau" title="Ernesto Laclau">Ernesto Laclau</a> developed a distinctive definition of populism, viewing it as a potentially positive force for emancipatory social change.</figcaption></figure> The discursive approach is most closely associated with Argentine political theorist <a href="/wiki/Ernesto_Laclau" title="Ernesto Laclau">Ernesto Laclau</a> and other scholars of the so-called <a href="/wiki/Essex_School_of_discourse_analysis" title="Essex School of discourse analysis">Essex School</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Laclau-66">[66]</a> For Laclau, populism should be understood as a discursive logic in which a series of unmet demands coalesce around a symbol that names a popular movement in opposition to an elite. Although charismatic leaders are often the most common symbols of populist movements, the discursive approach maintains that populism can exist without this type of leadership. Unlike the ideational approach, the discursive tradition does not necessarily view the opposition of the "bottom" against the "top" as moralistic. In contrast to the Marxist approach, it also criticizes what it sees as the idealization of an autonomous social class, as opposed to a manipulated mass.<a href="#cite_note-Ronderos-64">[64]</a> From a <a href="/wiki/Constructivist" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Constructivist">constructivist</a> perspective, Laclau and his followers argue that political subjects—and particularly an entity such as "the people"—are always radically contingent discursive constructions, capable of taking on various forms.<a href="#cite_note-Marchart-67">[67]</a> Normatively, Laclau’s definition of populism refrains from judging whether populism is inherently positive or negative.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> However, it sets itself apart from previous approaches by regarding some populist experiences in power as genuinely democratizing. Building on this perspective, some scholars influenced by Laclau argue that populism is inherently emancipatory and pluralistic, and that authoritarian regimes often labeled as populist would be more accurately described as fascist.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stylistic/socio-cultural_approaches">Stylistic/socio-cultural approaches</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Populism&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Stylistic/socio-cultural approaches">edit</a>]</div> The performative approach, also known as the socio-cultural approach, is sometimes presented as a branch of the discursive approach. Its main exponents include Pierre Ostiguy, Benjamin Moffitt, and María Esperanza Casullo.<a href="#cite_note-Ostiguy-70">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-Moffitt-71">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-Casullo-72">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-Aiolfi-73">[73]</a> This approach views populism not as a fixed ideology but as a political style—a repertoire of symbolically mediated performances through which leaders construct and navigate power. Rather than focusing on what populists believe, this perspective highlights how they communicate and present themselves, encompassing rhetoric, gestures, body language, fashion, imagery, and staging. These aesthetic and performative elements are essential to how populism operates in practice. Critiquing what it sees as excessive formalism in Laclau’s theory, the performative approach emphasizes the theatrical and transgressive nature of populism. Populist actors often break with traditional norms and expectations of political behavior, embracing styles that are irreverent, culturally popular, and emotionally charged. Populism is thus seen as a performance that challenges the boundaries of "respectable" political discourse. While some scholars focus on the performances of charismatic leaders, others emphasize the historical and social dimension of populist transgression, noting its capacity to mobilize marginalized sectors traditionally excluded from political life. The sudden entry of these groups into the public sphere is often experienced as disruptive or shocking.<a href="#cite_note-Zicman_e_Aiolfi-74">[74]</a> As with the discursive approach, advocates of the performative theory maintain that populism can, in some cases, express emancipatory potential. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Strategic_approaches">Strategic approaches</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Populism&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Strategic approaches">edit</a>]</div> An additional framework has been described as the "political-strategic" approach. This applies the term populism to a political strategy in which a charismatic leader seeks to govern based on direct and unmediated connection with their followers.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> Kurt Weyland defined this conception of populism as a political strategy employed by a personalist leader who governs throught direct, unmediated, uninstitutionalized support from large numbers of mostly unorganized followers.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> This is a definition of the term that is popular among scholars of non-Western societies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser20174-77">[77]</a> A common criticism of the strategic approach is that, by focusing on leadership, this concept of populism does not allow for the existence of populist parties or populist social movements.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHawkinsRovira_Kaltwasser20196-78">[78]</a> As a result, it overlooks historical cases often considered paradigmatic of populism, such as the US People's Party.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser2013154-79">[79]</a> Furthermore, this approach may inadvertently reinforce popular perceptions of populism as a style of politics characterized by overly simplistic solutions to complex problems, delivered in an emotionally charged manner or through the promotion of short-term, unrealistic, and unsustainable policies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMudde2004542–543-80">[80]</a> While this usage may seem intuitively meaningful, some argue that it is difficult to apply empirically, since most political actors engage in slogans and rhetoric, and distinguishing between emotionally charged and rational arguments can be problematic. This phenomenon is more accurately described as <a href="/wiki/Demagogy" class="mw-redirect" title="Demagogy">demagogy</a> or <a href="/wiki/Opportunism" title="Opportunism">opportunism</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economic_approaches">Economic approaches</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Populism&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Economic approaches">edit</a>]</div> Closely related to the ideas of demagogy and opportunism, the socioeconomic definition of populism refers to a pattern of irresponsible economic policymaking, in which governments implement expansive public spending—typically financed by foreign loans—followed by inflationary crises and subsequent austerity measures.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser20173–4HawkinsRovira_Kaltwasser20196-81">[81]</a> This understanding gained prominence in the 1980s and 1990s through economists such as <a href="/wiki/Rudiger_Dornbusch" class="mw-redirect" title="Rudiger Dornbusch">Rudiger Dornbusch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Sachs" title="Jeffrey Sachs">Jeffrey Sachs</a>, and Sebastian Edwards, particularly in studies of Latin American economies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser20173-82">[82]</a> It builds on earlier critiques by Argentine economist Marcelo Diamand, who argued that economies like Argentina experienced cyclical swings between unsustainable populist spending and excessive austerity.<a href="#cite_note-Aslanidis-83">[83]</a> Although Diamand critiqued both extremes, later U.S.-based economists largely abandoned his condemnation of austerity, instead framing it as a necessary corrective for economic instability.<a href="#cite_note-Aslanidis-83">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sachs-84">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> While still invoked by some economists and journalists—particularly in Latin America—this economic definition of populism remains relatively uncommon in the broader social sciences.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser20174-77">[77]</a> Critics argue that it reduces populism to left-wing economic mismanagement, overlooks the term’s political and ideological dimensions, and fails to account for populist leaders who implemented neoliberal policies.<a href="#cite_note-Weyland_1999-86">[86]</a> The term "populism" is often used in this context to stigmatize heterodox economic policies, thereby narrowing space for debate. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Possible_causes">Possible causes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Populism&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Possible causes">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economic_grievance">Economic grievance</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Populism&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Economic grievance">edit</a>]</div> The economic grievance thesis argues that economic factors have contributed to the formation of a 'left-behind' precariat marked by low <a href="/wiki/Job_security" title="Job security">job security</a>, high <a href="/wiki/Economic_inequality" title="Economic inequality">inequality</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Wage_stagnation" class="mw-redirect" title="Wage stagnation">wage stagnation</a>. On this account, the group would be more inclined to support populism.<a href="#cite_note-:2-87">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> Reasons for precarity vary: in the <a href="/wiki/Global_North" class="mw-redirect" title="Global North">Global North</a>, it has often been linked to a decline in living standards due to <a href="/wiki/Deindustrialization" title="Deindustrialization">deindustrialization</a>, <a href="/wiki/Economic_liberalization" title="Economic liberalization">economic liberalization</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Deregulation" title="Deregulation">deregulation</a>, whereas in the <a href="/wiki/Global_South" class="mw-redirect" title="Global South">Global South</a>, it tends to follow a truncated process of upward mobility, in which workers emerge from extreme poverty but remain in unstable, low-quality employment and living conditions.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> To account for these dynamics, some theories focus specifically on the effects of <a href="/wiki/Recession" title="Recession">economic crises</a>,<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> or inequality,<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> while others emphasize globalization’s role in disrupting established labor markets and fueling economic dislocation. Macro-level evidence suggests that resentment toward out-groups tends to rise during periods of economic hardship,<a href="#cite_note-Berman-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dancygier-92">[92]</a> and economic crises have been associated with gains for far-right parties.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> However, micro-level studies have found only limited evidence linking individual economic grievances directly to support for populist candidates or parties.<a href="#cite_note-Berman-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-87">[87]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modernisation">Modernisation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Populism&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Modernisation">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Modernisation_losers_thesis" title="Modernisation losers thesis">modernisation losers theory</a> argues that certain aspects of transition to modernity have caused demand for populism.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> Some arguments rely on the belief that <a href="/wiki/Anomie" title="Anomie">anomie</a> has followed <a href="/wiki/Industrialisation" title="Industrialisation">industrialisation</a> and resulted in "dissolution, fragmentation and differentiation", weakening the traditional ties of <a href="/wiki/Civil_society" title="Civil society">civil society</a>, and increasing <a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">individualization</a>.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> Populism offers a broad identity which gives sovereignty to the previously marginalized masses as "the people".<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> However, empirical studies suggest that supporters of radical right-wing populism occur across the social spectrum, and are not more likely to appear in groups defined as "modernisation losers".<a href="#cite_note-Pereyra_Doval-98">[98]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cultural_backlash">Cultural backlash</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Populism&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Cultural backlash">edit</a>]</div> Other theories argue that grievances have a primarily sociocultural rather than an economic basis.<a href="#cite_note-Berman-5">[5]</a> For example, the cultural backlash thesis argues that right-wing populism is reaction to the rise of <a href="/wiki/Postmaterialism" title="Postmaterialism">postmaterialism</a> in many <a href="/wiki/Developed_country" title="Developed country">developed countries</a>, including the spread of <a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">feminism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">multiculturalism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">environmentalism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Norris_Inglehart_2019-99">[99]</a> According to this view, the spread of ideas and values through a society challenges accepted norms until society reaches a 'tipping point', which causes a reaction, in this case support for right-wing populism.<a href="#cite_note-Norris_Inglehart_2019-99">[99]</a> Some theories limit this argument to being a reaction to just the increase of ethnic diversity from <a href="/wiki/Immigration" title="Immigration">immigration</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Mudde_2007-100">[100]</a> Such theories are particularly popular with sociologists and with political scientists studying industrial world and American politics.<a href="#cite_note-Berman-5">[5]</a> The empiric studies testing this theory have produced highly contradicting results.<a href="#cite_note-Mudde_2007-100">[100]</a> At the micro- or individual level, there are strong connections between individual positions on sociocultural issues (such as immigration policy and "racial animus") and right-wing populist voting. However, at the macro level, studies have not shown clear relationships between measures of populist sentiment in countries and actual right-wing party support.<a href="#cite_note-Berman-5">[5]</a> However, there is strong evidence from political scientists and political psychologists documenting the influence of group-based identity threats on voters. Those who identify as part of a group and perceive it as being under threat are likely to support political actors who promise to protect the status and identity of their group.<a href="#cite_note-Craig-101">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mutz-102">[102]</a> While such research often focuses on white identity, results apply broadly to other social groups that perceive themselves to be under threat.<a href="#cite_note-Outten-103">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-Taijfel-104">[104]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Recent_democratization">Recent democratization</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Populism&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Recent democratization">edit</a>]</div> The length of time since a country has been <a href="/wiki/Democratization" title="Democratization">democratized</a> has also been linked to its potential for populist success. This is claimed to be because younger democracies have less established political parties and weaker liberal democratic norms.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> For example, populist success in <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern Europe</a> has been linked to the legacy of <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">communism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> However, this explanation suffers from the lack of success of populism in most <a href="/wiki/Post-communism" title="Post-communism">post-communist</a> countries.<a href="#cite_note-Mudde_2007-100">[100]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Post-democracy">Post-democracy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Populism&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Post-democracy">edit</a>]</div> Various authors have presented populism as a response, reaction, or symptom of <a href="/wiki/Post-democracy" title="Post-democracy">post-democracy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> Post-democracy refers to a condition in which the formal institutions of liberal democracy—elections, parties, and representative government—continue to exist, but their functioning is increasingly dominated by elites, technocratic decision-making, and market forces. In this context, populism is seen as a reaction to the narrowing of political choice and the decline of responsive, representative governance. It tends to flourish when mainstream parties, particularly on the center-left and center-right, converge ideologically or avoid engaging with key public concerns.<a href="#cite_note-Berman-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-Steinmo-108">[108]</a> When political actors blur distinctions or sidestep contentious debates, citizens may feel excluded from meaningful political influence, increasing their receptivity to populist appeals that promise to restore power to “the people.”<a href="#cite_note-Berman-5">[5]</a> In the United States, mechanisms such as gerrymandering, special-interest lobbying, and opaque campaign financing contribute to the perception that government is unresponsive to the majority. In the European Union, the transfer of policy authority to technocratic and supranational bodies—such as the European Central Bank—can distance decision-making from voters, further intensifying democratic disaffection.<a href="#cite_note-Tucker-109">[109]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mobilisation">Mobilisation</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Populism&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Mobilisation">edit</a>]</div> There are three forms of political mobilisation which populists have adopted: that of the populist leader, the populist political party, and the populist social movement.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201742–43GagnonBeausoleilSonArguelles2018vi-110">[110]</a> The reasons why voters are attracted to populists differ, but common catalysts for the rise of populists include dramatic economic decline or a systematic corruption scandal that damages established political parties.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser2017100-111">[111]</a> For instance, the <a href="/wiki/Great_Recession" title="Great Recession">Great Recession</a> of 2007 and its impact on the economies of southern Europe was a catalyst for the rise of <a href="/wiki/Syriza" title="Syriza">Syriza</a> in Greece and <a href="/wiki/Podemos_(Spanish_political_party)" title="Podemos (Spanish political party)">Podemos</a> in Spain, while the <a href="/wiki/Mani_pulite" title="Mani pulite">Mani pulite</a> corruption scandal of the early 1990s played a significant part in the rise of the Italian populist <a href="/wiki/Silvio_Berlusconi" title="Silvio Berlusconi">Silvio Berlusconi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser2017100-111">[111]</a> Another catalyst for the growth of populism is a widespread perception among voters that the political system is unresponsive to them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser2017101-112">[112]</a> This can arise when elected governments introduce policies that are unpopular with their voters but which are implemented because they are considered to be "responsible" or imposed by supranational organisations. In Latin America, for example, many countries passed unpopular economic reforms under pressure from the <a href="/wiki/International_Monetary_Fund" title="International Monetary Fund">International Monetary Fund</a> and <a href="/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a> while in Europe, many <a href="/wiki/Member_state_of_the_European_Union" title="Member state of the European Union">countries in the European Union</a> were pushed to implement unpopular economic <a href="/wiki/Austerity" title="Austerity">austerity</a> measures by the union's authorities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser2017101–102-113">[113]</a> Decentralisation of political power is a very useful tool for populists to use to their benefit, this is because it allows them to speak more directly to the people of whom they seek to gain attention and votes.<a href="#cite_note-Kenny_2017-114">[114]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Leaders">Leaders</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Populism&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Leaders">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Demagogue" title="Demagogue">Demagogue</a></div> Populism is often associated with charismatic and dominant leaders,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETormey2018268-115">[115]</a> and the populist leader is, according to Mudde and Rovira Kaltwasser, "the quintessential form of populist mobilization".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201743-116">[116]</a> These individuals campaign and attract support on the basis of their own personal appeal.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201743-116">[116]</a> Their supporters then develop a perceived personal connection with the leader.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201743-116">[116]</a> For these leaders, populist rhetoric allows them to claim that they have a direct relationship with "the people",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201744-117">[117]</a> and in many cases they claim to be a personification of "the people" themselves,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201743de_la_Torre2017197-118">[118]</a> presenting themselves as the vox populi or "voice of the people".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201762de_la_Torre2017204-119">[119]</a> <a href="/wiki/Hugo_Ch%C3%A1vez" title="Hugo Chávez">Hugo Chávez</a> for instance stated: "I demand absolute loyalty to me. I am not an individual, I am the people."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_la_Torre2017202-120">[120]</a> Populist leaders can also present themselves as the saviour of the people because of their perceived unique talents and vision, and in doing so can claim to be making personal sacrifices for the good of the people.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlbertazziMcDonnell20084-121">[121]</a> Because loyalty to the populist leader is thus seen as representing loyalty to the people, those who oppose the leader can be branded "enemies of the people".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlbertazziMcDonnell20087-122">[122]</a> The overwhelming majority of populist leaders have been men,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201743-116">[116]</a> although there have been various females occupying this role.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201769-123">[123]</a> Most of these female populist leaders gained positions of seniority through their connections to previously dominant men; <a href="/wiki/Eva_Per%C3%B3n" title="Eva Perón">Eva Perón</a> was the wife of <a href="/wiki/Juan_Per%C3%B3n" title="Juan Perón">Juan Perón</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marine_Le_Pen" title="Marine Le Pen">Marine Le Pen</a> the daughter of <a href="/wiki/Jean-Marie_Le_Pen" title="Jean-Marie Le Pen">Jean-Marie Le Pen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Keiko_Fujimori" title="Keiko Fujimori">Keiko Fujimori</a> the daughter of <a href="/wiki/Alberto_Fujimori" title="Alberto Fujimori">Alberto Fujimori</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Yingluck_Shinawatra" title="Yingluck Shinawatra">Yingluck Shinawatra</a> the sister of <a href="/wiki/Thaksin_Shinawatra" title="Thaksin Shinawatra">Thaksin Shinawatra</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201774-124">[124]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rhetorical_styles">Rhetorical styles</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Populism&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Rhetorical styles">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:146px;max-width:146px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:191px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Sarah_Palin_by_Gage_Skidmore_2_(cropped_3x4).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Sarah_Palin_by_Gage_Skidmore_2_%28cropped_3x4%29.jpg/250px-Sarah_Palin_by_Gage_Skidmore_2_%28cropped_3x4%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="144" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Sarah_Palin_by_Gage_Skidmore_2_%28cropped_3x4%29.jpg/330px-Sarah_Palin_by_Gage_Skidmore_2_%28cropped_3x4%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1727" data-file-height="2300" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:142px;max-width:142px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:191px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Silvio_Berlusconi_(2010)_cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Silvio_Berlusconi_%282010%29_cropped.jpg/250px-Silvio_Berlusconi_%282010%29_cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Silvio_Berlusconi_%282010%29_cropped.jpg/330px-Silvio_Berlusconi_%282010%29_cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="539" data-file-height="734" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Populist leaders often play on gendered stereotypes. US-based <a href="/wiki/Sarah_Palin" title="Sarah Palin">Sarah Palin</a> portrayed a maternal image as a "mama grizzly";<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201770-125">[125]</a> Italy's <a href="/wiki/Silvio_Berlusconi" title="Silvio Berlusconi">Silvio Berlusconi</a> boasted of his sexual virility.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201764-126">[126]</a></div></div></div></div> Canovan noted that populists often used "colourful and undiplomatic language" to distinguish themselves from the governing elite.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECanovan2004242-127">[127]</a> In Africa, several populist leaders have distinguished themselves by speaking in indigenous languages rather than either French or English.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEResnick2017110-128">[128]</a> Populist leaders often present themselves as people of action rather than people of words, talking of the need for "bold action" and "common sense solutions" to issues which they call "crises".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201764-126">[126]</a> Male populist leaders often express themselves using simple and sometimes vulgar language in an attempt to present themselves as "the common man" or "one of the boys" to add to their populist appeal.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201764,_66-129">[129]</a> An example of this is <a href="/wiki/Umberto_Bossi" title="Umberto Bossi">Umberto Bossi</a>, the leader of the right-wing populist Italian <a href="/wiki/Lega_Nord" title="Lega Nord">Lega Nord</a>, who at rallies would state "the League has a hard-on" while <a href="/wiki/The_finger" title="The finger">putting his middle-finger</a> up as a sign of disrespect to the government in Rome.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201766-130">[130]</a> Another recurring feature of male populist leaders is the emphasis that they place on their own virility.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201764-126">[126]</a> An example of this is the Italian Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Silvio_Berlusconi" title="Silvio Berlusconi">Silvio Berlusconi</a>, who bragged about his <a href="/wiki/Bunga_bunga" title="Bunga bunga">bunga bunga</a> sex parties and his ability to seduce young women.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201764-126">[126]</a> Among female populist leaders, it is more common for them to emphasise their role as a wife and mother.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201770-125">[125]</a> The US right-wing populist <a href="/wiki/Sarah_Palin" title="Sarah Palin">Sarah Palin</a> for instance referred to herself as a "hockey mom" and a "mama grizzly",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201770-125">[125]</a> while Australian right-wing populist <a href="/wiki/Pauline_Hanson" title="Pauline Hanson">Pauline Hanson</a> stated that "I care so passionately about this country, it's like I'm its mother. Australia is my home and the Australian people are my children."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201770-125">[125]</a> Populist leaders typically portray themselves as outsiders who are separate from the "elite". Female populist leaders sometimes reference their gender as setting them apart from the dominant "old boys' club",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201769–70-131">[131]</a> while in Latin America a number of populists, such as Evo Morales and Alberto Fujimori, emphasised their non-white ethnic background to set them apart from the white-dominated elite.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201772–73de_la_Torre2017198-132">[132]</a> Other populists have used clothing to set them apart.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEResnick2017110-128">[128]</a> In South Africa, the populist <a href="/wiki/Julius_Malema" title="Julius Malema">Julius Malema</a> and members of his <a href="/wiki/Economic_Freedom_Fighters" title="Economic Freedom Fighters">Economic Freedom Fighters</a> attended parliament dressed as miners and workers to distinguish themselves from the other politicians wearing suits.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEResnick2017110-128">[128]</a> In instances where wealthy business figures promote populist sentiments, such as <a href="/wiki/Ross_Perot" title="Ross Perot">Ross Perot</a>, Thaksin Shinawatra, or Berlusconi, it can be difficult to present themselves as being outside the elite, however this is achieved by portraying themselves as being apart from the political, if not the economic elite, and portraying themselves as reluctant politicians.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201770–71-133">[133]</a> Mudde and Rovira Kaltwasser noted that "in reality, most populist leaders are very much part of the national elite", typically being highly educated, upper-middle class, middle-aged males from the majority ethnicity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201773–74-134">[134]</a> Mudde and Rovira Kaltwasser suggested that "true outsiders" to the political system are rare, although cited instances like Venezuela's Chávez and Peru's Fujimori.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201774–75-135">[135]</a> More common is that they are "insider-outsiders", strongly connected to the inner circles of government but not having ever been part of it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201775-136">[136]</a> The Dutch right-wing populist <a href="/wiki/Geert_Wilders" title="Geert Wilders">Geert Wilders</a> had for example been a prominent back-bench MP for many years before launching his populist <a href="/wiki/Party_for_Freedom" title="Party for Freedom">Party for Freedom</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201774-124">[124]</a> while in South Africa, Malema had been leader of the governing <a href="/wiki/African_National_Congress" title="African National Congress">African National Congress</a> (ANC) youth league until he was expelled, at which he launched his own populist movement.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEResnick2017111-137">[137]</a> Only a few populist leaders are "insiders", individuals who have held leading roles in government prior to portraying themselves as populists.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201775–76-138">[138]</a> One example is Thaksin Shinawatra, who was twice deputy prime minister of Thailand before launching his own populist political party;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201775–76-138">[138]</a> another is <a href="/wiki/Rafael_Correa" title="Rafael Correa">Rafael Correa</a>, who served as the Ecuadorean finance minister before launching a left-wing populist challenge.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201774-124">[124]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti" /><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:145px;max-width:145px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:189px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:RETRATO_FOTOGR%C3%81FICO_DE_PER%C3%93N.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/RETRATO_FOTOGR%C3%81FICO_DE_PER%C3%93N.jpg/250px-RETRATO_FOTOGR%C3%81FICO_DE_PER%C3%93N.jpg" decoding="async" width="143" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/RETRATO_FOTOGR%C3%81FICO_DE_PER%C3%93N.jpg/330px-RETRATO_FOTOGR%C3%81FICO_DE_PER%C3%93N.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2346" data-file-height="3098" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:143px;max-width:143px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:189px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Pim_Fortuyn_-_May_4.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Pim_Fortuyn_-_May_4.jpg/141px-Pim_Fortuyn_-_May_4.jpg" decoding="async" width="141" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Pim_Fortuyn_-_May_4.jpg/212px-Pim_Fortuyn_-_May_4.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7/Pim_Fortuyn_-_May_4.jpg 2x" data-file-width="245" data-file-height="330" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Some populist leaders give their name to wider populist political movements; examples include the <a href="/wiki/Peronism" title="Peronism">Peronism</a> of <a href="/wiki/Juan_Per%C3%B3n" title="Juan Perón">Juan Perón</a> or the Fortuynism of <a href="/wiki/Pim_Fortuyn" title="Pim Fortuyn">Pim Fortuyn</a>.</div></div></div></div> Populist leaders are sometimes also characterised as <a href="/wiki/Strongman_(politics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Strongman (politics)">strongmen</a> or—in Latin American countries—as <a href="/wiki/Caudillo" title="Caudillo">caudillos</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201763-139">[139]</a> In a number of cases, such as Argentina's Perón or Venezuela's Chávez, these leaders have military backgrounds which contribute to their strongman image.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201763-139">[139]</a> Other populist leaders have also evoked the strongman image without having a military background; these include Italy's Berlusconi, Slovakia's Mečiar, and Thailand's <a href="/wiki/Thaksin_Shinawatra" title="Thaksin Shinawatra">Thaksin Shinawatra</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201763-139">[139]</a> Populism and strongmen are not intrinsically connected, however; as stressed by Mudde and Rovira Kaltwasser, "only a minority of strongmen are populists and only a minority of populists is a strongman".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201763-139">[139]</a> Rather than being populists, many strongmen—such as Spain's Francisco Franco—were elitists who led authoritarian administrations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201763-139">[139]</a> In most cases, these populist leaders built a political organisation around themselves, typically a political party, although in many instances these remain dominated by the leader.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201743–44-140">[140]</a> These individuals often give a populist movement its political identity, as is seen with movements like <a href="/wiki/Fortuynism" title="Fortuynism">Fortuynism</a> in the Netherlands, <a href="/wiki/Peronism" title="Peronism">Peronism</a> in Argentina, <a href="/wiki/Berlusconism" title="Berlusconism">Berlusconism</a> in Italy and <a href="/wiki/Chavismo" title="Chavismo">Chavismo</a> in Venezuela.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201743-116">[116]</a> Populist mobilisation is not however always linked to a charismatic leadership.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201742-141">[141]</a> Mudde and Rovira Kaltwasser suggested that populist personalist leadership was more common in countries with a presidential system rather than a parliamentary one because these allow for the election of a single individual to the role of head of government without the need for an accompanying party.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201758-142">[142]</a> Examples where a populist leader has been elected to the presidency without an accompanying political party have included Peron in Argentina, Fujimori in Peru, and Correa in Ecuador.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201758-142">[142]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Media">Media</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Populism&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Media">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information on the role of the mass media in the emergence of populism: <a href="/wiki/Mediatization_(media)" title="Mediatization (media)">Mediatization (media)</a></div> A subset of populism which deals with the use of media by politicians is called "media populism".<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a><a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a><a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a> Populist leaders often use the media in order to mobilize their support.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERovira_KaltwasserTaggartOchoa_EspejoOstiguy2019270-146">[146]</a> In Latin America, there is a long tradition of using mass media as a way for charismatic leaders to directly communicate with the poorly educated masses, first by radio and then by television.<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> The former Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez had a weekly show called <a href="/wiki/Al%C3%B3_Presidente" title="Aló Presidente">Aló Presidente</a>, which according to historian <a href="/wiki/Enrique_Krauze" title="Enrique Krauze">Enrique Krauze</a> gave some Venezuelans "at least the appearance of contact with power, through his verbal and visual presence, which may be welcomed by people who have spent most of their lives being ignored."<a href="#cite_note-:0-148">[148]</a> The media has also been argued to have helped populists in countries of other regions by giving exposure to the most controversial politicians for commercial reasons.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERovira_KaltwasserTaggartOchoa_EspejoOstiguy2019467-149">[149]</a> <a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Donald Trump</a> was claimed to have received $5 billion worth of free coverage during his 2016 campaign.<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a> <a href="/wiki/Tabloid_journalism" title="Tabloid journalism">Tabloids</a> are often stereotyped as presenting a platform for populist politics due to their tendency toward melodrama, infotainment, and conflict, and thus provide support for populist parties.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAkkerman2011932-151">[151]</a> Examples of this have been the support given by <a href="/wiki/Kronen_Zeitung" title="Kronen Zeitung">Kronen Zeitung</a> to the Austrian Freedom Party and the Berlusconi-owned presses' support for Italy's <a href="/wiki/National_Alliance_(Italy)" title="National Alliance (Italy)">National Alliance</a> in the mid-1990s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAkkerman2011932-151">[151]</a> Based on his analysis of Dutch and British media, Tjitske Akkerman however argued that tabloids were no more prone to populism than the <a href="/wiki/Quality_press" class="mw-redirect" title="Quality press">quality press</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAkkerman2011942-152">[152]</a> In the 21st century, populists have increasingly used <a href="/wiki/Social_media" title="Social media">social media</a> to bypass the mainstream media and directly approach their target audiences.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStierPoschBleierStrohmaier20171365-153">[153]</a> In earlier periods, before radio, thought "mass media" newspapers tended to operate more like social media than modern newspapers, publishing local gossip and with little fact-checking; the expansion of newspapers to rural areas of the United States in the early twentieth century increased support for populist parties and positions.<a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a> It has been claimed that while traditional media, acting as so-called 'gatekeepers', filter the messages that they broadcast through journalistic norms, social media permits a 'direct linkage' from political actors to potential audiences.<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a> It has been claimed that the use of <a href="/wiki/Twitter" title="Twitter">Twitter</a> helped Donald Trump win the US presidency,<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a> while the same has been claimed regarding the use of <a href="/wiki/YouTube" title="YouTube">YouTube</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Jair_Bolsonaro_2018_presidential_campaign" title="Jair Bolsonaro 2018 presidential campaign">Jair Bolsonaro 2018 presidential campaign</a>.<a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Electoral_systems">Electoral systems</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Populism&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Electoral systems">edit</a>]</div> Political systems with low <a href="/wiki/Political_efficacy" title="Political efficacy">political efficacy</a> or high <a href="/wiki/Wasted_vote" title="Wasted vote">wasted votes</a> can contribute to populism.<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a> Populist leaders have been claimed to be more successful in <a href="/wiki/Presidential_system" title="Presidential system">presidential systems</a>. This is because such systems give advantage to charismatic populist leaders, especially when institutionalized parties are weak.<a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a> This is especially the case in two-round systems, because outsiders who might not win most votes in the first round of voting might be able to do so when faced against a mainstream candidate in the second round.<a href="#cite_note-:1-160">[160]</a> This has been claimed to be evident in the <a href="/wiki/1990_Peruvian_general_election" title="1990 Peruvian general election">1990 Peruvian general election</a> won by <a href="/wiki/Alberto_Fujimori" title="Alberto Fujimori">Alberto Fujimori</a>, who lost on the first round.<a href="#cite_note-:1-160">[160]</a> Furthermore, <a href="/wiki/Juan_Jos%C3%A9_Linz" title="Juan José Linz">Juan José Linz</a> has argued that the direct relationship between the president and the electorate fosters a populist perception of the president as representing the whole people and their opponents as resisting the popular will.<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political_parties">Political parties</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Populism&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Political parties">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Acto_de_Posesion_del_Gobernador_Arias_Cardenas.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Acto_de_Posesion_del_Gobernador_Arias_Cardenas.jpg/220px-Acto_de_Posesion_del_Gobernador_Arias_Cardenas.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Acto_de_Posesion_del_Gobernador_Arias_Cardenas.jpg/330px-Acto_de_Posesion_del_Gobernador_Arias_Cardenas.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Acto_de_Posesion_del_Gobernador_Arias_Cardenas.jpg/440px-Acto_de_Posesion_del_Gobernador_Arias_Cardenas.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4288" data-file-height="2784" /></a><figcaption>A 2012 rally by members of the left-wing populist United Socialist Party of Venezuela in <a href="/wiki/Maracaibo" title="Maracaibo">Maracaibo</a></figcaption></figure> Another form of mobilisation is through populist political parties. Populists are not generally opposed to political representation, but merely want their own representatives, those of "the people", in power.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201751-162">[162]</a> In various cases, non-populist political parties have transitioned into populist ones;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201754–55HawkinsRovira_Kaltwasser201910-163">[163]</a> the elitist <a href="/wiki/Socialist_Unity_Party_of_Germany" title="Socialist Unity Party of Germany">Socialist Unity Party of Germany</a>, a Marxist–Leninist group which governed <a href="/wiki/German_Democratic_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="German Democratic Republic">East Germany</a>, later transitioned after German re-unification into a populist party, <a href="/wiki/The_Left_(Germany)" title="The Left (Germany)">The Left</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201754–55-164">[164]</a> In other instances, such as the Austrian FPÖ and Swiss SVP, a non-populist party can have a populist faction which later takes control of the whole party.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201755-165">[165]</a> In some examples where a political party has been dominated by a single charismatic leader, the latter's death has served to unite and strengthen the party, as with Argentina's <a href="/wiki/Justicialist_Party" title="Justicialist Party">Justicialist Party</a> after Juan Perón's death in 1974, or the <a href="/wiki/United_Socialist_Party_of_Venezuela" title="United Socialist Party of Venezuela">United Socialist Party of Venezuela</a> after Chávez's death in 2013.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201756-166">[166]</a> In other cases, a populist party has seen one strong centralising leader replace another, as when <a href="/wiki/Marine_Le_Pen" title="Marine Le Pen">Marine Le Pen</a> replaced her father Jean-Marie as the leader of the National Front in 2011, or when <a href="/wiki/Heinz-Christian_Strache" title="Heinz-Christian Strache">Heinz-Christian Strache</a> took over from Haider as chair of the Freedom Party of Austria in 2005.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201755–56-167">[167]</a> Many populist parties achieve an electoral breakthrough but then fail to gain electoral persistence, with their success fading away at subsequent elections.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201760-168">[168]</a> In various cases, they are able to secure regional strongholds of support but with little support elsewhere in the country; the <a href="/wiki/Alliance_for_the_Future_of_Austria" title="Alliance for the Future of Austria">Alliance for the Future of Austria</a> (BZÖ) for instance gained national representation in the Austrian parliament solely because of its strong support in <a href="/wiki/Carinthia" title="Carinthia">Carinthia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201760-168">[168]</a> Similarly, the Belgian <a href="/wiki/Vlaams_Belang" title="Vlaams Belang">Vlaams Belang</a> party has its stronghold in <a href="/wiki/Antwerp" title="Antwerp">Antwerp</a>, while the <a href="/wiki/Swiss_People%27s_Party" title="Swiss People's Party">Swiss People's Party</a> has its stronghold in <a href="/wiki/Z%C3%BCrich" class="mw-redirect" title="Zürich">Zürich</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201760-168">[168]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_movements">Social movements</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Populism&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Social movements">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Madrid_-_Acampada_Sol_2011_43.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Madrid_-_Acampada_Sol_2011_43.JPG/250px-Madrid_-_Acampada_Sol_2011_43.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Madrid_-_Acampada_Sol_2011_43.JPG/330px-Madrid_-_Acampada_Sol_2011_43.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Madrid_-_Acampada_Sol_2011_43.JPG/500px-Madrid_-_Acampada_Sol_2011_43.JPG 2x" data-file-width="933" data-file-height="1235" /></a><figcaption>"Hear the wrath of the people", a member of the Indignados, a Spanish left-wing populist movement, in <a href="/wiki/Puerta_del_Sol" title="Puerta del Sol">Puerta del Sol</a>, 2011</figcaption></figure> An additional form is that of the populist social movement.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHawkinsRovira_Kaltwasser201910-169">[169]</a> Populist social movements are comparatively rare, as most <a href="/wiki/Social_movement" title="Social movement">social movements</a> focus on a more restricted social identity or issue rather than identifying with "the people" more broadly.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201751-162">[162]</a> However, after the Great Recession of 2007 a number of populist social movements emerged, expressing public frustrations with national and international economic systems. These included the <a href="/wiki/Occupy_movement" title="Occupy movement">Occupy movement</a>, which originated in the US and used the slogan "We are the 99%", and the Spanish <a href="/wiki/Anti-austerity_movement_in_Spain" title="Anti-austerity movement in Spain">Indignados movement</a>, which employed the motto: "real democracy now—we are not goods in the hands of politicians and bankers".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201748-170">[170]</a> Few populist social movements survive for more than a few years, with most examples, like the Occupy movement, petering out after their initial growth.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201756-166">[166]</a> In some cases, the social movement fades away as a strong leader emerges from within it and moves into electoral politics.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201756-166">[166]</a> An example of this can be seen with the <a href="/wiki/India_Against_Corruption" title="India Against Corruption">India Against Corruption</a> social movement, from which emerged <a href="/wiki/Arvind_Kejriwal" title="Arvind Kejriwal">Arvind Kejriwal</a>, who founded the <a href="/wiki/Aam_Aadmi_Party" title="Aam Aadmi Party">Aam Aadmi Party</a> ("Common Man Party").<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201756-166">[166]</a> Another is the Spanish Indignados movement which appeared in 2011 before spawning the <a href="/wiki/Podemos_(Spanish_political_party)" title="Podemos (Spanish political party)">Podemos</a> party led by <a href="/wiki/Pablo_Iglesias_Turri%C3%B3n" title="Pablo Iglesias Turrión">Pablo Iglesias Turrión</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201756–57Tormey2018266–67-171">[171]</a> These populist social movements can exert a broader societal impact which results in populist politicians emerging to prominence; the Tea Party and Occupy movements that appeared in the US during the late 2000s and early 2010s have been seen as an influence on the rise of Donald Trump and <a href="/wiki/Bernie_Sanders" title="Bernie Sanders">Bernie Sanders</a> as prominent figures in the mid-2010s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHawkinsRovira_Kaltwasser201911-172">[172]</a> Some populist leaders have sought to broaden their support by creating supporter groups within the country. Chavez, for instance, ordered the formation of Bolivarian Circles, Communal Councils, Urban Land Committees, and Technical Water Roundtables across Venezuela.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_la_Torre2017205-173">[173]</a> These could improve political participation among poorer sectors of Venezuelan society, although also served as networks through which the state transferred resources to those neighbourhoods which produced high rates of support for Chavez government.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_la_Torre2017205-173">[173]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_themes">Other themes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Populism&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Other themes">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mainstream_responses">Mainstream responses</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Populism&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Mainstream responses">edit</a>]</div> Mudde and Rovira Kaltwasser suggested that to deflate the appeal of populism, those government figures found guilty of corruption need to be seen to face adequate punishment.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser2017110-174">[174]</a> They also argued that stronger <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">rule of law</a> and the elimination of systemic corruption were also important facets in preventing populist growth.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser2017111-175">[175]</a> They believed that mainstream politicians wishing to reduce the populist challenge should be more open about the restrictions of their power, noting that those who backed populist movements were often frustrated with the dishonesty of established politicians who "claim full agency when things go well and almost full lack of agency when things go wrong".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser2017112-176">[176]</a> They also suggested that the appeal of populism could be reduced by wider civic education in the values of liberal democracy and the relevance of pluralism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser2017112-176">[176]</a> What Mudde and Rovira Kaltwasser believed was ineffective was a full-frontal attack on the populists which presented "them" as "evil" or "foolish", for this strategy plays into the binary division that populists themselves employ.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser2017116-177">[177]</a> In their view, "the best way to deal with populism is to engage—as difficult as it is—in an open dialogue with populist actors and supporters" in order to "better understand the claims and grievances of the populist elites and masses and to develop liberal democratic responses to them".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser2017118-178">[178]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:25em; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> In trying to win over populist supporters, and perhaps even some elites, liberal democrats should avoid both simplistic solutions that pander to "the people" and elitist discourses that dismiss the moral and intellectual competence of ordinary citizens – both will only strengthen the populists. Most importantly, given that populism often asks the right questions but provides the wrong answers, the ultimate goal should be not just the destruction of populist supply, but also the weakening of populist demand. Only the latter will actually strengthen liberal democracy. </blockquote> <div style="padding-bottom: 0; padding-top: 0.5em"><cite class="left-aligned" style="">Political scientists Mudde and Rovira Kaltwasser<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser2017118-178">[178]</a></cite></div> </div> Mainstream politicians have sometimes sought to co-operate or build alliances with populists. In the United States, for example, various Republican Party figures aligned themselves with the Tea Party movement, while in countries such as Finland and Austria populist parties have taken part in governing coalitions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser2017113-179">[179]</a> In other instances, mainstream politicians have adopted elements of a populist political style while competing against populist opponents.<a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a> Various mainstream centrist figures, such as <a href="/wiki/Hillary_Clinton" title="Hillary Clinton">Hillary Clinton</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tony_Blair" title="Tony Blair">Tony Blair</a>, have argued that governments needed to restrict migration to hinder the appeal of right-wing populists utilising anti-immigrant sentiment in elections.<a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a><a href="#cite_note-182">[182]</a> A more common approach has been for mainstream parties to openly attack the populists and construct a <a href="/wiki/Cordon_sanitaire_(politics)" title="Cordon sanitaire (politics)">cordon sanitaire</a> to prevent them from gaining political office.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser2017113-179">[179]</a> Once populists are in political office in liberal democracies, the judiciary can play a key role in blocking some of their more illiberal policies, as has been the case in Slovakia and Poland.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser2017114-183">[183]</a> The mainstream media can play an important role in blocking populist growth; in a country like Germany, the mainstream media is for instant resolutely anti-populist, opposing populist groups whether left or right.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser2017114-183">[183]</a> Mudde and Rovira Kaltwasser noted that there was an "odd love-hate relationship between populist media and politicians, sharing a discourse but not a struggle".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser2017115-184">[184]</a> In certain countries, certain mainstream media outlets have supported populist groups; in Austria, the Kronen Zeitung played a prominent role in endorsing Haider, in the United Kingdom the <a href="/wiki/Daily_Express" title="Daily Express">Daily Express</a> supported the <a href="/wiki/UK_Independence_Party" title="UK Independence Party">UK Independence Party</a>, while in the United States, <a href="/wiki/Fox_News" title="Fox News">Fox News</a> gave much positive coverage and encouragement to the Tea Party movement.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser2017114-183">[183]</a> In some cases, when the populists have taken power, their political rivals have sought to violently overthrow them; this was seen in the <a href="/wiki/2002_Venezuelan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_attempt" class="mw-redirect" title="2002 Venezuelan coup d'état attempt">2002 Venezuelan coup d'état attempt</a>, when mainstream groups worked with sectors of the military to unseat Hugo Chávez's government.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser2017113-179">[179]</a> Another discursive strategy of mainstream parties dealing with populist actors is demonization.<a href="#cite_note-185">[185]</a><a href="#cite_note-186">[186]</a> However, Schwörer and Fernández-García found that this practice is less common in Western Europe as usually assumed and that the center-right even refuses to harshly attack the populist radical right.<a href="#cite_note-187">[187]</a> In a similar vein, mainstream parties use the term "populism" to delegitimize populist actors due to its negative connotation among the public but also use the term to attack non-populist competitors.<a href="#cite_note-188">[188]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Populism&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Authoritarianism">edit</a>]</div> Scholars have argued that populist elements have sometimes appeared in <a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">authoritarian</a> movements.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerkiss1957-189">[189]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDobratzShanks–Meile1988-190">[190]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBerletLyons2000-191">[191]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFritzsche1990-192">[192]</a><a href="#cite_note-193">[193]</a><a href="#cite_note-194">[194]</a> Some, but not all, populists are authoritarian, with many (especially <a href="/wiki/Right-wing_populism" title="Right-wing populism">right-wing populists</a>) emphasizing "the importance of protecting <a href="/wiki/Traditionalist_conservatism" title="Traditionalist conservatism">traditional</a> lifestyles against perceived threats from 'outsiders', even at the expense of civil liberties and <a href="/wiki/Minority_rights" title="Minority rights">minority rights</a>."<a href="#cite_note-Norris2-195">[195]</a> In states with a weak legacy of <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">rule of law</a>, populists are most likely to succeed at dismantling institutional constraints on their rule.<a href="#cite_note-196">[196]</a> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1987-0410-503,_N%C3%BCrnberg,_Reichsparteitag,_Wehrmachts-Aufmarsch.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1987-0410-503%2C_N%C3%BCrnberg%2C_Reichsparteitag%2C_Wehrmachts-Aufmarsch.jpg/240px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1987-0410-503%2C_N%C3%BCrnberg%2C_Reichsparteitag%2C_Wehrmachts-Aufmarsch.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1987-0410-503%2C_N%C3%BCrnberg%2C_Reichsparteitag%2C_Wehrmachts-Aufmarsch.jpg/360px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1987-0410-503%2C_N%C3%BCrnberg%2C_Reichsparteitag%2C_Wehrmachts-Aufmarsch.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1987-0410-503%2C_N%C3%BCrnberg%2C_Reichsparteitag%2C_Wehrmachts-Aufmarsch.jpg/480px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1987-0410-503%2C_N%C3%BCrnberg%2C_Reichsparteitag%2C_Wehrmachts-Aufmarsch.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="561" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Rally" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuremberg Rally">Nazi Party rally</a> in <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg" title="Nuremberg">Nuremberg</a>, 1936</figcaption></figure> The historian <a href="/wiki/Roger_Eatwell" title="Roger Eatwell">Roger Eatwell</a> noted that "major ideological differences ... lie at the core" of fascism and populism, the former being anti-democratic and latter being rooted in democracy, "albeit not liberal democracy".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEatwell2017381-197">[197]</a> However, he says that fascist politicians have "borrowed aspects of populist discourse and style".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEatwell2017363-198">[198]</a> Some fascists have for instance used the terms "people" and "nation" synonymously.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEatwell2017369-199">[199]</a> The historian Peter Fritzsche argued that populist movements active in <a href="/wiki/Weimar_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Weimar Germany">Weimar Germany</a> helped to facilitate the environment in which the fascist <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Party" title="Nazi Party">Nazi Party</a> could rise to power,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFritzsche1990149–150-200">[200]</a> and that the Nazis utilised, "at least rhetorically", the "populist ideal of the people's community".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFritzsche1990233–235-201">[201]</a> The scholar Luke March argued that the populist <a href="/wiki/Narodnik" class="mw-redirect" title="Narodnik">Narodnik</a> movement of late 19th-century Russia influenced the radical rejection on the constitutional limits of the state found in <a href="/wiki/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism" title="Marxism–Leninism">Marxism–Leninism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarch200765-202">[202]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles#Stay_on_topic" title="Wikipedia:Writing better articles">relevant?</a>] Although the Marxist–Leninist movement often used populist rhetoric—in the 1960s, the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Communist Party of the Soviet Union</a> called itself the "party of the Soviet people"—in practice its emphasis on an elite vanguard is anti-populist in basis.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarch200765–66-203">[203]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles#Stay_on_topic" title="Wikipedia:Writing better articles">relevant?</a>] In recent history, a 2018 analysis by political scientists <a href="/wiki/Yascha_Mounk" title="Yascha Mounk">Yascha Mounk</a> and Jordan Kyle links populism to democratic backsliding, showing that since 1990, five out of 13 elected right-wing populist governments and five out of 15 elected left-wing populist governments brought about significant democratic backsliding.<a href="#cite_note-204">[204]</a> From the left, the <a href="/wiki/Pink_tide" title="Pink tide">pink tide</a> spreading over Latin America was "prone to populism and authoritarianism".<a href="#cite_note-ISBESTER-205">[205]</a> Correa in Ecuador<a href="#cite_note-206">[206]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hugo_Ch%C3%A1vez" title="Hugo Chávez">Hugo Chávez</a> in Venezuela and his regional allies<a href="#cite_note-207">[207]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_la_Torre2017202-120">[120]</a> used populism to achieve their dominance and later established authoritarian regimes when they were empowered. Such actions, Weyland argues, proves that populism is a strategy for winning and exerting state power and stands in tension with democracy and the values of pluralism, open debate, and fair competition.<a href="#cite_note-JODweyland-208">[208]</a> In 2019, <a href="/wiki/Pippa_Norris" title="Pippa Norris">Pippa Norris</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Inglehart" title="Ronald Inglehart">Ronald Inglehart</a> classified over 50 European political parties as "authoritarian-populist" as well as world leaders like <a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Donald Trump</a>, <a href="/wiki/Silvio_Berlusconi" title="Silvio Berlusconi">Silvio Berlusconi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Viktor_Orb%C3%A1n" title="Viktor Orbán">Viktor Orbán</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hugo_Ch%C3%A1vez" title="Hugo Chávez">Hugo Chávez</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nicol%C3%A1s_Maduro" title="Nicolás Maduro">Nicolás Maduro</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jair_Bolsonaro" title="Jair Bolsonaro">Jair Bolsonaro</a>, <a href="/wiki/Narendra_Modi" title="Narendra Modi">Narendra Modi</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Rodrigo_Duterte" title="Rodrigo Duterte">Rodrigo Duterte</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:4-209">[209]</a> They described the combination of authoritarian values disguised in populist rhetoric as perhaps the most dangerous threat to liberal democracy.<a href="#cite_note-210">[210]</a> They also argue that authoritarian-populism provides a more powerful analytical lens than conventional labels like <a href="/wiki/Right-wing_populism" title="Right-wing populism">right-wing populism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-211">[211]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Populism&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1224211176" /><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:25em; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> Although the term "populist" can be traced back to populares (courting the people) Senators in Ancient Rome, the first political movements emerged during the late nineteenth century. However, some of the movements that have been portrayed as progenitors of modern populism did not develop a truly populist ideology. It was only with the coming of Boulangism in France and the American People's Party, which was also known as the Populist Party, that the foundational forms of populism can fully be discerned. In particular, it was during this era that terms such as "people" and "popular sovereignty" became a major part of the vocabulary of insurgent political movements that courted mass support among an expanding electorate by claiming that they uniquely embodied their interests[.] </blockquote> <div style="padding-bottom: 0; padding-top: 0.5em"><cite class="left-aligned" style="">Political historian Roger Eatwell<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEatwell2017365–366-212">[212]</a></cite></div> </div> Mudde and Rovira Kaltwasser argue that populism is a modern phenomenon.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201721-213">[213]</a> However, attempts have been made to identify manifestations of populism in the democracy of classical Athens.<a href="#cite_note-214">[214]</a> Eatwell noted that although the actual term populism parallels that of the <a href="/wiki/Populares" class="mw-redirect" title="Populares">Populares</a> who were active in the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a>, these and other pre-modern groups "did not develop a truly populist ideology."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEatwell2017365-215">[215]</a> The origins of populism are often traced to the late nineteenth century, when movements calling themselves populist arose in both the United States and the Russian Empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEatwell2017365MuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201721-216">[216]</a> Populism has often been linked to the spread of <a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">democracy</a>, both as an idea and as a framework for governance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201721-213">[213]</a> Conversely, the historian <a href="/wiki/Barry_S._Strauss" title="Barry S. Strauss">Barry S. Strauss</a> argued that populism could also be seen in the ancient world, citing the examples of the fifth-century B.C. Athens and <a href="/wiki/Populares" class="mw-redirect" title="Populares">Populares</a>, a political faction active in the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a> from the second century BCE.<a href="#cite_note-217">[217]</a> The historian Rachel Foxley argued that the <a href="/wiki/Levellers" title="Levellers">Levellers</a> of 17th-century England could also be labelled "populists", meaning that they believed "equal natural rights ... must shape political life"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoxley2013207-218">[218]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] while the historian Peter Blickle linked populism to the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-219">[219]</a><a href="#cite_note-220">[220]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Europe">Europe</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Populism&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Europe">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Populism_in_Europe" title="Populism in Europe">Populism in Europe</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="19th_and_20th_centuries">19th and 20th centuries</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Populism&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: 19th and 20th centuries">edit</a>]</div> In the Russian Empire during the late 19th century, the <a href="/wiki/Narodnichestvo" class="mw-redirect" title="Narodnichestvo">narodnichestvo</a> movement emerged, championing the cause of the empire's peasantry against the governing elites.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201732-221">[221]</a> The movement was unable to secure its objectives; however, it inspired other agrarian movements across eastern Europe in the early 20th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201733-222">[222]</a> Although the Russian movement was primarily a movement of the middle class and intellectuals "going to the people", in some respects their agrarian populism was similar to that of the US People's Party, with both presenting small farmers (the peasantry in Europe) as the foundation of society and main source of societal morality.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201733-222">[222]</a> According to Eatwell, the narodniks "are often seen as the first populist movement".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEatwell2017366-15">[15]</a> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arrest_of_a_Propagandist.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Arrest_of_a_Propagandist.jpg/250px-Arrest_of_a_Propagandist.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Arrest_of_a_Propagandist.jpg/500px-Arrest_of_a_Propagandist.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1325" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ilya_Repin" title="Ilya Repin">Ilya Repin</a>'s painting, Arrest of a Propagandist (1892), which depicts the arrest of a narodnik</figcaption></figure> In German-speaking Europe, the <a href="/wiki/V%C3%B6lkisch_movement" title="Völkisch movement">völkisch movement</a> has often been characterised as populist, with its exultation of the German people and its anti-elitist attacks on capitalism and Jews.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEatwell2017366-15">[15]</a> In France, the <a href="/wiki/Georges_Ernest_Boulanger" title="Georges Ernest Boulanger">Boulangist movement</a> also utilised populist rhetoric and themes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEatwell2017366–367-223">[223]</a> In the early 20th century, adherents of both <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">fascism</a> flirted with populism, but both movements remained ultimately elitist, emphasising the idea of a small elite who should guide and govern society.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201733-222">[222]</a> Among Marxists, the emphasis on <a href="/wiki/Class_struggle" class="mw-redirect" title="Class struggle">class struggle</a> and the idea that the working classes are affected by <a href="/wiki/False_consciousness" title="False consciousness">false consciousness</a> are also antithetical to populist ideas.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201733-222">[222]</a> After 1945 populism was largely absent from Europe, in part due to the domination of Marxism–Leninism in Eastern Europe and a desire to emphasise moderation among many West European political parties.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201733–34-224">[224]</a> However, over the coming decades, a number of right-wing populist parties emerged throughout the continent.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMudde2004548-225">[225]</a> These were largely isolated and mostly reflected a conservative agricultural backlash against the centralisation and politicisation of the agricultural sector then occurring.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201734-226">[226]</a> These included <a href="/wiki/Guglielmo_Giannini" title="Guglielmo Giannini">Guglielmo Giannini</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Common_Man%27s_Front" title="Common Man's Front">Common Man's Front</a> in 1940s Italy, <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Poujade" title="Pierre Poujade">Pierre Poujade</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Union_for_the_Defense_of_Tradesmen_and_Artisans" title="Union for the Defense of Tradesmen and Artisans">Union for the Defense of Tradesmen and Artisans</a> in late 1950s France, <a href="/wiki/Hendrik_Koekoek" title="Hendrik Koekoek">Hendrik Koekoek</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Farmers%27_Party_(Netherlands)" title="Farmers' Party (Netherlands)">Farmers' Party</a> of the 1960s Netherlands, and <a href="/wiki/Mogens_Glistrup" title="Mogens Glistrup">Mogens Glistrup</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Progress_Party_(Denmark)" title="Progress Party (Denmark)">Progress Party</a> of 1970s Denmark.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMudde2004548-225">[225]</a> Between the late 1960s and the early 1980s there also came a concerted populist critique of society from Europe's <a href="/wiki/New_Left" title="New Left">New Left</a>, including from the <a href="/wiki/New_social_movements" title="New social movements">new social movements</a> and from the early <a href="/wiki/Green_politics" title="Green politics">Green parties</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMudde2004548March200766-227">[227]</a> However it was only in the late 1990s, according to Mudde and Rovira Kaltwasser, that populism became "a relevant political force in Europe", one which could have a significant impact on mainstream politics.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201734-226">[226]</a> Following the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Fall of the Soviet Union">fall of the Soviet Union</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a> of the early 1990s, there was a rise in populism across much of Central and Eastern Europe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201735-228">[228]</a> In the first multiparty elections in many of these countries, various parties portrayed themselves as representatives of "the people" against the "elite", representing the old governing Marxist–Leninist parties.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201736-229">[229]</a> The Czech <a href="/wiki/Civic_Forum" title="Civic Forum">Civic Forum</a> party for instance campaigned on the slogan "Parties are for party members, Civic Forum is for everybody".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201736-229">[229]</a> Many populists in this region claimed that a "real" revolution had not occurred during the transition from Marxist–Leninist to liberal democratic governance in the early 1990s and that it was they who were campaigning for such a change.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201737-230">[230]</a> The collapse of Marxism–Leninism as a central force in socialist politics also led to a broader growth of left-wing populism across Europe, reflected in groups like the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Socialist_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch Socialist Party">Dutch Socialist Party</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Socialist_Party" title="Scottish Socialist Party">Scottish Socialist Party</a>, and German's <a href="/wiki/The_Left_(Germany)" title="The Left (Germany)">The Left</a> party.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarch200767-231">[231]</a> Since the late 1980s, populist experiences emerged in Spain around the figures of <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Mar%C3%ADa_Ruiz_Mateos" class="mw-redirect" title="José María Ruiz Mateos">José María Ruiz Mateos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jes%C3%BAs_Gil" title="Jesús Gil">Jesús Gil</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mario_Conde" title="Mario Conde">Mario Conde</a>, businessmen who entered politics chiefly to defend their personal economic interests, but by the turn of the millennium their proposals had proved to meet a limited support at the ballots at the national level.<a href="#cite_note-232">[232]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="21st_century">21st century</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Populism&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: 21st century">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Right-wing_populist_parties_in_European_national_parliaments_(October_2019).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Right-wing_populist_parties_in_European_national_parliaments_%28October_2019%29.png/250px-Right-wing_populist_parties_in_European_national_parliaments_%28October_2019%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Right-wing_populist_parties_in_European_national_parliaments_%28October_2019%29.png/330px-Right-wing_populist_parties_in_European_national_parliaments_%28October_2019%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Right-wing_populist_parties_in_European_national_parliaments_%28October_2019%29.png/500px-Right-wing_populist_parties_in_European_national_parliaments_%28October_2019%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1189" data-file-height="1198" /></a><figcaption>European national parliaments with representatives from right-wing populist parties in July 2023:[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Right-wing populists represented in the parliament Right-wing populists providing external support for government Right-wing populists involved in the government Right-wing populists appoint prime minister/president</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jean_Marie_LePen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Jean_Marie_LePen.jpg/250px-Jean_Marie_LePen.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Jean_Marie_LePen.jpg/330px-Jean_Marie_LePen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Jean_Marie_LePen.jpg/500px-Jean_Marie_LePen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1312" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Jean-Marie_Le_Pen" title="Jean-Marie Le Pen">Jean-Marie Le Pen</a>, founder and leader of the <a href="/wiki/French_National_Front" class="mw-redirect" title="French National Front">French National Front</a>, the "prototypical radical right party" which used populism to advance its cause<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201734–35-233">[233]</a></figcaption></figure> At the turn of the 21st century, populist rhetoric and movements became increasingly apparent in Western Europe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMudde2004550AlbertazziMcDonnell20082-234">[234]</a> Populist rhetoric was often used by opposition parties. For example, in <a href="/wiki/2001_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="2001 United Kingdom general election">the 2001 electoral campaign</a>, the Conservative Party leader <a href="/wiki/William_Hague" title="William Hague">William Hague</a> accused <a href="/wiki/Tony_Blair" title="Tony Blair">Tony Blair</a>'s governing <a href="/wiki/Labour_Party_(UK)" title="Labour Party (UK)">Labour Party</a> government of representing "the condescending liberal elite". Hague repeatedly referring to it as "metropolitan", implying that it was out of touch with "the people", who in Conservative discourse are represented by "Middle England".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMudde2004550-235">[235]</a> Blair's government also employed populist rhetoric; in outlining legislation to curtail <a href="/wiki/Fox_hunting" title="Fox hunting">fox hunting</a> on <a href="/wiki/Animal_welfare" title="Animal welfare">animal welfare</a> grounds, it presented itself as championing the desires of the majority against the upper-classes who engaged in the sport.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMudde2004551-236">[236]</a> Blair's rhetoric has been characterised as the adoption of a populist style rather than the expression of an underlying populist ideology.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBangMarsh2018354-237">[237]</a> By the 21st century, European populism<a href="#cite_note-238">[238]</a> was again associated largely with the political right.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMudde2004549-239">[239]</a> The term came to be used in reference both to <a href="/wiki/Radical_right_(Europe)" title="Radical right (Europe)">radical right</a> groups like Jörg Haider's FPÖ in Austria and Jean-Marie Le Pen's FN in France, as well as to non-radical right-wing groups like <a href="/wiki/Silvio_Berlusconi" title="Silvio Berlusconi">Silvio Berlusconi</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Forza_Italia" title="Forza Italia">Forza Italia</a> or <a href="/wiki/Pim_Fortuyn" title="Pim Fortuyn">Pim Fortuyn</a>'s LPF in the Netherlands.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMudde2004549-239">[239]</a> The populist radical right combined populism with authoritarianism and nativism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201734-226">[226]</a><a href="#cite_note-240">[240]</a> Conversely, the Great Recession also resulted in the emergence of left-wing populist groups in parts of Europe, most notably the <a href="/wiki/Syriza" title="Syriza">Syriza</a> party which gained political office in Greece and the Podemos party in Spain, displaying similarities with the US-based Occupy movement.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201737-230">[230]</a> Like Europe's right-wing populists, these groups also expressed <a href="/wiki/Eurosceptic" class="mw-redirect" title="Eurosceptic">Eurosceptic</a> sentiment towards the European Union, albeit largely from a socialist and anti-austerity perspective rather than the nationalist perspective adopted by their right-wing counterparts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201737-230">[230]</a> Populists have entered government in many countries across Europe, both in coalitions with other parties as well by themselves, Austria and Poland are examples of these respectively.<a href="#cite_note-241">[241]</a> The UK <a href="/wiki/Labour_Party_(UK)" title="Labour Party (UK)">Labour Party</a> under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Corbyn" title="Jeremy Corbyn">Jeremy Corbyn</a> has been called populist,<a href="#cite_note-Labour_plans_Jeremy_Corbyn_relaunch_to_ride_anti-establishment_wave-242">[242]</a><a href="#cite_note-Could_Corbyn_trigger_the_next_populist_political_earthquake?-243">[243]</a><a href="#cite_note-Labour_is_running_a_great_risk_with_its_populist_turn-244">[244]</a> with the slogan "for the many not the few" having been used.<a href="#cite_note-As_Labour’s_new_dawn_fades,_populists_offer_false_promise-245">[245]</a><a href="#cite_note-Why_Jeremy_Corbyn_cannot_copy_Donald_Trump’s_populism-246">[246]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">failed verification</a>]<a href="#cite_note-Blair:_Failing_Tories_spend_no_time_worrying_about_the_threat_from_Labour_{{!}}_LabourList-247">[247]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">failed verification</a>] After the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_European_Union_membership_referendum,_2016" class="mw-redirect" title="United Kingdom European Union membership referendum, 2016">2016 UK referendum on membership of the European Union</a>, in which British citizens voted to leave, some have claimed the "<a href="/wiki/Brexit" title="Brexit">Brexit</a>" as a victory for populism, encouraging a flurry of calls for referendums among other <a href="/wiki/Member_state_of_the_European_Union" title="Member state of the European Union">EU countries</a> by populist political parties.<a href="#cite_note-248">[248]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="North_America">North America</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Populism&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: North America">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Populism_in_the_United_States" title="Populism in the United States">Populism in the United States</a> and <a href="/wiki/Populism_in_Canada" title="Populism in Canada">Populism in Canada</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti" /><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:254px;max-width:254px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:252px;max-width:252px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Bernie_Sanders_by_Gage_Skidmore.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Bernie_Sanders_by_Gage_Skidmore.jpg/250px-Bernie_Sanders_by_Gage_Skidmore.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Bernie_Sanders_by_Gage_Skidmore.jpg/375px-Bernie_Sanders_by_Gage_Skidmore.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Bernie_Sanders_by_Gage_Skidmore.jpg/500px-Bernie_Sanders_by_Gage_Skidmore.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3161" data-file-height="2107" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:252px;max-width:252px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Donald_Trump_by_Gage_Skidmore_5.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Donald_Trump_by_Gage_Skidmore_5.jpg/250px-Donald_Trump_by_Gage_Skidmore_5.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Donald_Trump_by_Gage_Skidmore_5.jpg/500px-Donald_Trump_by_Gage_Skidmore_5.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="4272" data-file-height="2848" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flow-root"><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align:left/right/center">The <a href="/wiki/2016_United_States_presidential_election" title="2016 United States presidential election">2016 presidential election</a> saw a wave of populist sentiment in the campaigns of <a href="/wiki/Bernie_Sanders_presidential_campaign,_2016" class="mw-redirect" title="Bernie Sanders presidential campaign, 2016">Bernie Sanders</a> and <a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump_presidential_campaign,_2016" class="mw-redirect" title="Donald Trump presidential campaign, 2016">Donald Trump</a>, with both candidates running on <a href="/wiki/Anti-establishment" title="Anti-establishment">anti-establishment</a> platforms in the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republican</a> parties, respectively.</div></div></div></div> In North America, populism has often been characterised by regional mobilisation and loose organisation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201722-249">[249]</a> During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, populist sentiments became widespread, particularly in the western provinces of Canada, and in the southwest and Great Plains regions of the United States. In this instance, populism was combined with <a href="/wiki/Agrarianism" title="Agrarianism">agrarianism</a> and often known as "prairie populism".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201723-250">[250]</a> For these groups, "the people" were yeomen—small, independent farmers—while the "elite" were the bankers and politicians of the northeast.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201723-250">[250]</a> In some cases, populist activists called for alliances with labor (the first national platform of the National People's Party in 1892 calling for protecting the rights of "urban workmen".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETindall196690-251">[251]</a> In the state of Georgia in the early 1890s, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_E._Watson" title="Thomas E. Watson">Thomas E. Watson</a> led a major effort to unite poor white farmers, and included some African-American farmers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETindall1966118-252">[252]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodward1938-253">[253]</a> The <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Party_(United_States)" title="People's Party (United States)">People's Party</a> of the late 19th century United States is considered to be "one of the defining populist movements";<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMudde2004548-225">[225]</a> its members were often referred to as the Populists at the time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201723-250">[250]</a> Its radical platform included calling for the nationalisation of railways, the banning of strikebreakers, and the introduction of referendums.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECanovan198117-254">[254]</a> The party gained representation in several state legislatures during the 1890s, but was not powerful enough to mount a successful presidential challenge. In the <a href="/wiki/1896_United_States_presidential_election" title="1896 United States presidential election">1896 presidential election</a>, the People's Party supported the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="History of the Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic Party</a> candidate <a href="/wiki/William_Jennings_Bryan" title="William Jennings Bryan">William Jennings Bryan</a>; after his defeat, the People's Party's support plunged.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECanovan198117–18,_44–46MuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201723-255">[255]</a> Other early populist political parties in the United States included the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Greenback_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Greenback Party">Greenback Party</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Progressive_Party_(United_States,_1924)" class="mw-redirect" title="Progressive Party (United States, 1924)">Progressive Party of 1924</a> led by <a href="/wiki/Robert_M._La_Follette,_Sr." class="mw-redirect" title="Robert M. La Follette, Sr.">Robert M. La Follette, Sr.</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Share_Our_Wealth" title="Share Our Wealth">Share Our Wealth</a> movement of <a href="/wiki/Huey_P._Long" class="mw-redirect" title="Huey P. Long">Huey P. Long</a> in 1933–1935.<a href="#cite_note-256">[256]</a><a href="#cite_note-257">[257]</a> In Canada, populist groups adhering to a <a href="/wiki/Social_credit" title="Social credit">social credit</a> ideology had various successes at local and regional elections from the 1930s to the 1960s, although the main <a href="/wiki/Social_Credit_Party_of_Canada" title="Social Credit Party of Canada">Social Credit Party of Canada</a> never became a dominant national force.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201723–24-258">[258]</a> By the mid-20th century, US populism had moved from a largely <a href="/wiki/Progressivism" title="Progressivism">progressive</a> to a largely <a href="/wiki/Reactionary" title="Reactionary">reactionary</a> stance, being closely intertwined with the <a href="/wiki/Anti-communist" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-communist">anti-communist</a> politics of the period.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201724-259">[259]</a> In this period, the historian <a href="/wiki/Richard_Hofstadter" title="Richard Hofstadter">Richard Hofstadter</a> and sociologist <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Bell" title="Daniel Bell">Daniel Bell</a> compared the anti-elitism of the 1890s Populists with that of <a href="/wiki/Joseph_McCarthy" title="Joseph McCarthy">Joseph McCarthy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-mkazin1-260">[260]</a> Although not all academics accepted the comparison between the left-wing, anti-<a href="/wiki/Big_business" title="Big business">big business</a> Populists and the right-wing, anti-communist McCarthyites, the term "populist" nonetheless came to be applied to both left-wing and right-wing groups that blamed elites for the problems facing the country.<a href="#cite_note-mkazin1-260">[260]</a> Some mainstream politicians in the Republican Party recognised the utility of such a tactic and adopted it; Republican President <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a> for instance popularised the term "<a href="/wiki/Silent_majority" title="Silent majority">silent majority</a>" when appealing to voters.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201724-259">[259]</a> Right-wing populist rhetoric was also at the base of two of the most successful third-party presidential campaigns in the late 20th century, that of <a href="/wiki/George_C._Wallace" class="mw-redirect" title="George C. Wallace">George C. Wallace</a> in <a href="/wiki/1968_United_States_presidential_election" title="1968 United States presidential election">1968</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ross_Perot" title="Ross Perot">Ross Perot</a> in <a href="/wiki/1992_United_States_presidential_election" title="1992 United States presidential election">1992</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201725-3">[3]</a> These politicians presented a consistent message that a "liberal elite" was threatening "our way of life" and using the welfare state to placate the poor and thus maintain their own power.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201725-3">[3]</a> Former Oklahoma Senator <a href="/wiki/Fred_R._Harris" title="Fred R. Harris">Fred R. Harris</a>, first elected in 1964, ran unsuccessfully for the US presidency in 1972 and 1976. Harris' New Populism embraced egalitarian themes.<a href="#cite_note-261">[261]</a> In the first decade of the 21st century, two populist movements appeared in the US, both in response to the <a href="/wiki/Great_Recession" title="Great Recession">Great Recession</a>: the <a href="/wiki/Occupy_movement" title="Occupy movement">Occupy movement</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Tea_Party_movement" title="Tea Party movement">Tea Party movement</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201726-262">[262]</a> The populist approach of the Occupy movement was broader, with its "people" being what it called "<a href="/wiki/We_are_the_99%25" title="We are the 99%">the 99%</a>", while the "elite" it challenged was presented as both the economic and political elites.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201726–27-263">[263]</a> The Tea Party's populism was <a href="/wiki/Producerist" class="mw-redirect" title="Producerist">Producerism</a>, while "the elite" it presented was more party partisan than that of Occupy, being defined largely—although not exclusively—as the Democratic administration of President <a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201726–27-263">[263]</a> The <a href="/wiki/2016_United_States_presidential_election" title="2016 United States presidential election">2016 presidential election</a> saw a wave of populist sentiment in the campaigns of <a href="/wiki/Bernie_Sanders_presidential_campaign,_2016" class="mw-redirect" title="Bernie Sanders presidential campaign, 2016">Bernie Sanders</a> and <a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump_presidential_campaign,_2016" class="mw-redirect" title="Donald Trump presidential campaign, 2016">Donald Trump</a>, with both candidates running on <a href="/wiki/Anti-establishment" title="Anti-establishment">anti-establishment</a> platforms in the Democratic and Republican parties, respectively.<a href="#cite_note-264">[264]</a> Both campaigns criticised free trade deals such as the <a href="/wiki/North_American_Free_Trade_Agreement" title="North American Free Trade Agreement">North American Free Trade Agreement</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Trans-Pacific_Partnership" title="Trans-Pacific Partnership">Trans-Pacific Partnership</a> but differed significantly on other issues, such as immigration.<a href="#cite_note-265">[265]</a><a href="#cite_note-266">[266]</a><a href="#cite_note-267">[267]</a><a href="#cite_note-268">[268]</a> Other studies have noted an emergence of populist rhetoric and a decline in the value of prior experience in U.S. intra-party contests such as congressional primaries.<a href="#cite_note-269">[269]</a> <a href="/wiki/Nativism_(politics)" title="Nativism (politics)">Nativism</a> and hostility toward immigrants (especially Muslims, Hispanics and Asians) were common features.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMudde2012-270">[270]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Latin_America">Latin America</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Populism&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Latin America">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Populism_in_Latin_America" title="Populism in Latin America">Populism in Latin America</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Javier_Milei_en_el_Sal%C3%B3n_Blanco_2_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Javier_Milei_en_el_Sal%C3%B3n_Blanco_2_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Javier_Milei_en_el_Sal%C3%B3n_Blanco_2_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="290" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Javier_Milei_en_el_Sal%C3%B3n_Blanco_2_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Javier_Milei_en_el_Sal%C3%B3n_Blanco_2_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Javier_Milei_en_el_Sal%C3%B3n_Blanco_2_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Javier_Milei_en_el_Sal%C3%B3n_Blanco_2_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3203" data-file-height="4226" /></a><figcaption>Javier Milei, Argentina President, is a well known libertarian populist.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQadir2024259-271">[271]</a></figcaption></figure> Populism has been dominant in Latin American politics since the 1930s and 1940s,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_la_Torre2017195-272">[272]</a> being far more prevalent there than in Europe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarch200769-273">[273]</a> Mudde and Rovira Kaltwasser noted that the region has the world's "most enduring and prevalent populist tradition".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201727-274">[274]</a> They suggested that this was the case because it was a region with a long tradition of democratic governance and free elections, but with high rates of socio-economic inequality, generating widespread resentments that politicians can articulate through populism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201727–28-275">[275]</a> March instead thought that it was the important role of "catch-all parties and prominent personalities" in Latin American politics which had made populism more common.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarch200769-273">[273]</a> The first wave of Latin American populism began at the start of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a> in 1929 and last until the end of the 1960s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201728-276">[276]</a> In various countries, politicians took power while emphasising "the people": these included <a href="/wiki/Get%C3%BAlio_Vargas" title="Getúlio Vargas">Getúlio Vargas</a> in Brazil, <a href="/wiki/Juan_Per%C3%B3n" title="Juan Perón">Juan Perón</a> in Argentina, and <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Mar%C3%ADa_Velasco_Ibarra" title="José María Velasco Ibarra">José María Velasco Ibarra</a> in Ecuador.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201728–29de_la_Torre2017196-277">[277]</a> These relied on the <a href="/wiki/Americanismo" class="mw-redirect" title="Americanismo">Americanismo</a> ideology, presenting a common identity across Latin America and denouncing any interference from <a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">imperialist</a> powers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201729-278">[278]</a> The second wave took place in the early 1990s;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201729de_la_Torre2017198-279">[279]</a> de la Torre called it "neoliberal populism".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_la_Torre2017198-280">[280]</a> In the late 1980s, many Latin American states were experiencing economic crisis and several populist figures were elected by blaming the elites for this situation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201729-278">[278]</a> Examples include <a href="/wiki/Carlos_Menem" title="Carlos Menem">Carlos Menem</a> in Argentina, <a href="/wiki/Fernando_Collor_de_Mello" title="Fernando Collor de Mello">Fernando Collor de Mello</a> in Brazil, and <a href="/wiki/Alberto_Fujimori" title="Alberto Fujimori">Alberto Fujimori</a> in Peru.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201729de_la_Torre2017198-279">[279]</a> Once in power, these individuals pursued neoliberal economic strategies recommended by the <a href="/wiki/International_Monetary_Fund" title="International Monetary Fund">International Monetary Fund</a> (IMF).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201729–30de_la_Torre2017199-281">[281]</a> Unlike the first wave, the second did not include an emphasis on Americanismo or anti-imperialism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201731-282">[282]</a> The third wave began in the final years of the 1990s and continued into the 21st century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201731-282">[282]</a> It overlapped in part with the <a href="/wiki/Pink_tide" title="Pink tide">pink tide</a> of left-wing resurgence in Latin America. Like the first wave, the third made heavy use of Americanismo and anti-imperialism, although this time these themes presented alongside an explicitly socialist programme that opposed the free market.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201731-282">[282]</a> Prominent examples included Hugo Chávez in Venezuela, <a href="/wiki/Cristina_Fern%C3%A1ndez_de_Kirchner" title="Cristina Fernández de Kirchner">Cristina de Kirchner</a> in Argentina, Evo Morales in Bolivia, Rafael Correa in Ecuador, and <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Ortega" title="Daniel Ortega">Daniel Ortega</a> in Nicaragua.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarch200771MuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201731de_la_Torre2017199-283">[283]</a> These socialist populist governments have presented themselves as giving sovereignty "back to the people", in particular through the formation of <a href="/wiki/Constituent_assembly" title="Constituent assembly">constituent assemblies</a> that would draw up new constitutions, which could then be ratified via referendums.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201732de_la_Torre2017200-284">[284]</a> In this way they claimed to be correcting the problems of social and economic injustice that liberal democracy had failed to deal with, replacing it with superior forms of democracy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_la_Torre2017201-285">[285]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Oceania">Oceania</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Populism&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Oceania">edit</a>]</div> During the 1990s, there was a growth in populism in both Australia and New Zealand.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201738-286">[286]</a> In New Zealand, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Muldoon" title="Robert Muldoon">Robert Muldoon</a>, the <a href="/wiki/List_of_Prime_Ministers_of_New_Zealand" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Prime Ministers of New Zealand">31st Prime Minister of New Zealand</a> from 1975 to 1984, had been cited as a populist.<a href="#cite_note-287">[287]</a> Populism has become a pervasive trend in <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_politics" class="mw-redirect" title="New Zealand politics">New Zealand politics</a> since the introduction of the <a href="/wiki/Mixed-member_proportional" class="mw-redirect" title="Mixed-member proportional">mixed-member proportional</a> voting system in 1996.<a href="#cite_note-Mazzoleni-288">[288]</a><a href="#cite_note-289">[289]</a> The <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_Labour_Party" title="New Zealand Labour Party">New Zealand Labour Party</a>'s populist appeals in its <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_general_election,_1999" class="mw-redirect" title="New Zealand general election, 1999">1999 election</a> campaign and advertising helped to propel the party to victory in that election.<a href="#cite_note-Boston-290">[290]</a> <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_First" title="New Zealand First">New Zealand First</a> has presented a more lasting populist platform; long-time party leader <a href="/wiki/Winston_Peters" title="Winston Peters">Winston Peters</a> has been characterised by some as a populist who uses anti-establishment rhetoric,<a href="#cite_note-Moore-291">[291]</a> though in a uniquely New Zealand style.<a href="#cite_note-Landis-Albert-292">[292]</a><a href="#cite_note-293">[293]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Populism_in_New_Zealand" title="Populism in New Zealand">Populism in New Zealand</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sub-Saharan_Africa">Sub-Saharan Africa</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Populism&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Sub-Saharan Africa">edit</a>]</div> In much of Africa, populism has been a rare phenomenon.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201739-294">[294]</a> The political scientist Danielle Resnick argued that populism first became apparent in Africa during the 1980s, when a series of coups brought military leaders to power in various countries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEResnick2017102-295">[295]</a> In Ghana, for example, <a href="/wiki/Jerry_Rawlings" title="Jerry Rawlings">Jerry Rawlings</a> took control, professing that he would involve "the people" in "the decision-making process", something he claimed had previously been denied to them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEResnick2017102-295">[295]</a> A similar process took place in neighbouring Burkina Faso under the military leader <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sankara" title="Thomas Sankara">Thomas Sankara</a>, who professed to "take power out of the hands of our national bourgeoisie and their imperialist allies and put it in the hands of the people".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEResnick2017103-296">[296]</a> Such military leaders claimed to represent "the voice of the people", utilised an anti-establishment discourse, and established participatory organisations through which to maintain links with the broader population.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEResnick2017103–104-297">[297]</a> In the 21st century, with the establishment of multi-party democratic systems in much of Sub-Saharan Africa, new populist politicians have appeared. These have included Kenya's <a href="/wiki/Raila_Odinga" title="Raila Odinga">Raila Odinga</a>, Senegal's <a href="/wiki/Abdoulaye_Wade" title="Abdoulaye Wade">Abdoulaye Wade</a>, South Africa's <a href="/wiki/Julius_Malema" title="Julius Malema">Julius Malema</a>, and Zambia's <a href="/wiki/Michael_Sata" title="Michael Sata">Michael Sata</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEResnick2017106-298">[298]</a> These populists have arisen in democratic rather than authoritarian states, and have arisen amid dissatisfaction with democratisation, socio-economic grievances, and frustration at the inability of opposition groups to oust incumbent parties.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEResnick2017106–107-299">[299]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Asia_and_the_Arab_world">Asia and the Arab world</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Populism&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Asia and the Arab world">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:President_Rodrigo_Roa_Duterte_poses_for_a_photo_with_Indian_Prime_Minister_Narendra_Modi_prior_to_the_start_of_the_bilateral_meeting_at_the_Hyderabad_House_in_New_Delhi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/President_Rodrigo_Roa_Duterte_poses_for_a_photo_with_Indian_Prime_Minister_Narendra_Modi_prior_to_the_start_of_the_bilateral_meeting_at_the_Hyderabad_House_in_New_Delhi.jpg/220px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/President_Rodrigo_Roa_Duterte_poses_for_a_photo_with_Indian_Prime_Minister_Narendra_Modi_prior_to_the_start_of_the_bilateral_meeting_at_the_Hyderabad_House_in_New_Delhi.jpg/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/President_Rodrigo_Roa_Duterte_poses_for_a_photo_with_Indian_Prime_Minister_Narendra_Modi_prior_to_the_start_of_the_bilateral_meeting_at_the_Hyderabad_House_in_New_Delhi.jpg/440px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1350" data-file-height="900" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Rodrigo_Duterte" title="Rodrigo Duterte">Rodrigo Duterte</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a> and <a href="/wiki/Narendra_Modi" title="Narendra Modi">Narendra Modi</a> of <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, 2018. They are both considered populist leaders of the left and right, respectively.</figcaption></figure> In North Africa, populism was associated with the approaches of several political leaders active in the 20th century, most notably Egypt's <a href="/wiki/Gamal_Abdel_Nasser" title="Gamal Abdel Nasser">Gamal Abdel Nasser</a> and Libya's <a href="/wiki/Muammar_Gaddafi" title="Muammar Gaddafi">Muammar Gaddafi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201739-294">[294]</a> However, populist approaches only became more popular in the Middle East during the early 21st century, by which point it became integral to much of the region's politics.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201739-294">[294]</a> Here, it became an increasingly common element of mainstream politics in established representative democracies, associated with longstanding leaders like Israel's <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Netanyahu" title="Benjamin Netanyahu">Benjamin Netanyahu</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201739–40-300">[300]</a> Although the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Spring" title="Arab Spring">Arab Spring</a> was not a populist movement itself, populist rhetoric was present among protesters.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201740-301">[301]</a> In southeast Asia, populist politicians emerged in the wake of the <a href="/wiki/1997_Asian_financial_crisis" title="1997 Asian financial crisis">1997 Asian financial crisis</a>. In the region, various populist governments took power but were removed soon after: these include the administrations of <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Estrada" title="Joseph Estrada">Joseph Estrada</a> in the Philippines, <a href="/wiki/Roh_Moo-hyun" title="Roh Moo-hyun">Roh Moo-hyun</a> in South Korea, <a href="/wiki/Chen_Shui-bian" title="Chen Shui-bian">Chen Shui-bian</a> in Taiwan, and <a href="/wiki/Thaksin_Shinawatra" title="Thaksin Shinawatra">Thaksin Shinawatra</a> in Thailand.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201738–39-302">[302]</a> In India, the <a href="/wiki/Hindu_nationalism" title="Hindu nationalism">Hindu nationalist</a> <a href="/wiki/Bharatiya_Janata_Party" title="Bharatiya Janata Party">Bharatiya Janata Party</a> (BJP) which rose to increasing power in the early 21st century adopted a right-wing populist position.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcDonnellCabrera2019484-303">[303]</a> Unlike many other successful populist groups, the BJP was not wholly reliant on the personality of its leader, but survived as a powerful electoral vehicle under several leaders.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcDonnellCabrera2019485-304">[304]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Late_20th-_and_early_21st-century_growth">Late 20th- and early 21st-century growth</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Populism&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Late 20th- and early 21st-century growth">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Sheri_Berman" title="Sheri Berman">Sheri Berman</a> reviews various explanations of populism including "demand- and supply-side explanations of populism, economic grievance–based and sociocultural grievance–based explanations of populism, and structure- and agency-based explanations of populism".<a href="#cite_note-Berman-5">[5]</a> There is now a wide-ranging and interdisciplinary literature in this area.<a href="#cite_note-Berman-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mounk-305">[305]</a> In the early 1990s, there was an increasing awareness of populism in established liberal democracies, sometimes referred to as the "New Populism".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECanovan2004242-127">[127]</a> The UK's <a href="/wiki/2016_United_Kingdom_European_Union_membership_referendum" title="2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum">referendum on European Union membership</a> and the election of Donald Trump, both in 2016, generated a substantial rise in interest in the concept from both academics and the public.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETormey2018260-306">[306]</a> By 2016, "populism" was regularly used by political commentators.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnselmi20181-32">[32]</a> A 2017 review of votes for populistic parties in all developed countries discovered them spiking in 2015 and reaching highest levels since WWII.<a href="#cite_note-307">[307]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1224211176" /><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:25em; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> The rise of populism in Western Europe is, in large part, a reaction to the failure of traditional parties to respond adequately in the eyes of the electorate to a series of phenomena such as <a href="/wiki/Economic_globalization" title="Economic globalization">economic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cultural_globalisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural globalisation">cultural globalisation</a>, the speed and direction of <a href="/wiki/European_integration" title="European integration">European integration</a>, immigration, the decline of ideologies and class politics, exposure of elite corruption, etc. It is also the product of a much-cited, but rarely defined, "political malaise", manifested in steadily falling <a href="/wiki/Voter_turnout" title="Voter turnout">voter turnout</a> across Western Europe, declining <a href="/wiki/Political_party" title="Political party">political party</a> membership, and ever-greater numbers of citizens in surveys citing a lack of interest and distrust in politics and politicians. </blockquote> <div style="padding-bottom: 0; padding-top: 0.5em"><cite class="left-aligned" style="">Albertazzi and McDonnell, 2008<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlbertazziMcDonnell20081-308">[308]</a></cite></div> </div> Mudde argued that by the early 1990s, populism had become a regular feature in Western democracies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMudde2004551-236">[236]</a> He attributed this to changing perceptions of government that had spread in this period, which in turn he traced to the changing role of the media to focus increasingly on <a href="/wiki/Sensationalism" title="Sensationalism">sensationalism</a> and scandals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMudde2004553-309">[309]</a> Since the late 1960s, the emergence of <a href="/wiki/Television" title="Television">television</a> had allowed for the increasing proliferation of the Western media, with media outlets becoming increasingly independent of political parties.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMudde2004553-309">[309]</a> As private media companies have had to compete against each other, they have placed an increasing focus on scandals and other sensationalist elements of politics, in doing so promoting anti-governmental sentiments among their readership and cultivating an environment prime for populists.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMudde2004553MuddeRovira_Kaltwasser2017103–104-310">[310]</a> At the same time, politicians increasingly faced television interviews, exposing their flaws.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser2017108-311">[311]</a> News media had also taken to interviewing fewer accredited experts, and instead favouring interviewing individuals found on the street as to their views about current events.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser2017108-311">[311]</a> At the same time, mass media was giving less attention to the "<a href="/wiki/High_culture" title="High culture">high culture</a>" of elites and more to other sectors of society, as reflected in <a href="/wiki/Reality_television" title="Reality television">reality television</a> shows such as <a href="/wiki/Big_Brother_(franchise)" title="Big Brother (franchise)">Big Brother</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser2017108-311">[311]</a> Mudde argued that another reason for the growth of Western populism in this period was the improved education of the populace; since the 1960s, citizens have expected more from their politicians and felt increasingly competent to judge their actions. This in turn has led to an increasingly sceptical attitude toward mainstream politicians and governing groups.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMudde2004554-312">[312]</a> In Mudde's words, "More and more citizens think they have a good understanding of what politicians do, and think they can do it better."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMudde2004556-313">[313]</a> Another factor is that in the <a href="/wiki/Post-Cold_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-Cold War">post-Cold War</a> period, liberal democracies no longer had the one-party states of the Eastern Bloc against which to favourably compare themselves; citizens were therefore increasingly able to compare the realities of the liberal democratic system with theoretical models of democracy, and find the former wanting.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMudde2004555-314">[314]</a> There is also the impact of <a href="/wiki/Globalisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Globalisation">globalisation</a>, which is seen as having seriously limited the powers of national elites.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMudde2004555–56-315">[315]</a> Such factors undermine citizens' belief in the competency of governing elite, opening up space for <a href="/wiki/Charismatic_authority" title="Charismatic authority">charismatic leadership</a> to become increasingly popular; although charismatic leadership is not the same as populist leadership, populists have been the main winners of this shift towards charismatic leadership.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMudde2004556-313">[313]</a> Peter Wilkins has argued that "The end of history and the post-Cold War extension and deepening of capitalism are central to understanding the rise of contemporary populist movements."<a href="#cite_note-316">[316]</a> <a href="/wiki/Pippa_Norris" title="Pippa Norris">Pippa Norris</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Inglehart" title="Ronald Inglehart">Ronald Inglehart</a> connect economic and sociocultural theories of the causes of support for the growing populist movements in Western societies. The first theory they examine is the economic insecurity perspective which focuses on the consequences created by a transforming contemporary workforce and society in <a href="/wiki/Post-industrial_economy" title="Post-industrial economy">post-industrial economies</a>. Norris suggests that events such as globalisation, China's membership of the <a href="/wiki/World_Trade_Organization" title="World Trade Organization">World Trade Organisation</a> and cheaper imports have left the unsecured members of society (low-waged unskilled workers, single parents, the long term unemployed and the poorer white populations) seeking populist leaders such as <a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Donald Trump</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nigel_Farage" title="Nigel Farage">Nigel Farage</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInglehartNorris20161-229–30Bibliography-317">[317]</a> The other theory is the cultural backlash thesis, in which Norris and Inglehart suggest that the rise of populism is a reaction from previously dominant sectors of the population, the white, uneducated, elderly men of today, who feel threatened and marginalised by the progressive values of modern society. These groups in particular have a growing resentment towards their traditional values being scolded as politically incorrect and are much more likely to become supportive of anti-establishment, xenophobic political parties.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInglehartNorris20161-229–30Bibliography-317">[317]</a> Norris and Inglehart have analyzed data from the <a href="/wiki/World_Values_Survey" title="World Values Survey">World Values Survey</a>. On this basis, they argue that while the <a href="/wiki/Proximate_cause" title="Proximate cause">proximate cause</a> of right-wing populist voting may be identified in sociocultural grievances, such grievances are increasingly being driven by economic insecurity and the erosion of traditional values.<a href="#cite_note-Berman-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-Norris-318">[318]</a> Using Brexit and Trump's election as examples, <a href="/wiki/Michael_Sandel" title="Michael Sandel">Michael Sandel</a> in his 2020 book The Tyranny of Merit argues that populism came out of disenchantment with 'meritocratic' elites ruling over disenchanted working people.<a href="#cite_note-:3-319">[319]</a> He states the popular backlash against meritocracy predicted by <a href="/wiki/Michael_Dunlop_Young" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael Dunlop Young">Michael Dunlop Young</a> in <a href="/wiki/The_Rise_of_the_Meritocracy" title="The Rise of the Meritocracy">The Rise of the Meritocracy</a> to occur in the 2030s in fact arrived a few decades early.<a href="#cite_note-:3-319">[319]</a> Sandel suggests political systems that reject meritocracy and champion the <a href="/wiki/Dignity_of_labour" title="Dignity of labour">dignity of labour</a> as the solution to this problem.<a href="#cite_note-:3-319">[319]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Populism&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 21em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Labourism" class="mw-redirect" title="Labourism">Labourism</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neopopulism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Neopopulism (page does not exist)">Neopopulism</a> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neopopulismo" class="extiw" title="es:Neopopulismo">es</a>]</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiscal_populism" title="Fiscal populism">Fiscal populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argumentum_ad_populum" title="Argumentum ad populum">Argumentum ad populum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_populism" title="Black populism">Black populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Class warfare">Class warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demagogue" title="Demagogue">Demagogue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite_theory" title="Elite theory">Elite theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Democracy" title="Empire of Democracy">Empire of Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extremism" title="Extremism">Extremism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fanaticism" title="Fanaticism">Fanaticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamentalism" title="Fundamentalism">Fundamentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_populists" title="List of populists">List of populists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_law_of_oligarchy" title="Iron law of oligarchy">Iron law of oligarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_populism" title="Judicial populism">Judicial populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ochlocracy" class="mw-redirect" title="Ochlocracy">Ochlocracy</a> (mob rule)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paternalism" title="Paternalism">Paternalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_populism" title="Penal populism">Penal populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politainment" title="Politainment">Politainment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polite_populism" title="Polite populism">Polite populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_polarization" title="Political polarization">Political polarization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poporanism" title="Poporanism">Poporanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Populism_in_Latin_America" title="Populism in Latin America">Populism in Latin America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-democracy" title="Post-democracy">Post-democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_politics" title="Radical politics">Radical politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reactionism" class="mw-redirect" title="Reactionism">Reactionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_party_(politics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Third party (politics)">Third party (politics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyranny_of_the_majority" title="Tyranny of the majority">Tyranny of the majority</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Populism&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Populism&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Kalwasser-1"><a href="#cite_ref-Kalwasser_1-0">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFRovira_Kaltwasser2018" class="citation book cs1">Rovira Kaltwasser, Cristóbal (2018). "How to define populism? Reflections on a contested concept and its (mis)use in the social sciences". In Fitzi, Gregor; Mackert, Juergen; Turner, Bryan (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781315108070-5">Populism and the Crisis of Democracy, Volume 1 (Concepts and Theory)</a>. New York: Routledge. p. 62. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781315108070-5">10.4324/9781315108070-5</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781315108070" title="Special:BookSources/9781315108070"><bdi>9781315108070</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=How+to+define+populism%3F+Reflections+on+a+contested+concept+and+its+%28mis%29use+in+the+social+sciences&rft.btitle=Populism+and+the+Crisis+of+Democracy%2C+Volume+1+%28Concepts+and+Theory%29&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=62&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9781315108070-5&rft.isbn=9781315108070&rft.aulast=Rovira+Kaltwasser&rft.aufirst=Crist%C3%B3bal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.taylorfrancis.com%2Fchapters%2Fedit%2F10.4324%2F9781315108070-5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APopulism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Weyland-2"><a href="#cite_ref-Weyland_2-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWeyland2001" class="citation journal cs1">Weyland, Kurt (2001). "Clarifying a Contested Concept: Populism in the Study of Latin American Politics". Comparative Politics. 34 (1): 1–22. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F422412">10.2307/422412</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Comparative+Politics&rft.atitle=Clarifying+a+Contested+Concept%3A+Populism+in+the+Study+of+Latin+American+Politics&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E22&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F422412&rft.aulast=Weyland&rft.aufirst=Kurt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APopulism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201725-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201725_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201725_3-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201725_3-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201725_3-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser2017">Mudde & Rovira Kaltwasser 2017</a>, p. 25. </li> <li id="cite_note-Glaser_2018_p._20-4"><a href="#cite_ref-Glaser_2018_p._20_4-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGlaser2018" class="citation book cs1">Glaser, E. 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Journal of Democracy. 24 (3): 18–32. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fjod.2013.0045">10.1353/jod.2013.0045</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154433853">154433853</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Democracy&rft.atitle=Latin+America%27s+Authoritarian+Drift&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E18-%3C%2Fspan%3E32&rft.date=2013-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fjod.2013.0045&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154433853%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Weyland&rft.aufirst=Kurt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APopulism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-209"><a href="#cite_ref-:4_209-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNorrisInglehart2019" class="citation book cs1">Norris, Pippa; Inglehart, Ronald (2019). Cultural backlash: Trump, Brexit, and the rise of authoritarian populism. Cambridge: Cambridge university press. pp. 10–11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-42607-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-42607-7"><bdi>978-1-108-42607-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cultural+backlash%3A+Trump%2C+Brexit%2C+and+the+rise+of+authoritarian+populism&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E10-%3C%2Fspan%3E11&rft.pub=Cambridge+university+press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-1-108-42607-7&rft.aulast=Norris&rft.aufirst=Pippa&rft.au=Inglehart%2C+Ronald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APopulism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-210"><a href="#cite_ref-210">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNorrisInglehart2019" class="citation book cs1">Norris, Pippa; Inglehart, Ronald (2019). Cultural backlash: Trump, Brexit, and the rise of authoritarian populism. Cambridge: Cambridge university press. p. 6. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-42607-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-42607-7"><bdi>978-1-108-42607-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cultural+backlash%3A+Trump%2C+Brexit%2C+and+the+rise+of+authoritarian+populism&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=6&rft.pub=Cambridge+university+press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-1-108-42607-7&rft.aulast=Norris&rft.aufirst=Pippa&rft.au=Inglehart%2C+Ronald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APopulism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-211"><a href="#cite_ref-211">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNorrisInglehart2018" class="citation book cs1">Norris, Pippa; Inglehart, Ronald (2018). Cultural backlash: Trump, Brexit, and the rise of authoritarian-populism. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. p. 14. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-42607-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-42607-7"><bdi>978-1-108-42607-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cultural+backlash%3A+Trump%2C+Brexit%2C+and+the+rise+of+authoritarian-populism&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pages=14&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1-108-42607-7&rft.aulast=Norris&rft.aufirst=Pippa&rft.au=Inglehart%2C+Ronald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APopulism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEatwell2017365–366-212"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEatwell2017365–366_212-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEatwell2017">Eatwell 2017</a>, pp. 365–366. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201721-213">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201721_213-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201721_213-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser2017">Mudde & Rovira Kaltwasser 2017</a>, p. 21. </li> <li id="cite_note-214"><a href="#cite_ref-214">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAdamidis2019" class="citation journal cs1">Adamidis, Vasileios (2019). "Manifestations of populism in late 5th century Athens". New Studies in Law and History: 11–28.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+Studies+in+Law+and+History&rft.atitle=Manifestations+of+populism+in+late+5th+century+Athens&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E11-%3C%2Fspan%3E28&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Adamidis&rft.aufirst=Vasileios&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APopulism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEatwell2017365-215"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEatwell2017365_215-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEatwell2017">Eatwell 2017</a>, p. 365. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEatwell2017365MuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201721-216"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEatwell2017365MuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201721_216-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEatwell2017">Eatwell 2017</a>, p. 365; <a href="#CITEREFMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser2017">Mudde & Rovira Kaltwasser 2017</a>, p. 21. </li> <li id="cite_note-217"><a href="#cite_ref-217">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGlaser2017" class="citation news cs1">Glaser, Linda B. (1 January 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://history.cornell.edu/news/historian-offers-lessons-antiquity-today%25E2%2580%2599s-democracy">"Historian offers lessons from antiquity for today's democracy"</a>. Cornell University Department of History. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190425150407/https://history.cornell.edu/news/historian-offers-lessons-antiquity-today%2525E2%252580%252599s-democracy">Archived</a> from the original on 25 April 2019. Retrieved 26 April 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cornell+University+Department+of+History&rft.atitle=Historian+offers+lessons+from+antiquity+for+today%27s+democracy&rft.date=2017-01-01&rft.aulast=Glaser&rft.aufirst=Linda+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhistory.cornell.edu%2Fnews%2Fhistorian-offers-lessons-antiquity-today%2525E2%252580%252599s-democracy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APopulism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoxley2013207-218"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFoxley2013207_218-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFoxley2013">Foxley 2013</a>, p. 207. </li> <li id="cite_note-219"><a href="#cite_ref-219">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPettegree2004" class="citation book cs1">Pettegree, Andrew (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HDC_veJaoQ8C&pg=PA153">The Reformation: Critical Concepts in Historical Studies</a>. Taylor & Francis. p. 153. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-4153-1668-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-4153-1668-2"><bdi>978-0-4153-1668-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190828224336/https://books.google.com/books?id=HDC_veJaoQ8C&pg=PA153">Archived</a> from the original on 28 August 2019. Retrieved 15 June 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Reformation%3A+Critical+Concepts+in+Historical+Studies&rft.pages=153&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-4153-1668-2&rft.aulast=Pettegree&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHDC_veJaoQ8C%26pg%3DPA153&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APopulism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-220"><a href="#cite_ref-220">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLindberg2011" class="citation book cs1">Lindberg, Carter (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4cTb-zKfjS8C&pg=PA21">The European Reformations</a>. John Wiley & Sons. p. 21. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-6086-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-6086-8"><bdi>978-1-4443-6086-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190828224339/https://books.google.com/books?id=4cTb-zKfjS8C&pg=PA21">Archived</a> from the original on 28 August 2019. Retrieved 15 June 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+European+Reformations&rft.pages=21&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-4443-6086-8&rft.aulast=Lindberg&rft.aufirst=Carter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4cTb-zKfjS8C%26pg%3DPA21&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APopulism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201732-221"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201732_221-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser2017">Mudde & Rovira Kaltwasser 2017</a>, p. 32. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201733-222">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201733_222-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201733_222-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201733_222-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201733_222-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser2017">Mudde & Rovira Kaltwasser 2017</a>, p. 33. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEatwell2017366–367-223"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEatwell2017366–367_223-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEatwell2017">Eatwell 2017</a>, pp. 366–367. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201733–34-224"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201733–34_224-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser2017">Mudde & Rovira Kaltwasser 2017</a>, pp. 33–34. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMudde2004548-225">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMudde2004548_225-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMudde2004548_225-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMudde2004548_225-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFMudde2004">Mudde 2004</a>, p. 548. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201734-226">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201734_226-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201734_226-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201734_226-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser2017">Mudde & Rovira Kaltwasser 2017</a>, p. 34. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMudde2004548March200766-227"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMudde2004548March200766_227-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMudde2004">Mudde 2004</a>, p. 548; <a href="#CITEREFMarch2007">March 2007</a>, p. 66. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201735-228"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201735_228-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser2017">Mudde & Rovira Kaltwasser 2017</a>, p. 35. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201736-229">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201736_229-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201736_229-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser2017">Mudde & Rovira Kaltwasser 2017</a>, p. 36. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201737-230">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201737_230-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201737_230-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201737_230-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser2017">Mudde & Rovira Kaltwasser 2017</a>, p. 37. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarch200767-231"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarch200767_231-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMarch2007">March 2007</a>, p. 67. </li> <li id="cite_note-232"><a href="#cite_ref-232">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCasals2003" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Xavier_Casals_i_Meseguer" class="mw-redirect" title="Xavier Casals i Meseguer">Casals, Xavier</a> (2003). "El fracaso del populismo protestatario". Ultrapatriotas. Extrema derecha y nacionalismo de la guerra fría a la era de la globalización (in Spanish). Barcelona: Crítica. p. 263. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-84-8432-430-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-84-8432-430-0"><bdi>978-84-8432-430-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=El+fracaso+del+populismo+protestatario&rft.btitle=Ultrapatriotas.+Extrema+derecha+y+nacionalismo+de+la+guerra+fr%C3%ADa+a+la+era+de+la+globalizaci%C3%B3n&rft.place=Barcelona&rft.pages=263&rft.pub=Cr%C3%ADtica&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-84-8432-430-0&rft.aulast=Casals&rft.aufirst=Xavier&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APopulism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201734–35-233"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201734–35_233-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser2017">Mudde & Rovira Kaltwasser 2017</a>, pp. 34–35. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMudde2004550AlbertazziMcDonnell20082-234"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMudde2004550AlbertazziMcDonnell20082_234-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMudde2004">Mudde 2004</a>, p. 550; <a href="#CITEREFAlbertazziMcDonnell2008">Albertazzi & McDonnell 2008</a>, p. 2. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMudde2004550-235"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMudde2004550_235-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMudde2004">Mudde 2004</a>, p. 550. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMudde2004551-236">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMudde2004551_236-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMudde2004551_236-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMudde2004">Mudde 2004</a>, p. 551. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBangMarsh2018354-237"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBangMarsh2018354_237-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBangMarsh2018">Bang & Marsh 2018</a>, p. 354. </li> <li id="cite_note-238"><a href="#cite_ref-238">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFZienkowskiBreeze2019" class="citation book cs1">Zienkowski, Jan; Breeze, Ruth (2019). Imagining the peoples of Europe. Populist discourses across the political spectrum. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-272-0348-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-272-0348-9"><bdi>978-90-272-0348-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Imagining+the+peoples+of+Europe.+Populist+discourses+across+the+political+spectrum&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.pub=John+Benjamins&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-90-272-0348-9&rft.aulast=Zienkowski&rft.aufirst=Jan&rft.au=Breeze%2C+Ruth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APopulism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMudde2004549-239">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMudde2004549_239-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMudde2004549_239-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMudde2004">Mudde 2004</a>, p. 549. </li> <li id="cite_note-240"><a href="#cite_ref-240">^</a> See: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBreeze2018" class="citation journal cs1">Breeze, Ruth (30 November 2018). "Positioning "the people" and Its Enemies: Populism and Nationalism in AfD and UKIP". Javnost – the Public. 26 (1). Informa UK Limited: 89–104. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13183222.2018.1531339">10.1080/13183222.2018.1531339</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1318-3222">1318-3222</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:150034518">150034518</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Javnost+%E2%80%93+the+Public&rft.atitle=Positioning+%22the+people%22+and+Its+Enemies%3A+Populism+and+Nationalism+in+AfD+and+UKIP&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E89-%3C%2Fspan%3E104&rft.date=2018-11-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A150034518%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1318-3222&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F13183222.2018.1531339&rft.aulast=Breeze&rft.aufirst=Ruth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APopulism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-241"><a href="#cite_ref-241">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFReinemannStanyerAalbergEsser2019" class="citation book cs1">Reinemann, C.; Stanyer, J.; Aalberg, T.; Esser, F.; de Vreese, C.H. 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The Independent. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170615145341/http://www.independent.co.uk/voices/jeremy-corbyn-labour-relaunch-populist-politics-donald-trump-political-earthquake-failed-complacency-a7500376.html">Archived</a> from the original on 15 June 2017. Retrieved 16 May 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Independent&rft.atitle=Could+Corbyn+trigger+the+next+populist+political+earthquake%3F&rft.date=2016-12-29&rft.aulast=Walker&rft.aufirst=Michael+J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.independent.co.uk%2Fvoices%2Fjeremy-corbyn-labour-relaunch-populist-politics-donald-trump-political-earthquake-failed-complacency-a7500376.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APopulism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Labour_is_running_a_great_risk_with_its_populist_turn-244"><a href="#cite_ref-Labour_is_running_a_great_risk_with_its_populist_turn_244-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBush2017" class="citation news cs1">Bush, Steven (4 January 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newstatesman.com/politics/staggers/2017/01/labour-running-great-risk-its-populist-turn">"Labour is running a great risk with its populist turn"</a>. 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Financial Times. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170423053907/https://www.ft.com/content/5ee9c05a-25de-11e7-a34a-538b4cb30025">Archived</a> from the original on 23 April 2017. 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LabourList | Labour's biggest independent grassroots e-network. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170421120304/http://labourlist.org/2017/04/blair-failing-tories-spend-no-time-worrying-about-the-threat-from-labour/">Archived</a> from the original on 21 April 2017. Retrieved 16 May 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=LabourList+%7C+Labour%27s+biggest+independent+grassroots+e-network&rft.atitle=Blair%3A+Failing+Tories+spend+no+time+worrying+about+the+threat+from+Labour+%7C+LabourList&rft.date=2017-04-03&rft.aulast=Bean&rft.aufirst=Emma&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flabourlist.org%2F2017%2F04%2Fblair-failing-tories-spend-no-time-worrying-about-the-threat-from-labour%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APopulism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-248"><a href="#cite_ref-248">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFosterSquiresOrange2016" class="citation news cs1">Foster, Peter; Squires, Nick; Orange, Richard (24 June 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/06/24/eu-faces-brexit-contagion-as-populist-parties-across-europe-call/">"EU faces Brexit 'contagion' as populist parties across Europe call for referendums"</a>. The Telegraph. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160624121752/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/06/24/eu-faces-brexit-contagion-as-populist-parties-across-europe-call/">Archived</a> from the original on 24 June 2016. Retrieved 25 June 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Telegraph&rft.atitle=EU+faces+Brexit+%27contagion%27+as+populist+parties+across+Europe+call+for+referendums&rft.date=2016-06-24&rft.aulast=Foster&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft.au=Squires%2C+Nick&rft.au=Orange%2C+Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.telegraph.co.uk%2Fnews%2F2016%2F06%2F24%2Feu-faces-brexit-contagion-as-populist-parties-across-europe-call%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APopulism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201722-249"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201722_249-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser2017">Mudde & Rovira Kaltwasser 2017</a>, p. 22. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201723-250">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201723_250-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201723_250-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201723_250-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser2017">Mudde & Rovira Kaltwasser 2017</a>, p. 23. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETindall196690-251"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETindall196690_251-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTindall1966">Tindall 1966</a>, p. 90. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETindall1966118-252"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETindall1966118_252-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTindall1966">Tindall 1966</a>, p. 118. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodward1938-253"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWoodward1938_253-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWoodward1938">Woodward 1938</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECanovan198117-254"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECanovan198117_254-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCanovan1981">Canovan 1981</a>, p. 17. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECanovan198117–18,_44–46MuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201723-255"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECanovan198117–18,_44–46MuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201723_255-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCanovan1981">Canovan 1981</a>, pp. 17–18, 44–46; <a href="#CITEREFMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser2017">Mudde & Rovira Kaltwasser 2017</a>, p. 23. </li> <li id="cite_note-256"><a href="#cite_ref-256">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRosenstoneBehrLazarus1984" class="citation book cs1">Rosenstone, S.J.; Behr, R.L.; Lazarus, E.H. 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Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-2162-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-2162-9"><bdi>978-0-7425-2162-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/48811446">48811446</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fred+Harris+%3A+his+journey+from+liberalism+to+populism&rft.place=Lanham%2C+Md.&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield+Publishers&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F48811446&rft.isbn=978-0-7425-2162-9&rft.aulast=Lowitt&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F48811446&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APopulism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201726-262"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201726_262-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser2017">Mudde & Rovira Kaltwasser 2017</a>, p. 26. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201726–27-263">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201726–27_263-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201726–27_263-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser2017">Mudde & Rovira Kaltwasser 2017</a>, pp. 26–27. </li> <li id="cite_note-264"><a href="#cite_ref-264">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKazin2016" class="citation news cs1">Kazin, Michael (22 March 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2016/03/27/magazine/how-can-donald-trump-and-bernie-sanders-both-be-populist.html">"How Can Donald Trump and Bernie Sanders Both Be 'Populist'?"</a>. 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Retrieved 25 May 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=How+Can+Donald+Trump+and+Bernie+Sanders+Both+Be+%27Populist%27%3F&rft.date=2016-03-22&rft.aulast=Kazin&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2016%2F03%2F27%2Fmagazine%2Fhow-can-donald-trump-and-bernie-sanders-both-be-populist.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APopulism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-265"><a href="#cite_ref-265">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLitvan2016" class="citation news cs1">Litvan, Laura (17 May 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bloomberg.com/politics/articles/2016-05-17/trump-and-sanders-shift-mood-in-congress-against-trade-deals">"Trump and Sanders Shift Mood in Congress Against Trade Deals"</a>. Bloomberg.com. Bloomberg. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160521215110/http://www.bloomberg.com/politics/articles/2016-05-17/trump-and-sanders-shift-mood-in-congress-against-trade-deals">Archived</a> from the original on 21 May 2016. Retrieved 25 May 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bloomberg.com&rft.atitle=Trump+and+Sanders+Shift+Mood+in+Congress+Against+Trade+Deals&rft.date=2016-05-17&rft.aulast=Litvan&rft.aufirst=Laura&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bloomberg.com%2Fpolitics%2Farticles%2F2016-05-17%2Ftrump-and-sanders-shift-mood-in-congress-against-trade-deals&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APopulism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-266"><a href="#cite_ref-266">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBrodwin2016" class="citation web cs1">Brodwin, David (14 March 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usnews.com/opinion/economic-intelligence/articles/2016-03-14/the-economic-danger-of-trumps-and-sanders-trade-proctectionism">"Nobody Wins a Trade War"</a>. U.S. News & World Report. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160513050239/http://www.usnews.com/opinion/economic-intelligence/articles/2016-03-14/the-economic-danger-of-trumps-and-sanders-trade-proctectionism">Archived</a> from the original on 13 May 2016. Retrieved 25 May 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=U.S.+News+%26+World+Report&rft.atitle=Nobody+Wins+a+Trade+War&rft.date=2016-03-14&rft.aulast=Brodwin&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.usnews.com%2Fopinion%2Feconomic-intelligence%2Farticles%2F2016-03-14%2Fthe-economic-danger-of-trumps-and-sanders-trade-proctectionism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APopulism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-267"><a href="#cite_ref-267">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFontaineKaplan2016" class="citation news cs1">Fontaine, Richard; Kaplan, Robert D. (23 May 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/2016-05-23/how-populism-will-change-foreign-policy">"How Populism Will Change Foreign Policy"</a>. Foreign Affairs. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160524105923/https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/2016-05-23/how-populism-will-change-foreign-policy">Archived</a> from the original on 24 May 2016. Retrieved 25 May 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Foreign+Affairs&rft.atitle=How+Populism+Will+Change+Foreign+Policy&rft.date=2016-05-23&rft.aulast=Fontaine&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft.au=Kaplan%2C+Robert+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.foreignaffairs.com%2Farticles%2F2016-05-23%2Fhow-populism-will-change-foreign-policy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APopulism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-268"><a href="#cite_ref-268">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEklundhStengelWojczewski2024" class="citation journal cs1">Eklundh, Emmy; Stengel, Frank A; Wojczewski, Thorsten (9 September 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/ia/article/100/5/1899/7750271">"Left populism and foreign policy: Bernie Sanders and Podemos"</a>. International Affairs. 100 (5): 1899–1918. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fia%2Fiiae137">10.1093/ia/iiae137</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0020-5850">0020-5850</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Affairs&rft.atitle=Left+populism+and+foreign+policy%3A+Bernie+Sanders+and+Podemos&rft.volume=100&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1899-%3C%2Fspan%3E1918&rft.date=2024-09-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fia%2Fiiae137&rft.issn=0020-5850&rft.aulast=Eklundh&rft.aufirst=Emmy&rft.au=Stengel%2C+Frank+A&rft.au=Wojczewski%2C+Thorsten&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fia%2Farticle%2F100%2F5%2F1899%2F7750271&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APopulism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-269"><a href="#cite_ref-269">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCowburn2022" class="citation book cs1">Cowburn, Mike (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-80803-7_26">"Experience Narratives and Populist Rhetoric in U.S. House Primaries"</a>. In Oswald, Michael T (ed.). The Palgrave Handbook of Populism. 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New Zealand Tried That"</a>. Bloomberg.com. Bloomberg L.P. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170301144234/https://www.bloomberg.com/view/articles/2017-02-13/feisty-protectionist-populism-new-zealand-tried-that">Archived</a> from the original on 1 March 2017. 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Really?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Observer_(Canada)" class="mw-redirect" title="National Observer (Canada)">National Observer</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170920142829/http://www.nationalobserver.com/2016/03/21/opinion/proportional-representation-leads-right-wing-populism-really">Archived</a> from the original on 20 September 2017. 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Victoria University Press. pp. 239–40. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86473-468-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-86473-468-6"><bdi>978-0-86473-468-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171102114515/https://books.google.com/books?id=N-ql-Xs9hhkC&pg=PA240">Archived</a> from the original on 2 November 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+Zealand+Votes%3A+The+General+Election+of+2002&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E239-%3C%2Fspan%3E40&rft.pub=Victoria+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-86473-468-6&rft.aulast=Boston&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DN-ql-Xs9hhkC%26pg%3DPA240&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APopulism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Moore-291"><a href="#cite_ref-Moore_291-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMoore2016" class="citation news cs1">Moore, John (11 November 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=11746493">"Political Roundup: Could anti-Establishment politics hit New Zealand?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_Zealand_Herald" title="The New Zealand Herald">The New Zealand Herald</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171003001031/http://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=11746493">Archived</a> from the original on 3 October 2017. Retrieved 16 June 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+Zealand+Herald&rft.atitle=Political+Roundup%3A+Could+anti-Establishment+politics+hit+New+Zealand%3F&rft.date=2016-11-11&rft.aulast=Moore&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nzherald.co.nz%2Fnz%2Fnews%2Farticle.cfm%3Fc_id%3D1%26objectid%3D11746493&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APopulism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Landis-Albert-292"><a href="#cite_ref-Landis-Albert_292-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLandisAlbert2012" class="citation book cs1">Landis, Dan; Albert, Rosita D. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-kmTe1XVcW4C&pg=PA52">Handbook of Ethnic Conflict: International Perspectives</a>. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 52. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4614-0448-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4614-0448-4"><bdi>978-1-4614-0448-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171102114515/https://books.google.com/books?id=-kmTe1XVcW4C&pg=PA52">Archived</a> from the original on 2 November 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Ethnic+Conflict%3A+International+Perspectives&rft.pages=52&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-4614-0448-4&rft.aulast=Landis&rft.aufirst=Dan&rft.au=Albert%2C+Rosita+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-kmTe1XVcW4C%26pg%3DPA52&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APopulism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-293"><a href="#cite_ref-293">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTrotter2017" class="citation web cs1">Trotter, Chris (14 February 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/politics/opinion/89350598/chris-trotter-winston-peters-may-be-a-populist-but-that-does-not-make-him-nzs-trump">"Chris Trotter: Winston Peters may be a populist but that does not make him NZ's Trump"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Stuff.co.nz" class="mw-redirect" title="Stuff.co.nz">Stuff.co.nz</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171019005427/http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/politics/opinion/89350598/chris-trotter-winston-peters-may-be-a-populist-but-that-does-not-make-him-nzs-trump">Archived</a> from the original on 19 October 2017. Retrieved 16 June 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Chris+Trotter%3A+Winston+Peters+may+be+a+populist+but+that+does+not+make+him+NZ%27s+Trump&rft.pub=Stuff.co.nz&rft.date=2017-02-14&rft.aulast=Trotter&rft.aufirst=Chris&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.stuff.co.nz%2Fnational%2Fpolitics%2Fopinion%2F89350598%2Fchris-trotter-winston-peters-may-be-a-populist-but-that-does-not-make-him-nzs-trump&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APopulism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201739-294">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201739_294-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201739_294-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201739_294-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser2017">Mudde & Rovira Kaltwasser 2017</a>, p. 39. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEResnick2017102-295">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEResnick2017102_295-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEResnick2017102_295-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFResnick2017">Resnick 2017</a>, p. 102. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEResnick2017103-296"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEResnick2017103_296-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFResnick2017">Resnick 2017</a>, p. 103. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEResnick2017103–104-297"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEResnick2017103–104_297-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFResnick2017">Resnick 2017</a>, pp. 103–104. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEResnick2017106-298"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEResnick2017106_298-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFResnick2017">Resnick 2017</a>, p. 106. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEResnick2017106–107-299"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEResnick2017106–107_299-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFResnick2017">Resnick 2017</a>, pp. 106–107. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201739–40-300"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201739–40_300-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser2017">Mudde & Rovira Kaltwasser 2017</a>, pp. 39–40. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201740-301"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201740_301-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser2017">Mudde & Rovira Kaltwasser 2017</a>, p. 40. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201738–39-302"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser201738–39_302-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser2017">Mudde & Rovira Kaltwasser 2017</a>, pp. 38–39. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcDonnellCabrera2019484-303"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcDonnellCabrera2019484_303-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcDonnellCabrera2019">McDonnell & Cabrera 2019</a>, p. 484. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcDonnellCabrera2019485-304"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcDonnellCabrera2019485_304-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcDonnellCabrera2019">McDonnell & Cabrera 2019</a>, p. 485. </li> <li id="cite_note-Mounk-305"><a href="#cite_ref-Mounk_305-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMounk2018" class="citation book cs1">Mounk, Yascha (2018). 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Journal of World-Systems Research. 24 (2). University Library System, University of Pittsburgh: 314–324. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5195%2Fjwsr.2018.855">10.5195/jwsr.2018.855</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1076-156X">1076-156X</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:150004828">150004828</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+World-Systems+Research&rft.atitle=Rip+It+Up+and+Start+Again%3A+The+Challenge+of+Populism+in+the+Twenty-First+Century&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E314-%3C%2Fspan%3E324&rft.date=2018-08-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A150004828%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1076-156X&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5195%2Fjwsr.2018.855&rft.aulast=Wilkin&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjwsr.pitt.edu%2Fojs%2Fjwsr%2Farticle%2Fdownload%2F855%2F1161&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APopulism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEInglehartNorris20161-229–30Bibliography-317">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInglehartNorris20161-229–30Bibliography_317-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInglehartNorris20161-229–30Bibliography_317-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFInglehartNorris2016">Inglehart & Norris 2016</a>, p. 1-2, Bibliography. </li> <li id="cite_note-Norris-318"><a href="#cite_ref-Norris_318-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNorris2019" class="citation book cs1">Norris, Pippa (2019). Cultural backlash : Trump, Brexit, and the rise of authoritarian populism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-44442-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-44442-2"><bdi>978-1-108-44442-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cultural+backlash+%3A+Trump%2C+Brexit%2C+and+the+rise+of+authoritarian+populism&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-1-108-44442-2&rft.aulast=Norris&rft.aufirst=Pippa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APopulism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-319">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_319-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_319-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_319-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSandel2020" class="citation book cs1">Sandel, Michael (2020). The Tyranny of Merit: What's Become of the Common Good?. Penguin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780141991177" title="Special:BookSources/9780141991177"><bdi>9780141991177</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Tyranny+of+Merit%3A+What%27s+Become+of+the+Common+Good%3F&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=9780141991177&rft.aulast=Sandel&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APopulism" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Populism&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAbi-Hassan2017" class="citation book cs1">Abi-Hassan, Sahar (2017). 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Policy Studies. 39 (3): 260–273. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01442872.2018.1475638">10.1080/01442872.2018.1475638</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:158416086">158416086</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Policy+Studies&rft.atitle=Populism%3A+Democracy%27s+Pharmakon%3F&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E260-%3C%2Fspan%3E273&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F01442872.2018.1475638&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A158416086%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Tormey&rft.aufirst=Simon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APopulism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWoodward1938" class="citation journal cs1">Woodward, C. Vann (1938). "Tom Watson and the Negro in Agrarian Politics". The Journal of Southern History. 4 (1): 14–33. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2191851">10.2307/2191851</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2191851">2191851</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Southern+History&rft.atitle=Tom+Watson+and+the+Negro+in+Agrarian+Politics&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E14-%3C%2Fspan%3E33&rft.date=1938&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2191851&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2191851%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Woodward&rft.aufirst=C.+Vann&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APopulism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFZasloveGeurkinkJacobsAkkerman2021" class="citation journal cs1">Zaslove, Andrej; Geurkink, Bram; Jacobs, Kristof; Akkerman, Agnes (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01402382.2020.1776490">"Power to the People? Populism, Democracy, and Political Participation: A Citizen's Perspective"</a>. West European Politics. 44 (4): 727–751. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01402382.2020.1776490">10.1080/01402382.2020.1776490</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2066%2F226276">2066/226276</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=West+European+Politics&rft.atitle=Power+to+the+People%3F+Populism%2C+Democracy%2C+and+Political+Participation%3A+A+Citizen%27s+Perspective&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E727-%3C%2Fspan%3E751&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2066%2F226276&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F01402382.2020.1776490&rft.aulast=Zaslove&rft.aufirst=Andrej&rft.au=Geurkink%2C+Bram&rft.au=Jacobs%2C+Kristof&rft.au=Akkerman%2C+Agnes&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%252F01402382.2020.1776490&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APopulism" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Populism&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="General">General</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Populism&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: General">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316" /><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li>Abromeit, John et al., eds. Transformations of Populism in Europe and the Americas: History and Recent Tendencies (Bloomsbury, 2015). xxxii, 354 pp.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAdamidis2021" class="citation journal cs1">Adamidis, Vasileios (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://irep.ntu.ac.uk/id/eprint/41806/1/1393028_Adamidis.pdf">"Populism and the Rule of Recognition"</a> (PDF). Populism. 4: 1–24. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F25888072-BJA10016">10.1163/25888072-BJA10016</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:234082341">234082341</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Populism&rft.atitle=Populism+and+the+Rule+of+Recognition&rft.volume=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E24&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F25888072-BJA10016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A234082341%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Adamidis&rft.aufirst=Vasileios&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Firep.ntu.ac.uk%2Fid%2Feprint%2F41806%2F1%2F1393028_Adamidis.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APopulism" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Adamidis, Vasileios (2021), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.athensjournals.gr/history/2021-7-1-2-Adamidis.pdf">Populist Rhetorical Strategies in the Courts of classical Athens</a>. Athens Journal of History 7(1): 21–40.</li> <li>Albertazzi, Daniele and Duncan McDonnell. 2008. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130102081055/http://us.macmillan.com/twentyfirstcenturypopulism/DanieleAlbertazzi">Twenty-First Century Populism: The Spectre of Western European Democracy</a> Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-01349-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-230-01349-0">978-0-230-01349-0</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlet,_Chip" class="mw-redirect" title="Berlet, Chip">Berlet, Chip</a>. 2005. "When Alienation Turns Right: Populist Conspiracism, the Apocalyptic Style, and Neofascist Movements". In Lauren Langman & Devorah Kalekin Fishman, (eds.), Trauma, Promise, and the Millennium: The Evolution of Alienation. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield.</li> <li>Boyte, Harry C. 2004. Everyday Politics: Reconnecting Citizens and Public Life. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brass,_Tom" class="mw-redirect" title="Brass, Tom">Brass, Tom</a>. 2000. Peasants, Populism and Postmodernism: The Return of the Agrarian Myth. London: Frank Cass Publishers.</li> <li>Bevernage, Berber et al., eds. Claiming the People's Past: Populist Politics of History in the Twenty-First Century. United Kingdom, Cambridge University Press, 2024.</li> <li>Caiani, Manuela. "Populism/Populist Movements". in The Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Social and Political Movements (2013).</li> <li>Coles, Rom. 2006. "Of Tensions and Tricksters: Grassroots Democracy Between Theory and Practice", Perspectives on Politics Vol. 4:3 (Fall), pp. 547–61</li> <li>Denning, Michael. 1997. The Cultural Front: The Laboring of American Culture in the Twentieth Century. London: Verso.</li> <li>Emibayer, Mustafa and Ann Mishe. 1998. "What is Agency?", <a href="/wiki/American_Journal_of_Sociology" title="American Journal of Sociology">American Journal of Sociology</a>, Vol. 103:4, pp. 962–1023</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Bellamy_Foster" title="John Bellamy Foster">Foster, John Bellamy</a>. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://monthlyreview.org/2017/06/01/this-is-not-populism/">This Is Not Populism</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170701173211/https://monthlyreview.org/2017/06/01/this-is-not-populism/">Archived</a> 1 July 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>" (June 2017), <a href="/wiki/Monthly_Review" title="Monthly Review">Monthly Review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goodwyn,_Lawrence" class="mw-redirect" title="Goodwyn, Lawrence">Goodwyn, Lawrence</a>, 1976, Democratic Promise: The Populist Moment in America. New York: Oxford University Press</li> <li>Götz, Norbert, and Emilia Palonen. 2024. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4337/9781800379695.00031">History: The Moral Economy Perspective</a>", in Research Handbook on Populism, ed. Yannis Stavrakakis and Giorgos Katsambekis (Cheltenham: Elgar), pp. 239–250.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_A._Hogg" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael A. Hogg">Hogg, Michael A.</a>, "Radical Change: <a href="/wiki/Uncertainty" title="Uncertainty">Uncertainty</a> in the world threatens our <a href="/wiki/Sense_of_self" class="mw-redirect" title="Sense of self">sense of self</a>. To cope, people embrace populism", <a href="/wiki/Scientific_American" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a>, vol. 321, no. 3 (September 2019), pp. 85–87.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKaltwasser,_Cristóbal_Rovira2017" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crist%C3%B3bal_Rovira&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cristóbal Rovira (page does not exist)">Kaltwasser, Cristóbal Rovira</a>, ed. (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X8Q9DwAAQBAJ">The Oxford Handbook of Populism</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-880356-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-880356-0"><bdi>978-0-19-880356-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201029150748/https://books.google.com/books?id=X8Q9DwAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 29 October 2020. Retrieved 27 April 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Populism&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-19-880356-0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DX8Q9DwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APopulism" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Kazin, Michael. "Trump and American Populism". Foreign Affairs (Nov/Dec 2016), 95#6 pp. 17–24.</li> <li>Khoros, Vladimir. 1984. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/populismkhoros">Populism: Its Past, Present and Future</a>. Moscow: Progress Publishers.</li> <li>Kling, Joseph M. and Prudence S. Posner. 1990. Dilemmas of Activism. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.</li> <li>Kuzminski, Adrian. Fixing the System: A History of Populism, Ancient & Modern. New York: Continuum Books, 2008.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laclau,_Ernesto" class="mw-redirect" title="Laclau, Ernesto">Laclau, Ernesto</a>. 1977. Politics and Ideology in Marxist Theory: Capitalism, Fascism, Populism. London: NLB/Atlantic Highlands Humanities Press.</li> <li>Laclau, Ernesto. 2005. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PMCRPwAACAAJ">On Populist Reason</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160508063455/https://books.google.com/books/about/On_Populist_Reason.html?id=PMCRPwAACAAJ&redir_esc=y">Archived</a> 8 May 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. London: Verso</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMartelliJaffrelot2023" class="citation journal cs1">Martelli, Jean-Thomas; Jaffrelot, Christophe (2023). "Do Populist Leaders Mimic the Language of Ordinary Citizens? Evidence from India". Political Psychology. 44 (5): 1141–1160. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fpops.12881">10.1111/pops.12881</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:256128025">256128025</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Political+Psychology&rft.atitle=Do+Populist+Leaders+Mimic+the+Language+of+Ordinary+Citizens%3F+Evidence+from+India&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1141-%3C%2Fspan%3E1160&rft.date=2023&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fpops.12881&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A256128025%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Martelli&rft.aufirst=Jean-Thomas&rft.au=Jaffrelot%2C+Christophe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APopulism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_W._McCoy" title="Alfred W. McCoy">McCoy, Alfred W</a> (2 April 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tomdispatch.com/post/176261/tomgram%3A_alfred_mccoy%2C_would-be_strongmen_worldwide/">The Bloodstained Rise of Global Populism: A Political Movement’s Violent Pursuit of "Enemies" </a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170502015511/http://www.tomdispatch.com/post/176261/tomgram:_alfred_mccoy,_would-be_strongmen_worldwide/">Archived</a> 2 May 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a href="/wiki/TomDispatch" class="mw-redirect" title="TomDispatch">TomDispatch</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMinkenberg2021" class="citation journal cs1">Minkenberg, Michael (2021). "The Radical Right and Anti-Immigrant Politics in Liberal Democracies since World War II: Evolution of a Political and Research Field". Polity. 53 (3): 394–417. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F714167">10.1086/714167</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:235494475">235494475</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Polity&rft.atitle=The+Radical+Right+and+Anti-Immigrant+Politics+in+Liberal+Democracies+since+World+War+II%3A+Evolution+of+a+Political+and+Research+Field&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E394-%3C%2Fspan%3E417&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F714167&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A235494475%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Minkenberg&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APopulism" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Morelock, Jeremiah ed. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.uwestminsterpress.co.uk/site/books/10.16997/book30/">Critical Theory and Authoritarian Populism</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201029150800/https://www.uwestminsterpress.co.uk/site/books/e/10.16997/book30/">Archived</a> 29 October 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. 2018. London: University of Westminster Press.</li> <li>Müller, Jan-Werner. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.upenn.edu/pennpress/book/15615.html">What is Populism?</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161121210614/http://www.upenn.edu/pennpress/book/15615.html">Archived</a> 21 November 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (August 2016), Univ. of Pennsylvania Press. Also by Müller on populism: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lrb.co.uk/v38/n23/jan-werner-muller/capitalism-in-one-family">Capitalism in One Family</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161127132757/http://www.lrb.co.uk/v38/n23/jan-werner-muller/capitalism-in-one-family">Archived</a> 27 November 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (December 2016), <a href="/wiki/London_Review_of_Books" title="London Review of Books">London Review of Books</a>, Vol. 38, No. 23, pp. 10–14</li> <li>Peters, B. Guy and Jon Pierre. 2020. "A typology of populism: understanding the different forms of populism and their implications." Democratization.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRonderos2021" class="citation journal cs1">Ronderos, Sebastián (March 2021). O'Loughlin, Michael; Voela, Angie (eds.). "Hysteria in the squares: Approaching populism from a perspective of desire". Psychoanalysis, Culture & Society. 26 (1). <a href="/wiki/Basingstoke" title="Basingstoke">Basingstoke</a>: <a href="/wiki/Palgrave_Macmillan" title="Palgrave Macmillan">Palgrave Macmillan</a>: 46–64. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2Fs41282-020-00189-y">10.1057/s41282-020-00189-y</a>. <a href="/wiki/EISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="EISSN (identifier)">eISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1543-3390">1543-3390</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1088-0763">1088-0763</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:220306519">220306519</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychoanalysis%2C+Culture+%26+Society&rft.atitle=Hysteria+in+the+squares%3A+Approaching+populism+from+a+perspective+of+desire&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E46-%3C%2Fspan%3E64&rft.date=2021-03&rft.issn=1088-0763&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A220306519%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.eissn=1543-3390&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1057%2Fs41282-020-00189-y&rft.aulast=Ronderos&rft.aufirst=Sebasti%C3%A1n&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APopulism" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Rupert, Mark. 1997. "Globalization and the Reconstruction of Common Sense in the US". In Innovation and Transformation in International Studies, S. Gill and J. Mittelman, eds. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Europe_2">Europe</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Populism&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Europe">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316" /><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li>Anselmi, Manuel, 2017. Populism. An Introduction, London: Routledge.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Georg_Betz" title="Hans-Georg Betz">Betz, Hans-Georg</a>. 1994. Radical Right-wing Populism in Western Europe, New York: St. Martins Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-312-08390-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-312-08390-8">978-0-312-08390-8</a></li> <li>Fritzsche, Peter. 1990. Rehearsals for Fascism: Populism and Political Mobilization in Weimar Germany. New York: Oxford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-505780-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-505780-5">978-0-19-505780-5</a></li> <li>De Blasio, Emiliana, Hibberd, Matthew and Sorice, Michele. 2011. Popular politics, populism and the leaders. Access without participation? The cases of Italy and UK. Roma: CMCS-LUISS University. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-6536-021-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-88-6536-021-7">978-88-6536-021-7</a></li> <li>Fritzsche, Peter. 1998. Germans into Nazis. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.</li> <li>Hartleb, Florian 2011: After their establishment: Right-wing Populist Parties in Europe, Centre for European Studies/Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung, Brüssel, (download: <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://martenscentre.eu/sites/default/files/publication-files/after_the_establishment.pdf">[1]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190529085424/https://martenscentre.eu/sites/default/files/publication-files/after_the_establishment.pdf">Archived</a> 29 May 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>)</li> <li>Kriesi, H. (2014), The Populist Challenge, West European Politics, vol. 37, n. 2, pp. 361–378.</li> <li>Mudde, Cas. "The populist radical right: A pathological normalcy." West European Politics 33.6 (2010): 1167–1186. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1410039/FULLTEXT01.pdf">online</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMudde2021" class="citation journal cs1">Mudde, Cas (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fgov.2021.15">"Populism in Europe: An Illiberal Democratic Response to Undemocratic Liberalism (TheGovernment and Opposition/Leonard Schapiro Lecture 2019)"</a>. Government and Opposition. 56 (4): 577–597. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fgov.2021.15">10.1017/gov.2021.15</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:236286140">236286140</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Government+and+Opposition&rft.atitle=Populism+in+Europe%3A+An+Illiberal+Democratic+Response+to+Undemocratic+Liberalism+%28TheGovernment+and+Opposition%2FLeonard+Schapiro+Lecture+2019%29&rft.volume=56&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E577-%3C%2Fspan%3E597&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fgov.2021.15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A236286140%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Mudde&rft.aufirst=Cas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1017%252Fgov.2021.15&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APopulism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMudde2012" class="citation book cs1">Mudde, C. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://emnbelgium.be/sites/default/files/publications/mpi_-_migrationpoliticalextermism.pdf">The Relationship Between Immigration and Nativism in Europe and North America</a> (PDF). Migration Policy Institute. pp. 14–15.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Relationship+Between+Immigration+and+Nativism+in+Europe+and+North+America&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E14-%3C%2Fspan%3E15&rft.pub=Migration+Policy+Institute&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Mudde&rft.aufirst=C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Femnbelgium.be%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fpublications%2Fmpi_-_migrationpoliticalextermism.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APopulism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPaterson2000" class="citation journal cs1">Paterson, Lindsay (2000). "Civil Society: Enlightenment Ideal and Demotic Nationalism". Social Text. 18 (4): 109–116. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1215%2F01642472-18-4_65-109">10.1215/01642472-18-4_65-109</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143793741">143793741</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Social+Text&rft.atitle=Civil+Society%3A+Enlightenment+Ideal+and+Demotic+Nationalism&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E109-%3C%2Fspan%3E116&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1215%2F01642472-18-4_65-109&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143793741%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Paterson&rft.aufirst=Lindsay&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APopulism" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Wodak, Ruth, Majid KhosraviNik, and Brigitte Mral. "Right-wing populism in Europe". Politics and discourse (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/256492880_Comparing_Radical-Right_Populism_in_Estonia_and_Latvia/file/5046352317d8058118.pdf">online</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Latin_America_2">Latin America</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Populism&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Latin America">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316" /><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFConniff2020" class="citation journal cs1">Conniff, Michael L. (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://works.bepress.com/michael_conniff/81/download/">"A historiography of populism and neopopulism in Latin America"</a>. History Compass. 18 (9). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fhic3.12621">10.1111/hic3.12621</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:225470570">225470570</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+Compass&rft.atitle=A+historiography+of+populism+and+neopopulism+in+Latin+America&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=9&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fhic3.12621&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A225470570%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Conniff&rft.aufirst=Michael+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fworks.bepress.com%2Fmichael_conniff%2F81%2Fdownload%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APopulism" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Conniff, Michael L., ed. Populism in Latin America (1999) essays by experts</li> <li>Demmers, Jolle, et al eds. Miraculous Metamorphoses: The Neoliberalization of Latin American Populism (2001)</li> <li>Knight, Alan. "Populism and neo-populism in Latin America, especially Mexico." Journal of Latin American Studies 30.2 (1998): 223–248.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLeaman2004" class="citation journal cs1">Leaman, David (2004). "Changing Faces of Populism in Latin America: Masks, Makeovers, and Enduring Features". Latin American Research Review. 39 (3): 312–326. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Flar.2004.0052">10.1353/lar.2004.0052</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1555484">1555484</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143707412">143707412</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Latin+American+Research+Review&rft.atitle=Changing+Faces+of+Populism+in+Latin+America%3A+Masks%2C+Makeovers%2C+and+Enduring+Features&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E312-%3C%2Fspan%3E326&rft.date=2004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143707412%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1555484%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Flar.2004.0052&rft.aulast=Leaman&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APopulism" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Stropparo, P. E. (2023). Pueblo desnudo y público movilizado por el poder: Vacancia del Defensor del Pueblo: algunas transformaciones en la democracia y en la opinión pública en Argentina . Revista Mexicana De Opinión Pública, (35). <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://doi.org/10.22201/fcpys.24484911e.2023.35.85516">https://doi.org/10.22201/fcpys.24484911e.2023.35.85516</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Populism&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: United States">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Abromeit, John. "Frankfurt School Critical Theory and the Persistence of Authoritarian Populism in the United States" In Morelock, Jeremiah Ed. Critical Theory and Authoritarian Populism. 2018. London: University of Westminster Press.</li> <li>Agarwal, Sheetal D., et al. "Grassroots organizing in the digital age: considering values and technology in Tea Party and Occupy Wall Street". Information, Communication & Society (2014) 17#3 pp. 326–41.</li> <li>Evans, Sara M. and Harry C. Boyte. 1986. Free Spaces: The Sources of Democratic Change in America. New York: Harper & Row.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goodwyn,_Lawrence" class="mw-redirect" title="Goodwyn, Lawrence">Goodwyn, Lawrence</a>. 1976. Democratic Promise: The Populist Moment in America. New York and London: Oxford University Press.; abridged as The Populist Moment: A Short History of the Agrarian Revolt in America. (Oxford University Press, 1978)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hahn,_Steven" class="mw-redirect" title="Hahn, Steven">Hahn, Steven</a>. 1983. Roots of Southern Populism: Yeoman Farmers and the Transformation of the Georgia Upcountry, 1850–1890. New York and London: Oxford University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-530670-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-530670-5">978-0-19-530670-5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hofstadter,_Richard" class="mw-redirect" title="Hofstadter, Richard">Hofstadter, Richard</a>. 1955. <a href="/wiki/The_Age_of_Reform" title="The Age of Reform">The Age of Reform</a>: from Bryan to F.D.R. New York: Knopf.</li> <li>Hofstadter, Richard. 1965. <a href="/wiki/The_Paranoid_Style_in_American_Politics" title="The Paranoid Style in American Politics">The Paranoid Style in American Politics</a>, and Other Essays. New York: Knopf.</li> <li>Jeffrey, Julie Roy. 1975. "Women in the Southern Farmers Alliance: A Reconsideration of the Role and Status of Women in the Late 19th Century South". <a href="/wiki/Feminist_Studies" title="Feminist Studies">Feminist Studies</a> 3.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Judis" title="John Judis">Judis, John B</a>. 2016. The Populist Explosion: How the Great Recession Transformed American and European Politics. New York: Columbia Global Reports. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9971264-4-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9971264-4-0">978-0-9971264-4-0</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazin,_Michael" class="mw-redirect" title="Kazin, Michael">Kazin, Michael</a>. 1995. The Populist Persuasion: An American History. New York: Basic Books. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-03793-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-465-03793-3">978-0-465-03793-3</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKindellDemers2014" class="citation book cs1">Kindell, Alexandra & Demers, Elizabeth S. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=g46dAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA704">Encyclopedia of Populism in America: A Historical Encyclopedia</a>. 2 vol. ABC-CLIO. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59884-568-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59884-568-6"><bdi>978-1-59884-568-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151017084111/https://books.google.com/books?id=g46dAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA704">Archived</a> from the original on 17 October 2015. Retrieved 15 August 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Populism+in+America%3A+A+Historical+Encyclopedia&rft.pub=2+vol.+ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-59884-568-6&rft.aulast=Kindell&rft.aufirst=Alexandra&rft.au=Demers%2C+Elizabeth+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dg46dAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA704&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APopulism" class="Z3988">; 200+ articles in 901 pp</li> <li>Lipset, Seymour Martin. "The radical right: A problem for American democracy." British Journal of Sociology 6.2 (1955): 176–209. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/587483">online</a></li> <li>Maier, Chris. "The Farmers' Fight for Representation: Third-Party Politics in South Dakota, 1889–1918". Great Plains Quarterly (2014) 34#2 pp. 143–62.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marable,_Manning" class="mw-redirect" title="Marable, Manning">Marable, Manning</a>. 1986. "Black History and the Vision of Democracy", in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Harry_Boyte&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Harry Boyte (page does not exist)">Harry Boyte</a> and Frank Riessman, Eds., The New Populism: The Politics of Empowerment. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.</li> <li>Palmer, Bruce. 1980. Man Over Money: The Southern Populist Critique of American Capitalism. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rasmussen,_Scott" class="mw-redirect" title="Rasmussen, Scott">Rasmussen, Scott</a>, and Doug Schoen. (2010) Mad as hell: How the Tea Party movement is fundamentally remaking our two-party system (HarperCollins, 2010)</li> <li>Stock, Catherine McNicol. 1996. Rural Radicals: Righteous Rage in the American Grain. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-3294-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-3294-1">978-0-8014-3294-1</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Populism&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output 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<a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/british-journal-of-political-science/article/populist-a-database-of-populist-farleft-and-farright-parties-using-expertinformed-qualitative-comparative-classification-eiqcc/EBF60489A0E1E3D91A6FE066C7ABA2CA">The PopuList</a>: a database of populist, far-left, and far-right parties in Europe since 1989</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output 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.navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Populism79" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Populism" title="Template:Populism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Populism" title="Template talk:Populism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Populism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Populism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Populism79" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Populism</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Variants</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_populism" title="Black populism">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_populism" title="Judicial populism">Judicial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Left-wing_populism" title="Left-wing populism">Left-wing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroeconomic_populism" title="Macroeconomic populism">Macroeconomic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_populism" title="Market populism">Market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_populism" title="Penal populism">Penal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-wing_populism" title="Right-wing populism">Right-wing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Techno-populism" title="Techno-populism">Techno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valence_populism" title="Valence populism">Valence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ideologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Berlusconism" title="Berlusconism">Berlusconism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bonapartism" title="Bonapartism">Bonapartism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chavismo" title="Chavismo">Chavismo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_positions_of_Rodrigo_Duterte" title="Political positions of Rodrigo Duterte">Dutertism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erdo%C4%9Fanism" title="Erdoğanism">Erdoğanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-fascism" title="Neo-fascism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fortuynism" title="Fortuynism">Fortuynism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaullism" title="Gaullism">Gaullism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hansonism" title="Hansonism">Hansonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindutva" title="Hindutva">Hindutva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacksonian_democracy" title="Jacksonian democracy">Jacksonian democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Janismo" title="Janismo">Janismo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeffersonian_democracy" title="Jeffersonian democracy">Jeffersonian democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kemalism" title="Kemalism">Kemalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirchnerism" title="Kirchnerism">Kirchnerism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Relato_K" title="Relato K">Relato K</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lulism" title="Lulism">Lulism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasserism" title="Nasserism">Nasserism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peronism" title="Peronism">Peronism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poporanism" title="Poporanism">Poporanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qasimism" title="Qasimism">Qasimism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trumpism" title="Trumpism">Trumpism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agrarianism" title="Agrarianism">Agrarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-corruption" title="Anti-corruption">Anti-corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-globalization_movement" title="Anti-globalization movement">Anti-globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-intellectualism" title="Anti-intellectualism">Anti-intellectualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-politics" title="Anti-politics">Anti-politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Backlash_(sociology)" title="Backlash (sociology)">Backlash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Common people">Common people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuismo" title="Continuismo">Continuismo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_multiculturalism" title="Criticism of multiculturalism">Criticism of multiculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demagogue" title="Demagogue">Demagogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_democracy" title="Direct democracy">Direct democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_nationalism" title="Economic nationalism">Economic nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Egalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Establishment" title="The Establishment">The Establishment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-establishment" title="Anti-establishment">Anti-establishment</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_will" title="General will">General will</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grassroots_democracy" title="Grassroots democracy">Grassroots democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_politics" title="Identity politics">Identity politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_order_(politics)" title="Law and order (politics)">Law and order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Localism_(politics)" title="Localism (politics)">Localism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mob_rule" title="Mob rule">Mob rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nativism_(politics)" title="Nativism (politics)">Nativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_aristocracy" title="Natural aristocracy">Natural aristocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(political_theory)" title="Pluralism (political theory)">Pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_democracy" title="Popular democracy">Popular democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_sovereignty" title="Popular sovereignty">Popular sovereignty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-politics" title="Post-politics">Post-politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protectionism" title="Protectionism">Protectionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">Social justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wedge_issue" title="Wedge issue">Wedge issue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_chauvinism" title="Welfare chauvinism">Welfare chauvinism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Politicians</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mahmoud_Ahmadinejad" title="Mahmoud Ahmadinejad">Ahmadinejad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mustafa_Kemal_Atat%C3%BCrk" title="Mustafa Kemal Atatürk">Atatürk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silvio_Berlusconi" title="Silvio Berlusconi">Berlusconi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maxime_Bernier" title="Maxime Bernier">Bernier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noel_Pemberton_Billing" title="Noel Pemberton Billing">Billing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jair_Bolsonaro" title="Jair Bolsonaro">Bolsonaro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Bonaparte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Ernest_Boulanger" title="Georges Ernest Boulanger">Boulanger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Jennings_Bryan" title="William Jennings Bryan">Bryan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pat_Buchanan" title="Pat Buchanan">Buchanan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Butler" title="Benjamin Butler">Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_Castillo" title="Pedro Castillo">Castillo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Ch%C3%A1vez" title="Hugo Chávez">Chávez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Corbyn" title="Jeremy Corbyn">Corbyn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rafael_Correa" title="Rafael Correa">Correa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_Dean" title="Howard Dean">Dean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rodrigo_Duterte" title="Rodrigo Duterte">Duterte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recep_Tayyip_Erdo%C4%9Fan" title="Recep Tayyip Erdoğan">Erdoğan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigel_Farage" title="Nigel Farage">Farage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pim_Fortuyn" title="Pim Fortuyn">Fortuyn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muammar_Gaddafi" title="Muammar Gaddafi">Gaddafi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle" title="Charles de Gaulle">de Gaulle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_Kuo-yu" title="Han Kuo-yu">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_H%C3%A9bert" title="Jacques Hébert">Hébert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Hitler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ollanta_Humala" title="Ollanta Humala">Humala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pablo_Iglesias_Turri%C3%B3n" title="Pablo Iglesias Turrión">Iglesias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson" title="Andrew Jackson">Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Janez_Jan%C5%A1a" title="Janez Janša">Janša</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boris_Johnson" title="Boris Johnson">Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaros%C5%82aw_Kaczy%C5%84ski" title="Jarosław Kaczyński">Kaczyński</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cristina_Fern%C3%A1ndez_de_Kirchner" title="Cristina Fernández de Kirchner">Kirchner (Cristina)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%C3%A9stor_Kirchner" title="Néstor Kirchner">Kirchner (Néstor)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imran_Khan" title="Imran Khan">Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruhollah_Khomeini" title="Ruhollah Khomeini">Khomenei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ko_Wen-je" title="Ko Wen-je">Ko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_M._La_Follette" title="Robert M. La Follette">La Follette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Lenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Marie_Le_Pen" title="Jean-Marie Le Pen">Le Pen (Jean-Marie)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_Le_Pen" title="Marine Le Pen">Le Pen (Marine)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huey_Long" title="Huey Long">Long</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luiz_In%C3%A1cio_Lula_da_Silva" title="Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva">Lula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicol%C3%A1s_Maduro" title="Nicolás Maduro">Maduro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Luc_M%C3%A9lenchon" title="Jean-Luc Mélenchon">Mélenchon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giorgia_Meloni" title="Giorgia Meloni">Meloni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_McKinley" title="William McKinley">McKinley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Javier_Milei" title="Javier Milei">Milei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narendra_Modi" title="Narendra Modi">Modi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evo_Morales" title="Evo Morales">Morales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamal_Abdel_Nasser" title="Gamal Abdel Nasser">Nasser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Netanyahu" title="Benjamin Netanyahu">Netanyahu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9s_Manuel_L%C3%B3pez_Obrador" title="Andrés Manuel López Obrador">Obrador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandria_Ocasio-Cortez" title="Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez">Ocasio-Cortez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viktor_Orb%C3%A1n" title="Viktor Orbán">Orbán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Ortega" title="Daniel Ortega">Ortega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarah_Palin" title="Sarah Palin">Palin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andreas_Papandreou" title="Andreas Papandreou">Papandreou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Per%C3%B3n" title="Juan Perón">Perón</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winston_Peters" title="Winston Peters">Peters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Putin" title="Vladimir Putin">Putin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%A2nio_Quadros" title="Jânio Quadros">Quadros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matteo_Salvini" title="Matteo Salvini">Salvini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernie_Sanders" title="Bernie Sanders">Sanders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thaksin_Shinawatra" title="Thaksin Shinawatra">Shinawatra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantin_Stere" title="Constantin Stere">Stere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prabowo_Subianto" title="Prabowo Subianto">Subianto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Trump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/JD_Vance" title="JD Vance">Vance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Get%C3%BAlio_Vargas" title="Getúlio Vargas">Vargas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Wallace" title="George Wallace">Wallace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Warren" title="Elizabeth Warren">Warren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_B._Weaver" title="James B. Weaver">Weaver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geert_Wilders" title="Geert Wilders">Wilders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoon_Suk_Yeol" title="Yoon Suk Yeol">Yoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milo%C5%A1_Zeman" title="Miloš Zeman">Zeman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Zhirinovsky" title="Vladimir Zhirinovsky">Zhirinovsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Zuma" title="Jacob Zuma">Zuma</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Administration_party" title="Anti-Administration party">Anti-Administration party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_national_revival" title="Ukrainian national revival">Ukrainian national revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hromada_(secret_society)" title="Hromada (secret society)">Hromada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narodniks" title="Narodniks">Narodniks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farmers%27_Alliance" title="Farmers' Alliance">Farmers' Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ch%C5%82opomania" title="Chłopomania">Chłopomania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C3%B6lkisch_movement" title="Völkisch movement">Völkisch movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilded_Age" title="Gilded Age">Gilded Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C4%83m%C4%83n%C4%83torul" title="Sămănătorul">Sămănătorul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiosomaggismo" title="Radiosomaggismo">Radiosomaggismo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vargas_Era" title="Vargas Era">Vargas Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Share_Our_Wealth" title="Share Our Wealth">Share Our Wealth</a></li> <li>Radical right <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radical_right_(United_States)" title="Radical right (United States)">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_right_(Europe)" title="Radical right (Europe)">Europe</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1989" title="Revolutions of 1989">Revolutions of 1989</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pink_tide" title="Pink tide">Pink tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession" title="Great Recession">Great Recession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tea_Party_movement" title="Tea Party movement">Tea Party movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupy_movement" title="Occupy movement">Occupy movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_wave" title="Conservative wave">Conservative wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brexit" title="Brexit">Brexit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2016_United_States_presidential_election" title="2016 United States presidential election">Election of Donald Trump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_vests_protests" title="Yellow vests protests">Yellow vests protests</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Populism_in_Canada" title="Populism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Populism_in_Europe" title="Populism in Europe">Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Populism_in_Latin_America" title="Populism in Latin America">Latin America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Populism_in_New_Zealand" title="Populism in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Populism_in_the_United_States" title="Populism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alt-right" title="Alt-right">Alt-right</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chauvinism" title="Chauvinism">Chauvinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_radicalism" title="Classical radicalism">Classical radicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_backsliding" title="Democratic backsliding">Democratic backsliding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgism" title="Georgism">Georgism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-nationalism" title="Neo-nationalism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Left" title="New Left">New Left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Right" title="New Right">New Right</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoconservatism" title="Paleoconservatism">Paleoconservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Putinism" title="Putinism">Putinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_center_(politics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Radical center (politics)">Radical centrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Position" title="Third Position">Third Position</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Political_ideologies504" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Political_ideologies" title="Template:Political ideologies"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Political_ideologies" title="Template talk:Political ideologies"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Political_ideologies" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Political ideologies"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Political_ideologies504" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_ideologies" title="List of political ideologies">Political ideologies</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Establishment" title="The Establishment">The Establishment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-establishment" title="Anti-establishment">Anti</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hardline" title="Hardline">Hardline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_moderate" title="Political moderate">Moderate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_spectrum" title="Political spectrum">Political spectrum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Far-left_politics" title="Far-left politics">Far-left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Left-wing_politics" title="Left-wing politics">Left-wing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centre-left_politics" title="Centre-left politics">Centre-left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrism" title="Centrism">Centrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centre-right_politics" title="Centre-right politics">Centre-right</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-wing_politics" title="Right-wing politics">Right-wing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Far-right_politics" title="Far-right politics">Far-right</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_radicalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Political radicalism">Radical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reactionary" title="Reactionary">Reactionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary" title="Revolutionary">Revolutionary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accelerationism" title="Accelerationism">Accelerationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agrarianism" title="Agrarianism">Agrarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_democracy" title="Christian democracy">Christian democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communalism_(Bookchin)" class="mw-redirect" title="Communalism (Bookchin)">Communalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutionalism" title="Constitutionalism">Constitutionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporatism" title="Corporatism">Corporatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_credit" title="Social credit">Social credit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Familialism" title="Familialism">Familialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Position" title="Third Position">Third Position</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamentalism" title="Fundamentalism">Fundamentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_politics" title="Green politics">Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindutva" title="Hindutva">Hindutva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism" title="Monarchism">Monarchism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Royalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Royalism">Royalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republicanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_republicanism" title="Classical republicanism">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_republicanism" title="Modern republicanism">Modern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Way" title="Third Way">Third Way</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-authoritarianism" title="Anti-authoritarianism">Anti</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_organization#Collectivism_and_individualism" title="Social organization">Collectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">Colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culturalism" title="Culturalism">Culturalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interculturalism" title="Interculturalism">Inter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monoculturalism" title="Monoculturalism">Mono</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extremism" title="Extremism">Extremism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalism" title="Federalism">Federalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globalism" title="Globalism">Globalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideological_repression" title="Ideological repression">Ideological repression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internationalism_(politics)" title="Internationalism (politics)">Internationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Localism_(politics)" title="Localism (politics)">Localism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masculism" title="Masculism">Masculism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Militarism" title="Militarism">Militarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacifism" title="Pacifism">Pacifism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(political_theory)" title="Pluralism (political theory)">Pluralism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressivism" title="Progressivism">Progressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformism" title="Reformism">Reformism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regionalism_(politics)" title="Regionalism (politics)">Regionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separatism" title="Separatism">Separatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statism" title="Statism">Statism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syncretic_politics" title="Syncretic politics">Syncretism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Political_philosophy152" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Political_philosophy" title="Template:Political philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Political_philosophy" title="Template talk:Political philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Political_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Political philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Political_philosophy152" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Terms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizenship" title="Citizenship">Citizenship‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">Duty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite" title="Elite">Elite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation" title="Emancipation">Emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom" title="Freedom">Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegemony" title="Hegemony">Hegemony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchy" title="Hierarchy">Hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_legitimacy" title="Political legitimacy">Legitimacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly" title="Monopoly">Monopoly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation" title="Nation">Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obedience_(human_behavior)" class="mw-redirect" title="Obedience (human behavior)">Obedience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace" title="Peace">Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People" title="People">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(political_philosophy)" title="Pluralism (political philosophy)">Pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progress" title="Progress">Progress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regime" title="Regime">Regime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolution" title="Revolution">Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruling_class" title="Ruling class">Ruling class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">Sovereignty‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utopia" title="Utopia">Utopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War" title="War">War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Government</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">Aristocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">Autocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">Bureaucracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictatorship" title="Dictatorship">Dictatorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontocracy" title="Gerontocracy">Gerontocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">Meritocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">Monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">Oligarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutocracy" title="Plutocracy">Plutocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theocracy" title="Theocracy">Theocracy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ideologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agrarianism" title="Agrarianism">Agrarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_democracy" title="Christian democracy">Christian democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">Colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporatism" title="Corporatism">Corporatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_political_theory" title="Feminist political theory">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Localism_(politics)" title="Localism (politics)">Localism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism" title="Monarchism">Monarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multiculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Darwinism" title="Social Darwinism">Social Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Way" title="Third Way">Third Way</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_power_(international_relations)" title="Balance of power (international relations)">Balance of power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bellum_omnium_contra_omnes" title="Bellum omnium contra omnes">Bellum omnium contra omnes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_politic" title="Body politic">Body politic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clash_of_Civilizations" title="Clash of Civilizations">Clash of civilizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_good" title="Common good">Common good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">Consent of the governed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">Divine right of kings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_as_a_model_for_the_state" title="Family as a model for the state">Family as a model for the state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly_on_violence" title="Monopoly on violence">Monopoly on violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_and_positive_rights" title="Negative and positive rights">Negative and positive rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Night-watchman_state" title="Night-watchman state">Night-watchman state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_lie" title="Noble lie">Noble lie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noblesse_oblige" title="Noblesse oblige">Noblesse oblige</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_society" title="Open society">Open society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordered_liberty" title="Ordered liberty">Ordered liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_position" title="Original position">Original position</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overton_window" title="Overton window">Overton window</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">Separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_nature" title="State of nature">State of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statolatry" title="Statolatry">Statolatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyranny_of_the_majority" title="Tyranny of the majority">Tyranny of the majority</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_philosophers" title="List of political philosophers">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Antiquity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chanakya" title="Chanakya">Chanakya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_Fei" title="Han Fei">Han Fei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plato%27s_political_philosophy" title="Plato's political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shang_Yang" title="Shang Yang">Shang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Tzu" title="Sun Tzu">Sun Tzu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Middle Ages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Al-Farabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Bruni" title="Leonardo Bruni">Bruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gelasius_I" title="Pope Gelasius I">Gelasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">al-Ghazali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsilius_of_Padua" title="Marsilius of Padua">Marsilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nizam_al-Mulk" title="Nizam al-Mulk">Nizam al-Mulk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">Ockham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemistos_Plethon" title="Gemistos Plethon">Plethon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Anshi" title="Wang Anshi">Wang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early modern period</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_de_La_Bo%C3%A9tie" title="Étienne de La Boétie">Boétie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Bodin" title="Jean Bodin">Bodin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques-B%C3%A9nigne_Bossuet" title="Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet">Bossuet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tommaso_Campanella" title="Tommaso Campanella">Campanella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Filmer" title="Robert Filmer">Filmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Grotius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Guicciardini" title="Francesco Guicciardini">Guicciardini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hobbes%27s_moral_and_political_philosophy" title="Hobbes's moral and political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I" title="James VI and I">James</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Machiavelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Müntzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_von_Pufendorf" title="Samuel von Pufendorf">Pufendorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Suárez</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th and 19th centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Bakunin" title="Mikhail Bakunin">Bakunin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Bastiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_St_John,_1st_Viscount_Bolingbroke" title="Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke">Bolingbroke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Bonald" title="Louis de Bonald">Bonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant">Constant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Donoso_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Juan Donoso Cortés">Cortés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fourier" title="Charles Fourier">Fourier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Godwin" title="William Godwin">Godwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Ludwig_von_Haller" title="Karl Ludwig von Haller">Haller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal" title="Muhammad Iqbal">Iqbal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal%27s_political_philosophy" title="Muhammad Iqbal's political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy_of_Immanuel_Kant" title="Political philosophy of Immanuel Kant">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Guillaume_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_le_Play" title="Pierre Guillaume Frédéric le Play">Le Play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Maistre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Mazzini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Owen" title="Robert Owen">Owen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan">Renan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Sade" title="Marquis de Sade">Sade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_de_Saint-Simon" title="Henri de Saint-Simon">Saint-Simon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">de Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Stirner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Taine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Tucker" title="Benjamin Tucker">Tucker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th and 21st centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Agamben" title="Giorgio Agamben">Agamben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._R._Ambedkar" title="B. R. Ambedkar">Ambedkar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_de_Benoist" title="Alain de Benoist">Benoist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Bernstein" title="Eduard Bernstein">Bernstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Burnham" title="James Burnham">Burnham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Dmowski" title="Roman Dmowski">Dmowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Dugin" title="Aleksandr Dugin">Dugin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Dworkin" title="Ronald Dworkin">Dworkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Evola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Fukuyama" title="Francis Fukuyama">Fukuyama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Hayek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_P._Huntington" title="Samuel P. Huntington">Huntington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Kautsky" title="Karl Kautsky">Kautsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk" title="Russell Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Kropotkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernesto_Laclau" title="Ernesto Laclau">Laclau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Lenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Luxemburg" title="Rosa Luxemburg">Luxemburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Mansfield" title="Harvey Mansfield">Mansfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Maurras" title="Charles Maurras">Maurras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Michels" title="Robert Michels">Michels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">Mises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaetano_Mosca" title="Gaetano Mosca">Mosca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chantal_Mouffe" title="Chantal Mouffe">Mouffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Nozick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Oakeshott" title="Michael Oakeshott">Oakeshott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayyid_Qutb" title="Sayyid Qutb">Qutb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Rand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Rothbard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Schmitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Shariati" title="Ali Shariati">Shariati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Sorel" title="Georges Sorel">Sorel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Othmar_Spann" title="Othmar Spann">Spann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss">Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_(Plato)" title="Republic (Plato)">Republic</a> (c. 375 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)" title="Politics (Aristotle)">Politics</a> (c. 350 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_re_publica" title="De re publica">De re publica</a> (51 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treatise_on_Law" title="Treatise on Law">Treatise on Law</a> (c. 1274)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchia" title="Monarchia">Monarchia</a> (1313)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Prince" title="The Prince">The Prince</a> (1532)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leviathan_(Hobbes_book)" title="Leviathan (Hobbes book)">Leviathan</a> (1651)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two_Treatises_of_Government" title="Two Treatises of Government">Two Treatises of Government</a> (1689)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Spirit_of_Law" title="The Spirit of Law">The Spirit of Law</a> (1748)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Social_Contract" title="The Social Contract">The Social Contract</a> (1762)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflections_on_the_Revolution_in_France" title="Reflections on the Revolution in France">Reflections on the Revolution in France</a> (1790)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights_of_Man" title="Rights of Man">Rights of Man</a> (1791)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Right" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Right">Elements of the Philosophy of Right</a> (1820)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a> (1835–1840)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Communist_Manifesto" title="The Communist Manifesto">The Communist Manifesto</a> (1848)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Liberty" title="On Liberty">On Liberty</a> (1859)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Revolt_of_the_Masses" title="The Revolt of the Masses">The Revolt of the Masses</a> (1929)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Road_to_Serfdom" title="The Road to Serfdom">The Road to Serfdom</a> (1944)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Open_Society_and_Its_Enemies" title="The Open Society and Its Enemies">The Open Society and Its Enemies</a> (1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Origins_of_Totalitarianism" title="The Origins of Totalitarianism">The Origins of Totalitarianism</a> (1951)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a> (1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_End_of_History_and_the_Last_Man" title="The End of History and the Last Man">The End of History and the Last Man</a> (1992)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_organization#Collectivism_and_individualism" title="Social organization">Collectivism and individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_theories" title="Conflict theories">Conflict theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contractualism" title="Contractualism">Contractualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy">Critique of political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Egalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite_theory" title="Elite theory">Elite theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_political_thought" title="History of political thought">History of political thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_discrimination" title="Institutional discrimination">Institutional discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justification_for_the_state" title="Justification for the state">Justification for the state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machiavellianism_(politics)" title="Machiavellianism (politics)">Machiavellianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ethics" title="Political ethics">Political ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_spectrum" title="Political spectrum">Political spectrum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Left-wing_politics" title="Left-wing politics">Left-wing politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrism" title="Centrism">Centrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-wing_politics" title="Right-wing politics">Right-wing politics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_theology" title="Political theology">Political theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_violence" title="Political violence">Political violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separatism" title="Separatism">Separatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">Social justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statism" title="Statism">Statism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_social_and_political_philosophy_articles" title="Index of social and political philosophy articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Political_philosophy" title="Category:Political philosophy">Category:Political philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px 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Template:Politics_series_sidebar"," 3.43% 80.886 1 Template:Sidebar_with_collapsible_lists"," 2.97% 70.138 16 Template:Cite_web"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.567","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":27317570,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAbi-Hassan2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAdamidis2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAdamidis2021\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFAiolfi2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAkkerman2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAkkerman2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAlbertazziMcDonnell2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAlbertazziMcDonnell2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAllcock1971\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAnselmi2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFArt2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAslanidis2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAslanidisRovira_Kaltwasser2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBangMarsh2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBean2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBell1956\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBerletLyons2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBerman2021\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFBetzJohnson2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBiglieriCadahia2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBossetta2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBoston2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBoyte2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBreeze2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrett2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrodwin2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrownMondonWinter2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrozFriedenWeymouth2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBush2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCanovan1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCanovan1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCanovan2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCardoso1962\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarmichael2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarreras2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCasals2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCasullo2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClanton1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFConniff2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCowburn2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCowen2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCraigRicheson2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDancygier2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDeanMaiguashca2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDobratzShanks–Meile1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDornbuschEdwards1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEatwell2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEklundhStengelWojczewski2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEngesserErnstEsserBüchel2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFerkiss1957\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFieschi2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFisherTaub2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFlahertyRogowski2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFontaineKaplan2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFormisano2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFosterSquiresOrange2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFoweraker,_Joe.2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFoxley2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrank2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFreeden2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFritzsche1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFunkeSchularickTrebesch2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGagnonBeausoleilSonArguelles2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGermani1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGlaser2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGlaser2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGlynosMondon2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHawkinsCarlinLittvayRovira_Kaltwasser\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHawkinsCarlinLittvayRovira_Kaltwasser2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHawkinsRovira_Kaltwasser2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHofstadter1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFInglehartNorris2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIonescuGellner1967\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIsbester2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJaguaribe1954\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJäger2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKaltwasser,_Cristóbal_Rovira2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKatsambekis2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKazin2016\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFKenny2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKindellDemers2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKlapsis2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKyriacouTrivin2025\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLaclau2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLamartine1858\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLandisAlbert2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeaman2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLemonnier1929\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLevitskyLoxton2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLindberg2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLinz,_Juan_J._(Juan_José)Valenzuela,_Arturo1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLipset1960\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLitvan2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLowitt2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMadrid2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMandelson2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarch2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarchart2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMartelliJaffrelot2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcDonnellCabrera2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcMath1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMinkenberg2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoffitt2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoore2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMouffe2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMouffe2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMounk2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMounkKyle2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMudde2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMudde2007\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFMudde2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMudde2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMuddeRovira_Kaltwasser2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMungiu-PippidiKrastev2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMutz2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMénySurel2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNolan2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNorris2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNorris2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNorrisInglehart2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNorrisInglehart2019\"] = 4,\n [\"CITEREFNouryRoland2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOstiguy2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOuttenSchmittMillerGarcia2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPark2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPaterson2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPereyra_DovalSouroujon2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPerlmanSprick_Schuster2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPettegree2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPinheiro-Machado2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFQadir2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReinemannStanyerAalbergEsser2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReis2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRentoul2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFResnick2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRicoGuinjoanAnduiza2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoberts1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRonderos2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRonderosZicman_de_Barros2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoperHoltz-BachaMazzoleni2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRosenstoneBehrLazarus1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRovira_Kaltwasser2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRovira_KaltwasserTaggartEspejoOstiguy2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRovira_KaltwasserTaggartOchoa_EspejoOstiguy2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSachs2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSamoylenko2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSandel2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchwörer2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchwörerFernández-García2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShanin1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShearHabermanConfessoreYourish2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShils1954\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStanley2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStavrakakis2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStavrakakisJäger2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSteinmoThelenLongstreth1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStewart2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStewartElgot2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStierPoschBleierStrohmaier2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaggart2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaggart2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaijfel1970\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTarragoni\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTindall1966\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTormey2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrotter2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTucker2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWalker2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeffort1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeyland1999\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFWeyland2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeyland2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilkin2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWintour2018\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFWoodward1938\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZasloveGeurkinkJacobsAkkerman2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZicman_de_BarrosAiolfi2025\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZicman_de_Barros_and_Lago\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZienkowskiBreeze2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFde_la_Torre2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFvan_Heerden2014\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 3,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Britannica\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite AV media\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 89,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 76,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 15,\n [\"Cite paper\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite thesis\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 16,\n [\"Clarify\"] = 1,\n [\"Colend\"] = 1,\n [\"Cols\"] = 1,\n [\"Commons category\"] = 1,\n [\"Distinguish\"] = 1,\n [\"Failed verification\"] = 2,\n [\"Farbindex\"] = 4,\n [\"Further\"] = 2,\n [\"Harvid\"] = 2,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 10,\n [\"Ill\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 3,\n [\"Multiple image\"] = 3,\n [\"Political ideologies\"] = 1,\n [\"Political philosophy\"] = 1,\n [\"Populism\"] = 1,\n [\"Populism sidebar\"] = 1,\n [\"Quote box\"] = 3,\n [\"Redirect\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 4,\n [\"Refend\"] = 4,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Relevance inline\"] = 2,\n [\"See also\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 212,\n [\"Sfnm\"] = 32,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Use British English\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Very long\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 7,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","300","18.1"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","240","14.5"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","200","12.0"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","140","8.4"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","120","7.2"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getAllExpandedArguments","100","6.0"],["type","80","4.8"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","60","3.6"],["chunk \u003CModule:Citation/CS1:4387\u003E","40","2.4"],["\u003Cmw.title.lua:50\u003E","40","2.4"],["[others]","340","20.5"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-84559f4bd5-zk6jx","timestamp":"20250402160206","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Populism","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Populism","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q180490","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q180490","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2003-04-16T13:11:44Z","dateModified":"2025-04-02T16:01:19Z","headline":"political ideology that sees society as divided into a good people and an evil elite"}</script> </body> </html>